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The Tobacco and Salt Museum (Japanese:たばこと塩の博物館) is located in Sumida-ku, Tokyo. It was established in 1978 and is run by Japan Tobacco. The museum was originally located in Shibuya but, in 2015, it was relocated to Sumida. The museum has about 38,000 artifacts that show the history of tobacco and salt both from Japan and overseas. It holds a 1.4 tonne block of rock salt from Poland along with other blocks of rock salts that have been brought from various parts of world. There is a replica of a Mayan shrine from South America to show where tobacco was first used.
The museum also has a workshop room, a reading room and a museum shop. | 0 | Salts |
FeO is used as a black pigment and is known as C.I pigment black 11 (C.I. No.77499) or Mars Black.
FeO is used as a catalyst in the Haber process and in the water-gas shift reaction. The latter uses an HTS (high temperature shift catalyst) of iron oxide stabilised by chromium oxide. This iron–chrome catalyst is reduced at reactor start up to generate FeO from α-FeO and CrO to CrO.
Bluing is a passivation process that produces a layer of FeO on the surface of steel to protect it from rust. Along with sulfur and aluminium, it is an ingredient in steel-cutting thermite. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
Metal complexes containing C are known as metal carbido complexes. Most common are carbon-centered octahedral clusters, such as (where "Ph" represents a phenyl group) and [FeC(CO)]. Similar species are known for the metal carbonyls and the early metal halides. A few terminal carbides have been isolated, such as .
Metallocarbohedrynes (or "met-cars") are stable clusters with the general formula where M is a transition metal (Ti, Zr, V, etc.). | 0 | Salts |
Phosphorene is a two-dimensional material consisting of phosphorus. It consists of a single layer of black phosphorus, the most stable allotrope of phosphorus. Phosphorene is analogous to graphene (single layer graphite). Among two-dimensional materials, phosphorene is a competitor to graphene because it has a nonzero fundamental band gap that can be modulated by strain and the number of layers in a stack. Phosphorene was first isolated in 2014 by mechanical exfoliation. Liquid exfoliation is a promising method for scalable phosphorene production. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
Acid–base property of the resulting solution from a neutralization reaction depends on the remaining salt products. A salt containing reactive cations undergo hydrolysis by which they react with water molecules, causing deprotonation of the conjugate acids.
For example, the acid salt ammonium chloride is the main species formed upon the half neutralization of ammonia in aqueous solution of hydrogen chloride: | 0 | Salts |
Polyvinylcarbazole is obtained from N-vinylcarbazole by radical polymerization in various ways. It can be produced by suspension polymerization at 180 °C with sodium chloride and potassium chromate as catalyst. Alternatively, AIBN can also be used as a radical starter or a Ziegler-Natta catalyst. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
Alkali salts or base salts are salts that are the product of incomplete neutralization of a strong base and a weak acid.
Rather than being neutral (as some other salts), alkali salts are bases as their name suggests. What makes these compounds basic is that the conjugate base from the weak acid hydrolyzes to form a basic solution. In sodium carbonate, for example, the carbonate from the carbonic acid hydrolyzes to form a basic solution. The chloride from the hydrochloric acid in sodium chloride does not hydrolyze, though, so sodium chloride is not basic.
The difference between a basic salt and an alkali is that an alkali is the soluble hydroxide compound of an alkali metal or an alkaline earth metal. A basic salt is any salt that hydrolyzes to form a basic solution.
Another definition of a basic salt would be a salt that contains amounts of both hydroxide and other anions. White lead is an example. It is basic lead carbonate, or lead carbonate hydroxide.
These materials are known for their high levels of dissolution in polar solvents.
These salts are insoluble and are obtained through precipitation reactions. | 0 | Salts |
Molybdenite is a mineral of molybdenum disulfide, MoS. Similar in appearance and feel to graphite, molybdenite has a lubricating effect that is a consequence of its layered structure. The atomic structure consists of a sheet of molybdenum atoms sandwiched between sheets of sulfur atoms. The Mo-S bonds are strong, but the interaction between the sulfur atoms at the top and bottom of separate sandwich-like tri-layers is weak, resulting in easy slippage as well as cleavage planes.
Molybdenite crystallizes in the hexagonal crystal system as the common polytype 2H and also in the trigonal system as the 3R polytype. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
PtSi can be synthesized in several ways. The standard method involves depositing a thin film of pure platinum onto silicon wafers and heating in a conventional furnace at 450–600 °C for a half an hour in inert ambients. The process cannot be carried out in an oxygenated environment, as this results in the formation of an oxide layer on the silicon, preventing PtSi from forming.
A secondary technique for synthesis requires a sputtered platinum film deposited on a silicon substrate. Due to the ease with which PtSi can become contaminated by oxygen, several variations of the methods have been reported. Rapid thermal processing has been shown to increase the purity of PtSi layers formed. Lower temperatures (200–450 °C) were also found to be successful, higher temperatures produce thicker PtSi layers, though temperatures in excess of 950 °C formed PtSi with increased resistivity due to clusters of large PtSi grains. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
Sodium ethyl xanthate is used in the mining industry as flotation agent for recovery of metals, such as copper, nickel, silver or gold, as well as solid metal sulfides or oxides from ore slurries. This application was introduced by Cornelius H. Keller in 1925. Other applications include defoliant, herbicide, and an additive to rubber to protect it against oxygen and ozone.
In 2000, Australia produced up to 10,000 tonnes of sodium ethyl xanthate and imported about 6,000 tonnes, mostly from China. The material produced in Australia is the so-called liquid sodium ethyl xanthate that refers to a 40% aqueous solution of the solid. It is obtained by treating carbon disulfide with sodium hydroxide and ethanol. Its density is 1.2 g/cm and the freezing point is −6 °C. | 0 | Salts |
Plumbates are formed by the reaction of lead(IV) oxide, , with alkali. Plumbate salts contain either the hydrated hexahydroxoplumbate(IV) or plumbate anion , or the anhydrous anions (metaplumbate) or (orthoplumbate). For example, dissolving in a hot, concentrated aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide forms the potassium hexahydroxoplumbate(IV) salt . The anhydrous salts may be synthesized by heating metal oxides or hydroxides with .
The most widely discussed plumbates are derivatives of barium metaplumbate . When doped with some bismuth in place of lead, the material exhibits superconductivity at 13 K. At the time of this discovery, oxides did not show such properties. The surprise associated with this work was eclipsed by the advent of the cuprate superconductors. | 0 | Salts |
Viologens are organic compounds with the formula (CHNR). In some viologens, the pyridyl groups are further modified.
Viologens are called so, because these compounds produce violet color on reduction [violet + Latin gen, generator of].
The viologen paraquat (R = methyl), is a widely used herbicide. As early as in the 1930s, paraquat was being used as an oxidation-reduction indicator, because it becomes violet on reduction.
Other viologens have been commercialized because they can change color reversibly many times through reduction and oxidation. The name viologen alludes to violet, one color it can exhibit, and the radical cation (CHNR) is colored intensely blue. | 0 | Salts |
Structures may form during continued sedimentary loading, without any external tectonic influence, due to gravitational instability. Pure halite has a density of 2160 kg/m. When initially deposited, sediments generally have a lower density of 2000 kg/m, but with loading and compaction their density increases to 2500 kg/m, which is greater than that of salt. Once the overlying layers have become denser, the weak salt layer will tend to deform into a characteristic series of ridges and depressions, due to a form of Rayleigh–Taylor instability. Further sedimentation will be concentrated in the depressions and the salt will continue to move away from them into the ridges. At a late stage, diapirs tend to initiate at the junctions between ridges, their growth fed by movement of salt along the ridge system, continuing until the salt supply is exhausted. During the later stages of this process the top of the diapir remains at or near the surface, with further burial being matched by diapir rise, and is sometimes referred to as downbuilding. The Schacht Asse II and Gorleben salt domes in Germany are an example of a purely passive salt structure.
Such structures do not always form when a salt layer is buried beneath a sedimentary overburden. This can be due to a relatively high strength overburden or to the presence of sedimentary layers interbedded within the salt unit that increase both its density and strength. | 0 | Salts |
A very unusual situation occurs in a compound dubbed "inverse sodium hydride", which contains H and Na ions. Na is an alkalide, and this compound differs from ordinary sodium hydride in having a much higher energy content due to the net displacement of two electrons from hydrogen to sodium. A derivative of this "inverse sodium hydride" arises in the presence of the base [[adamanzane|[3]adamanzane]]. This molecule irreversibly encapsulates the H and shields it from interaction with the alkalide Na. Theoretical work has suggested that even an unprotected protonated tertiary amine complexed with the sodium alkalide might be metastable under certain solvent conditions, though the barrier to reaction would be small and finding a suitable solvent might be difficult. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
Iron(II,III) oxide, or black iron oxide, is the chemical compound with formula FeO. It occurs in nature as the mineral magnetite. It is one of a number of iron oxides, the others being iron(II) oxide (FeO), which is rare, and iron(III) oxide (FeO) which also occurs naturally as the mineral hematite. It contains both Fe and Fe ions and is sometimes formulated as FeO ∙ FeO. This iron oxide is encountered in the laboratory as a black powder. It exhibits permanent magnetism and is ferrimagnetic, but is sometimes incorrectly described as ferromagnetic. Its most extensive use is as a black pigment (see: Mars Black). For this purpose, it is synthesized rather than being extracted from the naturally occurring mineral as the particle size and shape can be varied by the method of production. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
For medical purposes, saline is often used to flush wounds and skin abrasions. However, research indicates that it is no more effective than potable tap water. Normal saline will not burn or sting when applied.
Saline is also used in I.V. therapy, intravenously supplying extra water to rehydrate people or supplying the daily water and salt needs ("maintenance" needs) of a person who is unable to take them by mouth. Because infusing a solution of low osmolality can cause problems such as hemolysis, intravenous solutions with reduced saline concentrations (less than 0.9%) typically have dextrose (glucose) added to maintain a safe osmolality while providing less sodium chloride. The amount of normal saline infused depends largely on the needs of the person (e.g. ongoing diarrhea or heart failure).
Saline is also often used for nasal washes to relieve some of the symptoms of rhinitis and the common cold. The solution exerts a softening and loosening influence on the mucus to make it easier to wash out and clear the nasal passages for both babies and adults. In very rare instances, fatal infection by the amoeba Naegleria fowleri can occur if it enters the body through the nose; therefore tap water must not be used for nasal irrigation. Water is only appropriate for this purpose if it is sterile, distilled, boiled, filtered, or disinfected.
Sterile isotonic saline is also used to fill breast implants for use in breast augmentation surgery, to correct congenital abnormalities such as tuberous breast deformity, and to correct breast asymmetry. Saline breast implants are also used in reconstructive surgery post-mastectomy. | 0 | Salts |
Most alkali metal halides crystallize with the face-centered cubic lattices. In this structure both the metals and halides feature octahedral coordination geometry, in which each ion has a coordination number of six. Caesium chloride, bromide, and iodide crystallize in a body-centered cubic lattice that accommodates coordination number of eight for the larger metal cation (and the anion also). | 0 | Salts |
In organic synthesis, PPTS is used as a weakly acidic catalyst, providing an organic soluble source of pyridinium (CHNH) ions. For example, PPTS is used to deprotect silyl ethers or tetrahydropyranyl ethers when a substrate is unstable to stronger acid catalysts. It is also a commonly used catalyst for the preparation of acetals and ketals from aldehydes and ketones. | 0 | Salts |
Rheumatologic conditions can be treated in the balneotherapy of rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, and osteoarthritis. The minerals are absorbed while soaking, stimulating blood circulation. | 0 | Salts |
Estropipate was available in the form of 0.75, 1.5, 3, and 6 mg oral tablets and 1.5 mg/gram vaginal cream. Estropipate is no longer available in the United States. | 0 | Salts |
Sodium hydride is sold as a mixture of 60% sodium hydride (w/w) in mineral oil. Such a dispersion is safer to handle and weigh than pure NaH. The compound is often used in this form but the pure grey solid can be prepared by rinsing the commercial product with pentane or tetrahydrofuran, with care being taken because the waste solvent will contain traces of NaH and can ignite in air. Reactions involving NaH usually require air-free techniques. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
MoS excels as a lubricating material (see below) due to its layered structure and low coefficient of friction. Interlayer sliding dissipates energy when a shear stress is applied to the material. Extensive work has been performed to characterize the coefficient of friction and shear strength of MoS in various atmospheres. The shear strength of MoS increases as the coefficient of friction increases. This property is called superlubricity. At ambient conditions, the coefficient of friction for MoS was determined to be 0.150, with a corresponding estimated shear strength of 56.0 MPa (megapascals). Direct methods of measuring the shear strength indicate that the value is closer to 25.3 MPa.
The wear resistance of MoS in lubricating applications can be increased by doping MoS with Cr. Microindentation experiments on nanopillars of Cr-doped MoS found that the yield strength increased from an average of 821 MPa for pure MoS (at 0% Cr) to 1017 MPa at 50% Cr. The increase in yield strength is accompanied by a change in the failure mode of the material. While the pure MoS nanopillar fails through a plastic bending mechanism, brittle fracture modes become apparent as the material is loaded with increasing amounts of dopant.
The widely used method of micromechanical exfoliation has been carefully studied in MoS to understand the mechanism of delamination in few-layer to multi-layer flakes. The exact mechanism of cleavage was found to be layer dependent. Flakes thinner than 5 layers undergo homogenous bending and rippling, while flakes around 10 layers thick delaminated through interlayer sliding. Flakes with more than 20 layers exhibited a kinking mechanism during micromechanical cleavage. The cleavage of these flakes was also determined to be reversible due to the nature of van der Waals bonding.
In recent years, MoS has been utilized in flexible electronic applications, promoting more investigation into the elastic properties of this material. Nanoscopic bending tests using AFM cantilever tips were performed on micromechanically exfoliated MoS flakes that were deposited on a holey substrate. The yield strength of monolayer flakes was 270 GPa, while the thicker flakes were also stiffer, with a yield strength of 330 GPa. Molecular dynamic simulations found the in-plane yield strength of MoS to be 229 GPa, which matches the experimental results within error.
Bertolazzi and coworkers also characterized the failure modes of the suspended monolayer flakes. The strain at failure ranges from 6 to 11%. The average yield strength of monolayer MoS is 23 GPa, which is close to the theoretical fracture strength for defect-free MoS.
The band structure of MoS is sensitive to strain. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
Potash refers to potassium compounds and potassium-bearing materials, most commonly potassium carbonate. The word "potash" originates from the Middle Dutch "potaschen", denoting "pot ashes" in 1477.
The old method of making potassium carbonate () was by collecting or producing wood ash (the occupation of ash burners), leaching the ashes, and then evaporating the resulting solution in large iron pots, which left a white residue denominated "pot ash". Approximately 10% by weight of common wood ash can be recovered as potash. Later, "potash" became widely applied to naturally occurring minerals that contained potassium salts and the commercial product derived from them,.
The following table lists a number of potassium compounds that have "potash" in their traditional names: | 0 | Salts |
Phosphorene is considered a promising anode material for rechargeable batteries, such as Lithium-ion batteries. The interlayer space allows lithium storage and transfer. The layer number and lateral size of phosphorene affect the stability and capacity of the anode. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
Soap is a salt of a fatty acid used in a variety of cleansing and lubricating products. In a domestic setting, soaps are surfactants usually used for washing, bathing, and other types of housekeeping. In industrial settings, soaps are used as thickeners, components of some lubricants, and precursors to catalysts.
When used for cleaning, soap solubilizes particles and grime, which can then be separated from the article being cleaned. In hand washing, as a surfactant, when lathered with a little water, soap kills microorganisms by disorganizing their membrane lipid bilayer and denaturing their proteins. It also emulsifies oils, enabling them to be carried away by running water.
Soap is created by mixing fats and oils with a base. Humans have used soap for millennia; evidence exists for the production of soap-like materials in ancient Babylon around 2800 BC. | 0 | Salts |
Rarely encountered, thioxanthates arise by the reaction of CS with thiolate salts. For example, sodium ethylthioxanthate has the formula CHSCSNa. Dithiocarbamates are also related compounds. They arise from the reaction of a secondary amine with CS. For example, sodium diethyldithiocarbamate has the formula (CH)NCSNa. | 0 | Salts |
In addition to the carbides, other groups of related carbon compounds exist:
*graphite intercalation compounds
*alkali metal fullerides
*endohedral fullerenes, where the metal atom is encapsulated within a fullerene molecule
*metallacarbohedrenes (met-cars) which are cluster compounds containing C units.
*tunable nanoporous carbon, where gas chlorination of metallic carbides removes metal molecules to form a highly porous, near-pure carbon material capable of high-density energy storage.
*transition metal carbene complexes.
* two-dimensional transition metal carbides: MXenes | 0 | Salts |
The Saltcellar with Portuguese Figures is a salt cellar in carved ivory, made in the Kingdom of Benin in West Africa in the 16th century, for the European market. It is attributed to an unknown master or workshop who has been given the name Master of the Heraldic Ship by art historians. It depicts four Portuguese figures, two of higher class and the other two are possibly guards protecting them. In the 16th century, Portuguese visitors ordered ivory salt cellars and ivory spoons similar to this object. This Afro-Portuguese ivory salt cellar was carved in the style of a Benin court ivory, comparable to the famous Benin bronzes and Benin ivory masks.
These kinds of ivory arts were commissioned and exported initially from Sierra Leone and later Benin City, Nigeria. During the age of exploration European powers expanded their trade and efforts towards establishing trade posts in the New World, Africa, the Middle East and Asia. Portuguese sailors disembarked from their caravels to buy goods for trading like ivory, gold, and others. These goods were taken from markets to colonial outposts to Portugal and then traded within European markets. During the 16th and 17th century countries that participated in colonialism reaped the economical benefits from its international trade.
The salt cellar was probably carved for a Portuguese nobleman to put it on his dining table. It is one of four almost identical pieces, probably made as a set. The other three are now in European museums. Ivory salt cellars and ivory spoons like the Sapi-Portuguese Ivory Spoon, also in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, were common pieces of art that Portuguese sailors brought back from West African countries. There are no records of the order for this commission but it is believed that a Benin Ivory carver produced this in the Benin Kingdom, in modern day Nigeria. | 0 | Salts |
Polyvinylcarbazole was discovered by the chemists Walter Reppe (1892-1969), Ernst Keyssner and Eugen Dorrer and patented by I.G. Farben in the USA in 1937. PVC was the first polymer whose photoconductivity was known. Starting in the 1960s, further polymers of this kind were sought. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
Potash deposits are located throughout the world. , deposits are being mined in Canada, Russia, China, Belarus, Israel, Germany, Chile, the United States, Jordan, Spain, the United Kingdom, Uzbekistan and Brazil, with the most significant deposits present under the great depths of the Prairie Evaporite Formation in Saskatchewan, Canada.
The Permian Basin deposit includes the major mines outside of Carlsbad, New Mexico, to the worlds purest potash deposit in Lea County, New Mexico (near the Carlsbad deposits), which is believed to be roughly 80% pure. (Osceola County, Michigan, has deposits 90+% pure; the only mine there was converted to salt production, however.) Canada is the largest producer, followed by Russia and Belarus. The most significant reserve of Canadas potash is located in the province of Saskatchewan and is mined by The Mosaic Company, Nutrien and K+S.
In China, most potash deposits are concentrated in the deserts and salt flats of the endorheic basins of its western provinces, particularly Qinghai. Geological expeditions discovered the reserves in the 1950s but commercial exploitation lagged until Deng Xiaopings Reform and Opening Up Policy in the 1980s. The 1989 opening of the Qinghai Potash Fertilizer Factory in the remote Qarhan Playa increased Chinas production of potassium chloride sixfold, from less than a year at Haixi and Tanggu to just under a year.
In 2013, almost 70% of potash production was controlled by Canpotex, an exporting and marketing firm, and the Belarusian Potash Company. The latter was a joint venture between Belaruskali and Uralkali, but on July 30, 2013, Uralkali announced that it had ended the venture. | 0 | Salts |
Caliche is used in construction worldwide. Its reserves in the Llano Estacado in Texas can be used in the manufacture of Portland cement; the caliche meets the chemical composition requirements and has been used as a principal raw material in Portland cement production.
The Great House at Casa Grande Ruins National Monument, Arizona, US, was built with walls of caliche. Caliche was also used in mortars used in of the Mayan buildings in the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico. A dormitory in Ingram, Texas, and a demonstration building in Carrizo Springs, Texas, for the United States Department of Energy were also built using caliche as part of studies by the Center for Maximum Potential Building Systems.
In many areas, caliche is also used for road construction, either as a surfacing material, or more commonly, as base material. It is one of the most common road materials used in Southern Africa. Caliche is widely used as a base material when it is locally available and cheap. However, it does not hold up to moisture (rain), and is never used if a hard-rock base material, such as limestone, is available. | 0 | Salts |
Cattierite (CoS), vaesite (NiS) and hauerite (MnS), as well as sperrylite (PtAs) are similar in their structure and belong also to the pyrite group.
is a nickel-cobalt bearing variety of pyrite, with > 50% substitution of Ni for Fe within pyrite. Bravoite is not a formally recognised mineral, and is named after the Peruvian scientist Jose J. Bravo (1874–1928). | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
Metal halides are used in high-intensity discharge lamps called metal halide lamps, such as those used in modern street lights. These are more energy-efficient than mercury-vapor lamps, and have much better colour rendition than orange high-pressure sodium lamps. Metal halide lamps are also commonly used in greenhouses or in rainy climates to supplement natural sunlight.
Silver halides are used in photographic films and papers. When the film is developed, the silver halides which have been exposed to light are reduced to metallic silver, forming an image.
Halides are also used in solder paste, commonly as a Cl or Br equivalent.
Synthetic organic chemistry often incorporates halogens into organohalide compounds. | 0 | Salts |
InS features tetrahedral In(III) centers linked to four sulfido ligands.
α-InS has a defect cubic structure. The polymorph undergoes a phase transition at 420 °C and converts to the spinel structure of β-InS. Another phase transition at 740 °C produces the layered γ-InS polymorph.
β-InS has a defect spinel structure. The sulfide anions are closely packed in layers, with octahedrally-coordinated In(III) cations present within the layers, and tetrahedrally-coordinated In(III) cations between them. A portion of the tetrahedral interstices are vacant, which leads to the defects in the spinel.
β-InS has two subtypes. In the T-InS subtype, the tetragonally-coordinated vacancies are in an ordered arrangement, whereas the vacancies in C-InS are disordered. The disordered subtype of β-InS shows activity for photocatalytic H production with a noble metal cocatalyst, but the ordered subtype does not.
β-InS is an N-type semiconductor with an optical band gap of 2.1 eV. It has been proposed to replace the hazardous cadmium sulfide, CdS, as a buffer layer in solar cells, and as an additional semiconductor to increase the performance of TiO-based photovoltaics.
The unstable γ-InS polymorph has a layered structure. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
The mineral form of is tellurobismuthite which is moderately rare. There are many natural bismuth tellurides of different stoichiometry, as well as compounds of the Bi-Te-S-(Se) system, like (tetradymite). These bismuth tellurides are part of the tetradymite group of minerals.
Bismuth telluride may be prepared simply by sealing mixed powders of bismuth and tellurium metal in a quartz tube under vacuum (critical, as an unsealed or leaking sample may explode in a furnace) and heating it to 800 °C in a muffle furnace. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
Gallium(II) selenide (GaSe) is a chemical compound. It has a hexagonal layer structure, similar to that of GaS. It is a photoconductor, a second harmonic generation crystal in nonlinear optics, and has been used as a far-infrared conversion material at 14–31 THz and above. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
Multilayer molybdenite flakes are semiconductors with an indirect bandgap. In contrast, monolayer flakes have a direct gap. In the early years of the 20th century, molybdenite was used in some of the first crude semiconductor diodes, called cat's whisker detectors, which served as a demodulator in early crystal radios. Monolayer molybdenite shows good charge carrier mobility and can be used to create small or low-voltage transistors. The transistors can detect and emit light and may have future use in optoelectronics. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
Another route to the synthesis of cobalt oxide nanoparticles is the thermal decomposition of organometallic compounds. For example, heating the metal salen complex bis(salicylaldehyde)ethylenediiminecobalt(II) ("Co-salen") in air to 500 °C. The precursor Co-salen can be obtained by reacting cobalt(II) acetate tetrahydrate in propanol at 50 °C under nitrogen atmosphere with the salen ligand (bis(salicylaldehyde)ethylenediimine). | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
Perxenic acid and the anion are both strong oxidizing agents, capable of oxidising silver(I) to silver(III), copper(II) to copper(III), and manganese(II) to permanganate. The perxenate anion is unstable in acidic solutions, being almost instantaneously reduced to .
The sodium, potassium, and barium salts are soluble. Barium perxenate solution is used as the starting material for the synthesis of xenon tetroxide (XeO) by mixing it with concentrated sulfuric acid:
: BaXeO (s) + 2 HSO (l) → XeO (g) + 2 BaSO (s) + 2 HO (l)
Most metal perxenates are stable, except silver perxenate, which decomposes violently. | 0 | Salts |
Other concentrations commonly used include:
* Half-normal saline (0.45% NaCl), often with "D5" (5% dextrose), contains 77 mEq/L of Na and Cl and 50 g/L dextrose.
* Quarter-normal saline (0.22% NaCl) has 39 mEq/L of Na and Cl and almost always contains 5% dextrose for osmolality reasons. It can be used alone in neonatal intensive care units.
* Dextrose (glucose) 4% in 0.18% saline is used sometimes for maintenance replacement. | 0 | Salts |
Bittern can be used to culture Haloquadratum archaea. Haloquadratum are distinctly square-shaped and are abundant in hypersaline environments such as salt ponds. Their cultivation is necessary for understanding both their ecological function in those environments as well as their unique morphology. The presence of Haloquadratum in an environment deemed inhospitable for most life has prompted closer study of these archaea.
A study has been performed exploring the use of bittern as a natural magnesium supplement used to decrease cholesterol spikes after a meal (postprandial hyperlipidemia).
Due to its high salinity, bittern can also be used as a draw solution for an osmotic process that concentrates sucrose in sugarcane juice. Because forward osmosis is being used, the process is relatively energy-efficient. Epsom salt can also be taken from the bittern draw solution once it is used. This method is particularly useful in areas where sugarcane and salt production are in close proximity to avoid costs associated with movement of either the sugarcane juice or the bittern. | 0 | Salts |
The structure of , as determined by X-ray powder diffraction, is primarily hexagonal close-packed system with alternating between layers of lead atoms and iodide atoms, with largely ionic bonding. Weak van der Waals interactions have been observed between lead–iodide layers. The most common stacking forms are 2H and 4H. The 4H polymorph is most common in samples grown from the melt, by precipitation, or by sublimation, whereas the 2H polymorph is usually formed by sol-gel synthesis. The solid can also take an R6 rhombohedral structure. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
Saline was believed to have originated during the Indian Blue cholera pandemic that swept across Europe in 1831. William Brooke OShaughnessy, a recent graduate of Edinburgh Medical School, proposed in an article to medical journal The Lancet to inject people infected with cholera with highly oxygenated salts to treat the "universal stagnation of the venous system and rapid cessation of arterialisation of the blood" seen in people with severely dehydrated cholera. He found his treatment harmless in dogs, and his proposal was soon adopted by the physician Thomas Latta in treating people with cholera to beneficial effect. In the following decades, variations and alternatives to Lattas solution were tested and used in treating people with cholera. These solutions contained a range of concentrations of sodium, chloride, potassium, carbonate, phosphate, and hydroxide. The breakthrough in achieving physiological concentrations was accomplished by Sydney Ringer in the early 1880s, when he determined the optimal salt concentrations to maintain the contractility of frog heart muscle tissue. Normal saline is considered a descendant of the pre-Ringer solutions, as Ringer's findings were not adopted and widely used until decades later. The term "normal saline" itself appears to have little historical basis, except for studies done in 1882–83 by Dutch physiologist Hartog Jacob Hamburger; these in vitro studies of red cell lysis suggested incorrectly that 0.9% was the concentration of salt in human blood (rather than 0.6%, the true concentration).
Normal saline has become widely used in modern medicine, but due to the mismatch with real blood, other solutions have proved better. The 2018 publication of a randomized, controlled trial with 15,000 people in intensive care units showed that compared to normal saline, lactated Ringer's solution reduced the combined risk of mortality, need for additional dialysis, or persistent kidney problems from 15% to 14%, which given the large number of patients is a significant reduction. | 0 | Salts |
Pyrite usually forms cuboid crystals, sometimes forming in close association to form raspberry-shaped masses called framboids. However, under certain circumstances, it can form anastomosing filaments or T-shaped crystals.
Pyrite can also form shapes almost the same as a regular dodecahedron, known as pyritohedra, and this suggests an explanation for the artificial geometrical models found in Europe as early as the 5th century BC. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
As typical for xanthates, potassium amyl xanthate is prepared by reacting n-amyl alcohol with carbon disulfide and potassium hydroxide.
: CH(CH)OH + CS + KOH → CH(CH)OCSK + HO
Potassium amyl xanthate is a pale yellow powder. Its solutions are relatively stable between pH 8 and 13 with a maximum of stability at pH 10. | 0 | Salts |
The cathodes of lithium-ion batteries are often made of lithiated oxides of cobalt, nickel, or manganese, that can readily and reversibly incorporate lithium ions in their molecular structure. Cobalt oxide nanomaterials, such as nanotubes, offer high surface-to-volume ratio and short path lengths for lithium cation transport, leading to fast charging capabilities. However, capacity, coulombic efficiency, and cycle life may suffer due to excessive formation of SEI. The nanowires may incorporate other substances, for example, diphenylalanine.
Cobalt oxide particles may be anchored on substrates such as graphene to improve the dimensional stability of the anode and to prevent particle aggregation during lithium charge and discharge processes. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
Phosphorene has a thickness dependent direct band gap that changes to 1.88 eV in a monolayer from 0.3 eV in the bulk. Increase in band gap value in single-layer phosphorene is predicted to be caused by the absence of interlayer hybridization near the top of the valence and bottom of the conduction band. A pronounced peak centered at around 1.45 eV suggests the band gap structure in few- or single-layer phosphorene difference from bulk crystals.
In vacuum or on weak substrate, an interesting reconstruction with nanotubed termination of phosphorene edge is very easy to happen, transforming phosphorene edge from metallic to semiconducting. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
A conventional route entails heating the elements in a seal-tube:
Indium(III) telluride reacts with strong acids to produce hydrogen telluride. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
Uranium dioxide is oxidized in contact with oxygen to the triuranium octaoxide.
:3 UO + O → UO at 700 °C (970 K)
The electrochemistry of uranium dioxide has been investigated in detail as the galvanic corrosion of uranium dioxide controls the rate at which used nuclear fuel dissolves. See spent nuclear fuel for further details. Water increases the oxidation rate of plutonium and uranium metals. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
In some jurisdictions, most bitterns are used for other production instead of being directly discarded. In other jurisdictions each tonne of salt produced can create 3+ tonnes of waste bitterns.
Although bittern generally contains the same compounds as seawater, it is much more concentrated than seawater. If bittern is released directly into seawater, the ensuing salinity increase may harm marine life around the point of release. Even small increases in salinity can disrupt marine species' osmotic balances, which may result in the death of the organism in some cases.
In December 1997, 94 corpses of green sea turtles, Chelonia mydas, were found at the Ojo de Liebre Lagoon (OLL) in Mexico, adjacent to the industrial operation of Exportadora de Sal S.A. (ESSA), the largest saltworks in the world. The fluoride ion F content in bitterns was 60.5-fold more than that in seawater. The bitterns osmolality was 11,000 mosm/kg of water, whereas the turtle's plasma osmolality was about 400 mosm/kg of water. Researchers concluded that the dumping of bitterns into the ocean should be avoided.
The lack of adequate disposal methods for bitterns and concerns of local commercial and recreational fishing associations about bitterns’ deleterious impacts upon local fish and prawn hatchery areas led the Western Australian EPA in 2008 to recommend against the proposed 4.2 million tonne per annum Straits Salt project in The Pilbara region of WA. The EPA concluded that: | 0 | Salts |
A brine spring or salt spring is a saltwater spring.
Brine springs are not necessarily associated with halite deposits in the immediate vicinity. They may occur at valley bottoms made of clay and gravel which became soggy with brine seeped downslope from the valley sides.
Historically, brine springs have been early sources of U.S. salt production, as in the case of the salterns in Syracuse, New York and at the Illinois Salines. | 0 | Salts |
Copper(II) oxide or cupric oxide is an inorganic compound with the formula CuO. A black solid, it is one of the two stable oxides of copper, the other being CuO or copper(I) oxide (cuprous oxide). As a mineral, it is known as tenorite. It is a product of copper mining and the precursor to many other copper-containing products and chemical compounds. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
PVK can be used at temperatures of up to 160 - 170 °C and is therefore a temperature-resistant thermoplastic. The electrical conductivity changes depending on the illumination. For this reason, PVK is classified as a semiconductor or photoconductor. The polymer is extremely brittle, but the brittleness can be reduced by copolymerization with a little isoprene. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
Molecular wires conduct electricity. They typically have non-linear current-voltage characteristics, and do not behave as simple ohmic conductors. The conductance follows typical power law behavior as a function of temperature or electric field, whichever is the greater, arising from their strong one-dimensional character. Numerous theoretical ideas have been used in an attempt to understand the conductivity of one-dimensional systems, where strong interactions between electrons lead to departures from normal metallic (Fermi liquid) behavior. Important concepts are those introduced by Tomonaga, Luttinger and Wigner. Effects caused by classical Coulomb repulsion (called Coulomb blockade), interactions with vibrational degrees of freedom (called phonons) and Quantum Decoherence have also been found to be important in determining the properties of molecular wires. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
When a salt layer becomes too thin to be an effective detachment layer, due to salt movement, dissolution or removal by faulting, the overburden and the underlying sub-salt basement become effectively welded together. This may cause the development of new faults in the cover sequence and is an important consideration when modeling the migration of hydrocarbons.
Salt welds may also develop in the vertical direction by putting the sides of a former diapir in contact. | 0 | Salts |
In chemistry, a hydrobromide is an acid salt resulting, or regarded as resulting, from the reaction of hydrobromic acid with an organic base (e.g. an amine). The compounds are similar to hydrochlorides.
Some drugs are formulated as hydrobromides, e.g. eletriptan hydrobromide. | 0 | Salts |
The kingdom of Benin existed in the southwestern region of Nigeria in modern Edo state, Nigeria. According to scholars the kingdom of Benin (also known as the Edo Kingdom, or the Benin Empire) originated around the year 900 by the Ogiso kings, it is said between the eleventh and the thirteenth a member from the Oba dynasty would take control of the state. This dynasty would rule until 1897 when the British occupied the kingdom of Benin in February 9. The kingdom reached its peak during the rule of Ewuare the Great, he ruled from 1440 to 1473. King Ewuare expanded its natural borders and introduced wood and ivory carving to the kingdom. One of the first recorded visits to Benin City was made by Portuguese explorer, João Afonso de Aveiro in 1486. After contact with the Portuguese the Benin Kingdom established a strong mercantile relationship with Portugal and later other European states. They traded slaves and Beninese products such as ivory, pepper, gold and palm oil for European goods such as manillas, metals and guns. In addition they established diplomatic relations in the late 15th century, the Oba sent an ambassador to Lisbon, and the king of Portugal sent Christian missionaries to Benin City in 1486. | 0 | Salts |
Molybdenum disulfide is a host for formation of intercalation compounds. This behavior is relevant to its use as a cathode material in batteries. One example is a lithiated material, . With butyl lithium, the product is . | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
The β-InS polymorph, in powdered form, can irritate eyes, skin and respiratory organs. It is toxic if swallowed, but can be handled safely under conventional laboratory conditions. It should be handled with gloves, and care should be taken to keep from inhaling the compound, and to keep it from contact with the eyes. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
Alkali metal and alkaline earth soaps are white solids. The most commonly encountered are traditional household soaps, which are the fatty acid salts of sodium (hard soap) and potassium (soft soap). Lithium soap or greases, such as lithium stearate, are insoluble in water and find use in lubricating grease.
Calcium and magnesium soaps are most commonly encountered as soap scum but the pure materials have a variety of uses. Magnesium stearate and calcium stearate are used as excipients, lubricants, release agents, and food additives, with the later use being covered by the generic E numbers of E470b and E470 respectively. | 0 | Salts |
Most of the world reserves of potassium (K) were deposited as sea water in ancient inland oceans. After the water evaporated, the potassium salts crystallized into beds of potash ore. These are the locations where potash is being mined today. The deposits are a naturally occurring mixture of potassium chloride (KCl) and sodium chloride (NaCl), more commonly known as table salt. Over time, as the surface of the earth changed, these deposits were covered by thousands of feet of earth. | 0 | Salts |
Silver telluride (AgTe) is a chemical compound, a telluride of silver, also known as disilver telluride or silver(I) telluride. It forms a monoclinic crystal. In a wider sense, silver telluride can be used to denote AgTe (silver(II) telluride, a metastable compound) or AgTe.
Silver(I) telluride occurs naturally as the mineral hessite, whereas silver(II) telluride is known as empressite.
Silver telluride is a semiconductor which can be doped both n-type and p-type. Stoichiometric AgTe has n-type conductivity. On heating silver is lost from the material.
Non-stoichiometric silver telluride has shown extraordinary magnetoresistance. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
Quenching is a heat-treatment process when forging metals such as steel. A brine solution, along with oil and other substances, is commonly used to harden steel. When brine is used, there is an enhanced uniformity of the cooling process and heat transfer. | 0 | Salts |
Copper(I) thiocyanate is a hole conductor, a semiconductor with a wide band gap (3.6 eV, therefore transparent to visible and near infrared light). It is used in photovoltaics in some third-generation cells as a hole transfer layer. It acts as a P-type semiconductor and as a solid-state electrolyte. It is often used in dye-sensitized solar cells. Its hole conductivity is however relatively poor (0.01 S·m). This can be improved by various treatments, e.g. exposure to gaseous chlorine or doping with (SCN).
CuSCN with NiO act synergically as a smoke suppressant additive in polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
CuSCN precipitated on carbon support can be used for conversion of aryl halides to aryl thiocyanates.
Copper thiocyanate is used in some anti-fouling paints. Advantages compared to cuprous oxide include that the compound is white and a more efficient biocide. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
Counterions are the mobile ions in ion exchange polymers and colloids. Ion-exchange resins are polymers with a net negative or positive charge. Cation-exchange resins consist of an anionic polymer with countercations, typically Na (sodium). The resin has a higher affinity for highly charged countercations, for example by Ca (calcium) in the case of water softening. Correspondingly, anion-exchange resins are typically provided in the form of chloride Cl, which is a highly mobile counteranion.
Counterions are used in phase-transfer catalysis. In a typical application lipophilic countercation such as benzalkonium solubilizes reagents in organic solvents. | 0 | Salts |
Phosphorene is a promising candidate for flexible nano systems due to its ultra-thin nature with ideal electrostatic control and superior mechanical flexibility. Researchers have demonstrated the flexible transistors, circuits and [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sd6JGbKmvUY AM demodulator] based on few-layer phosphorus, showing enhanced am bipolar transport with high room temperature carrier mobility as high as ~310 cm/Vs and strong current saturation. Fundamental circuit units including digital inverter, voltage amplifier and frequency doubler have been realized. Radio frequency (RF) transistors with highest intrinsic cutoff frequency of 20 GHz has been realized for potential applications in high frequency flexible smart nano systems. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
As bipyridinium derivatives, the viologens are related to 4,4'-bipyridyl. The basic nitrogen centers in these compounds are alkylated to give viologens:
:(CHN) + 2 RX → [(CHNR)](X)
The alkylation is a form of quaternization. When the alkylating agent is a small alkyl halide, such as methyl chloride or methyl bromide, the viologen salt is often water-soluble. A wide variety of alkyl substituents have been investigated. Common derivatives are methyl (see paraquat), long chain alkyl, and benzyl. | 0 | Salts |
is employed as a cocatalyst for desulfurization in petrochemistry, for example, hydrodesulfurization. The effectiveness of the catalysts is enhanced by doping with small amounts of cobalt or nickel. The intimate mixture of these sulfides is supported on alumina. Such catalysts are generated in situ by treating molybdate/cobalt or nickel-impregnated alumina with or an equivalent reagent. Catalysis does not occur at the regular sheet-like regions of the crystallites, but instead at the edge of these planes.
MoS finds use as a hydrogenation catalyst for organic synthesis. It is derived from a common transition metal, rather than group 10 metal as are many alternatives, MoS is chosen when catalyst price or resistance to sulfur poisoning are of primary concern. MoS is effective for the hydrogenation of nitro compounds to amines and can be used to produce secondary amines via reductive amination. The catalyst can also can effect hydrogenolysis of organosulfur compounds, aldehydes, ketones, phenols and carboxylic acids to their respective alkanes. The catalyst suffers from rather low activity however, often requiring hydrogen pressures above 95 atm and temperatures above 185 °C. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
Salinity is an ecological factor of considerable importance, influencing the types of organisms that live in a body of water. As well, salinity influences the kinds of plants that will grow either in a water body, or on land fed by a water (or by a groundwater). A plant adapted to saline conditions is called a halophyte. A halophyte which is tolerant to residual sodium carbonate salinity are called glasswort or saltwort or barilla plants. Organisms (mostly bacteria) that can live in very salty conditions are classified as extremophiles, or halophiles specifically. An organism that can withstand a wide range of salinities is euryhaline.
Salts are expensive to remove from water, and salt content is an important factor in water use, factoring into potability and suitability for irrigation. Increases in salinity have been observed in lakes and rivers in the United States, due to common road salt and other salt de-icers in runoff.
The degree of salinity in oceans is a driver of the world's ocean circulation, where density changes due to both salinity changes and temperature changes at the surface of the ocean produce changes in buoyancy, which cause the sinking and rising of water masses. Changes in the salinity of the oceans are thought to contribute to global changes in carbon dioxide as more saline waters are less soluble to carbon dioxide. In addition, during glacial periods, the hydrography is such that a possible cause of reduced circulation is the production of stratified oceans. In such cases, it is more difficult to subduct water through the thermohaline circulation.
Not only is salinity a driver of ocean circulation, but changes in ocean circulation also affect salinity, particularly in the subpolar North Atlantic where from 1990 to 2010 increased contributions of Greenland meltwater were counteracted by increased northward transport of salty Atlantic waters. However, North Atlantic waters have become fresher since the mid-2010s due to increased Greenland meltwater flux. | 0 | Salts |
Coral calcium has been promoted as an alternative treatment or cure for a number of health conditions, often as part of an alkaline diet, by Robert Barefoot and others; Barefoot coauthored a book called The Calcium Factor, and marketed coral calcium supplements with infomercials. According to a Time magazine article about Barefoot by Leon Jaroff, "The monthly cost of the recommended dose of Barefoots calcium tablets is some 15 times greater than that of the ordinary drug store variety." Jaroff called Barefoots marketing of coral calcium "one of the more successful scams of our age" and "sheer nonsense," and labeled him a "huckster".
There is no medical evidence to support these health claims, and coral calcium has been identified by the United States Food and Drug Administration as a "Fake Cancer Cure Consumers Should Avoid". The Federal Trade Commission prosecuted several individuals, including Barefoot, for making unsupported health claims about coral calcium, and the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine has issued a consumer advisory regarding false and misleading marketing claims associated with coral calcium supplements. | 0 | Salts |
Bismuth antimonides, Bismuth-antimonys, or Bismuth-antimony alloys, (BiSb) are binary alloys of bismuth and antimony in various ratios.
Some, in particular BiSb, were the first experimentally-observed three-dimensional topological insulators, materials that have conducting surface states but have an insulating interior.
Various BiSb alloys also superconduct at low temperatures, are semiconductors, and are used in thermoelectric devices.
Bismuth antimonide itself (see box to right) is sometimes described as BiSb. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
Salts are characteristically insulators. Although they contain charged atoms or clusters, these materials do not typically conduct electricity to any significant extent when the substance is solid. In order to conduct, the charged particles must be mobile rather than stationary in a crystal lattice. This is achieved to some degree at high temperatures when the defect concentration increases the ionic mobility and solid state ionic conductivity is observed. When the ionic compounds are dissolved in a liquid or are melted into a liquid, they can conduct electricity because the ions become completely mobile. For this reason, liquified (molten) salts and solutions containing dissolved salts (e.g., sodium chloride in water) can be used as electrolytes. This conductivity gain upon dissolving or melting is sometimes used as a defining characteristic of ionic compounds.
In some unusual ionic compounds: fast ion conductors, and ionic glasses, one or more of the ionic components has a significant mobility, allowing conductivity even while the material as a whole remains solid. This is often highly temperature dependent, and may be the result of either a phase change or a high defect concentration. These materials are used in all solid-state supercapacitors, batteries, and fuel cells, and in various kinds of chemical sensors. | 0 | Salts |
Graphitic carbon nitride can be made by polymerization of cyanamide, dicyandiamide or melamine. The firstly formed polymeric CN structure, melon, with pendant amino groups, is a highly ordered polymer. Further reaction leads to more condensed and less defective CN species, based on tri-s-triazine (CN) units as elementary building blocks.
Graphitic carbon nitride can also be prepared by electrodeposition on Si(100) substrate from a saturated acetone solution of cyanuric trichloride and melamine (ratio =1: 1.5) at room temperature.
Well-crystallized graphitic carbon nitride nanocrystallites can also be prepared via benzene-thermal reaction between CNCl and NaNH at 180–220 °C for 8–12 h.
Recently, a new method of syntheses of graphitic carbon nitrides by heating at 400-600 °C of a mixture of melamine and uric acid in the presence of alumina has been reported. Alumina favored the deposition of the graphitic carbon nitrides layers on the exposed surface. This method can be assimilated to an in situ chemical vapor deposition (CVD). | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
Sodium ethyl xanthate can be identified through optical absorption peaks in the infrared (1179, 1160, 1115, 1085 cm) and ultraviolet (300 nm) ranges. There are at least six chemical detection methods:
#Iodometric method relies on oxidation to dixanthogen by iodine, with the product detected with a starch indicator. This method is however is not selective and suffers from interferences with other sulfur-containing chemicals.
#Xanthate can be reacted with a copper sulfate or copper tartrate resulting in a copper xanthate residue which is detected with iodine. This method has an advantage of being is insensitive to sulfite, thiosulfate and carbonate impurities.
#In the acid-base detection method, a dilute aqueous xanthate solution is reacted with a copious amount of 0.01 M hydrochloric acid yielding carbon disulfide and alcohol, which are evaluated. The excess acid and impurities are removed through filtering and titration.
#In the argentometric method, sodium ethyl xanthate is reacted with silver nitrate in a dilute solution. The resulted silver xanthate is detected with 10% aqueous solution of iron nitrate. The drawbacks of this method are high cost of silver and blackening of silver xanthate by silver nitrate that reduces the detection accuracy.
#In the mercurimetric method, xanthate is dissolved in 40% aqueous solution of dimethylamine, followed by heating and titration with o-hydroxymercuribenzoate. The product is detected with dithiofluorescein.
#Perchloric acid method involves dissolution of xanthate in water-free acetic acid. The product is titrated with perchloric acid and detected with crystal violet.
Sodium ethyl xanthate can also be quantified using gravimetry, by weighing the lead xanthate residue obtained after reacting SEX with 10% solution of lead nitrate. There are also several electrochemical detection methods, which can be combined with some of the above chemical techniques. | 0 | Salts |
Indium(III) sulfide (Indium sesquisulfide, Indium sulfide (2:3), Indium (3+) sulfide) is the inorganic compound with the formula InS.
It has a "rotten egg" odor characteristic of sulfur compounds, and produces hydrogen sulfide gas when reacted with mineral acids.
Three different structures ("polymorphs") are known: yellow, α-InS has a defect cubic structure, red β-InS has a defect spinel, tetragonal, structure, and γ-InS has a layered structure. The red, β, form is considered to be the most stable form at room temperature, although the yellow form may be present depending on the method of production. InS is attacked by acids and by sulfide. It is slightly soluble in NaS.
Indium sulfide was the first indium compound ever described, being reported in 1863. Reich and Richter determined the existence of indium as a new element from the sulfide precipitate. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
Consider two-level systems at different positions in space.
Maxwell's equations lead to a coupling among all the optical resonances since the field emitted from a specific resonance interferes with the emitted fields of all other resonances.
As a result, the system is characterized by eigenmodes originating from the radiatively coupled optical resonances.
A spectacular situation arises if identical two-level systems are regularly arranged with distances that equals an integer multiple of , where is the optical wavelength.
In this case, the emitted fields of all resonances interfere constructively and the system behaves effectively as a single system with a -times stronger optical polarization.
Since the intensity of the emitted electromagnetic field is proportional to the squared modulus of the polarization, it scales initially as .
Due to the cooperativity that originates from the coherent coupling of the subsystems, the radiative decay rate is increased by , i.e., where is the radiative decay of a single two-level system.
Thus the coherent optical polarization decays -times faster proportional to than that of an isolated system.
As a result, the time integrated emitted field intensity scales as , since the initial factor is multiplied by which arises from the time integral over the enhanced radiative decay.
This effect of superradiance has been demonstrated by monitoring the decay of the exciton polarization in suitably arranged semiconductor multiple quantum wells.
Due to superradiance introduced by the coherent radiative coupling among the quantum wells, the decay rate increases proportional to the number of quantum wells and is thus significantly more rapid than for a single quantum well.
The theoretical analysis of this phenomenon requires a consistent solution of Maxwell's equations together with the SBEs. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
To make , sea salt is packed into bamboo canisters and sealed with yellow clay. The mixture is baked in an iron oven and roasted in a pine fire.
A bamboo stem is filled with bay salt produced from Korea's west coast, sealed with red clay, and baked in a kiln with pine tree firewood. The baked salt lumps harden after baking. It is taken out, crushed, and repacked in the bamboo stem for the next cycle. During baking the salt absorbs the bamboo constituents that bring a distinctive sweetness, which is called Gamrojung flavor. Baking darkens the salt. The ninth baking process uses the highest temperature, over . Afterwards, the bamboo salt contains blue, yellow, red, white and black crystals.
Well-baked bamboo salt, with a temperature above , is called “purple bamboo salt” because of its unique purple color, which indicates the best quality. While the quality of bamboo salt cannot be solely determined by color, its crystal structure and hardiness is definitive. | 0 | Salts |
Although not commercially significant sodium hydride has been proposed for hydrogen storage for use in fuel cell vehicles. In one experimental implementation, plastic pellets containing NaH are crushed in the presence of water to release the hydrogen. One challenge with this technology is the regeneration of NaH from the NaOH formed by hydrolysis. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
Indium(III) telluride (InTe) is a inorganic compound. A black solid, it is sometimes described as an intermetallic compound, because it has properties that are metal-like and salt like. It is a semiconductor that has attracted occasional interest for its thermoelectric and photovoltaic applications. No applications have been implemented commercially however. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
On passive margins where salt is present, such as the Gulf of Mexico, salt tectonics largely control the evolution of deep-water sedimentary systems; for example submarine channels, as modern and ancient case studies show. | 0 | Salts |
Concentrations lower and higher than normal also exist. High concentrations are used rarely in medicine but frequently in molecular biology. | 0 | Salts |
MoS@Fe-N-C core/shell nanosphere with atomic Fe-doped surface and interface (MoS/Fe-N-C) can be used as a used an electrocatalyst for oxygen reduction and evolution reactions (ORR and OER) bifunctionally because of reduced energy barrier due to Fe-N dopants and unique nature of MoS/Fe-N-C interface. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
For a realistic description of optical processes in solid materials, it is essential to go beyond the simple picture of the optical Bloch equations and to treat many-body interactions that describe the coupling among the elementary material excitations by, e.g., the see article Coulomb interaction between the electrons and the coupling to other degrees of freedom, such as lattice vibrations, i.e., the electron-phonon coupling.
Within a semiclassical approach, where the light field is treated as a classical electromagnetic field and the material excitations are described quantum mechanically, all above mentioned effects can be treated microscopically on the basis of a many-body quantum theory.
For semiconductors the resulting system of equations are known as the semiconductor Bloch equations.
For the simplest case of a two-band model of a semiconductor, the SBEs can be written schematically as
Here is the microscopic polarization and and are the electron occupations in the conduction and valence bands ( and ), respectively, and denotes the crystal momentum.
As a result of the many-body Coulomb interaction and possibly further interaction processes, the transition energy and the Rabi energy both depend on the state of the excited system, i.e., they are functions of the time-dependent polarizations and occupations and , respectively, at all crystal momenta .
Due to this coupling among the excitations for all values of the crystal momentum , the optical excitations in semiconductor cannot be described on the level of isolated optical transitions but have to be treated as an interacting many-body quantum system.
A prominent and important result of the Coulomb interaction among the photoexcitations
is the appearance of strongly absorbing discrete excitonic resonances which show up in the absorption spectra of semiconductors spectrally below the fundamental band gap frequency.
Since an exciton consists of a negatively charged conduction band electron and a positively charged valence band hole (i.e., an electron missing in the valence band) which attract each other via the Coulomb interaction, excitons have a hydrogenic series of discrete absorption lines.
Due to the optical selection rules of typical III-V semiconductors such as Galliumarsenide (GaAs) only the s-states, i.e., 1s, 2s, etc., can be optically excited and detected, see article on Wannier equation.
The many-body Coulomb interaction leads to significant complications since it results in an infinite hierarchy of dynamic equations for the microscopic correlation functions that describe the nonlinear optical response.
The terms given explicitly in the SBEs above arise from a treatment of the Coulomb interaction in the time-dependent Hartree–Fock approximation.
Whereas this level is sufficient to describe excitonic resonances, there are several further effects, e.g., excitation-induced dephasing, contributions from higher-order correlations like excitonic populations and biexcitonic resonances, which require one to treat so-called many-body correlation effects that are by definition beyond the Hartree–Fock level.
These contributions are formally included in the SBEs given above in the terms denoted by .
The systematic truncation of the many-body hierarchy and the development and the analysis of controlled approximations schemes is an important topic in the microscopic theory of the optical processes in condensed matter systems.
Depending on the particular system and the excitation conditions several approximations schemes have been developed and applied.
For highly excited systems, it is often sufficient to describe many-body Coulomb correlations using the second order Born approximation.
Such calculations were, in particular, able to successfully describe the spectra of semiconductor lasers, see article on semiconductor laser theory.
In the limit of weak light intensities, signature of exciton complexes, in particular, biexcitons, in the coherent nonlinear response have been analyzed using the dynamics controlled truncation scheme.
These two approaches and several other approximation schemes can be viewed as special cases of the so-called cluster expansion in which the nonlinear optical response is classified by correlation functions which explicitly take into account interactions between a certain maximum number of particles and factorize larger correlation functions into products of lower order ones. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
Salinity in drylands can occur when the water table is between two and three metres from the surface of the soil. The salts from the groundwater are raised by capillary action to the surface of the soil. This occurs when groundwater is saline (which is true in many areas), and is favored by land use practices allowing more rainwater to enter the aquifer than it could accommodate. For example, the clearing of trees for agriculture is a major reason for dryland salinity in some areas, since deep rooting of trees has been replaced by shallow rooting of annual crops. | 0 | Salts |
Diquat is an isomer of viologens, being derived from 2,2-bipyridine (instead of the 4,4-isomer). It also is a potent herbicide that functions by disrupting electron-transfer.
Extended viologens have been developed based on conjugated oligomers such as based on aryl, ethylene, and thiophene units are inserted between the pyridine units. The bipolaron di-octyl bis(4-pyridyl)biphenyl viologen 2 in scheme 2 can be reduced by sodium amalgam in DMF to the neutral viologen 3.
The resonance structures of the quinoid 3a and the biradical 3b contribute equally to the hybrid structure. The driving force for the contributing 3b is the restoration of aromaticity with the biphenyl unit. It has been established using X-ray crystallography that the molecule is, in effect, coplanar with slight nitrogen pyramidalization, and that the central carbon bonds are longer (144 pm) than what would be expected for a double bond (136 pm). Further research shows that the diradical exists as a mixture of triplets and singlets, although an ESR signal is absent. In this sense, the molecule resembles Tschischibabin's hydrocarbon, discovered during 1907. It also shares with this molecule a blue color in solution, and a metallic-green color as crystals.
Compound 3 is a very strong reducing agent, with a redox potential of −1.48 V. | 0 | Salts |
Salinity from irrigation can occur over time wherever irrigation occurs, since almost all water (even natural rainfall) contains some dissolved salts. When the plants use the water, the salts are left behind in the soil and eventually begin to accumulate. This water in excess of plant needs is called the leaching fraction. Salination from irrigation water is also greatly increased by poor drainage and use of saline water for irrigating agricultural crops.
Salinity in urban areas often results from the combination of irrigation and groundwater processes. Irrigation is also now common in cities (gardens and recreation areas). | 0 | Salts |
A variety of methods are available for hobbyists to make soap. Most soapmakers use processes where the glycerol remains in the product, and the saponification continues for many days after the soap is poured into molds. The glycerol is left during the hot process method, but at the high temperature employed, the reaction is practically completed in the kettle, before the soap is poured into molds. This simple and quick process is employed in small factories all over the world.
Handmade soap from the cold process also differs from industrially made soap in that an excess of fat or (Coconut Oil, Cazumbal Process) are used, beyond that needed to consume the alkali (in a cold-pour process, this excess fat is called "superfatting"), and the glycerol left in acts as a moisturizing agent. However, the glycerine also makes the soap softer. The addition of glycerol and processing of this soap produces glycerin soap. Superfatted soap is more skin-friendly than one without extra fat, although it can leave a "greasy" feel. Sometimes, an emollient is added, such as jojoba oil or shea butter. Sand or pumice may be added to produce a scouring soap. The scouring agents serve to remove dead cells from the skin surface being cleaned. This process is called exfoliation.
To make antibacterial soap, compounds such as triclosan or triclocarban can be added. There is some concern that use of antibacterial soaps and other products might encourage antimicrobial resistance in microorganisms. | 0 | Salts |
Copper(II) chloride has some highly specialized applications in the synthesis of organic compounds. It affects the chlorination of aromatic hydrocarbons—this is often performed in the presence of aluminium oxide. It is able to chlorinate the alpha position of carbonyl compounds:
This reaction is performed in a polar solvent such as dimethylformamide, often in the presence of lithium chloride, which accelerates the reaction.
, in the presence of oxygen, can also oxidize phenols. The major product can be directed to give either a quinone or a coupled product from oxidative dimerization. The latter process provides a high-yield route to 1,1-binaphthol:
Such compounds are intermediates in the synthesis of BINAP and its derivatives.
Copper(II) chloride dihydrate promotes the hydrolysis of acetonides, i.e., for deprotection to regenerate diols or aminoalcohols, as in this example (where TBDPS = tert-butyldiphenylsilyl):
also catalyses the free radical addition of sulfonyl chlorides to alkenes; the alpha-chlorosulfone may then undergo elimination with a base to give a vinyl sulfone product. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
* Antibiotic misuse
* Dishwashing soap
* Foam
* List of cleaning products
* Hand washing
* Palm oil
* Soap bubble
* Soap dish
* Soap dispenser
* Soap plant
* Soap substitute
* Soapwort
* Shampoo
* Shower gel
* Toothpaste
* Soap made from human corpses | 0 | Salts |
The discharge is generally dumped back into the sea, through an underwater outfall or coastal release, due to its lower energy and economic cost compared to other discharge methods. Due to its increase in salinity, the discharge has a greater density compared to the surrounding seawater. Therefore, when the discharge reaches the sea, it can form a saline plume that can tends to follow the bathymetric line of the bottom until it is completely diluted. The distribution of the salt plume may depend on different factors, such as the production capacity of the plant, the discharge method, the oceanographic and environmental conditions of the discharge point, among others. | 0 | Salts |
Brine is a common agent in food processing and cooking. Brining is used to preserve or season the food. Brining can be applied to vegetables, cheeses, fruit and some fish in a process known as pickling. Meat and fish are typically steeped in brine for shorter periods of time, as a form of marination, enhancing its tenderness and flavor, or to enhance shelf period. | 0 | Salts |
Salinity in rivers, lakes, and the ocean is conceptually simple, but technically challenging to define and measure precisely. Conceptually the salinity is the quantity of dissolved salt content of the water. Salts are compounds like sodium chloride, magnesium sulfate, potassium nitrate, and sodium bicarbonate which dissolve into ions. The concentration of dissolved chloride ions is sometimes referred to as chlorinity. Operationally, dissolved matter is defined as that which can pass through a very fine filter (historically a filter with a pore size of 0.45 μm, but nowadays usually 0.2 μm). Salinity can be expressed in the form of a mass fraction, i.e. the mass of the dissolved material in a unit mass of solution.
Seawater typically has a mass salinity of around 35 g/kg, although lower values are typical near coasts where rivers enter the ocean. Rivers and lakes can have a wide range of salinities, from less than 0.01 g/kg to a few g/kg, although there are many places where higher salinities are found. The Dead Sea has a salinity of more than 200 g/kg. Precipitation typically has a TDS of 20 mg/kg or less.
Whatever pore size is used in the definition, the resulting salinity value of a given sample of natural water will not vary by more than a few percent (%). Physical oceanographers working in the abyssal ocean, however, are often concerned with precision and intercomparability of measurements by different researchers, at different times, to almost five significant digits. A bottled seawater product known as IAPSO Standard Seawater is used by oceanographers to standardize their measurements with enough precision to meet this requirement. | 0 | Salts |
In chemistry, a halide (rarely halogenide) is a binary chemical compound, of which one part is a halogen atom and the other part is an element or radical that is less electronegative (or more electropositive) than the halogen, to make a fluoride, chloride, bromide, iodide, astatide, or theoretically tennesside compound. The alkali metals combine directly with halogens under appropriate conditions forming halides of the general formula, MX (X = F, Cl, Br or I). Many salts are halides; the hal- syllable in halide and halite reflects this correlation. All Group 1 metals form halides that are white solids at room temperature.
A halide ion is a halogen atom bearing a negative charge. The halide anions are fluoride (), chloride (), bromide (), iodide () and astatide (). Such ions are present in all ionic halide salts. Halide minerals contain halides.
All these halides are colourless, high melting crystalline solids having high negative enthalpies of formation. | 0 | Salts |
In chemistry, a thioxanthate is an organosulfur compound with the formula RSCSX. When X is an alkali metal, the thioxanthate is a salt. When X is a transition metal, the thioxanthate is a ligand, and when X is an organic group, the compounds are called thioxanthate esters. They are usually yellow colored compounds that often dissolve in organic solvents. They are used as precursors to some catalysts, froth flotation agents, and additives for lubricants. | 0 | Salts |
Selenosulfides have been prepared by the reaction of selenyl halides with thiols:
The equilibrium between diselenides and disulfides lies on the left:
:RSeSeR + RSSR 2 RSeSR'
Because of the facility of this equilibrium, many of the best characterized examples of selenosulfides are cyclic, whereby S-Se bonds are stabilized intramolecularly. One example is the 1,8-selenosulfide of naphthalene. The selenium-sulfur bond length is about 220 picometers, the average of a typical S-S and Se-Se bond. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
One class of inorganic molecular wires consist of subunits related to Chevrel clusters. The synthesis of MoSI was performed in sealed and vacuumed quartz ampoule at 1343 K. In MoSI, the repeat units are MoSI clusters, which are joined together by flexible sulfur or iodine bridges.
Chains can also be produced from metallo-organic precursors. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
Brine is an auxiliary agent in water softening and water purification systems involving ion exchange technology. The most common example are household dishwashers, utilizing sodium chloride in form of dishwasher salt. Brine is not involved in the purification process itself, but used for regeneration of ion-exchange resin on cyclical basis. The water being treated flows through the resin container until the resin is considered exhausted and water is purified to a desired level. Resin is then regenerated by sequentially backwashing the resin bed to remove accumulated solids, flushing removed ions from the resin with a concentrated solution of replacement ions, and rinsing the flushing solution from the resin. After treatment, ion-exchange resin beads saturated with calcium and magnesium ions from the treated water, are regenerated by soaking in brine containing 6–12% NaCl. The sodium ions from brine replace the calcium and magnesium ions on the beads. | 0 | Salts |
Methods have been developed for the synthesis of diverse types of molecular wires (e.g. organic molecular wires and inorganic molecular wires). The basic principle is to assemble repeating modules. Organic molecular wires are usually synthesized via transition metal-mediated cross-coupling reactions. | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
NaH reduces certain main group compounds, but analogous reactivity is very rare in organic chemistry (see below). Notably boron trifluoride reacts to give diborane and sodium fluoride:
:6 NaH + 2 BF → BH + 6 NaF
Si–Si and S–S bonds in disilanes and disulfides are also reduced.
A series of reduction reactions, including the hydrodecyanation of tertiary nitriles, reduction of imines to amines, and amides to aldehydes, can be effected by a composite reagent composed of sodium hydride and an alkali metal iodide (NaH⋅MI, M = Li, Na). | 1 | Semiconductor Materials |
By the 18th century, higher quality American potash was increasingly exported to Britain. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, potash production provided settlers in North America badly needed cash and credit as they cleared wooded land for crops. To make full use of their land, settlers needed to dispose of excess wood. The easiest way to accomplish this was to burn any wood not needed for fuel or construction. Ashes from hardwood trees could then be used to make lye, which could either be used to make soap or boiled down to produce valuable potash. Hardwood could generate ashes at the rate of 60 to 100 bushels per acre (500 to 900 m/km). In 1790, the sale of ashes could generate $3.25 to $6.25 per acre ($800 to $1,500/km) in rural New York State – nearly the same rate as hiring a laborer to clear the same area. Potash making became a major industry in British North America. Great Britain was always the most important market. The American potash industry followed the woodsman's ax across the country. | 0 | Salts |