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Brominated haloalkanes were first used during World War II in fire extinguishers for aircraft and tanks. BCF was introduced as an effective gaseous fire suppression agent in the mid-1960s for use around highly valuable materials in places such as museums, mainframe rooms, and telecommunication switching centers. BCFs were also widely used in the maritime industries in the engine rooms of ships and also in the transport industry in vehicles. Its efficiency as a fire extinguishing agent has also led it to be the predominant choice of fire extinguishing agent on commercial aircraft and is typically found in cylindrical hand-held canisters. Its advantages as a fire extinguishing agent are that it has lower toxicity than chemicals such as carbon tetrachloride and that since it is a covalently bonded compound, it does not form conductive ions, therefore being usable on electrical equipment.
BCF is an excellent fire extinguishing agent, as it is a streaming agent with low toxicity, a low pressure, liquefied gas, and effective on all common types of fires, A, B, and C. It is mainly used in portable and wheeled extinguishers, and small spot protection units for aviation and marine engine applications, and was never widely used in fixed systems like Halon 1301 was.
BCF has fairly low toxicity. The lethal concentration for 15 minute exposure is about 32%. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Chiral switch, a re-engineering approach, has enabled in the remarketing of a number of racemic drugs as chiral specific enantiomer products. Chiral switching strategy is the way most blockbuster drugs have entered the market as enantiopure drugs. A more appropriate term may be unichiral. But the alternate route is de novo (anew) synthesis of chiral specific drugs. The chiral switches may have the same, very similar, therapeutic indications as the original racemic drug. But, there are instances where new indications for the old drug have been reported. The table below gives a brief list of launched chiral switches. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Levofloxacin is rapidly and essentially completely absorbed after oral administration, with a plasma concentration profile over time that is essentially identical to that obtained from intravenous administration of the same amount over 60 minutes. As such, the intravenous and oral formulations of levofloxacin are considered interchangeable. Levofloxacin's ability to bind to proteins in the body ranges from 24 to 38%.
The drug undergoes widespread distribution into body tissues. Peak levels in skin are achieved 3 hours after administration and exceed those in plasma by a factor of 2. Similarly, lung tissue concentrations range from two-fold to five-fold higher than plasma concentrations in the 24 hours after a single dose.
The mean terminal plasma elimination half-life of levofloxacin ranges from approximately 6 to 8 hours following single or multiple doses of levofloxacin given orally or intravenously. Elimination occurs mainly via excretion of unmetabolized drug in the urine. Following oral administration, 87% of an administered dose was recovered in the urine as unchanged drug within 2 days. Less than 5% was recovered in the urine as the desmethyl and N-oxide metabolites, the only metabolites identified in humans. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
F-gases are ozone-friendly, enable energy efficiency, and are relatively safe for use by the public due to their low levels of toxicity and flammability. However, most F-gases have a high global warming potential (GWP), and some are nearly inert to removal by chemical processes. If released, HFCs stay in the atmosphere for decades and both PFCs and SF can stay in the atmosphere for millennia.
The total atmospheric concentration of F-gases, CFCs, and HCFCs has grown rapidly since the mid-twentieth century; a time which marks the start of their production and use at industrial scale. As a group in year 2019, these unnatural man-made gases are responsible for about one-tenth of the direct radiative forcing from all long-lived anthropogenic greenhouse gases.
F-gases are used in a number of applications intended for climate change mitigation, that can generate further positive feedback for atmospheric heating. For example, refrigeration and air conditioning systems are increasingly utilized by humans within a warming environment. Likewise, expansions of electrical infrastructure, as driven by the alternatives to fossil fuels, has led to rising demand for SF. If recent trends of aggressive (5% and greater CAGR) annual growth for such types of F-gas production were to continue into the future without complimentary reductions in GWP and/or atmospheric leakage, their warming influence could soon rival those of CO and CH which are trending at less than about 2% annual growth. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Perfluorocarbon tracers (PFTs) are a range of perfluorocarbons used in flow tracers and other tracing applications. They are used by releasing the PFT at a certain point, and determining the concentration of that PFT at another set of points, allowing the flow from the source to the points to be determined. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Water is the most abundant substance on Earths surface and also the third most abundant molecule in the universe, after and . 0.23 ppm of the earths mass is water and 97.39% of the global water volume of 1.38 km is found in the oceans.
Water is far more prevalent in the outer Solar System, beyond a point called the frost line, where the Suns radiation is too weak to vaporize solid and liquid water (as well as other elements and chemical compounds with relatively low melting points, such as methane and ammonia). In the inner Solar System, planets, asteroids, and moons formed almost entirely of metals and silicates. Water has since been delivered to the inner Solar System via an as-yet unknown mechanism, theorized to be the impacts of asteroids or comets carrying water from the outer Solar System, where bodies contain much more water ice. The difference between planetary bodies located inside and outside the frost line can be stark. Earths mass is 0.000023% water, while Tethys, a moon of Saturn, is almost entirely made of water. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
The Integrated Carbon Observation System (ICOS) is a research infrastructure to quantify the greenhouse gas balance of Europe and adjacent regions. In November 2015 it received the international legal status of ERIC (European Research Infrastructure Consortium) by decision of the European Commission. It is recognized by The European Strategy Forum on Research Infrastructures (ESFRI) as a landmark European research infrastructure. It consists of a harmonized network of almost 150 long-term observation sites for the domains of atmosphere, ecosystems and ocean. The network is coordinated through its Head Office, the central data portal and central facilities including an atmosphere, ecosystem and ocean thematic center, and central analytical laboratories.
ICOS provides the essential long-term observations required to understand the present state and predict future behavior of the global carbon cycle and greenhouse gas emissions. It monitors and assesses the effectiveness of carbon sequestration and/or greenhouse gases emission reduction activities on global atmospheric composition levels, including attribution of sources and sinks by region and sector.
The highly standardized network offers improved access to data and enables the development of flux products for research and political application. ICOS is a state-of-the-art facility for the European research community. It contributes to the European share of global greenhouse gas observations under Group on Earth Observations (GEO), World Meteorological Organization GAW and GCOS programs. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Several isotopes of both hydrogen and oxygen exist, giving rise to several known isotopologues of water. Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water is the current international standard for water isotopes. Naturally occurring water is almost completely composed of the neutron-less hydrogen isotope protium. Only 155 ppm include deuterium ( or D), a hydrogen isotope with one neutron, and fewer than 20 parts per quintillion include tritium ( or T), which has two neutrons. Oxygen also has three stable isotopes, with present in 99.76%, in 0.04%, and in 0.2% of water molecules.
Deuterium oxide, , is also known as heavy water because of its higher density. It is used in nuclear reactors as a neutron moderator. Tritium is radioactive, decaying with a half-life of 4500 days; exists in nature only in minute quantities, being produced primarily via cosmic ray-induced nuclear reactions in the atmosphere. Water with one protium and one deuterium atom occur naturally in ordinary water in low concentrations (~0.03%) and in far lower amounts (0.000003%) and any such molecules are temporary as the atoms recombine.
The most notable physical differences between and , other than the simple difference in specific mass, involve properties that are affected by hydrogen bonding, such as freezing and boiling, and other kinetic effects. This is because the nucleus of deuterium is twice as heavy as protium, and this causes noticeable differences in bonding energies. The difference in boiling points allows the isotopologues to be separated. The self-diffusion coefficient of at 25 °C is 23% higher than the value of . Because water molecules exchange hydrogen atoms with one another, hydrogen deuterium oxide (DOH) is much more common in low-purity heavy water than pure dideuterium monoxide .
Consumption of pure isolated may affect biochemical processes—ingestion of large amounts impairs kidney and central nervous system function. Small quantities can be consumed without any ill-effects; humans are generally unaware of taste differences, but sometimes report a burning sensation or sweet flavor. Very large amounts of heavy water must be consumed for any toxicity to become apparent. Rats, however, are able to avoid heavy water by smell, and it is toxic to many animals.
Light water refers to deuterium-depleted water (DDW), water in which the deuterium content has been reduced below the standard level. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Moexipril is available as a prodrug moexipril hydrochloride, and is metabolized in the liver to form the pharmacologically active compound moexiprilat. Formation of moexiprilat is caused by hydrolysis of an ethyl ester group. Moexipril is incompletely absorbed after oral administration, and its bioavailability is low. The long pharmacokinetic half-life and persistent ACE inhibition of moexipril allows once-daily administration.
Moexipril is highly lipophilic, and is in the same hydrophobic range as quinapril, benazepril, and ramipril. Lipophilic ACE inhibitors are able to penetrate membranes more readily, thus tissue ACE may be a target in addition to plasma ACE. A significant reduction in tissue ACE (lung, myocardium, aorta, and kidney) activity has been shown after moexipril use.
It has additional PDE4-inhibiting effects. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Chlorprothixene is widely available throughout Europe and elsewhere in the world. The drug was previously available in the United States under the brand name Taractan, but this formulation has since been discontinued and the drug is no longer available in this country. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Water contains hydrogen in the oxidation state +1 and oxygen in the oxidation state −2. It oxidizes chemicals such as hydrides, alkali metals, and some alkaline earth metals. One example of an alkali metal reacting with water is:
:2 Na + 2 → + 2 + 2
Some other reactive metals, such as aluminium and beryllium, are oxidized by water as well, but their oxides adhere to the metal and form a passive protective layer. Note that the rusting of iron is a reaction between iron and oxygen that is dissolved in water, not between iron and water.
Water can be oxidized to emit oxygen gas, but very few oxidants react with water even if their reduction potential is greater than the potential of . Almost all such reactions require a catalyst. An example of the oxidation of water is:
:4 + 2 → 4 AgF + 4 HF + | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Levomethamphetamine crosses the blood-brain-barrier and acts as a norepinephrine transporter inhibitor and TAAR1 agonist, functioning as a selective norepinephrine releasing agent (with limited effects on the release of dopamine), thus levomethamphetamine affects the central nervous system, although its effects are qualitatively distinct relative to those of dextromethamphetamine. It does not possess the same potential for euphoria or addiction that dextromethamphetamine possesses. Among its physiological effects are the vasoconstriction that makes it useful for nasal decongestion. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Levocetirizine, sold under the brand name Xyzal, among others, is a second-generation antihistamine used for the treatment of allergic rhinitis (hay fever) and long-term hives of unclear cause. It is less sedating than older antihistamines. It is taken by mouth.
Common side effects include sleepiness, dry mouth, cough, vomiting, and diarrhea. Use in pregnancy appears safe but has not been well studied and use when breastfeeding is of unclear safety. It is classified as a second-generation antihistamine and works by blocking histamine H-receptors.
Levocetirizine was approved for medical use in the United States in 2007. It is available as a generic medication. In 2021, it was the 190th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 2million prescriptions. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
For its medical uses, 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane has the generic name norflurane. It is used as propellant for some metered dose inhalers. It is considered safe for this use. In combination with pentafluoropropane, it is used as a topical vapocoolant spray for numbing boils before curettage. It has also been studied as a potential inhalational anesthetic, but it is nonanaesthetic at doses used in inhalers. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
In December 2007, Takeda submitted a New Drug Application (NDA) for alogliptin to the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA), after positive results from Phase III clinical trials. In September 2008, the company also filed for approval in Japan, winning approval in April 2010. The company also filed a Marketing Authorization Application elsewhere outside the United States, which was withdrawn in June 2009 needing more data. The first NDA failed to gain approval and was followed by a pair of NDAs (one for alogliptin and a second for a combination of alogliptin and pioglitazone) in July 2011. In 2012, Takeda received a negative response from the FDA on both of these NDAs, citing a need for additional data.
In 2013, the FDA approved the drug in three formulations: as a stand-alone with the brand-name Nesina, combined with metformin using the name Kazano, and when combined with pioglitazone as Oseni. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Chlorprothixene, sold under the brand name Truxal among others, is a typical antipsychotic of the thioxanthene group. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Benzylpenicillin is produced by fermentation of Penicillium chrysogenum. The production of benzylpenicillin involves fermentation, recovery and purification of the penicillin.
The fermentation process of the production of benzylpenicillin creates the product. The presence of the product in solution inhibits the reaction and reduces the product rate and yield. Thus, in order to obtain the most product and increase the rate of reaction, it is continuously extracted. This is done by mixing the mold with either glucose, sucrose, lactose, starch, or dextrin, nitrate, ammonium salt, corn steep liquor, peptone, meat or yeast extract, and small amounts of inorganic salts.
The recovery of the benzylpenicillin is the most important part of the production process because it affects the later purification steps if done incorrectly. There are several techniques used to recover benzylpenicillin: aqueous two-phase extraction, liquid membrane extraction, microfiltration, and solvent extraction. Extraction is more commonly used in the recovery process.
In the purification step, the benzylpenicillin is separated from the extraction solution. This is normally done by using a separation column. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Most production, use, and emissions of HFC-152a have occurred within Earths more industrialized and populated northern hemisphere following the substances introduction in the 1990s. Its concentration in the northern troposphere reached an annual average of about 10 parts per trillion by year 2011. The concentration of HFC-152a in the southern troposphere is about 50% lower due to its removal rate (i.e. lifetime) of about 1.5 years being similar in magnitude to the global atmospheric mixing time of one to two years. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Trandolapril is teratogenic (US: pregnancy category D) and can cause birth defects and even death of the developing fetus. The highest risk to the fetus is during the second and third trimesters. When pregnancy is detected, trandolapril should be discontinued as soon as possible. Trandolapril should not be administered to nursing mothers. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Birth control pills containing ethinylestradiol and a progestin are associated with an increased risk of venous thromboembolism (VTE), including deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism (PE). The incidence is about 4-fold higher on average than in women not taking a birth control pill. The absolute risk of VTE with ethinylestradiol-containing birth control pills is small, in the area of 3 to 10 out of 10,000 women per year, relative to 1 to 5 out of 10,000 women per year not taking a birth control pill. The risk of VTE during pregnancy is 5 to 20 in 10,000 women per year and during the postpartum period is 40 to 65 per 10,000 women per year. The higher risk of VTE with combined birth control pills is thought to be due to the ethinylestradiol component, as ethinylestradiol has estrogenic effects on liver synthesis of coagulation factors which result in a procoagulatory state. In contrast to ethinylestradiol-containing birth control pills, neither progestogen-only birth control nor the combination of transdermal estradiol and an oral progestin in menopausal hormone therapy is associated with an increased risk of VTE.
Different progestins in ethinylestradiol-containing birth control pills have been associated with different risks of VTE. Birth control pills containing progestins such as desogestrel, gestodene, drospirenone, and cyproterone acetate have been found to have 2- to 3-fold the risk of VTE of birth control pills containing levonorgestrel in retrospective cohort and nested case–control observational studies. However, this area of research is controversial, and confounding factors may have been present in these studies. Other observational studies, specifically prospective cohort and case control studies, have found no differences in risk between different progestins, including between birth control pills containing drospirenone and birth control pills containing levonorgestrel. These kinds of observational studies have certain advantages over the aforementioned types of studies, like better ability to control for confounding factors. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses of all of the data in the mid-to-late 2010s found that birth control pills containing cyproterone acetate, desogestrel, drospirenone, or gestodene overall were associated with a risk of VTE of about 1.3- to 2.0-fold compared to that of levonorgestrel-containing birth control pills.
Androgenic progestins have been found to antagonize to some degree the effects of ethinylestradiol on coagulation. As a result, more androgenic progestins, like levonorgestrel and norethisterone, may oppose the procoagulatory effects of ethinylestradiol and result in a lower increase in risk of VTE. Conversely, this would be the case less or not at all with progestins that are less androgenic, like desogestrel and gestodene, as well as with progestins that are antiandrogenic, like drospirenone and cyproterone acetate.
In the early 2010s, the FDA updated the label for birth control pills containing drospirenone and other progestins to include warnings for stopping use prior to and after surgery, and to warn that such birth control pills may have a higher risk of blood clots. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
A major breakthrough that allowed the large scale manufacture of fluorocarbons was the Fowler process. In this process, cobalt trifluoride is used as the source of fluorine. Illustrative is the synthesis of perfluorohexane:
The resulting cobalt difluoride is then regenerated, sometimes in a separate reactor:
Industrially, both steps are combined, for example in the manufacture of the Flutec range of fluorocarbons by F2 chemicals Ltd, using a vertical stirred bed reactor, with hydrocarbon introduced at the bottom, and fluorine introduced halfway up the reactor. The fluorocarbon vapor is recovered from the top. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Halons are usually defined as hydrocarbons where the hydrogen atoms have been replaced by bromine, along with other halogens. They are referred to by a system of code numbers similar to (but simpler than) the system used for freons. The first digit specifies the number of carbon atoms in the molecule, the second is the number of fluorine atoms, the third is the chlorine atoms, and the fourth is the number of bromine atoms. If the number includes a fifth digit, the fifth number indicates the number of iodine atoms (though iodine in halon is rare). Any bonds not taken up by halogen atoms are then allocated to hydrogen atoms.
For example, consider Halon 1211. This halon has number 1211 in its name, which tells it has 1 carbon atom, 2 fluorine atoms, 1 chlorine atom, and 1 bromine atom. A single carbon only has four bonds, all of which are taken by the halogen atoms, so there is no hydrogen. Thus its formula is , hence its IUPAC name is bromochlorodifluoromethane. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Levobetaxolol should not be used by people who have sinus bradycardia, atrioventricular block, cardiogenic shock, or overt cardiac failure. The drug has been associated with bradycardia and hypertension. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Pseudoephedrine was on the International Olympic Committees (IOC) banned substances list until 2004, when the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) list replaced the IOC list. Although WADA initially only monitored' pseudoephedrine, it went back onto the "banned" list on 1 January 2010.
Pseudoephedrine is excreted through urine, and concentration in urine of this drug shows a large inter-individual spread; that is, the same dose can give a vast difference in urine concentration for different individuals. Pseudoephedrine is approved to be taken up to 240 mg per day. In seven healthy male subjects this dose yielded a urine concentration range of 62.8 to 294.4 microgram per milliliter (µg/mL) with mean ± standard deviation 149 ± 72 µg/mL. Thus, normal dosage of 240 mg pseudoephedrine per day can result in urine concentration levels exceeding the limit of 150 µg/mL set by WADA for about half of all users. Furthermore, hydration status does not affect urinary concentration of pseudoephedrine.
Canadian rower Silken Laumann was stripped of her 1995 Pan American Games team gold medal after testing positive for pseudoephedrine.
In February 2000, Elena Berezhnaya and Anton Sikharulidze won gold at the 2000 European Figure Skating Championships but were stripped of their medals after Berezhnaya tested positive. This resulted in a three-month disqualification from the date of the test, and the medal being stripped. She stated that she had taken cold medication approved by a doctor but had failed to inform the ISU as required. The pair missed the World Championships that year as a result of the disqualification.
Romanian gymnast Andreea Răducan was stripped of her gold medal at the 2000 Summer Olympic Games after testing positive. She took two pills given to her by the team coach for a cold. Although she was stripped of the overall gold medal, she kept her other medals, and, unlike in most other doping cases, was not banned from competing again; only the team doctor was banned for a number of years. Ion Țiriac, the president of the Romanian Olympic Committee, resigned over the scandal.
In the 2010 Winter Olympic Games, the IOC issued a reprimand against the Slovak ice hockey player Lubomir Visnovsky for usage of pseudoephedrine.
In the 2014 Winter Olympic Games Team Sweden and Washington Capitals ice hockey player Nicklas Bäckström was prevented from playing in the final for usage of pseudoephedrine. Bäckström claimed he was using it as allergy medication. In March 2014, the IOC Disciplinary Commission decided that Bäckström would be awarded the silver medal. In January 2015 Bäckström, the IOC, WADA and the IIHF agreed to a settlement in which he accepted a reprimand but was cleared of attempting to enhance his performance. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
R-407C is a mixture of hydrofluorocarbons used as a refrigerant. It is a zeotropic blend of difluoromethane (R-32), pentafluoroethane (R-125), and 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane (R-134a). Difluoromethane serves to provide the heat capacity, pentafluoroethane decreases flammability, tetrafluoroethane reduces pressure. R-407C cylinders are colored burnt orange.
This refrigerant is intended as a replacement for R-22. R-22 production will be phased out by 2020 as per the Montreal Protocol. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Zero Carbon World were one of the Sponsors of the 2012 Bath Film Festival which included a showing of Revenge of the Electric Car. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Exemestane, sold under the brand name Aromasin among others, is a medication used to treat breast cancer. It is a member of the class of antiestrogens known as aromatase inhibitors. Some breast cancers require estrogen to grow. Those cancers have estrogen receptors (ERs), and are called ER-positive. They may also be called estrogen-responsive, hormonally-responsive, or hormone-receptor-positive. Aromatase is an enzyme that synthesizes estrogen. Aromatase inhibitors block the synthesis of estrogen. This lowers the estrogen level, and slows the growth of cancers. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Dicloxacillin is insensitive to beta-lactamase (also known as penicillinase) enzymes secreted by many penicillin-resistant bacteria. The presence of the isoxazolyl group on the side chain of the penicillin nucleus facilitates the β-lactamase resistance, since they are relatively intolerant of side-chain steric hindrance. Thus, it is able to bind to penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) and inhibit peptidoglycan crosslinking, but is not bound by or inactivated by β-lactamase | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
The reaction of the CFCs which is responsible for the depletion of ozone, is the photo-induced scission of a C-Cl bond:
:CClF → CClF + Cl
The chlorine atom, written often as Cl, behaves very differently from the chlorine molecule (Cl). The radical Cl is long-lived in the upper atmosphere, where it catalyzes the conversion of ozone into O. Ozone absorbs UV-B radiation, so its depletion allows more of this high energy radiation to reach the Earth's surface. Bromine atoms are even more efficient catalysts; hence brominated CFCs are also regulated. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
The most common effect is fatigue or somnolence, particularly in older adults, although patients with pre-existing daytime sleepiness and fatigue may experience paradoxical improvement of these symptoms.
Escitalopram has not been shown to affect serial reaction time, logical reasoning, serial subtraction, multitask, or Mackworth Clock task performance. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Prior to the Montreal Protocol, large quantities of carbon tetrachloride were used to produce the chlorofluorocarbon refrigerants R-11 (trichlorofluoromethane) and R-12 (dichlorodifluoromethane). However, these refrigerants play a role in ozone depletion and have been phased out. Carbon tetrachloride is still used to manufacture less destructive refrigerants. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Work on alternatives for chlorofluorocarbons in refrigerants began in the late 1970s after the first warnings of damage to stratospheric ozone were published.
The hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are less stable in the lower atmosphere, enabling them to break down before reaching the ozone layer. Nevertheless, a significant fraction of the HCFCs do break down in the stratosphere and they have contributed to more chlorine buildup there than originally predicted. Later alternatives lacking the chlorine, the hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) have an even shorter lifetimes in the lower atmosphere. One of these compounds, HFC-134a, were used in place of CFC-12 in automobile air conditioners. Hydrocarbon refrigerants (a propane/isobutane blend) were also used extensively in mobile air conditioning systems in Australia, the US and many other countries, as they had excellent thermodynamic properties and performed particularly well in high ambient temperatures. 1,1-Dichloro-1-fluoroethane (HCFC-141b) has replaced HFC-134a, due to its low ODP and GWP values. And according to the Montreal Protocol, HCFC-141b is supposed to be phased out completely and replaced with zero ODP substances such as cyclopentane, HFOs, and HFC-345a before January 2020.
Among the natural refrigerants (along with ammonia and carbon dioxide), hydrocarbons have negligible environmental impacts and are also used worldwide in domestic and commercial refrigeration applications, and are becoming available in new split system air conditioners.
Various other solvents and methods have replaced the use of CFCs in laboratory analytics.
In Metered-dose inhalers (MDI), a non-ozone effecting substitute was developed as a propellant, known as "hydrofluoroalkane." | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Levorphanol is listed under the Single Convention On Narcotic Drugs 1961 and is regulated like morphine in most countries. In the U.S., it is a Schedule II Narcotic controlled substance with a DEA ACSCN of 9220 and 2013 annual aggregate manufacturing quota of 4.5 kilograms. The salts in use are the tartrate (free base conversion ratio 0.58) and hydrobromide (0.76). | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
A combination of ethinylestradiol, drospirenone, and prasterone is under development by Pantarhei Bioscience as a combined birth control pill for prevention of pregnancy in women. It includes prasterone (dehydroepiandrosterone; DHEA), an oral androgen prohormone, to replace testosterone and avoid testosterone deficiency caused by suppression of testosterone by ethinylestradiol and drospirenone. As of August 2018, the formulation is in phase II/III clinical trials.
Drospirenone has been suggested for potential use as a progestin in male hormonal contraception.
Drospirenone has been studied in forms for parenteral administration. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Chloromethane was a widely used refrigerant, but its use has been discontinued. It was particularly dangerous among the common refrigerants of the 1930s due to its combination of toxicity, flammability and lack of odor as compared with other toxic refrigerants such as sulfur dioxide and ammonia. Chloromethane was also once used for producing lead-based gasoline additives (tetramethyllead). | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Exemestane is metabolized by the liver enzyme CYP3A4. While the CYP3A4 inhibitor ketoconazole had no significant effect on exemestane levels in a clinical trial, the strong CYP3A4 inductor rifampicin significantly cut exemenstane levels about in half (AUC −54%, C −41% for a single dose), potentially compromising its effectiveness. Other 3A4 inductors such as carbamazepine and St John's Wort are expected to have similar effects. The clinical relevance of this effect has not been investigated.
Estrogens probably reduce exemestane effectiveness: It would usually be counter-productive to reduce the body's estrogen synthesis with exemestane and then substitute estrogen with pharmaceuticals. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Flucloxacillin, also known as floxacillin, is an antibiotic used to treat skin infections, external ear infections, infections of leg ulcers, diabetic foot infections, and infection of bone. It may be used together with other medications to treat pneumonia, and endocarditis. It may also be used prior to surgery to prevent Staphylococcus infections. It is not effective against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). It is taken by mouth or given by injection into a vein or muscle.
Common side effects include an upset stomach. Other side effects may include muscle or joint pains, shortness of breath, and liver problems. It appears to be safe during pregnancy and breastfeeding. It should not be used in those who are allergic to penicillin. It is a narrow-spectrum beta-lactam antibiotic of the penicillin class. It is similar in effect to cloxacillin and dicloxacillin, being active against penicillinase forming bacteria.
Flucloxacillin was patented in 1961. It is not commonly used in the United States or Canada as of 2011. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Fluorinated gases (F-gases) are a group of gases containing fluorine. They are divided into several types, the main of those are hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulphur hexafluoride (SF6). They are used in refrigeration, air conditioning, heat pumps, fire suppression, electronics, aerospace, magnesium industry, foam and high voltage switchgear. As they are greenhouse gases with a strong global warming potential, their use is regulated. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Symptoms of overdosing are similar to adverse effects of standard doses: severe hyponatraemia, somnolence, uncoordinated/unsteady gait, hemiparesis (weakness of one side of the body), along with visual and gastrointestinal disturbances. No specific antidote is available. Eslicarbazepine and metabolites can be dialyzed. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
In 2016, some 90 organizations, representing over US$2.5 trillion of purchasing power, requested that their suppliers disclose information on how they are approaching climate and water risks and opportunities. Data was gathered from over 4,000 suppliers worldwide, who reported over US$12 billion worth of savings from emission reduction activities. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Gestonorone caproate was studied in the treatment of prostate cancer in men at a dosage of 400 mg per week by intramuscular injection but, in contrast to the case of benign prostatic hyperplasia, was found to be ineffective.
SH-834 was a combination of 90 mg estradiol valerate and 300 mg gestonorone caproate for weekly intramuscular injection that was developed by Schering in the 1960s and 1970s. It was investigated clinically as a treatment for breast cancer and was found to be effective. However, its effectiveness was found to be no better than that of an estrogen alone, and the combination was ultimately never marketed.
Gestonorone caproate was studied by Schering for use as a progestogen-only injectable contraceptive across a dose range of 2.5 to 200 mg once every one or two months but was never marketed. There is very little clinical experience of gestonorone caproate for this indication.
Gestonorone caproate has been studied in the treatment of ovarian cancer (in combination with cyclophosphamide), menstrual cycle-related mouth ulcers, and as a component of menopausal hormone therapy. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Injection formulations of esomeprazole are used for gastroprotection in veterinary medicine. In goats administered the drug by intravenous or subcutaneous injection rapid elimination was noted. In that study the sulfone metabolite was detectable for several hours after injection of the parent drug. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Anthropogenic changes to the natural greenhouse effect are sometimes referred to as the enhanced greenhouse effect.
This table shows the most important contributions to the overall greenhouse effect, without which the average temperature of Earths surface would be about , instead of around . This table also specifies tropospheric' ozone, because this gas has a cooling effect in the stratosphere, but a warming influence comparable to nitrous oxide and CFCs in the troposphere. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Sevoflurane has an excellent safety record, but is under review for potential hepatotoxicity, and may accelerate Alzheimer's. There were rare reports involving adults with symptoms similar to halothane hepatotoxicity. Sevoflurane is the preferred agent for mask induction due to its lesser irritation to mucous membranes.
Sevoflurane is an inhaled anaesthetic that is often used to induction and maintenance of anaesthesia in children for surgery. During the process of awakening from the medication, it has been associated with a high incidence (>30%) of agitation and delirium in preschool children undergoing minor noninvasive surgery. It is not clear if this can be prevented.
Studies examining a current significant health concern, anesthetic-induced neurotoxicity (including with sevoflurane, and especially with children and infants) are "fraught with confounders, and many are underpowered statistically", and so are argued to need "further data... to either support or refute the potential connection".
Concern regarding the safety of anaesthesia is especially acute with regard to children and infants, where preclinical evidence from relevant animal models suggest that common clinically important agents, including sevoflurane, may be neurotoxic to the developing brain, and so cause neurobehavioural abnormalities in the long term; two large-scale clinical studies (PANDA and GAS) were ongoing as of 2010, in hope of supplying "significant [further] information" on neurodevelopmental effects of general anaesthesia in infants and young children, including where sevoflurane is used.
In 2021, researchers at Massachusetts General Hospital published in Communications Biology research that sevoflurane may accelerate existing Alzheimer's or existing tau protein to spread: "These data demonstrate anesthesia-associated tau spreading and its consequences. [...] This tau spreading could be prevented by inhibitors of tau phosphorylation or extracellular vesicle generation." According to Neuroscience News, "Their previous work showed that sevoflurane can cause a change (specifically, phosphorylation, or the addition of phosphate) to tau that leads to cognitive impairment in mice. Other researchers have also found that sevoflurane and certain other anesthetics may affect cognitive function."
Additionally, there has been some investigation into potential correlation of sevoflurane use and renal damage (nephrotoxicity). However, this should be subject to further investigation, as a recent study shows no correlation between sevoflurane use and renal damage as compared to other control anesthetic agents. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Asymmetrical trichlorotrifluoroethane, also called 1,1,1-Trichloro-2,2,2-trifluoroethane or CFC-113a is a chlorofluorocarbon (CFC). It has the formula . | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
This idea, drug to metabolite switching, is an extension of the chiral switch concept. The purpose of the switching is to develop an active metabolite which will be devoid of the side-effects and have an improved therapeutic profile compared to the parent chiral drug. Some examples of chiral drug to metabolite switches, (those in the market and others under investigation) include terfenadine to fexofenadine, halofantrine to desbutylhalofantrine, and cisapride to norcisapride. A summary is presented in the table below. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Ampicillin is an antibiotic belonging to the aminopenicillin class of the penicillin family. The drug is used to prevent and treat a number of bacterial infections, such as respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, meningitis, salmonellosis, and endocarditis. It may also be used to prevent group B streptococcal infection in newborns. It is used by mouth, by injection into a muscle, or intravenously.
Common side effects include rash, nausea, and diarrhea. It should not be used in people who are allergic to penicillin. Serious side effects may include Clostridium difficile colitis or anaphylaxis. While usable in those with kidney problems, the dose may need to be decreased. Its use during pregnancy and breastfeeding appears to be generally safe.
Ampicillin was discovered in 1958 and came into commercial use in 1961. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. The World Health Organization classifies ampicillin as critically important for human medicine. It is available as a generic medication. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
At proposed therapeutic concentrations, this molecule lacks anti-inflammatory activity, and does not inhibit either cyclooxygenase 1 (COX-1) or cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) enzymes. Only the S-enantiomers of arylpropionic acid NSAID can potently inhibit COX, whereas the R-enantiomers exert almost no COX activity. R-Flurbiprofen is inefficiently converted into S-flurbiprofen, with 1.5% of the R-enantiomer undergoing bioinversion to the S-form. Although this compound lacks activity against COX, studies have shown that this drug is a potent reducer of levels of beta amyloid, the main constituent of amyloid plaques in Alzheimer's disease, and therefore there was interest in this drug as a therapeutic agent. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Ampicillin overdose can cause behavioral changes, confusion, blackouts, and convulsions, as well as neuromuscular hypersensitivity, electrolyte imbalance, and kidney failure. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Mission data are provided to the public by the NASA Goddard Earth Science Data and Information Services Center (GES DISC). The Level 1B data product is the least processed and contains records for all collected soundings (about 74,000 soundings per orbit). The Level 2 product contains estimates of the column-averaged dry-air mole fractions of carbon dioxide, among other parameters such as surface albedo and aerosol content. The Level 3 product consists of global maps of carbon dioxide concentrations developed by OCO-2 scientists. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Cefroxadine can be prepared by several routes, including one in which the enol is methylated with diazomethane as a key step. A rather more involved route starts with comparatively readily available phenoxymethylpenicillin sulfoxide benzhydryl ester (1).
This undergoes fragmentation when treated with benzothiazole-2-thiol to give 2. Ozonolysis (reductive work-up) cleaves the olefinic linkage and the unsymmetrical disulfide moiety is converted to a tosyl thioester (3). The enol moiety is methylated with diazomethane, the six-membered ring is closed by reaction with 1,5-diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-5-ene (DBU), and the ester protection is removed with trifluoroacetic acid to give 4. The amide side chain is removed by the usual PCl/dimethylaniline sequence followed by reamidation with the appropriate acid chloride to give cefroxadine (5). | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Esomeprazole is available as delayed-release capsules in the United States or as delayed-release tablets in Australia, the United Kingdom, and Canada (containing esomeprazole magnesium) in strengths of 20 and 40mg, as delayed-release capsules in the United States (containing esomeprazole strontium) in a 49.3mg strength (delivering the equivalent of 40mg of esomeprazole, and as esomeprazole sodium for intravenous injection/infusion. Oral esomeprazole preparations are enteric-coated, due to the rapid degradation of the drug in the acidic conditions of the stomach. This is achieved by formulating capsules using the multiple-unit pellet system.
The combination naproxen/esomeprazole magnesium (brand name Vimovo) is used for the prevention of gastric ulcers associated with chronic NSAID therapy. Vimovo is available in two dosage strengths: 500/20mg and 375/20mg. Clinical trials of naproxen/esomeprazole demonstrated an incidence of GI ulcer in 24% of patients on naproxen (alone) versus 7% on naproxen/esomeprazole. The FDA has added warnings to the label for Vimovo concerning acute interstitial nephritis and risk of kidney problems in some patients. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Amoxicillin is relatively inexpensive. In 2022, a survey of eight generic antibiotics commonly prescribed in the United States found their average cost to be about $42.67, while amoxicillin was sold for $12.14 on average. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
As a result of these criticisms and the renewed awareness of the three-dimensional effects of drug action fueled by the exponential explosion of chiral technology emerged the new area "stereo-pharmacology". A more specific term is "chiral pharmacology", a phrase popularized by John Caldwell. This field has grown itself into a specialized discipline concerned with the three-dimensional aspects of drug action and disposition. This approach essentially views each version of the chiral twins as separate chemical species. To express the pharmacological activities of each of the chiral twins two technical terms have been coined, eutomer and distomer. The member of the chiral twin that has greater physiological activity is referred to as the eutomer and the other one with lesser activity is referred to as distomer. It is generally understood that this reference is necessarily to a single activity being studied. The eutomer for one effect may well be the distomer when another is studied. The eutomer/distomer ratio is called the eudysmic ratio. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
The piperacillin-tazobactam (piptaz) antibiotic commonly used with an aminoglycoside retains similar levels of drug safety and efficacy as other antibiotic combinations such as ceftazidime with the aminoglycoside tobramycin in the treatment of patients with hospital acquired pneumonia. In a clinical comparison primarily targeting patients not initially placed in intensive care units, piperacillin-tazobactam was found to produce higher clinical and microbiological rates of success. By contrast, the drug efficacy of ceftazidime and piperacillin-tazobactam resulted in similar response rates (61.5% and 63.9 respectively) when tobramycin was added into both groups. Identical evaluations are shown when compared to the imipenem and tobramycin combination, where the administration of piperacillin-tazobactam on patients (especially those under mechanical ventilation) was only consisted of a slightly higher response rate. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
As a long-acting injection, zuclopenthixol decanoate comes in a 200 mg and 500 mg ampoule. Doses can vary from 50 mg weekly to the maximum licensed dose of 600 mg weekly. In general, the lowest effective dose to prevent relapse is preferred. The interval may be shorter as a patient starts on the medication before extending to 3 weekly intervals subsequently. The dose should be reviewed and reduced if side effects occur, though in the short-term an anticholinergic medication benztropine may be helpful for tremor and stiffness, while diazepam may be helpful for akathisia. 100 mg of zuclopenthixol decanoate is roughly equivalent to 20 mg of flupentixol decanoate or 12.5 mg of fluphenazine decanoate.
In acutely psychotic and agitated inpatients, 50 – 200 mg of zuclopenthixol acetate may be given for a calming effect over the subsequent three days, with a maximum dose of 400 mg in total to be given. As it is a long-acting medication, care must be taken not to give an excessive dose.
In oral form zuclopenthixol is available in 2, 10, 25 and 40 mg tablets, with a dose range of 20–60 mg daily. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
It is effective as one part of a multi-drug regimen for treatment of stomach infections of Helicobacter pylori. It is typically combined with a proton-pump inhibitor (such as omeprazole) and a macrolide antibiotic (such as clarithromycin); other drug combinations are also effective. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Side effects of the tablet form in conjunction with levodopa include, in decreasing order of frequency, nausea, hallucinations, confusion, depression, loss of balance, insomnia, increased involuntary movements, agitation, slow or irregular heart rate, delusions, hypertension, new or increased angina pectoris, and syncope. Most of the side effects are due to a high dopamine signaling, and can be alleviated by reducing the dose of levodopa.
The main side effects of the patch form for depression include application-site reactions, insomnia, diarrhea, and sore throat. The selegiline patch carries a black box warning about a possible increased risk of suicide, especially for young people, as do all antidepressants since 2007. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
A study of non-medical use potential of eszopiclone found that in persons with a known history of non-medical benzodiazepine use, eszopiclone at doses of 6 and 12 mg produced effects similar to those of diazepam 20 mg. The study found that at these doses which are two or more times greater than the maximum recommended doses, a dose-related increase in reports of amnesia, sedation, sleepiness, and hallucinations was observed for both eszopiclone (Lunesta) as well as for diazepam (Valium). | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Flucloxacillin is an antibiotic used to treat skin infections, external ear infections, infections of leg ulcers, diabetic foot infections, and infection of bone. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Measuring the quantity of water vapor in a medium can be done directly or remotely with varying degrees of accuracy. Remote methods such electromagnetic absorption are possible from satellites above planetary atmospheres. Direct methods may use electronic transducers, moistened thermometers or hygroscopic materials measuring changes in physical properties or dimensions. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Cefradine is distributed in the form of capsules containing 250 mg or 500 mg, as a syrup containing 250 mg/5 ml, or in vials for injection containing 500 mg or 1 g.
It is not approved by the FDA for use in the United States. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
The following is a list of consumer medicines that either contain pseudoephedrine or have switched to a less-regulated alternative such as phenylephrine.
*Actifed (made by GlaxoSmithKline) — contains 60 mg pseudoephedrine and 2.5 mg triprolidine in certain countries.
*Advil Cold & Sinus (made by Pfizer Canada Inc.) — contains 30 mg pseudoephedrine hydrochloride and 200 mg ibuprofen.
*Aleve-D Sinus & Cold (made by Bayer Healthcare) — contains 120 mg pseudoephedrine hydrochloride (also 220 mg naproxen).
*Allegra-D (made by Sanofi Aventis) — contains 120 mg of pseudoephedrine hydrochloride (also 60 mg of fexofenadine).
*Allerclear-D (made by Kirkland Signature) — contains 240 mg of pseudoephedrine sulfate (also 10 mg of loratadine).
*Benadryl Allergy Relief Plus Decongestant (made by McNeil Consumer Healthcare, a Johnson & Johnson company) — contains 60 mg pseudoephedrine hydrochloride (also 8 mg acrivastine)
*Cirrus (made by UCB) — contains 120 mg pseudoephedrine hydrochloride (also 5 mg cetirizine).
*Claritin-D (made by Bayer Healthcare) — contains 120 mg of pseudoephedrine sulfate (also 5 mg of loratadine).
*Claritin-D 24 Hour (made by Bayer Healthcare) — contains 240 mg of pseudoephedrine sulfate (also 10 mg of loratadine).
*Codral (made by Asia-Pacific subsidiary of Johnson & Johnson) — Codral Original contains pseudoephedrine, Codral New Formula substitutes phenylephrine for pseudoephedrine.
*Congestal (made by SIGMA Pharmaceutical Industries) — contains 60 mg pseudoephedrine hydrochloride (also 650 mg paracetamol and 4 mg chlorpheniramine).
*Contac (made by GlaxoSmithKline) — previously contained pseudoephedrine, now contains phenylephrine. As at Nov 2014 UK version still contains 30 mg pseudoephedrine hydrochloride per tablet.
*Demazin (made by Bayer Healthcare) — contains pseudoephedrine sulfate and chlorpheniramine maleate
*Eltor (made by Sanofi Aventis) — contains pseudoephedrine hydrochloride.
*Mucinex D (made by Reckitt Benckiser) — contains 60 mg pseudoephedrine hydrochloride (also 1200 mg guaifenesin).
*Nexafed (made by Acura Pharmaceuticals) — contains 30 mg pseudoephedrine per tablet, formulated with Impede Meth-Deterrent technology.
*Nurofen Cold & Flu (made by Reckitt Benckiser) — contains 30 mg pseudoephedrine hydrochloride (also 200 mg ibuprofen).
*Respidina – contains 120 mg of pseudoephedrine in the form of extended release tablets.
*Rhinex Flash (made by Pharma Product Manufacturing, Cambodia) — contains pseudoephedrine combined with paracetamol and triprolidine.
*Rhinos SR (made by Dexa Medica) — contains 120 mg of pseudoephedrine hydrochloride
* Sinutab (made by McNeil Consumer Healthcare, a Johnson & Johnson company) — contains 500 mg paracetamol and 30 mg pseudoephedrine hydrochloride.
* Sudafed Decongestant (made by McNeil Consumer Healthcare, a Johnson & Johnson company) — contains 60 mg of pseudoephedrine hydrochloride. Not to be confused with Sudafed PE, which contains phenylephrine.
* Theraflu (made by Novartis) — previously contained pseudoephedrine, now contains phenylephrine
* Trima — contains 60 mg pseudoephedrine hydrochloride
* Tylol Hot (made by NOBEL İLAÇ SANAYİİ VE TİCARET A.Ş., Turkey) — a packet of 20 g contains 60 mg pseudoephedrine hydrochloride, 500 mg paracetamol and 4 mg chlorpheniramine maleate
* Unifed (made by United Pharmaceutical Manufacturer, Jordan) — contains pseudoephedrine hydrochloride (also triprolidine and guaifenesin).
*Zyrtec-D 12 Hour (made by McNeil Consumer Healthcare, a Johnson & Johnson company) — contains 120 mg pseudoephedrine hydrochloride (also 5 mg of cetirizine).
*Zephrex-D (made by Westport Pharmaceuticals) – a special meth-resistant form of pseudoephedrine that becomes gooey when heated. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Levonorgestrel is a hormonal medication which is used in a number of birth control methods. It is combined with an estrogen to make combination birth control pills. As an emergency birth control, sold under the brand names Plan B One-Step and Julie, among others, it is useful within 72 hours of unprotected sex. The more time that has passed since sex, the less effective the medication becomes, and it does not work after pregnancy (implantation) has occurred. Levonorgestrel works by preventing ovulation or fertilization from occurring. It decreases the chances of pregnancy by 57–93%. In an intrauterine device (IUD), such as Mirena among others, it is effective for the long-term prevention of pregnancy. A levonorgestrel-releasing implant is also available in some countries.
Common side effects include nausea, breast tenderness, headaches, and increased, decreased, or irregular menstrual bleeding. When used as an emergency contraceptive, if pregnancy occurs, there is no evidence that its use harms the fetus. It is safe to use during breastfeeding. Birth control that contains levonorgestrel will not change the risk of sexually transmitted infections. It is a progestin and has effects similar to those of the hormone progesterone. It works primarily by preventing ovulation and closing off the cervix to prevent the passage of sperm.
Levonorgestrel was patented in 1960 and introduced for medical use together with ethinylestradiol in 1970. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. It is available as a generic medication. In the United States, levonorgestrel-containing emergency contraceptives are available over the counter (OTC) for all ages. In 2020, it was the 323rd most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 800thousand prescriptions. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Feedlots play an integral role in the Australian livestock industry and are strongly influenced by the environment they are in. Only 25% of Australia (including its feedlots) have a growing season of more than 5 months. This is due to the Australian climate being incapable of sustaining crops and pastures over a sustained period of time. Characteristically, cattle and grain supplies are located in close proximity to feedlots, and the 2012 Australian Lot feeders Association Industry survey indicated that feedlot capacity is typically divided into particular sectors.
Whilst the southern states account for 51% of total feedlot capacity in Australia, NSW only possesses 45% of total feedlots. The effect of this feedlot distribution is that the southern states produce 1 266 710 heads of cows whilst NSW only owns 788 625 heads of cattle. These figures demonstrate how environmental and infrastructural conditions must be accounted for throughout Australian pastoral systems, thereby indicating how these influences have had an effect on the Southern and Northern rangeland industry. Further, in the Southern rangelands where there is a growing season of less than 5 months, sheep stations have been implemented to complement the farming of cattle. In comparison, the Northern beef zone takes up 116 million hectares of Australia's total land mass, which equates to 24.3% of the total land mass available; this figure is markedly different form the 265 million hectares consumed by the Southern rangelands (sheep and beef) which amounts to 55.3% of total land mass. The Northern rangelands are operated by multiple companies which occupy more than one station. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
The initial use of racemic dopa for the treatment of Parkinson's disease resulted in a number of adverse effects viz. nausea, vomiting, anorexia, involuntary movements and granulocytopenia. The use of L-dopa [the (S)-enantiomer] resulted in reducing the required dose, and adverse effects. The granulocytopenia was not observed with the single enantiomer. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Esomeprazole is a competitive inhibitor of the enzyme CYP2C19, and may therefore interact with drugs that depend on it for metabolism, such as diazepam and warfarin; the concentrations of these drugs may increase if they are used concomitantly with esomeprazole. Conversely, clopidogrel (Plavix) is an inactive prodrug that partially depends on CYP2C19 for conversion to its active form; inhibition of CYP2C19 blocks the activation of clopidogrel, thus reducing its effects.
Drugs that depend on stomach pH for absorption may interact with esomeprazole; drugs that depend on an acidic environment (such as ketoconazole or atazanavir) will be poorly absorbed, whereas drugs that are broken down in acidic environments (such as erythromycin) will be absorbed to a greater extent than normal. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
It may be used in combination with other antibiotics to treat pneumonia and can be used to prevent infection before surgery, particularly heart, lung, or bone surgery. When used to treat endocarditis, in combination with other antibiotics or alone, the dose of flucloxacillin may need to exceed the usual dose. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
-Norpseudoephedrine, or (−)-norpseudoephedrine, is a psychostimulant drug of the amphetamine family. It is one of the four optical isomers of phenylpropanolamine, the other three being cathine ((+)-norpseudoephedrine), (−)-norephedrine, and (+)-norephedrine; as well as one of the two enantiomers of norpseudoephedrine (the other being cathine). Similarly to cathine, -norpseudoephedrine acts as a releasing agent of norepinephrine (EC = 30 nM) and to a lesser extent of dopamine (EC = 294 nM). Due to the 10-fold difference in its potency for inducing the release of the two neurotransmitters however, -norpseudoephedrine could be called a modestly selective or preferential norepinephrine releasing agent, similarly to related compounds like ephedrine and pseudoephedrine. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Aside from the U.S., levamlodipine is currently marketed in Brazil under the brand name Novanlo (Biolab Sanus) and in India as Eslo (Zuventus Healthcare Ltd.), Asomex (Emcure Pharmaceutical Ltd.) and Espin (Intas Pharmaceuticals Ltd.). | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Arketamine (developmental code names PCN-101, HR-071603), also known as (R)-ketamine or (R)-(−)-ketamine, is the (R)-(−) enantiomer of ketamine. Similarly to racemic ketamine and esketamine, the S(+) enantiomer of ketamine, arketamine is biologically active; however, it is less potent as an NMDA receptor antagonist and anesthetic and thus has never been approved or marketed for clinical use as an enantiopure drug. Arketamine is currently in clinical development as a novel antidepressant.
Relative to esketamine, arketamine possesses 4 to 5 times lower affinity for the PCP site of the NMDA receptor. In accordance, arketamine is significantly less potent than racemic ketamine and especially esketamine in terms of anesthetic, analgesic, and sedative-hypnotic effects. Racemic ketamine has weak affinity for the sigma receptor, where it acts as an agonist, whereas esketamine binds negligibly to this receptor, and so the sigma receptor activity of racemic ketamine lies in arketamine. It was suggested that this action of arketamine may play a role in the hallucinogenic effects of racemic ketamine and that it may be responsible for the lowering of the seizure threshold seen with racemic ketamine. However several subsequent studies have indicated that esketamine is more likely to induce dissociative events, while studies in patients undergoing electroconvulsive therapy suggested that esketamine is a potent inducer of seizures. Esketamine inhibits the dopamine transporter about 8-fold more potently than does arketamine, and so is about 8 times more potent as a dopamine reuptake inhibitor. Arketamine and esketamine possess similar potency for interaction with the muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Trandolapril acts by competitive inhibition of angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE), a key enzyme in the renin–angiotensin system. which plays an important role in regulating blood pressure. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Oil reservoirs are routinely mapped by injecting a PFT down one bore hole and measuring the concentration at adjacent boreholes. In this way, geologists can build up an image of the reservoir.
Traditional underground high-tension cables are constructed either with internal oil ducts or channels or by the use of a pipe through which the insulated conductor is installed. In either design the system is then filled with pressurised, de-gassed oil. The oils primary function is to improve the insulating properties of the cable but occasionally leaks can occur through cable joints, oil system fittings or cable sheath damage. The leak is initially identified by the loss of liquid from the system, but its location used to involve engineers digging up the road, freezing a section of cable and seeing if the level was still going down, then choosing a new point to dig and re-freeze. It could take several holes to isolate the leak. If a PFT is injected into the oil, there will be a relatively high concentration of PFT above the leak, which can be pin-pointed to within a few feet, requiring only a single hole to be dug right where the leak is.
PFTs have been used to follow air movement, for tracing the flow of pollutants, for example, the Big Bend Regional Aerosol and Visibility Observational study. measuring the effectiveness of ventilation and studying the possible effects of terrorist attacks (for example in New York ).
PFTs have even been used to track ransom money after a kidnapping. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
The levonorgestrel intrauterine system (LNG-IUS) is a type of long-term birth control that releases the progestin into the uterine cavity. Levonorgestrel is released at a constant, gradual rate of 0.02 mg per day by the polydimethylsiloxane membrane of the device, which renders it effective for up to five years. Because it is inserted directly into the uterus, levonorgestrel is present in the endometrium in much higher concentrations that would result from a LNG-containing oral pill; the LNG-IUS delivers 391 ng of levonorgestrel to the inner uterine region while a comparable oral contraceptive delivers only 1.35 ng. This high level of levonorgestrel impedes the function of the endometrium, making it hostile for sperm transport, fertilization, and implantation of an ovum. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Dicloxacillin is a narrow-spectrum β-lactam antibiotic of the penicillin class. It is used to treat infections caused by susceptible (non-resistant) Gram-positive bacteria. It is active against beta-lactamase-producing organisms such as Staphylococcus aureus, which would otherwise be resistant to most penicillins. Dicloxacillin is available under a variety of trade names including Diclocil (BMS).
It was patented in 1961 and approved for medical use in 1968. It is available as a generic medication. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Greenhouse gases exist in many atmospheres, creating greenhouse effects on Mars, Titan and particularly in the thick atmosphere of Venus. While Venus has been described as the ultimate end state of runaway greenhouse effect, such a process would have virtually no chance of occurring from any increases in greenhouse gas concentrations caused by humans, as the Sun's brightness is too low and it would likely need to increase by some tens of percents, which will take a few billion years. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Esketamine is eliminated from the human body more quickly than arketamine (R(–)-ketamine) or racemic ketamine, although arketamine slows the elimination of esketamine. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
It may be used in generic labels and store brands, Benylin DM, Mucinex DM, Camydex-20 tablets, Robitussin, NyQuil, Dimetapp, Vicks, Coricidin, Delsym, TheraFlu, Charcoal D, Cinfatós and others. It has been used in counterfeit medications. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Levonorgestrel is a weak agonist of the androgen receptor (AR), the main biological target of the androgen sex hormone testosterone. It is a weakly androgenic progestin and in women may cause androgenic biochemical changes and side effects such as decreased sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) levels, decreased cholesterol levels, weight gain, and acne.
In combination with a potent estrogen like ethinylestradiol however, all contraceptives containing androgenic progestins are negligibly androgenic in practice and in fact can be used to treat androgen-dependent conditions like acne and hirsutism in women. This is because ethinylestradiol causes a marked increase in SHBG levels and thereby decreases levels of free and hence bioactive testosterone, acting as a functional antiandrogen. Nonetheless, contraceptives containing progestins that are less androgenic increase SHBG levels to a greater extent and may be more effective for such indications. Levonorgestrel is currently the most androgenic progestin that is used in contraceptives, and contraceptives containing levonorgestrel may be less effective for androgen-dependent conditions relative to those containing other progestins that are less androgenic. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Azolla has been deemed a "super-plant" as it can draw down as much as a tonne of nitrogen per acre per year (0.25 kg/m/yr); this is matched by 6 tonnes per acre of carbon drawdown (1.5 kg/m/yr). Its ability to use atmospheric nitrogen for growth means that the main limit to its growth is usually the availability of phosphorus: carbon, nitrogen and sulphur being three of the key elements of proteins, and phosphorus being required for DNA, RNA and in energy metabolism. The plant can grow at great speed in favourable conditions – modest warmth and 20 hours of sunlight, both of which were in evidence at the poles during the early Eocene – and can double its biomass over two to three days in such a climate. This rate of growth pushes the plants deep under away from sunlight where death and carbon sequestration occur. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
The gas release can occur by advection through fractures, or via diffuse degassing through large areas of permeable ground as diffuse degassing structures (DDS). At sites of advective gas loss, precipitation of sulfur and rare minerals forms sulfur deposits and small sulfur chimneys, called fumaroles. Very low-temperature (below 100 °C) fumarolic structures are also known as solfataras. Sites of cold degassing of predominantly carbon dioxide are called mofettes. Hot springs on volcanoes often show a measurable amount of magmatic gas in dissolved form. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Overdose symptoms can be confusion, hypotension, and tachycardia, and several fatalities have been reported with concentrations in postmortem blood ranging from 0.1 to 7.0 mg/L compared to non-toxic levels in postmortem blood which can extend to 0.4 mg/kg. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Dexrazoxane hydrochloride (Zinecard, Cardioxane) is a cardioprotective agent. It was discovered by Eugene Herman in 1972. The IV administration of dexrazoxane is in acidic condition with HCl adjusting the pH. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Pseudoephedrine is a diastereomer of ephedrine and is readily reduced into methamphetamine or oxidized into methcathinone. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Dexlansoprazole, is a medication which reduces stomach acid. It is used to treat gastroesophageal reflux disease. Effectiveness is similar to other proton pump inhibitors (PPIs). It is taken by mouth.
Common side effects include diarrhea, abdominal pain, and nausea. Serious side effects may include osteoporosis, low blood magnesium, Clostridium difficile infection, anaphylaxis, and pneumonia. Use in pregnancy and breastfeeding is of unclear safety. It works by blocking H/K-ATPase in the parietal cells of the stomach.
Dexlansoprazole was approved for medical use in the United States in 2009. In Canada in 2016, it was the most expensive PPI available. In 2020, it was the 263rd most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 1million prescriptions. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
The FDA issued the approval of escitalopram for major depression in August 2002, and for generalized anxiety disorder in December 2003. In May 2006, the FDA approved a generic version of escitalopram by Teva. In July 2006, the U.S. District Court of Delaware decided in favor of Lundbeck regarding a patent infringement dispute and ruled the patent on escitalopram valid.
In 2006, Forest Laboratories was granted an 828-day (2 years and 3 months) extension on its US patent for escitalopram. This pushed the patent expiration date from 7 December 2009, to 14 September 2011. Together with the 6-month pediatric exclusivity, the final expiration date was 14 March 2012. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
From 2002 to 2014, plants appear to have gone into overdrive, starting to pull more CO out of the air than they have done before. The result was that the rate at which CO accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period, although previously, it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions.
A 1993 review of scientific greenhouse studies found that a doubling of concentration would stimulate the growth of 156 different plant species by an average of 37%. Response varied significantly by species, with some showing much greater gains and a few showing a loss. For example, a 1979 greenhouse study found that with doubled concentration the dry weight of 40-day-old cotton plants doubled, but the dry weight of 30-day-old maize plants increased by only 20%.
In addition to greenhouse studies, field and satellite measurements attempt to understand the effect of increased in more natural environments. In free-air carbon dioxide enrichment (FACE) experiments plants are grown in field plots and the concentration of the surrounding air is artificially elevated. These experiments generally use lower levels than the greenhouse studies. They show lower gains in growth than greenhouse studies, with the gains depending heavily on the species under study. A 2005 review of 12 experiments at 475–600 ppm showed an average gain of 17% in crop yield, with legumes typically showing a greater response than other species and C4 plants generally showing less. The review also stated that the experiments have their own limitations. The studied levels were lower, and most of the experiments were carried out in temperate regions. Satellite measurements found increasing leaf area index for 25% to 50% of Earth's vegetated area over the past 35 years (i.e., a greening of the planet), providing evidence for a positive CO fertilization effect.
Depending on environment, there are differential responses to elevated atmospheric CO between major functional types of plant, such as C3 plant| and C4 carbon fixation| plants, or more or less woody species; which has the potential among other things to alter competition between these groups. Increased CO can also lead to increased Carbon : Nitrogen ratios in the leaves of plants or in other aspects of leaf chemistry, possibly changing herbivore nutrition. Studies show that doubled concentrations of CO will show an increase in photosynthesis in C3 plants but not in C4 plants. However, it is also shown that plants are able to persist in drought better than the plants. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
The exact mechanism of the action of general anaesthetics has not been delineated. Sevoflurane acts as a positive allosteric modulator of the GABA receptor in electrophysiology studies of neurons and recombinant receptors. However, it also acts as an NMDA receptor antagonist, potentiates glycine receptor currents, and inhibits nAChR and 5-HT receptor currents. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Rasagiline (Azilect, Azipron) is an irreversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase-B used as a monotherapy to treat symptoms in early Parkinson's disease or as an adjunct therapy in more advanced cases.
The racemic form of the drug was invented by Aspro Nicholas in the early 1970s. Moussa B.H. Youdim identified it as a potential drug for Parkinson's disease, and working with collaborators at Technion – Israel Institute of Technology in Israel and the drug company, Teva Pharmaceuticals, identified the R-isomer as the active form of the drug. Teva brought it to market in partnership with Lundbeck in Europe and Eisai in the US and elsewhere. It was approved in Europe in 2005 and in the US in 2006.
Rasagiline is used to treat symptoms of Parkinson's disease both alone and in combination with other drugs. It has shown efficacy in both early and advanced Parkinsons, and appears to be especially useful in dealing with non-motor symptoms like fatigue.
Rasagiline has not been tested in pregnant women and is Pregnancy Category C in the US. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Ceftezole (or ceftezol) is a semisynthetic first-generation cephalosporin antibiotic.
Ceftezole binds to and inactivates penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) located on the inner membrane of the bacterial cell wall. PBPs are enzymes involved in the terminal stages of assembling the bacterial cell wall and in reshaping the cell wall during growth and division. Inactivation of PBPs interferes with the cross-linkage of peptidoglycan chains necessary for bacterial cell wall strength and rigidity. This results in the weakening of the bacterial cell wall and causes cell lysis.
Ceftezole is having (1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-ylsulfanyl)methyl and [2-(1H-tetrazol-1-yl)acetamido side groups located at positions 3 and 7 respectively. It is a cephalosporin and a member of thiadiazoles. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Pure lisinopril powder is white to off white in color. Lisinopril is soluble in water (approximately 13 mg/L at room temperature), less soluble in methanol, and virtually insoluble in ethanol. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
ICOS has currently 13 member states and is in operational mode, with stations being certified for the operation according to the strict protocols and quality parameters. By the end of 2020 ICOS had 68 out of the 148 stations certified (labelled as either Class 1,2 or associated station), with greenhouse gas concentrations and fluxes determined on a routine basis.
ICOS member states | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
CFCs and HCFCs are used in various applications because of their low toxicity, reactivity and flammability. Every permutation of fluorine, chlorine and hydrogen based on methane and ethane has been examined and most have been commercialized. Furthermore, many examples are known for higher numbers of carbon as well as related compounds containing bromine. Uses include refrigerants, blowing agents, aerosol propellants in medicinal applications, and degreasing solvents.
Billions of kilograms of chlorodifluoromethane are produced annually as a precursor to tetrafluoroethylene, the monomer that is converted into Teflon. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Side effects of gestonorone caproate have been reported to include worsened glucose tolerance, decreased libido in men, and local injection site reactions such as irritation. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
The CDP (formerly the Carbon Disclosure Project) is an international non-profit organisation based in the United Kingdom, Japan, India, China, Germany, Brazil and the United States that helps companies, cities, states, regions and public authorities disclose their environmental impact. It aims to make environmental reporting and risk management a business norm, driving disclosure, insight, and action towards a sustainable economy. In 2022, nearly 18,700 organizations disclosed their environmental information through CDP. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earths atmosphere. The concentration of atmospheric methane is increasing due to methane emissions, and is causing climate change. Methane is one of the most potent greenhouse gases. Methanes radiative forcing (RF) of climate is direct, and it is the second largest contributor to human-caused climate forcing in the historical period. Methane is a major source of water vapour in the stratosphere through oxidation; and water vapour adds about 15% to methane's radiative forcing effect. The global warming potential (GWP) for methane is about 84 in terms of its impact over a 20-year timeframe, and 28 in terms of its impact over a 100-year timeframe.
Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution (around 1750) the methane concentration in the atmosphere has increased by about 160%, and this increase is almost entirely caused by human activities. Since 1750 methane has contributed 3% of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in terms of mass but is responsible for approximately 23% of radiative or climate forcing. By 2019, global methane concentrations had risen from 722 parts per billion (ppb) in pre-industrial times to 1866 ppb. This is an increase by a factor of 2.6 and the highest value in at least 800,000 years.
Methane increases the amount of ozone (O) in the troposphere ( to from the Earths surface) and also in the stratosphere (from the troposphere to above the Earths surface). Both water vapour and ozone are GHGs, which in turn add to climate warming. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Tetrafluoromethane and silicon tetrafluoride can be prepared in the laboratory by the reaction of silicon carbide with fluorine.
: SiC + 4 F → CF + SiF | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Rasagiline is molecularly a propargylamine derivative. The form brought to market by Teva and its partners is the mesylate salt, and was designated chemically as: 1H-Inden-1-amine-2,3-dihydro-N-2-propynyl-(1R)-methanesulfonate. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Common adverse drug reactions (ADRs) associated with pseudoephedrine therapy include central nervous system stimulation, insomnia, nervousness, excitability, dizziness and anxiety. Infrequent ADRs include tachycardia or palpitations. Rarely, pseudoephedrine therapy may be associated with mydriasis (dilated pupils), hallucinations, arrhythmias, hypertension, seizures and ischemic colitis; as well as severe skin reactions known as recurrent pseudo-scarlatina, systemic contact dermatitis, and nonpigmenting fixed drug eruption. Pseudoephedrine, particularly when combined with other drugs including narcotics, may also play a role in the precipitation of episodes of paranoid psychosis. It has also been reported that pseudoephedrine, among other sympathomimetic agents, may be associated with the occurrence of stroke. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
The North Australian Pastoral Company (NAPCO) is an Australian cattle company founded in 1877. It was originally established in the Barkly Tableland in the Northern Territory before expanding to Queensland as the company developed. It is one of Australia's oldest cattle companies and is today, a leading national beef producer in the Australian cattle industry. The company has a variety of stations throughout the Northern Territory and Queensland. Northern Territory stations include those such as Alexandria and Mittiebah, whilst Queensland stations encompass those such as Boomarra, Kynuna and Portland Downs. The company is most well known for its development of the Alexandria and Kynuna cattle composites which are species of cattle that are distinct to NAPCO and separate it from others in the pastoral industry. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |