text
stringlengths 106
11.2k
| label
int64 0
1
| label_text
stringclasses 2
values |
|---|---|---|
Drospirenone is marketed in combination with an estrogen under a variety of brand names throughout the world. Among others, it is marketed in combination with ethinylestradiol under the brand names Yasmin and Yaz, in combination with estetrol under the brand name Nextstellis, and in combination with estradiol under the brand name Angeliq. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
The body of living organisms are composed of many enantiopure chiral substances. For example, amino acids that make up the proteins in the body have the same configuration, L-absolute configuration. Because of this specificity, vital processes such as constructing proteins, rely on stereoselectivity to ensure that out of all the potential enantiomers available, the body is utilizing the correct enantiopure compound.
Selectivity is a very important part of organic synthesis. In scientific papers regarding synthesis, selectivity is often listed in data tables alongside percent yield and other reaction conditions. While selectivity is deemed important in scientific literature, it has been challenging to effectively implement selectivity in drug development and production. A major issue with selectivity in pharmaceuticals is that a large percentage of drug syntheses by nature are not selective reactions, racemic mixtures are formed as the products. Separating racemic mixtures into their respective enantiomers takes extra time, money, and energy. One way to separate enantiomers is to chemically convert them into species that can be separated: diastereomers. Diastereomers, unlike enantiomers, have entirely different physical properties—boiling points, melting points, NMR shifts, solubilities—and they can be separated by conventional means such as chromatography or recrystallization. This is a whole extra step in the synthesis process and not desirable from a manufacturing standpoint. As a result, a number of pharmaceuticals are synthesized and marketed as a racemic mixture of enantiomers in cases where the less-effective enantiomer is benign. However, by identifying and specifically purifying the enantiomer which effectively binds to its respective binding site in the body, less of the drug would be needed to achieve the desired effect. With the improvement of chiral technology, a rich repertoire of enantioselective chromatographic methods have become available for the separation of drug enantiomers on the analytical, preparative, and industrial scales. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
The re-evaluation of single enantiomers not without problems. The chiral switches of fluoxetine and fenfluramine are classical examples. The development of (R )-fluoxetine was terminated after patients developed abnormal heart rhythms. The chiral switch of fenfluramine, dexfenfluramine was withdrawn from world marker due to pulmonary hypertension. The table below enumerates couple of chiral switches aborted or withdrawn due stereochemically engineered toxicity. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Chiral inversion is a very important part of designing and making drugs. Because this process can change how chiral drugs work in the body and can cause side effects that can be serious or even fatal. Traditionally, chiral inversions have been studied with NMR spectroscopy at different temperatures and chiroptical methods like polarimetry. But strong, complementary methods based on dynamic chromatography (GC, HPLC, SFC, CEC, and MEKC) and electrophoresis have been made and used to figure out how the enantiomeric composition of stereo-labile chiral compounds changes over time. Most of the time, liquid chromatographic methods are used to do enantioselective analysis of chiral drugs. When an analyte with one stereogenic center or axis is separated well, the chromatogram will show two peaks. But if the analyte is stereo-labile, the peaks tend to merge. How much coalescence there is will depend on how fast chiral inversion and enantioresolution happen. Over time, the peaks will merge into a flat area. Dynamic chromatography shows how the elution profile changes over time. This makes it useful for figuring out how pH, temperature, and solvents affect chiral inversion, which can happen on the stationary phase, in the injector, or in the detector.
Multidimensional approaches have been used to improve separation and detection. Table below shows a list of common methods and experiments used to figure out chiral inversion. Any of these methods can then be used to determine chiral inversion. Which instrument is used to analyze a chiral compound depends on its physical and chemical properties (i.e., the solubility, vapor pressure, thermal and solvent stability, and detection).
For example, capillary electrophoresis or liquid chromatography could be used if the analyte can be ionized and has a high vapor pressure, but it is also soluble in polar solvents. On the other hand, gas chromatography is the best way to test a substance that is stable at high temperatures but has a low vapor pressure. When compared to gas or liquid chromatography, supercritical fluid chromatography is a better way to measure chiral inversion because it uses mass spectrometers and a green method. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
There have been reports of off-label uses of pseudoephedrine for its stimulant properties. Long-distance truck drivers and athletes, for example, have reportedly used pseudoephedrine as a stimulant to increase their state of alertness/awareness.
A study has also found that pseudoephedrine can reduce milk production in breastfeeding women. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
In combination with indapamide, perindopril has been shown to significantly reduce the progression of chronic kidney disease and renal complications in patients with type 2 diabetes. In addition, the Perindopril pROtection aGainst REcurrent Stroke Study (PROGRESS) found that whilst perindopril monotherapy demonstrated no significant benefit in reducing recurrent strokes when compared to placebo, the addition of low dose indapamide to perindopril therapy was associated with larger reductions in both blood pressure lowering and recurrent stroke risk in patients with pre-existing cerebrovascular disease, irrespective of their blood pressure. There is evidence to support the use of perindopril and indapamide combination over perindopril monotherapy to prevent strokes and improve mortality in patients with a history of stroke, transient ischaemic attack or other cardiovascular disease. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Flucloxacillin was developed in the 1960s following an increase in penicillin-resistant (beta-lactamase producing) staphylococcal infections due to the widespread use of benzylpenicillin by 1960. All the natural penicillins and first semi-synthetic penicillins were destroyed by staphylococcal beta-lactamase, leading Beecham (later GlaxoSmithKline) to search for more stable antibiotics. By 1962, a series of similarly structured acid-stable penicillins (oxacillin, cloxacillin, dicloxacillin and flucloxacillin), with the potential for being taken by mouth, were developed. Flucloxacillin and dicloxacillin showed particular stability against the beta-lactamase enzyme of Staph. aureus and could withstand acid. Beecham further developed cloxacillin and popularised flucloxacillin in the UK, while Bristol Laboratories concentrated on marketing oxacillin and dicloxacillin in the United States, leading to the difference in use in both countries. Flucloxacillin was first marketed in Europe in the 1970s. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Between 1902 and 1908, carbon tetrachloride-based fire extinguishers began to appear in the United States, years after Europe.
In 1910, the Pyrene Manufacturing Company of Delaware filed a patent to use carbon tetrachloride to extinguish fires. The liquid was vaporized by the heat of combustion and extinguished flames, an early form of gaseous fire suppression. At the time it was believed the gas displaced oxygen in the area near the fire, but later research found that the gas inhibited the chemical chain reaction of the combustion process.
In 1911, Pyrene patented a small, portable extinguisher that used the chemical. The extinguisher consisted of a brass bottle with an integrated hand-pump that was used to expel a jet of liquid toward the fire. As the container was unpressurized, it could easily be refilled after use. Carbon tetrachloride was suitable for liquid and electrical fires and the extinguishers were often carried on aircraft or motor vehicles. However, as early as 1920, there were reports of fatalities caused by the chemical when used to fight a fire in a confined space.
In the first half of the 20th century, another common fire extinguisher was a single-use, sealed glass globe, a "fire grenade, " filled with carbon tetrachloride or salt water. The bulb could be thrown at the base of the flames to quench the fire. The carbon tetrachloride type could also be installed in a spring-loaded wall fixture with a solder-based restraint. When the solder melted by high heat, the spring would either break the globe or launch it out of the bracket, allowing the extinguishing agent to be automatically dispersed into the fire.
A well-known brand of fire grenade was the "Red Comet", which was variously manufactured with other fire-fighting equipment in the Denver, Colorado area by the Red Comet Manufacturing Company from its founding in 1919 until manufacturing operations were closed in the early 1980s.
Since carbon tetrachloride freezes at –23 °C, the fire extinguishers would contain only 89-90% carbon tetrachloride and 10% trichloroethylene (m.p. –85 °C) or chloroform (m.p. –63 °C) for lowering the extinguishing mixture's freezing point down to temperatures as low as –45 °C. The extinguishers with 10% trichloroethylene would contain 1% carbon disulfide as a stabiliser. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Due to the high energy of C−F bonds, hexafluoroethane is nearly inert and thus acts as an extremely stable greenhouse gas, with an atmospheric lifetime of 10,000 years (other sources: 500 years). It has a global warming potential (GWP) of 9200 and an ozone depletion potential (ODP) of 0. Hexafluoroethane is included in the IPCC list of greenhouse gases.
Hexafluoroethane did not exist in significant amounts in the environment prior to industrial-scale manufacturing. Atmospheric concentration of hexafluoroethane reached 3 pptv at the start of the 21st century. Its absorption bands in the infrared part of the spectrum cause a radiative forcing of about 0.001 W/m. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
The phase-down mandated by the AIM Act will lead to R-410A's replacement by other refrigerants beginning in 2022. Alternative refrigerants are available, including hydrofluoroolefins, hydrocarbons (such as propane R-290 and isobutane R-600A), and even carbon dioxide (R-744, GWP = 1). The alternative refrigerants have much lower GWP than R-410A. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
It is semisynthetic and in the same class as penicillin. Cloxacillin is used against staphylococci that produce beta-lactamase, due to its large R chain, which does not allow the beta-lactamases to bind. This drug has a weaker antibacterial activity than benzylpenicillin, and is devoid of serious toxicity except for allergic reactions. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Levacetylmethadol (INN), levomethadyl acetate (USAN), OrLAAM (trade name) or levo-α-acetylmethadol (LAAM) is a synthetic opioid similar in structure to methadone. It has a long duration of action due to its active metabolites. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
While the production and consumption of CFCs are regulated under the Montreal Protocol, emissions from existing banks of CFCs are not regulated under the agreement. In 2002, there were an estimated 5,791 kilotons of CFCs in existing products such as refrigerators, air conditioners, aerosol cans and others. Approximately one-third of these CFCs are projected to be emitted over the next decade if action is not taken, posing a threat to both the ozone layer and the climate. A proportion of these CFCs can be safely captured and destroyed by means of high temperature, controlled incineration which destroys the CFC molecule. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
* Bacteroides spp., including B. fragilis
* Enterobacter spp.
* Escherichia coli
* Haemophilus influenzae
* Klebsiella species
* Morganella morganii
* Neisseria gonorrhoeae
* Proteus mirabilis
* Proteus vulgaris
* Providencia rettgeri
* Pseudomonas spp., including P. aeruginosa
* Serratia marcescens | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Dexchlorpheniramine (trade name Polaramine) is an antihistamine with anticholinergic properties used to treat allergic conditions such as hay fever or urticaria. It is the pharmacologically active dextrorotatory isomer of chlorpheniramine.
It came into medical use in 1959 and was patented in 1962. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Aside from its immense environmental impacts, R114, like most chlorofluoroalkanes, forms phosgene gas when exposed to a naked flame. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
The accepted IUPAC name of water is oxidane or simply water, or its equivalent in different languages, although there are other systematic names which can be used to describe the molecule. Oxidane is only intended to be used as the name of the mononuclear parent hydride used for naming derivatives of water by substituent nomenclature. These derivatives commonly have other recommended names. For example, the name hydroxyl is recommended over oxidanyl for the –OH group. The name oxane is explicitly mentioned by the IUPAC as being unsuitable for this purpose, since it is already the name of a cyclic ether also known as tetrahydropyran.
The simplest systematic name of water is hydrogen oxide. This is analogous to related compounds such as hydrogen peroxide, hydrogen sulfide, and deuterium oxide (heavy water). Using chemical nomenclature for type I ionic binary compounds, water would take the name hydrogen monoxide, but this is not among the names published by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). Another name is dihydrogen monoxide, which is a rarely used name of water, and mostly used in the dihydrogen monoxide parody.
Other systematic names for water include hydroxic acid, hydroxylic acid, and hydrogen hydroxide, using acid and base names. None of these exotic names are used widely. The polarized form of the water molecule, , is also called hydron hydroxide by IUPAC nomenclature.
Water substance is a term used for hydrogen oxide (HO) when one does not wish to specify whether one is speaking of liquid water, steam, some form of ice, or a component in a mixture or mineral. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
In the United States, immediate release (IR) formulations of dextroamphetamine sulfate are available generically as 5 mg and 10 mg tablets, marketed by Barr (Teva Pharmaceutical Industries), Mallinckrodt Pharmaceuticals, Wilshire Pharmaceuticals, Aurobindo Pharmaceutical USA and CorePharma. Previous IR tablets sold under the brand names Dexedrine and Dextrostat have been discontinued but in 2015, IR tablets became available by the brand name Zenzedi, offered as 2.5 mg, 5 mg, 7.5 mg, 10 mg, 15 mg, 20 mg and 30 mg tablets. Dextroamphetamine sulfate is also available as a controlled-release (CR) capsule preparation in strengths of 5 mg, 10 mg, and 15 mg under the brand name Dexedrine Spansule, with generic versions marketed by Barr and Mallinckrodt. A bubblegum flavored oral solution is available under the brand name ProCentra, manufactured by FSC Pediatrics, which is designed to be an easier method of administration in children who have difficulty swallowing tablets, each 5 mL contains 5 mg dextroamphetamine. The conversion rate between dextroamphetamine sulfate to amphetamine free base is .728.
In Australia, dexamfetamine is available in bottles of 100 instant release 5 mg tablets as a generic drug or slow release dextroamphetamine preparations may be compounded by individual chemists. In the United Kingdom, it is available in 5 mg instant release sulfate tablets under the generic name dexamfetamine sulfate as well as 10 mg and 20 mg strength tablets under the brand name Amfexa. It is also available in generic dexamfetamine sulfate 5 mg/ml oral sugar-free syrup. The brand name Dexedrine was available in the United Kingdom prior to UCB Pharma disinvesting the product to another pharmaceutical company (Auden Mckenzie). | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Currently, the Australian agricultural industry follows various models of Environmental Management Systems (EMS) which provides an environmental management service tool that assists the continued improvement of Australia's natural habitat. However, there is a significant financial cost involved in EMS strategies that can provide obstacles that make it difficult to maintain these initiatives. This is currently being achieved by way of a four tier approach which aims to cultivate the environment and ensure its longevity. The four tiered approach concerns an initial environmental self-assessment, secondly an environmental check-list, and then complementing the second step by following an industry standard of EMS and lastly by implementing a certified EMS that is to the ISO 14001. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
is used in the semiconductor industry in plasma etching of silicon oxide and silicon nitride. Known as R-23 or HFC-23, it was also a useful refrigerant, sometimes as a replacement for chlorotrifluoromethane (CFC-13) and is a byproduct of its manufacture.
When used as a fire suppressant, the fluoroform carries the DuPont trade name, FE-13. is recommended for this application because of its low toxicity, its low reactivity, and its high density. HFC-23 has been used in the past as a replacement for Halon 1301(CFC-13B1) in fire suppression systems as a total flooding gaseous fire suppression agent. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Quinapril inhibits angiotensin converting enzyme, an enzyme which catalyses the formation of angiotensin II from its precursor, angiotensin I. Angiotensin II is a powerful vasoconstrictor and increases blood pressure through a variety of mechanisms. Due to reduced angiotensin production, plasma concentrations of aldosterone are also reduced, resulting in increased excretion of sodium in the urine and increased concentrations of potassium in the blood. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
ACE-inhibitors like lisinopril are considered to be generally safe for people undergoing routine dental care, though the use of lisinopril prior to dental surgery is more controversial, with some dentists recommending discontinuation the morning of the procedure. People may present to dental care suspicious of an infected tooth, but the swelling around the mouth may be due to lisinopril-induced angioedema, prompting emergency and medical referral. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Combination therapy with paricalcitol and trandolapril has been found to reduce fibrosis in obstructive uropathy. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Present day global emissions of volcanic gases to the atmosphere can be classified as eruptive or non-eruptive. Although all volcanic gas species are emitted to the atmosphere, the emissions of CO (a greenhouse gas) and SO have received the most study.
It has long been recognized that eruptions contribute much lower total SO emissions than passive degassing does. Fischer et al (2019) estimated that, from 2005 to 2015, SO emissions during eruptions were 2.6 teragrams (Tg or 10g or 0.907 gigatons Gt) per year and during non-eruptive periods of passive degassing were 23.2 ± 2Tg per year. During the same time interval, CO emissions from volcanoes during eruptions were estimated to be 1.8 ± 0.9 Tg per year and during non-eruptive activity were 51.3 ± 5.7 Tg per year. Therefore, CO emissions during volcanic eruptions are less than 10% of CO emissions released during non-eruptive volcanic activity.
The 15 June 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo (VEI 6) in the Philippines released a total of 18 ± 4 Tg of SO. Such large VEI 6 eruptions are rare and only occur once every 50 – 100 years. The 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull (VEI 4) in Iceland emitted a total of 5.1 Tg CO. VEI 4 eruptions occur about once per year.
For comparison, Le Quéré, C. et al estimates that human burning of fossil fuels and production of cement processed 9.3 Gt carbon per year from 2006 through 2015, creating up to 34.1 Gt CO2 annually.
Some recent volcanic CO emission estimates are higher than Fischer et al (2019). The estimates of Burton et al. (2013) of 540 Tg CO/year and of Werner et al. (2019) of 220 - 300 Tg CO/year take into account diffuse CO emissions from volcanic regions. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
The most common side effects of enalapril include increased serum creatinine (20%), dizziness (2–8%), low blood pressure (1–7%), syncope (2%), and dry cough (1–2%). The most serious common adverse event is angioedema (swelling) (0.68%) which often affects the face and lips, endangering the patient's airway. Angioedema can occur at any point during treatment with enalapril, but is most common after the first few doses. Angioedema and fatality therefrom are reportedly higher among black people. Agranulocytosis has been observed with Enalapril.
Some evidence suggests enalapril will cause injury and death to a developing fetus. In pregnancy, enalapril may result in damage to the fetus's kidneys and resulting oligohydramnios (not enough amniotic fluid). Enalapril is secreted in breast milk and is not recommended for use while breastfeeding. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
1,1-Difluoroethane is a synthetic substance that is produced by the mercury-catalyzed addition of hydrogen fluoride to acetylene:
:HCCH + 2 HF → CHCHF
The intermediate in this process is vinyl fluoride (CHF), the monomeric precursor to polyvinyl fluoride. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
*Assess kidney function before and during treatment where appropriate.
*Renovascular hypertension
*Surgery/anesthesia
*An analysis on the PROGRESS trial showed that perindopril has key benefits in reducing cardiovascular events by 30% in patients with chronic kidney disease defined as a CrCl <60ml/min. A 2016 and 2017 meta-analysis review looking at ACE inhibitors demonstrated a reduction in cardiovascular events but also slowed the decline of renal failure by 39% when compared to placebo. These studies included patients with moderate to severe kidney disease and those on dialysis.
*Its renoprotective benefits of decreasing blood pressure and removing filtration pressure is highlighted in a 2016 review. ACE inhibitor can result in an initial increase of serum creatinine, but mostly returns to baseline in a few weeks in majority of patients. It has been suggested that increased monitoring, especially in advanced kidney failure, will minimise any related risk and improve long-term benefits.
*Use cautiously in patients with sodium or volume depletion due to potential excessive hypotensive effects of renin-angiotensin blockade causing symptomatic hypotension. Careful monitoring or short-term dose reduction of diuretics prior to commencing perindopril is recommended to prevent this potential effect. A diuretic may later be given in combination if necessary; potassium-sparing diuretics are not recommended in combination with perindopril due to the risk of hyperkalaemia.
*Combination with neuroleptics or imipramine-type drugs may increase the blood pressure lowering effect. Serum lithium concentrations may rise during lithium therapy. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Pure water containing no exogenous ions is an excellent electronic insulator, but not even "deionized" water is completely free of ions. Water undergoes autoionization in the liquid state when two water molecules form one hydroxide anion () and one hydronium cation (). Because of autoionization, at ambient temperatures pure liquid water has a similar intrinsic charge carrier concentration to the semiconductor germanium and an intrinsic charge carrier concentration three orders of magnitude greater than the semiconductor silicon, hence, based on charge carrier concentration, water can not be considered to be a completely dielectric material or electrical insulator but to be a limited conductor of ionic charge.
Because water is such a good solvent, it almost always has some solute dissolved in it, often a salt. If water has even a tiny amount of such an impurity, then the ions can carry charges back and forth, allowing the water to conduct electricity far more readily.
It is known that the theoretical maximum electrical resistivity for water is approximately 18.2 MΩ·cm (182 kΩ·m) at 25 °C. This figure agrees well with what is typically seen on reverse osmosis, ultra-filtered and deionized ultra-pure water systems used, for instance, in semiconductor manufacturing plants. A salt or acid contaminant level exceeding even 100 parts per trillion (ppt) in otherwise ultra-pure water begins to noticeably lower its resistivity by up to several kΩ·m.
In pure water, sensitive equipment can detect a very slight electrical conductivity of 0.05501 ± 0.0001 μS/cm at 25.00 °C. Water can also be electrolyzed into oxygen and hydrogen gases but in the absence of dissolved ions this is a very slow process, as very little current is conducted. In ice, the primary charge carriers are protons (see proton conductor). Ice was previously thought to have a small but measurable conductivity of 1 S/cm, but this conductivity is now thought to be almost entirely from surface defects, and without those, ice is an insulator with an immeasurably small conductivity. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Ramipril is marketed as Prilace by Arrow Pharmaceuticals in Australia, Ramipro by Westfield Pharma in the Philippines, Triatec by Sanofi-Aventis in Italy and United States and Altace by King Pharmaceuticals in the United States, Novapril by Pharmanova in Ghana, Ramitens by PharmaSwiss, Ampril by Krka in Slovenia, Corpril by Cemelog-BRS in Hungary, Piramil and Prilinda by Hemofarm in Serbia, by Lek in Poland and by Novartis and Opsonin Pharma Limited as Ramace in Bangladesh, and in Canada as Altace (Sanofi-Aventis) and Ramipril (Pharmascience).
Ramipril is marketed in India under the brand names Cardace, Zigpril, Ramistar, Odipril and Zorem . Ramipril is marketed in Myanmar under brand name Endpril . | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
On 9 July 2014, the European Commission imposed fines of €427,700,000 on Laboratoires Servier and 5 companies which produce generics due to Serviers abuse of their dominant market position, in breach of European Union Competition law. Serviers strategy had included acquiring the principal source of generic production of Perindopril and entering into several pay-for-delay agreements with potential generic competitors. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
1-Chloro-1,1-difluoroethane is a highly flammable, colorless gas under most atmospheric conditions. It has a boiling point of -10 °C. Its critical temperature is near 137 °C. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
At high temperatures, halons decompose to release halogen atoms that combine readily with active hydrogen atoms, quenching flame propagation reactions even when adequate fuel, oxygen, and heat remain. The chemical reaction in a flame proceeds as a free radical chain reaction; by sequestering the radicals which propagate the reaction, halons are able to halt the fire at much lower concentrations than are required by fire suppressants using the more traditional methods of cooling, oxygen deprivation, or fuel dilution. , due to ozone depletion problems, halon fire extinguishers are largely banned in some countries and alternatives are being deployed by the US military.
Halon 1301 total flooding systems are typically used at concentrations no higher than 7% by volume in air, and can suppress many fires at 2.9% v/v. By contrast, carbon dioxide fire suppression flood systems operate from 34% concentration by volume (surface-only combustion of liquid fuels) up to 75% (dust traps). Carbon dioxide can cause severe distress at concentrations of 3–6%, and has caused death by respiratory paralysis in a few minutes at 10% concentration. Halon 1301 causes only slight giddiness at its effective concentration of 5%, and even at 15% those exposed remain conscious but impaired and suffer no long-term effects. (Experimental animals have also been exposed to 2% concentrations of Halon 1301 for 30 hours per week for 4 months, with no discernible health effects.) Halon 1211 also has low toxicity, although it is more toxic than Halon 1301, and thus considered unsuitable for flooding systems.
However, Halon 1301 fire suppression is not completely non-toxic; very high temperature flame, or contact with red-hot metal, can cause decomposition of Halon 1301 to toxic byproducts. The presence of such byproducts is readily detected because they include hydrobromic acid and hydrofluoric acid, which are intensely irritating. Halons are very effective on Class A (organic solids), B (flammable liquids and gases), and C (electrical) fires, but they are unsuitable for Class D (metal) fires, as they will not only produce toxic gas and fail to halt the fire, but in some cases pose a risk of explosion. Halons can be used on Class K (kitchen oils and greases) fires, but offer no advantages over specialised foams.
Halon 1301 is common in total flooding systems. In these systems, banks of halon cylinders are kept pressurised to about 4 MPa (600 psi) with compressed nitrogen, and a fixed piping network leads to the protected enclosure. On triggering, the entire measured contents of one or more cylinders are discharged into the enclosure in a few seconds, through nozzles designed to ensure uniform mixing throughout the room. The quantity dumped is pre-calculated to achieve the desired concentration, typically 3–7% v/v. This level is maintained for some time, typically with a minimum of ten minutes and sometimes up to a twenty-minute "soak" time, to ensure all items have cooled so reignition is unlikely to occur, then the air in the enclosure is purged, generally via a fixed purge system that is activated by the proper authorities. During this time the enclosure may be entered by persons wearing SCBA. (There exists a common myth that this is because halon is highly toxic; in fact, it is because it can cause giddiness and mildly impaired perception, and due to the risk of combustion byproducts.)
Flooding systems may be manually operated or automatically triggered by a VESDA or other automatic detection system. In the latter case, a warning siren and strobe lamp will first be activated for a few seconds to warn personnel to evacuate the area. The rapid discharge of halon and consequent rapid cooling fills the air with fog, and is accompanied by a loud, disorienting noise.
Halon 1301 is also used in the F-16 fighter to prevent the fuel vapors in the fuel tanks from becoming explosive; when the aircraft enters an area with the possibility of attack, Halon 1301 is injected into the fuel tanks for one-time use. Due to ozone depletion, trifluoroiodomethane () is being considered as an alternative.
Halon 1211 is typically used in hand-held extinguishers, in which a stream of liquid halon is directed at a smaller fire by a user. The stream evaporates under reduced pressure, producing strong local cooling, as well as a high concentration of halon in the immediate vicinity of the fire. In this mode, fire is extinguished by cooling and oxygen deprivation at the core of the fire, as well as radical quenching over a larger area. After fire suppression, the halon diffuses, leaving no residue. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Azlocillin is an acyl ampicillin antibiotic with an extended spectrum of activity and greater in vitro potency than the carboxy penicillins.
Azlocillin is similar to mezlocillin and piperacillin. It demonstrates antibacterial activity against a broad spectrum of bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa and, in contrast to most cephalosporins, exhibits activity against enterococci. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
The primary use of dextromethorphan is as a cough suppressant, for the temporary relief of cough caused by minor throat and bronchial irritation (such as commonly accompanies the flu and common cold), or from inhaled particle irritants, as well as chronic cough at a higher dosage. Dextromethorphan is available alone in the form of cough syrup and pills as well as in combination with other agents. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Tetrafluoromethane is sometimes used as a low temperature refrigerant (R-14). It is used in electronics microfabrication alone or in combination with oxygen as a plasma etchant for silicon, silicon dioxide, and silicon nitride. It also has uses in neutron detectors. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane (also known as norflurane (INN), R-134a, Klea 134a, Freon 134a, Forane 134a, Genetron 134a, Green Gas, Florasol 134a, Suva 134a, HFA-134a, or HFC-134a) is a hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) and haloalkane refrigerant with thermodynamic properties similar to R-12 (dichlorodifluoromethane) but with insignificant ozone depletion potential and a lower 100-year global warming potential (1,430, compared to R-12's GWP of 10,900). It has the formula CFCHF and a boiling point of −26.3 °C (−15.34 °F) at atmospheric pressure. R-134a cylinders are colored light blue. A phaseout and transition to HFO-1234yf and other refrigerants, with GWPs similar to CO, began in 2012 within the automotive market. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Adverse effects are similar to those for other β-lactam antibiotics, including nausea, vomiting, rashes, and antibiotic-associated colitis. Loose bowel movements (diarrhea) may also occur. Rarer adverse effects include mental changes, lightheadedness, insomnia, confusion, anxiety, sensitivity to lights and sounds, and unclear thinking. Immediate medical care is required upon the first signs of these adverse effects.
The onset of an allergic reaction to amoxicillin can be very sudden and intense; emergency medical attention must be sought as quickly as possible. The initial phase of such a reaction often starts with a change in mental state, skin rash with intense itching (often beginning in fingertips and around groin area and rapidly spreading), and sensations of fever, nausea, and vomiting. Any other symptoms that seem even remotely suspicious must be taken very seriously. However, more mild allergy symptoms, such as a rash, can occur at any time during treatment, even up to a week after treatment has ceased. For some people allergic to amoxicillin, the adverse effects can be fatal due to anaphylaxis.
Use of the amoxicillin/clavulanic acid combination for more than one week has caused a drug-induced immunoallergic-type hepatitis in some patients. Young children having ingested acute overdoses of amoxicillin manifested lethargy, vomiting, and renal dysfunction.
There is poor reporting of adverse effects of amoxicillin from clinical trials. For this reason, the severity and frequency of adverse effects from amoxicillin is probably higher than reported from clinical trials. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
The FDA approved levomilnacipran for treating major depressive disorder. This approval was based on the results of five clinical trials. The trials included one 10-week phase II and four 8-week phase III. Four of the five trials demonstrated a statistically significant superiority to placebo as measured by the Montgomery–Åsberg Depression Rating Scale. Superiority to placebo was also demonstrated by improvement in the Sheehan Disability Scale. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
The NAPCO partnership was formed in 1877 by Queenslanders William Collins, William Forrest and Sir Thomas McIlwraith, with Englishmen John Warner and Sir William Ingram. The first station acquired was Alexandria Downs in the Northern Territory.
Francis Foster invested in NAPCO in 1937 taking an 18% interest which grew through his lifetime to 43%, bringing with it exceptional pastoral skills and a long-term vision.
Monkira and Coorabulka were acquired in 1939 as part of their plan to breed cattle at Alexandria and then fatten and sell from the Channel Country.
u
In 1968 the company acquired Glenormiston along with the adjoining property, Marion Downs, at about the same time.
In May 2016, Queensland Investment Corporation acquired a 79% interest in NAPCO with the Foster family owning the remaining 21%.
In 2016 NAPCO was inducted into the Queensland Business Leaders Hall of Fame.
In January 2020 NAPCO announced it was purchasing Mantuan Downs, a large-scale cattle breeding and finishing property in Central Queensland. The property consists of two pastoral leases, known as Mantuan Downs and Castlevale as well as the freehold Semper Idem. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
1,1,1-Trichloroethane was first reported by Henri Victor Regnault in 1840. Industrially, it is usually produced in a two-step process from vinyl chloride. In the first step, vinyl chloride reacts with hydrogen chloride at 20-50 °C to produce 1,1-dichloroethane:
:CH=CHCl + HCl → CHCHCl
This reaction is catalyzed by a variety of Lewis acids, mainly aluminium chloride, iron(III) chloride, or zinc chloride. The 1,1-dichloroethane is then converted to 1,1,1-trichloroethane by reaction with chlorine under ultraviolet irradiation:
:CHCHCl + Cl → CHCCl + HCl
This reaction proceeds at 80-90% yield, and the hydrogen chloride byproduct can be recycled to the first step in the process. The major side-product is the related compound 1,1,2-trichloroethane, from which the 1,1,1-trichloroethane can be separated by distillation.
A somewhat smaller amount of 1,1,1-trichloroethane is produced from the reaction of 1,1-dichloroethene and hydrogen chloride in the presence of an iron(III) chloride catalyst:
:CH=CCl + HCl → CHCCl
1,1,1-Trichloroethane is sold with stabilizers because it is unstable with respect to dehydrochlorination and attacks some metals. Stabilizers comprise up to 8% of the formulation, including acid scavengers (epoxides, amines) and complexants. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Water vapor has lower density than that of air and is therefore buoyant in air but has lower vapor pressure than that of air. When water vapor is used as a lifting gas by a thermal airship the water vapor is heated to form steam so that its vapor pressure is greater than the surrounding air pressure in order to maintain the shape of a theoretical "steam balloon", which yields approximately 60% the lift of helium and twice that of hot air. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
It is also used to prevent bacterial endocarditis and as a pain-reliever in high-risk people having dental work done, to prevent Streptococcus pneumoniae and other encapsulated bacterial infections in those without spleens, such as people with sickle-cell disease, and for both the prevention and the treatment of anthrax. The United Kingdom recommends against its use for infectious endocarditis prophylaxis. These recommendations do not appear to have changed the rates of infection for infectious endocarditis. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Chlorotrifluoromethane, R-13, CFC-13, or Freon 13, is a non-flammable, non-corrosive, nontoxic chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) and also a mixed halomethane. It is a man-made substance used primarily as a refrigerant. When released into the environment, CFC-13 has a high ozone depletion potential, and long atmospheric lifetime. Only a few other greenhouse gases surpass CFC-13 in global warming potential (GWP). The IPCC AR5 reported that CFC-13's atmospheric lifetime was 640 years. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Water vapor and dry air density calculations at 0 °C:
* The molar mass of water is , as calculated from the sum of the atomic masses of its constituent atoms.
* The average molar mass of air (approx. 78% nitrogen, N; 21% oxygen, O; 1% other gases) is at standard temperature and pressure (STP).
* Obeying Avogadro's Law and the ideal gas law, moist air will have a lower density than dry air. At max. saturation (i. e. rel. humidity = 100% at 0 °C) the density will go down to 28.51 g/mol.
* STP conditions imply a temperature of 0 °C, at which the ability of water to become vapor is very restricted. Its concentration in air is very low at 0 °C. The red line on the chart to the right is the maximum concentration of water vapor expected for a given temperature. The water vapor concentration increases significantly as the temperature rises, approaching 100% (steam, pure water vapor) at 100 °C. However the difference in densities between air and water vapor would still exist (0.598 vs. 1.27 g/L). | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Water can be split into its constituent elements, hydrogen, and oxygen, by passing an electric current through it. This process is called electrolysis. The cathode half reaction is:
The anode half reaction is:
The gases produced bubble to the surface, where they can be collected or ignited with a flame above the water if this was the intention. The required potential for the electrolysis of pure water is 1.23 V at 25 °C. The operating potential is actually 1.48 V or higher in practical electrolysis. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
The ORNL conducted FACE experiments where levels were increased above ambient levels in forest stands. These experiments showed:
* Increased root production stimulated by increased , resulting in more soil carbon.
* An initial increase of net primary productivity, which was not sustained.
* Faster decline in nitrogen availability in increased forest plots.
* Change in plant community structure, with minimal change in microbial community structure.
* Enhanced cannot significantly increase the leaf carrying capacity or leaf area index of an area.
FACE experiments have been criticized as not being representative of the entire globe. These experiments were not meant to be extrapolated globally. Similar experiments are being conducted in other regions such as in the Amazon rainforest in Brazil. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Earth constantly absorbs energy from sunlight and emits thermal radiation as infrared light.
In the long run, Earth radiates the same amount of energy per second as it absorbs, because the amount of thermal radiation emitted depends upon temperature: If Earth absorbs more energy per second than it radiates, Earth heats up and the thermal radiation will increase, until balance is restored; if Earth absorbs less energy than it radiates, it cools down and the thermal radiation will decrease, again until balance is restored.
Atmospheric CO absorbs some of the energy radiated by the ground, but it emits itself thermal radiation: For example, in some wavelengths the atmosphere is totally opaque due to absorption by CO; at these wavelengths, looking at Earth from outer space one would not see the ground, but the atmospheric CO, and hence its thermal radiation—rather than the grounds thermal radiation. Had the atmosphere been at the same temperature as the ground, this would not change Earths energy budget; but since the radiation is emitted from atmosphere layers that are cooler than the ground, less radiation is emitted.
As CO content of the atmosphere increases due to human activity, this process intensifies, and the total radiation emitted by Earth diminishes; therefore, Earth heats up until the balance is restored. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Common adverse effects are similar to other antihypertensive drugs and include headache, vertigo, and drowsiness. A dry cough is common as with all ACE inhibitors. Other possible adverse effects are described at ACE inhibitor#Adverse effects. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
SBTi developed separate sector-specific methodologies, frameworks and requirements for different industries. As of December 2021, guidance is available for:
* Aviation
* Apparel and footwear
* Financial institutions
* Information and Communication Technology | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Chloromethane is an abundant organohalogen, anthropogenic or natural, in the atmosphere. Natural sources produce an estimated 4,100,000,000 kg/yr. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Chronic administration of zuclopenthixol (30 mg/kg/day for two years) in rats resulted in small, but significant, increases in the incidence of thyroid parafollicular carcinomas and, in females, of mammary adenocarcinomas and of pancreatic islet cell adenomas and carcinomas. An increase in the incidence of mammary adenocarcinomas is a common finding for D antagonists which increase prolactin secretion when administered to rats. An increase in the incidence of pancreatic islet cell tumours has been observed for some other D antagonists. The physiological differences between rats and humans with regard to prolactin make the clinical significance of these findings unclear.
Withdrawal syndrome: Abrupt cessation of therapy may cause acute withdrawal symptoms (eg, nausea, vomiting, or insomnia). Symptoms usually begin in 1 to 4 days of withdrawal and subside within 1 to 2 weeks.
Other permanent side effects are similar to many other typical antipsychotics, namely extrapyramidal symptoms as a result of dopamine blockade in subcortical areas of the brain. This may result in symptoms similar to those seen in Parkinson's disease and include a restlessness and inability to sit still known as akathisia, a slow tremor and stiffness of the limbs. Zuclopenthixol is thought to be more sedating than the related flupentixol, though possibly less likely to induce extrapyramidal symptoms than other typical depots. As with other dopamine antagonists, zuclopenthixol may sometimes elevate prolactin levels; this may occasionally result in amenorrhoea or galactorrhoea in severe cases. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome is a rare but potentially fatal side effect. Any unexpected deterioration in mental state with confusion and muscle stiffness should be seen by a physician.
Zuclopenthixol decanoate induces a transient dose-dependent sedation. However, if the patient is switched to maintenance treatment with zuclopenthixol decanoate from oral zuclopenthixol or from i.m. zuclopenthixol acetate the sedation will be no problem. Tolerance to the unspecific sedative effect develops rapidly.
;Very common Adverse Effects (≥10% incidence)
* Dry Mouth
* Somnolence
* Akathisia
* Hyperkinesia
* Hypokinesia
;Common (1–10%)
* Tachycardia
* Heart palpitations
* Vertigo
* Accommodation disorder
* Abnormal vision
* Salivary hypersecretion
* Constipation
* Vomiting
* Dyspepsia
* Diarrhoea
* Asthenia
* Fatigue
* Malaise
* Pain (at the injection site)
* Increased appetite
* Weight gain
* Myalgia
* Tremor
* Dystonia
* Hypertonia
* Dizziness
* Headache
* Paraesthesia
* Disturbance in attention
* Amnesia
* Abnormal gait
* Insomnia
* Depression
* Anxiety
* Abnormal dreams
* Agitation
* Decreased libido
* Nasal congestion
* Dyspnoea
* Hyperhidrosis
* Pruritus
;Uncommon (0.1–1%)
* Hyperacusis
* Tinnitus
* Mydriasis
* Abdominal pain
* Nausea
* Flatulence
* Thirst
* Injection site reaction
* Hypothermia
* Pyrexia
* Abnormal liver function tests
* Decreased appetite
* Weight loss
* Muscle rigidity
* Trismus
* Torticollis
* Tardive dyskinesia
* Hyperreflexia
* Dyskinesia
* Parkinsonism
* Syncope
* Ataxia
* Speech disorder
* Hypotonia
* Convulsion
* Migraine
* Apathy
* Nightmares
* Libido increased
* Confused state
* Ejaculation failure
* Erectile dysfunction
* Female orgasmic disorder
* Vulvovaginal
* Dryness
* Rash
* Photosensitivity
* Pigmentation disorder
* Seborrhoea
* Dermatitis
* Purpura
* Hypotension
* Hot flush
;Rare (0.01–0.1%)
* Thrombocytopenia
* Neutropenia
* Leukopenia
* Agranulocytosis
* QT prolongation
* Hyperprolactinaemia
* Hypersensitivity
* Anaphylactic reaction
* Hyperglycaemia
* Glucose tolerance impaired
* Hyperlipidaemia
* Gynaecomastia
* Galactorrhoea
* Amenorrhoea
* Priapism
* Withdrawal symptoms
;Very rare (<0.01%)
* Cholestatic hepatitis
* Jaundice
* Neuroleptic malignant syndrome
* Venous thromboembolism | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
The melting point of ice is at standard pressure; however, pure liquid water can be supercooled well below that temperature without freezing if the liquid is not mechanically disturbed. It can remain in a fluid state down to its homogeneous nucleation point of about . The melting point of ordinary hexagonal ice falls slightly under moderately high pressures, by /atm or about /70 atm as the stabilization energy of hydrogen bonding is exceeded by intermolecular repulsion, but as ice transforms into its polymorphs (see crystalline states of ice) above , the melting point increases markedly with pressure, i.e., reaching at (triple point of Ice VII). | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Sevoflurane is a potent vasodilator, as such it induces a dose dependent reduction in blood pressure and cardiac output. It is a bronchodilator, however, in patients with pre-existing lung pathology, it may precipitate coughing and laryngospasm. It reduces the ventilatory response to hypoxia and hypercapnia, and impedes hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction. Sevoflurane vasodilatory properties also cause it to increase intracranial pressure and cerebral blood flow. However, it reduces cerebral metabolic rate. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Dextrorphan (DXO) is a psychoactive drug of the morphinan class which acts as an antitussive or cough suppressant and in high doses a dissociative hallucinogen. It is the dextrorotatory enantiomer of racemorphan; the levorotatory enantiomer is levorphanol. Dextrorphan is produced by O-demethylation of dextromethorphan by CYP2D6. Dextrorphan is an NMDA antagonist and contributes to the psychoactive effects of dextromethorphan. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Despite dicloxacillin being insensitive to beta-lactamases, some organisms have developed resistance to other narrow-spectrum β-lactam antibiotics including methicillin. Such organisms include methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Although rare, flutamide has been associated with severe hepatotoxicity and death. By 1996, 46 cases of severe cholestatic hepatitis had been reported, with 20 fatalities. There have been continued case reports since, including liver transplants and death. A 2021 review of the literature found 15 cases of serious hepatotoxicity in women treated with flutamide, including 7 liver transplantations and 2 deaths.
Based on the number of prescriptions written and the number of cases reported in the MedWatch database, the rate of serious hepatotoxicity associated with flutamide treatment was estimated in 1996 as approximately 0.03% (3 per 10,000). However, other research has suggested that the true incidence of significant hepatotoxicity with flutamide may be much greater, as high as 0.18 to 10%.
Flutamide is also associated with liver enzyme elevations in up to 42 to 62% of patients, although marked elevations in liver enzymes (above 5 times upper normal limit) occur only in 3 to 5%. The risk of hepatotoxicity with flutamide is much higher than with nilutamide or bicalutamide. Lower doses of the medication appear to have a possibly reduced but still significant risk. Liver function should be monitored regularly with liver function tests during flutamide treatment. In addition, due to the high risk of serious hepatotoxicity, flutamide should not be used in the absence of a serious indication.
The mechanism of action of flutamide-induced hepatotoxicity is thought to be due to mitochondrial toxicity. Specifically, flutamide and particularly its major metabolite hydroxyflutamide inhibit enzymes in the mitochondrial electron transport chain in hepatocytes, including respiratory complexes I (NADH ubiquinone oxidoreductase), II (succinate dehydrogenase), and V (ATP synthase), and thereby reduce cellular respiration via ATP depletion and hence decrease cell survival. Inhibition of taurocholate (a bile acid) efflux has also been implicated in flutamide-induced hepatotoxicity. In contrast to flutamide and hydroxyflutamide, which severely compromise hepatocyte cellular respiration in vitro, bicalutamide does not significantly do so at the same concentrations and is regarded as non-mitotoxic. It is thought that the nitroaromatic group of flutamide and hydroxyflutamide enhance their mitochondrial toxicity; bicalutamide, in contrast, possesses a cyano group in place of the nitro moiety, greatly reducing the potential for such toxicity.
The hepatotoxicity of flutamide appears to depend on hydrolysis of flutamide catalyzed by an arylacetamide deacetalyse enzyme. This is analogous to the hepatotoxicity that occurs with the withdrawn paracetamol (acetominophen)-related medication phenacetin. In accordance, the combination of paracetamol (acetaminophen) and flutamide appears to result in additive to synergistic hepatotoxicity, indicating a potential drug interaction.
Hepatotoxicity with flutamide may be cross-reactive with that of cyproterone acetate. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Inhalation of sulfuryl fluoride is hazardous and may result in respiratory irritation, pulmonary edema, nausea, abdominal pain, central nervous system depression, numbness in the extremities, muscle twitching, seizures, and death. These high exposures occurred when people entered into structures illegally during fumigation or after insufficient aeration. Epidemiological studies showed that fumigation workers who used sulfuryl fluoride showed neurological effects, which included reduced performance on cognitive tests and pattern memory tests, and reduced olfactory function. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Perfluorohexane has extremely high global warming potential (GWP) of 9,300. This leads to a need to find low GWP alternative. Novec 649 was considered a good drop-in replacement in many applications due to its similar thermo-physical properties and having a global warming potential of 1. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Gestonorone caproate, also known as gestronol hexanoate or norhydroxyprogesterone caproate and sold under the brand names Depostat and Primostat, is a progestin medication which is used in the treatment of enlarged prostate and cancer of the endometrium. It is given by injection into muscle typically once a week.
Side effects of gestonorone caproate include worsened glucose tolerance, decreased libido in men, and injection site reactions. Gestonorone caproate is a progestin, or a synthetic progestogen, and hence is an agonist of the progesterone receptor, the biological target of progestogens like progesterone. It has no other important hormonal activity.
Gestonorone caproate was discovered in 1960 and was introduced for medical use by 1973. It has been used widely throughout Europe, including in the United Kingdom, and has also been marketed in certain other countries such as Japan, China, and Mexico. However, it has since mostly been discontinued, and it remains available today only in a handful of countries, including the Czech Republic, Japan, Mexico, and Russia. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Penicillamine, sold under the brand name of Cuprimine among others, is a medication primarily used for the treatment of Wilson's disease. It is also used for people with kidney stones who have high urine cystine levels, rheumatoid arthritis, and various heavy metal poisonings. It is taken by mouth.
Penicillamine was approved for medical use in the United States in 1970. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
As of 2012, Johnson and Johnson was facing around 3400 state and federal lawsuits filed by people who claimed tendon damage from levofloxacin; about 1900 pending in a class action at the United States District Court in Minnesota and about 1500 pending at a district court in New Jersey.
In October 2012, J&J settled 845 cases in the Minnesota action, after Johnson and Johnson prevailed in three of the first four cases to go to trial. By May 2014, all but 363 cases had been settled or adjudicated. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Most of the air—including ~88% of the CO—is located in the lower part of the atmosphere known as troposphere. The troposphere is thicker in the equator and thinner at the poles, but the global mean of its thickness is around 11 km.
Inside the troposphere, the temperature drops approximately linearly at a rate of 6.5 Celsius degrees per km, from a global mean of 288 Kelvin (15 Celsius) on the ground to 220 K (-53 Celsius). At higher altitudes, up to 20 km, the temperature is approximately constant; this layer is called the tropopause.
The troposphere and tropopause together consist of ~99% of the atmospheric CO. Inside the troposphere, the CO drops with altitude approximately exponentially, with a typical length of 6.3 km; this means that the density at height y is approximately proportional to exp(-y/6.3 km), and it goes down to 37% at 6.3 km, and to 17% at 11 km. Higher through the tropopause, density continues dropping exponentially, albeit faster, with a typical length of 4.2 km. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
The antibiotic is produced under many brand names across the world.
* Bangladesh: Ancef, Ancef forte, Aphrin, Avlosef, Cefadin, Cephadin, Cephran, Cephran-DS, Cusef, Cusef DS, Dicef , Dicef forte, Dolocef, Efrad, Elocef, Extracef, Extracef-DS, Intracef, Kefdrin, Lebac, Lebac Forte, Medicef, Mega-Cef, Megacin, Polycef, Procef, Procef, Procef forte, Rocef, Rocef Forte DS, Sefin, Sefin DS, Sefnin, Sefrad, Sefrad DS, Sefril, Sefril-DS, Sefro, Sefro-HS, Sephar, Sephar-DS, Septa, Sinaceph, SK-Cef, Sk-Cef DS, Supracef and Supracef-F, Torped, Ultrasef, Vecef, Vecef-DS, Velogen, Sinaceph, Velox
* China: Cefradine, Cephradine, Kebili, Saifuding, Shen You, Taididing, Velosef, Xianyi, and Xindadelei
* Colombia: Cefagram, Cefrakov, Cefranil , Cefrex, and Kliacef
* Egypt: Cefadrin, Cefadrine, Cephradine, Cephraforte, Farcosef, Fortecef, Mepadrin, Ultracef, and Velosef
* France: Dexef
* Hong Kong: Cefradine and ChinaQualisef-250
* Indonesia: Dynacef, Velodine, and Velodrom
* Lebanon: Eskacef, Julphacef, and Velosef
* Lithuania: Tafril
* Myanmar: Sinaceph
* Oman: Ceframed, Eskasef, Omadine, and Velocef
* Pakistan: Abidine, Ada-Cef, Ag-cef, Aksosef, Amspor, Anasef, Antimic, Atcosef, Bactocef, Biocef, Biodine, Velora, Velosef
* Peru: Abiocef, Cefradinal, Cefradur, Cefrid, Terbodina II, Velocef, Velomicin
* Philippines: Altozef, Racep, Senadex, Solphride, Yudinef, Zefadin, Zefradil, and Zolicef
* Poland: Tafril
* Portugal: Cefalmin, Cefradur
* South Africa: Cefril A
* South Korea: Cefradine and Tricef
* Taiwan: Cefadin, Cefamid, Cefin, Cekodin, Cephradine, Ceponin, Lacef, Licef-A, Lisacef, Lofadine, Recef, S-60, Sefree, Sephros, Topcef, Tydine, Unifradine, and U-Save
* UK: Cefradune (Kent)
* Vietnam: Eurosefro and Incef | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Esomeprazole can be used as a parasiticide. Gokmen et al., 2016 screen for efficacy against Trichomonas vaginalis isolates from horses. They found esomeprazole to be effective as a veterinary antiparasitic. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
As a derivative of EDTA, dexrazoxane chelates iron and thus reduces the number of metal ions complexed with anthracycline and, consequently, decrease the formation of superoxide radicals. The exact chelation mechanism is unknown, but it has been postulated that dexrazoxane can be converted into ring-opened form intracellularly and interfere with iron-mediated free radical generation that is in part thought to be responsible for anthryacycline induced cardiomyopathy. It was speculated that dexrazoxane could be used for further investigation to synthesize new antimalarial drugs. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
The Science Based Targets initiative was established in 2015 to help companies to set emission reduction targets in line with climate sciences and Paris Agreement goals. It is funded by IKEA Foundation, Amazon, Bezos Earth Fund, We Mean Business coalition, Rockefeller Brothers Fund and UPS Foundation. In October 2021, SBTi developed and launched the worlds first net zero standard, providing the framework and tools for companies to set science-based net zero targets and limit global temperature rise above pre-industrial levels to 1.5 °C. Best practice as identified by SBTi is for companies to adopt transition plans covering scope 1, 2 and 3 emissions, set out short-term milestones, ensure effective board-level governance and link executive compensation to the companys adopted milestones. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Chemically, levorphanol belongs to the morphinan class and is (−)-3-hydroxy-N-methyl-morphinan. It is the "left-handed" (levorotatory) stereoisomer of racemorphan, the racemic mixture of the two stereoisomers with differing pharmacology. The "right-handed" (dextrorotatory) enantiomer of racemorphan is dextrorphan (DXO), an antitussive, potent dissociative hallucinogen (NMDA receptor antagonist), and weakly active opioid. DXO is an active metabolite of the pharmaceutical drug dextromethorphan (DXM), which, analogously to DXO, is an enantiomer of the racemic mixture racemethorphan along with levomethorphan, the latter of which has similar properties to those of levorphanol. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Imipenem is rapidly degraded by the renal enzyme dehydropeptidase 1 when administered alone, and is almost always coadministered with cilastatin to prevent this inactivation. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
CDP's funding comes from a combination of government and philanthropic grants (44.4%) and a mixture of membership fees, administrative fees, sponsorships and data licensing. In Europe, CDP is around 30% funded by the LIFE programme of the European Commission. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Sleeping pills, including eszopiclone, have been associated with an increased risk of death.
Hypersensitivity to eszopiclone is a contraindication to its use. The presence of liver impairment, lactation and activities requiring mental alertness (e.g., driving) may be considered when determining frequency and dosage.
* unpleasant taste
* headache
* peripheral edema
* chest pain
* abnormal thinking
* behavior changes
* depression
* hallucinations
* sleep driving and sleepwalking
* dry mouth
* rash
* altered sleep patterns
* impaired coordination
* dizziness
* daytime drowsiness
* itching
* painful or frequent urination
* back pain
* aggressive behavior
* confusion
* agitation
* suicidal thoughts
* depersonalization
* amnesia
A 2009 meta-analysis found a 44% higher rate of mild infections, such as pharyngitis or sinusitis, in people taking eszopiclone or other hypnotic drugs compared to those taking a placebo. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide are also a recent addition to atmospheric X measurements. SCIAMACHY aboard ESAs ENVISAT made global column X measurements from 2002 to 2012. AIRS aboard NASAs Aqua satellite makes global X measurements and was launched shortly after ENVISAT in 2012. More recent satellites have significantly improved the data density and precision of global measurements. Newer missions have higher spectral and spatial resolutions. JAXAs GOSAT was the first dedicated GHG monitoring satellite to successfully achieve orbit in 2009. NASAs OCO-2 launched in 2014 was the second. Various other satellites missions to measure atmospheric X are planned. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Mezlocillin can be made in a variety of ways including reaction of ampicillin with chlorocarbamate 1 in the presence of triethylamine. Chlorocarbamate 1 itself is made from ethylenediamine by reaction with phosgene to form the cyclic urea followed by monoamide formation with methanesulfonyl chloride and then reaction of the other nitrogen atom with phosgene and trimethylsilylchloride.
The closely related analogue azlocillin is made in essentially the same manner as mezlocillin. but with omission of the methylation step. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Health Canada has investigated the risks and benefits of pseudoephedrine and ephedrine/Ephedra. Near the end of the study, Health Canada issued a warning on their website stating that those who are under the age of 12, or who have heart disease and may have strokes, should avoid taking pseudoephedrine and ephedrine. Also, they warned that everyone should avoid taking ephedrine or pseudoephrine with other stimulants like caffeine. They also banned all products that contain both ephedrine (or pseudoephedrine) and caffeine.
Products whose only medicinal ingredient is pseudoephedrine must be kept behind the pharmacy counter. Products containing pseudoephedrine along with other medicinal ingredients may be displayed on store shelves but may be sold only in a pharmacy when a pharmacist is present. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Before August 1993, LAAM was classified as a schedule I drug in the United States. LAAM is not approved for use in Australia and Canada. At present, it is a Schedule II Narcotic controlled substance in the United States with a DEA ACSCN of 9648 and a national aggregate annual manufacturing quota of 4 grammes as of 2013. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Azlocillin is considered a broad spectrum antibiotic and can be used against a number of Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria. The following represents MIC susceptibility data for a few medically significant organisms.
* Escherichia coli 1 μg/mL – 32 μg/mL
* Haemophilus spp. 0.03 μg/mL – 2 μg/mL
* Pseudomonas aeruginosa 4 μg/mL – 6.25 μg/mL | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Novec 649/1230 does not deplete ozone (ODP 0) and has a global warming potential of 1 (over 100 years), equivalent to that of carbon dioxide. The Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling of Chemicals (GHS) classifies this chemical as H412 - Harmful to aquatic life with long lasting effects. Photolysis in sunlight, hydrolysis and hydration may be a significant sink of Novec 649/1230 in the environment. It has very short estimated atmospheric lifetime of around 4 to 15 days.
Novec 649/1230 is classified as a PFAS substance. In December 2022, 3M announced that it would cease production of all PFAS products by 2025, including Novec 649/1230. It degrades to Trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) via photolytic degradation in sunlight. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Oxacillin, a derivative of methicillin, was first synthesized in the early 1960s as part of a research initiative led by Peter Doyle and John Naylor of Beecham, in consort with Bristol-Myers. Members of the isoxazolyl penicillin family, which includes cloxacillin, dicloxacillin, and oxacillin, were synthesized to counter the increasing prevalence of infections caused by penicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. While methicillin could only be administered via injection, the isoxazolyl penicillins, including oxacillin, could be given orally or by injection. Following the synthesis of cloxacillin and oxacillin, Beecham retained the right to commercially develop cloxacillin in the United Kingdom while Bristol-Myers was given the marketing rights for oxacillin in the United States. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Amoxicillin is susceptible to degradation by β-lactamase-producing bacteria, which are resistant to most β-lactam antibiotics, such as penicillin. For this reason, it may be combined with clavulanic acid, a β-lactamase inhibitor. This drug combination is commonly called co-amoxiclav. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Unlike the hormones with which it competes, flutamide is not a steroid; rather, it is a substituted anilide. Hence, it is described as nonsteroidal in order to distinguish it from older steroidal antiandrogens such as cyproterone acetate and megestrol acetate. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Drospirenone is the generic name of the drug and its , , , and , while drospirénone is its . Its name is a shortened form of the name 1,2-dihydrospirorenone or dihydrospirenone. Drospirenone is also known by its developmental code names SH-470 and ZK-30595 (alone), BAY 86-5300, BAY 98-7071, and SH-T-00186D (in combination with ethinylestradiol), BAY 86-4891 (in combination with estradiol), and FSN-013 (in combination with estetrol). | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Water vapor is common in the Solar System and by extension, other planetary systems. Its signature has been detected in the atmospheres of the Sun, occurring in sunspots. The presence of water vapor has been detected in the atmospheres of all seven extraterrestrial planets in the Solar System, the Earth's Moon, and the moons of other planets, although typically in only trace amounts.
Geological formations such as cryogeysers are thought to exist on the surface of several icy moons ejecting water vapor due to tidal heating and may indicate the presence of substantial quantities of subsurface water. Plumes of water vapor have been detected on Jupiters moon Europa and are similar to plumes of water vapor detected on Saturns moon Enceladus. Traces of water vapor have also been detected in the stratosphere of Titan. Water vapor has been found to be a major constituent of the atmosphere of dwarf planet, Ceres, largest object in the asteroid belt The detection was made by using the far-infrared abilities of the Herschel Space Observatory. The finding is unexpected because comets, not asteroids, are typically considered to "sprout jets and plumes." According to one of the scientists, "The lines are becoming more and more blurred between comets and asteroids." Scientists studying Mars hypothesize that if water moves about the planet, it does so as vapor.
The brilliance of comet tails comes largely from water vapor. On approach to the Sun, the ice many comets carry sublimes to vapor. Knowing a comets distance from the sun, astronomers may deduce the comets water content from its brilliance.
Water vapor has also been confirmed outside the Solar System. Spectroscopic analysis of HD 209458 b, an extrasolar planet in the constellation Pegasus, provides the first evidence of atmospheric water vapor beyond the Solar System. A star called CW Leonis was found to have a ring of vast quantities of water vapor circling the aging, massive star. A NASA satellite designed to study chemicals in interstellar gas clouds, made the discovery with an onboard spectrometer. Most likely, "the water vapor was vaporized from the surfaces of orbiting comets." Other exoplanets with evidence of water vapor include HAT-P-11b and K2-18b. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Piperacillin is not absorbed orally, and must therefore be given by intravenous or intramuscular injection. It has been shown that the bactericidal actions of the drug do not increase with concentrations of piperacillin higher than 4-6× MIC, which means that the drug is concentration-independent in terms of its actions. Piperacillin has instead shown to offer higher bactericidal activity when its concentration remains above the MIC for longer periods of time (50% time above MIC showing the highest activity). This higher activity present in continuous dosing has not been directly linked to clinical outcomes, but however does show promise of lowering possibility of resistance and decreasing mortality.
Extending the time of piperacillin-tazobactam infusion allows the drugs to maintain the necessary concentrations needed within the body to prevent bacterial growth, enhancing bactericidal activity. The studies supporting this theory generally administered ~3.375 g of piperacillin-tazobactam every 8 hours during a 4-hour infusion, while for organisms with higher minimum inhibitory concentrations, ~4.5 g of piperacillin-tazobactam was administered every 6 hours during a 3-hour infusion.
The recommended doses provided by the BNFC for infants with hospital-acquired infections are 90 mg/kg every 8 hours for infants, a maximum of 4.5 g every 6 hours for children, and 4.5 g every 8 hours for children aged 12 and above. A dosage of 90 mg/kg every 6 hours is suggested for infants and children diagnosed with neutropenia. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Levodropropizine is a cough suppressant. It is the levo isomer of dropropizine. It acts as a peripheral antitussive, with no action in the central nervous system. It does not cause side effects such as constipation or respiratory depression which can be produced by opioid antitussives such as codeine and its derivatives. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
* Kumar, Praveen; Mittal, Amit; Firoz, Mohammad (2020). "Carbon credit issuance: accounting based financial performance". SCMS Journal of Indian Management. 17(2): 111–119. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
* Provides water for plants and animals: Water vapour gets converted to rain and snow that serve as a natural source of water for plants and animals.
* Controls evaporation: Excess water vapor in the air decreases the rate of evaporation.
* Determines climatic conditions: Excess water vapor in the air produces rain, fog, snow etc. Hence, it determines climatic conditions. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Contraindications of drospirenone include renal impairment or chronic kidney disease, adrenal insufficiency, presence or history of cervical cancer or other progestogen-sensitive cancers, benign or malignant liver tumors or hepatic impairment, undiagnosed abnormal uterine bleeding, and hyperkalemia (high potassium levels). Renal impairment, hepatic impairment, and adrenal insufficiency are contraindicated because they increase exposure to drospirenone and/or increase the risk of hyperkalemia with drospirenone. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Most permutations of hydrogen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine on one carbon atom have been evaluated experimentally. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
GnRH is released by the hypothalamus in a pulsatile fashion; this causes the anterior pituitary gland to release luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). LH stimulates the testes to produce testosterone, which is metabolized to DHT by the enzyme 5α-reductase.
DHT, and to a significantly smaller extent, testosterone, stimulate prostate cancer cells to grow. Therefore, blocking these androgens can provide powerful treatment for prostate cancer, especially metastatic disease. Normally administered are GnRH analogues, such as leuprorelin or cetrorelix. Although GnRH agonists stimulate the same receptors that GnRH does, since they are present continuously and not in a pulsatile manner, they serve to inhibit the pituitary gland and therefore block the whole chain. However, they initially cause a surge in activity; this is not solely a theoretical risk but may cause the cancer to flare. Flutamide was initially used at the beginning of GnRH agonist therapy to block this surge, and it and other NSAAs continue in this use. In contrast to GnRH agonists, GnRH antagonists don't cause an initial androgen surge, and are gradually replacing GnRH agonists in clinical use.
There have been studies to investigate the benefit of adding an antiandrogen to surgical orchiectomy or its continued use with a GnRH analogue (combined androgen blockade (CAB)). Adding antiandrogens to orchiectomy showed no benefit, while a small benefit was shown with adding antiandrogens to GnRH analogues.
Unfortunately, therapies which lower testosterone levels, such as orchiectomy or GnRH analogue administration, also have significant side effects. Compared to these therapies, treatment with antiandrogens exhibits "fewer hot flashes, less of an effect on libido, less muscle wasting, fewer personality changes, and less bone loss." However, antiandrogen therapy alone is less effective than surgery. Nevertheless, given the advanced age of many with prostate cancer, as well as other features, many men may choose antiandrogen therapy alone for a better quality of life.
Flutamide has been found to be similarly effective in the treatment of prostate cancer to bicalutamide, although indications of inferior efficacy, including greater compensatory increases in testosterone levels and greater reductions in PSA levels with bicalutamide, were observed. The medication, at a dosage of 750 mg/day (250 mg three times daily), has also been found to be equivalent in effectiveness to 250 mg/day oral cyproterone acetate as a monotherapy in the treatment of prostate cancer in a large-scale clinical trial of 310 patients, though its side effect and toxicity profiles (including gynecomastia, diarrhea, nausea, loss of appetite, and liver disturbances) were regarded as considerably worse than those of cyproterone acetate.
A dosage of 750 mg/day flutamide (250 mg/three times a day) is roughly equivalent in terms of effectiveness to 50 mg/day bicalutamide when used as the antiandrogen component in combined androgen blockade in the treatment of advanced prostate cancer.
Flutamide has been used to prevent the effects of the testosterone flare at the start of GnRH agonist therapy in men with prostate cancer.
The combination of flutamide with an estrogen such as ethinylestradiol sulfonate has been used as a form of combined androgen blockade and as an alternative to the combination of flutamide with surgical or medical castration. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Levorphanol is the INN, BAN, and DCF. As the medically used tartrate salt, the drug is also known as levorphanol tartrate (USAN, BANM). The former developmental code name of levorphanol at Roche was Ro 1-5431. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Administration of levamlodipine (2.5 mg) as a single dose gives maximum plasma concentration (C) of 8.3 to 9.3 ng/mL in 2 to 3 hrs (T). It is extensively (about 90%) converted to inactive metabolites via hepatic metabolism with 10% of the parent compound and 60% of the metabolites excreted in the urine. Levamlodipine shows approximately 93% plasma protein binding in hypertensive patients. The mean AUC value (t = 48 hrs) of levamlodipine tablets (2.5 mg) is . The plasma elimination half-life of levamlodipine has been found to be . | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Ampicillin can be administered by mouth, an intramuscular injection (shot) or by intravenous infusion. The oral form, available as capsules or oral suspensions, is not given as an initial treatment for severe infections, but rather as a follow-up to an IM or IV injection. For IV and IM injections, ampicillin is kept as a powder that must be reconstituted.
IV injections must be given slowly, as rapid IV injections can lead to convulsive seizures. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Quinapril is indicated for the treatment of high blood pressure (hypertension) and as adjunctive therapy in the management of heart failure. It may be used for the treatment of hypertension by itself or in combination with thiazide diuretics, and with diuretics and digoxin for heart failure. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
* Data from 2009 found that the global mean concentration was rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating.
* The daily average concentration of atmospheric at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 although this concentration had already been reached in the Arctic in June 2012. Data from 2013 showed that the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is this high "for the first time in 55 years of measurement—and probably more than 3 million years of Earth history."
* As of 2018, concentrations were measured to be 410 ppm. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
The most common adverse effects are diarrhea (4.8%), nausea and vomiting (3.6%), injection-site inflammation (2.4%), headache (2.3%), rash (1.9%) and thrombophlebitis (0.9%). Many of these adverse effects were observed in severely ill individuals already taking many medications including vancomycin. Meropenem has a reduced potential for seizures in comparison with imipenem. Several cases of severe hypokalemia have been reported. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before instrumental sampling is to measure bubbles of air (fluid or gas inclusions) trapped in the Antarctic or Greenland ice sheets. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric concentrations were about 260–280 ppm immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years. The longest ice core record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800,000 years. During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied between 180 and 210 ppm during ice ages, increasing to 280–300 ppm during warmer interglacials.
mole fractions in the atmosphere have gone up by around 35 percent since the 1900s, rising from 280 parts per million by volume to 387 parts per million in 2009. One study using evidence from stomata of fossilized leaves suggests greater variability, with mole fractions above 300 ppm during the period ten to seven thousand years ago, though others have argued that these findings more likely reflect calibration or contamination problems rather than actual CO variability. Because of the way air is trapped in ice (pores in the ice close off slowly to form bubbles deep within the firn) and the time period represented in each ice sample analyzed, these figures represent averages of atmospheric concentrations of up to a few centuries rather than annual or decadal levels.
Ice cores provide evidence for greenhouse gas concentration variations over the past 800,000 years. Both CO and concentrations vary between glacial and interglacial phases, and these variations correlate strongly with temperature. Direct data does not exist for periods earlier than those represented in the ice core record, a record that indicates that CO mole fractions stayed within a range of 180 ppm to 280 ppm throughout the last 800,000 years, until the increase of the last 250 years. However, various proxy measurements and models suggest larger variations in past epochs: 500 million years ago CO levels were likely 10 times higher than now.
Various proxy measurements have been used to try to determine atmospheric CO concentrations millions of years in the past. These include boron and carbon isotope ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the numbers of stomata observed on fossil plant leaves.
Phytane is a type of diterpenoid alkane. It is a breakdown product of chlorophyll, and is now used to estimate ancient levels. Phytane gives both a continuous record of concentrations but it also can overlap a break in the record of over 500 million years. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Piperacillin is used almost exclusively in combination with the beta lactamase inhibitor tazobactam for the treatment of serious, hospital-acquired infections. This combination is among the most widely used drug therapies in United States non-federal hospitals, accounting for $388M in spending in spite of being a low-cost generic drug.
Piperacillin-tazobactam is recommended as part of a three-drug regimen for the treatment of hospital-acquired pneumonia suspected as being due to infection by multi-drug resistant pathogens. It is also one of several antibacterial drugs recommended for the treatment of infections known to be caused by anaerobic Gram-negative rods.
Piperacillin-tazobactam is recommended by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence as initial empiric treatment for people with suspected neutropenic sepsis.
Piperacillin is used to treat patients diagnosed with various internal infections such as abdominal, bacteremia, gynecological, respiratory, and urinary, mainly caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa and other infectious bacteria. They are primarily used in current and former neutropenic patients, and patients with biliary tract infections. Other uses include applications in surgical infection prophylaxis; in biliary surgery, a single dose of piperacillin is administered intravenously to inhibit the development of acute cholangitis and prevent wound infections. The combination of piperacillin and an aminoglycoside is commonly used to treat severe infections, but due to the incompatibilities in drug interaction, they are administered separately. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Alogliptin is a dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor (DDP-4) that decreases blood sugar levels similar to other DPP-4 inhibitors. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Based on low-quality evidence, levetiracetam is about as effective as phenytoin for prevention of early seizures after traumatic brain injury. It may be effective for prevention of seizures associated with subarachnoid hemorrhages. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Levobupivacaine, the S(-)-enantiomer of bupivacaine has been developed as an alternative to the racemic mixture, as it has been shown to have a lower cardiotoxicity than bupivacaine. Under European Union advice, it can be applied for minor and major surgical anaesthesia, as well as (post-operative) pain management. Particularly, it has been found suitable for multiple procedures, such as epidural block. It is effective for human patients who receive elective Caesarean section or lower body surgery, as it does not diverge dramatically in terms of sensory and/or motor block duration in comparison to bupivacaine. Deserving of consideration is the fact that its enhanced motor blocking can be a downside for patients receiving an epidural injection during childbirth, as a certain level of movement may still be required.
Other than childbirth, possible applications of levobupivacaine include upper and lower limb surgery, as well as eye surgery, where it blocks the extraocular muscle, highly efficient and convenient for patients undergoing vitreoretinal anterior segment or cataract surgery.
Levobupivacaine can be combined with other analgesics, including opioids, for postoperative pain management. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
The Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite-2 (GOSAT-2), also known as , is an Earth observation satellite dedicated to greenhouse gas monitoring. It is a successor of Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite (GOSAT). The GOSAT-2 was developed as a joint project of the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), Ministry of the Environment, and the National Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES). It was launched on 29 October 2018 from the Tanegashima Space Center aboard the H-IIA rocket. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |