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Denise Ho Wan-see (born 10 May 1977) is a Hong Kong-born Canadian Cantopop singer and actress. She is also a pro-democracy and Hong Kong human rights activist. In 2012, Ho came out as lesbian, the first mainstream Cantonese singer to do so. In 2014, Ho was blacklisted by the Chinese government and by the luxury brand Lancome for her participation in the Umbrella Movement in Hong Kong. Ho is a Canadian citizen. On 28 December 2021, Ho was arrested by the Hong Kong police under the joint charges of both production and distribution of seditious materials. Early life and education Ho was born in Hong Kong. Both of her parents were teachers. She began her primary school education at the Diocesan Girls' Junior School. In 1988, she moved with her parents to Montreal, Canada. Ho first attended Collège Jean de la Mennais, an elementary and middle school in La Prairie, on the South Shore of Montreal, then attended Collège Jean-de-Brébeuf, a Catholic college preparatory secondary school and private college. There, she received a Quebec Diploma of College Studies in Arts and Communications.In 1996, she returned to Hong Kong to take part in the New Talent Singing Awards (NTSA). Afterwards, she began her studies at Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM) in graphic design. She was enrolled for only one semester before returning to Hong Kong to kickstart her career. Career 1996–1999: Career begins At age 19, Ho enrolled in the 1996 New Talent Singing Awards and to her stated surprise, won the competition.This gave her the opportunity to meet Anita Mui, a renowned singer of Cantopop—"queen of Hong Kong movies and…renowned in the… world of Cantonese pop music"—of whom she had been a fan since childhood, and who would become her mentor following her win. This launched her career, and at this time she took on the stage name, "HoCC"; this gave her the opportunity to record an album, and gave her a recording contract with Capital Artists. In the intervening period between the contents win and her first album, Ho toured as a background vocalist with Mui, and hosted various television programs produced by TVB. 2000–2004: Breakthrough Ho released her first album "First" in 2001, in her fourth year of the contract with Capital Artists. Produced by Choy Yat Chi of Grasshopper (band), this EP, containing her first single "Thousands More of Me" (千千萬萬個我) and "Home of Glory" (光榮之家), defined with success Ho's style as the rock pop independent female she is up till recent years. She earned the award of “Best New Singer” in various prize presentation ceremonies that year. In October, Capital Artists announced bankruptcy, resulting in the end of Ho's first record label era. After Capital Artists closed, Ho joined EMI in 2002. Although she was only with the company for a brief 2-year period, it was during this time that her musical talents flourished. She teamed up with Ying C Foo (英師傅) for her first EMI label release, Hocc². The song "Angel Blues" (天使藍), composed by Ho herself, not only reached top spots on music charts, but according to Ho, it is also her "growing up" song.Another single in the EP, "Rosemary" (露絲瑪莉), written by Wyman Wong, created considerable controversies at the time, as it touched on the topic of lesbianism. This song also marked the beginning of Ho's series of songs containing gay themes. Following the success of "Rosemary" (露絲瑪莉), Ho continued the story of the two lovers in "Goodbye... Rosemary" (再見...露絲瑪莉) in her first full-length album, “free {love}”.In 2002, Ho's two singles "Angel Blues" (天使藍) and "Goodbye... Rosemary" (再見...露絲瑪莉) won multiple music awards in Hong Kong, including CASH Golden Sail Music Awards (CASH金帆音樂獎) – "Best Vocal Performance by a Female Artist" for the song "Angel Blues". In the same year, Ho won the renowned "Female Singer Bronze Award" in the Ultimate Song Chart Awards Presentation (叱吒樂壇流行榜頒獎典禮).In 2003, Ho held a "Music is Live" concert with Andy Hui, who is also an apprentice of Anita Mui. Their performance won praise from the critics, and Ho proved to the audience her abilities to perform live as a musician. Later that year, Ho released her second full-length album "Dress Me Up!". She was the credited as the producer of the album, indicating that Ho has finally gained full control over her music. In September 2003, Ho's longtime mentor, Anita Mui announced she was diagnosed with cervical cancer. Shortly after the announcement, Anita lost her battle against cervical cancer and died on 30 December 2003. Between 2003 and 2004, Ho took on the role of hosting TVB's weekly live music show, Jade Solid Gold. In 2004, she appeared in Sammi Cheng's 2004 "Sammi vs. Sammi" concert as a cross-dressing cigarette-smoking admirer of Sammi Cheng. Ho's critically acclaimed performance in the short musical segment not only brought attention to the role she played, but also further established herself as a tremendous live performer. In September 2004, Ho signed a contract with East Asia Music. 2005–2009: Continued success The album "Glamorous", which pays tribute to the superstars of the 1980s, was released in January 2005. It also marked the start of a close collaboration between Ho and the Green Mountain Orchestra band. She was named the Orbis Student Ambassador 2005, and visited Hainan in July. In September 2005, Ho performed in the musical Butterfly Lovers (梁祝下世傳奇) as the leading actress, producer and musical director. Her album of the same name gave her three Number 1 singles – "Becoming a Butterfly" (化蝶), "Lawrence and Lewis" (勞斯．萊斯) and "Coffee in a Soda Bottle" (汽水樽裡的咖啡), which are all based on the story of the Butterfly Lovers, with possible homosexual themes. These singles helped her to receive the "Female Singer Silver Award" at the Ultimate Song Chart Awards Presentation 2005 (叱吒樂壇流行榜頒獎典禮). Ho held her first Hong Kong Coliseum concert "Live in Unity 2006" on 26–28 October 2006. The concert was a great success and was positively received by the public. She decided to stage a second concert, "Live in Unity 2007", on 19–20 January 2007 following the original concert's success. Her single, "We Stand As One", named after the slogan for the "Live in Unity" concerts, was released on 11 January 2007. Recordings of the concert were later released in February 2007. She went on a worldwide tour, performing in Toronto, Canada and Atlantic City, New Jersey.The significant public attention and positive reception to her music helped her garner the "Female Singer Gold Award" at the Ultimate Song Chart Awards Presentation 2006 (叱吒樂壇流行榜頒獎典禮). She sang the Chinese version of Ayumi Hamasaki's song "Secret", known as "Wounded City Secret" (傷城秘密), for the 2006 movie Confession of Pain. She continued as the Orbis Student Ambassador 2006 and visited Vietnam, and later started her own charitable fund. In 2008, a new album "Ten Days in the Madhouse" was released. She produced this album from the viewpoint of society's outcasts and to raise awareness of mental health issues. She encouraged people to understand and find out more about people with mental illnesses and those who formerly suffered from mental illnesses, and care about their needs and situations. Ho encouraged communication between them and the public, ultimately, to achieve social harmony. "Ten Days in the Madhouse" was Ho's most ambitious project. Yet, with the release of a documentary by Hong Kong director Yan Yan Mak (Butterfly) and an exhibition for charity, Ho showed that a multimedia project by a musician can be about something more important than clothing tie-ins.In 2009, she followed up her plan from the previous year and organised a free concert called "Happiness is Free" in the outdoor courtyard of Diocesan Boys' School. She managed to book the place because her father was a teacher there. In June, she began shooting a new TVB sitcom titled O.L. Supreme with Liza Wang. In July, she released her new song "The Old Testament" (舊約) and announced that she would hold her "SUPERGOO" themed concerts from 9–12 October that year. Following the concerts, Ho took on a role in the new stage comedy "Man and Woman, War and Peace" (男人與女人之戰爭與和平) directed by Edward Lam. The stage comedy was presented on 13–16 November at Kwai Tsing Theatre in Hong Kong. 2010–2015: Political awakening In 2010, Ho appeared in the film Life Without Principle directed by Johnnie To. In September 2010, her first Mandarin album "Nameless Poem" (無名．詩) was released in Taiwan and Hong Kong, and she held "Homecoming" concerts in Hong Kong in December 2010. In 2011, Ho received her first nomination in the 22nd Golden Melody Awards as “Best Mandarin Female Singer”.In 2012, she was nominated in the 49th Golden Horse Award for “Best Actress” for her performance in the movie “Life Without Principle”. In the same year, she came out as gay at the fourth annual Hong Kong Pride Parade, becoming the first "mainstream female singer in Hong Kong to come out of the closet". Since then, Ho has been actively involved in striving for LGBT rights. In 2013, Ho continued the tour of her play, “Awakening”, in Singapore and in many cities in China. She released her second Mandarin album, “Coexistence”, which touches upon the theme of loving others despite differences. Ho received her second nomination in the 25th Golden Melody Awards as “Best Mandarin Female Singer” in 2014.At the end of 2014, the Umbrella Movement emerged in Hong Kong. Ho was a staunch supporter of the movement, and was later arrested when the police cleared the protest camps. Her active participation in Hong Kong's large-scale social movement led her to be blacklisted and banned from performing in China. 2015–present: Independent artist In March 2015, Ho's contract with Media Asia Music (previously named as East Asia Music) expired. She announced in her Facebook and newspaper column in Apple Daily that she would become an independent artist. Afterwards, she organized multiple events on her own: “Reimagine Live”, a self-funded concert in Taiwan, and a local charity market co-organized with Nomad Nomad. On 19–24 August 2015, she also held a self-funded concert “Reimagine HK18” in Hong Kong Queen Elizabeth Stadium. On 7–10 October 2016, Ho returned to the Hong Kong Coliseum for her first crowdfunded concert “Dear Friend,”. As she was banned and blacklisted by China, Ho could not find any powerful sponsor that would support her shows. So she came up with a crowdfunding alternative she called “Togetherly Exclusive.” She invited individuals and small and medium enterprises to pledge sponsorship for the event. Eventually, sponsored by over 300 small enterprises and individuals, the four-day concert was successfully held and revisited 24 of the singer's greatest hits. Approaching the end of 2016, Ho was selected by the BBC as one of the “100 Women 2016”.From the end of 2017 to 2018, she went on a worldwide tour called “Dear Self, Dear World”, performing in Britain, Taiwan and the United States and Canada. She originally planned to continue the tour in Malaysia, but was forced to cancel as her visa application was rejected by the Immigration Department of Malaysia. In May 2018, Ho published a new song “Polar”, marking her first attempt to write lyrics for a song. In September, Ho collaborated with Taiwanese band Chthonic on their song Millennia's Faith Undone, which required her to sing in Taiwanese Hokkien. Later, an acoustic version of the song was also released.At the end of 2018, she successfully organized a 6-day event called “On The Pulse Of” Festival in Hong Kong Science Park. The event is a combination of local market, music festival and Ho's concert. She tried to invite Chthonic to perform together in the festival, but the band's work visa application was denied. Eventually, Ho managed to make a joint performance on stage with Chthonic in her concert through video chat.In 2019, Ho started to become an active speaker in international human rights forum. In May 2019, Ho was invited to participate in Oslo Freedom Forum. She made a speech on the topic “Under the umbrella : Creative dissent in Hong Kong” and performed “Polar” to the audience. Followed by that is Hong Kong's anti-extradition law amendment bill protests. Ho, as a Canto-pop star turned activist, got worldwide media coverage due to her active participation in the movement. On 8 July, she attended the United Nations Human Rights Council's meeting in Geneva. During her short speech, she called on the council to remove China from the body and convene an urgent session to protect Hongkongers, sparking two interruptions by Chinese delegate Dai Demao. On 20 August, Ho participated in Singularity University's (SU) annual Global Summit and did a keynote speech about how Hong Kong people utilize technology in their social movements.On 29 December 2021, Ho and five other people linked to Stand News, including barrister Margaret Ng, were arrested by Hong Kong Police on suspicion of breaching the colonial-era law covering conspiracy to print or distribute seditious materials. Ho is a Canadian citizen who partly grew up in Montreal; a Canadian government spokesman expressed concern about the arrests and stated that Canada and its allies would issue a statement. Activism When asked about the origins of her "passion for freedom of expression," Ho replied to reporter Frédéric Lelièvre of La Presse that it was probably from her being an adolescent in Montreal at the time of the 1995 Quebec referendum. LGBT issues Ho proudly announced herself as "tongzhi" (Cantonese: tung4 zi3), a Chinese slang term for homosexuals, at age 35, at the fourth annual Hong Kong Pride Parade on 10 November 2012.Sara Gates of The Huffington Post reports that the various Hong Kong media outlets had indicated that Ho was the first "mainstream female singer in Hong Kong to come out of the closet." Since then, Ho has been involved in the Big Love Alliance (大愛同盟), a civil rights group striving equal rights for the LGBT community. This marks the start of her involvement in striving LGBT rights. Days later, she watched in appalled amazement as the city's parliament struck down a motion to launch a public consultation on LGBT discrimination. "It wasn't about gay marriage, nothing serious like that, just trying to do a public survey and it was blocked," she said. "I was so angry back then, and that was the first time I saw how unfair the system is, how the government controlled everything."Ho faced a visa refusal by Malaysia in February 2018, which forced her to cancel the concert in April, allegedly related to her stance on LGBT and her LGBT identity. Pro-democracy activism In 2014, Ho made her stance clear when police fired tear gas in a futile attempt to disperse thousands of mostly-young pro-democracy protesters who had taken to the streets for the "Umbrella Movement". "That was an enraging moment for me and for many other Hong Kong people," Ho said. "As a celebrity, as a public persona, as an adult, you have to speak out in support of these students and these other Hong Kong citizens." She took to the streets herself, becoming one of the movement's most outspoken supporters, and one of the last to be hauled off by the police when they cleared the protest camps.On 5 June 2016, French cosmetics brand Lancôme cancelled a promotional concert by Denise Ho that was scheduled to be held on 19 June in Sheung Wan. This action was taken in response to a boycott campaign launched by the Communist Party-controlled Global Times, which accused her of supporting Hong Kong and Tibet independence, and backlash from mainland Chinese internet users. Lancôme added, in a Facebook post, that Ho is not a spokesperson for the brand. The Tibet allegation appeared to have stemmed from Ho's May 2016 meeting with the Dalai Lama. Ho says that citizens' wish for self-rule is not a crime.Shortly after the Lancôme incident, Ho announced a crowd-sponsorship campaign named "Togetherly Exclusive Sponsorship" for her Hong Kong Coliseum concert "Dear Friend,”. It was planned to be held in October of the same year, in response to being avoided by corporates.Approaching the end of 2016, Ho was selected by the BBC as one of the “100 Women 2016”.In 2019, Ho became an active speaker in international human rights forum. In May 2019, Ho was invited to participate in Oslo Freedom Forum, a global platform for human rights defenders to share their stories. She made a speech on the topic “Under the umbrella : Creative dissent in Hong Kong” and performed “Polar” to the audience.Followed by that was her response to Hong Kong's anti-extradition law amendment bill protests. Ho got worldwide media coverage due to her supposed active participation in the movement.On 8 July, she attended the United Nations Human Rights Council's (UNHRC) meeting in Geneva. She asked the United Nations (UN) and the international community to protect the people of Hong Kong from infringements on their freedoms, saying that human rights were under "serious attack" in Hong Kong, and called on the UN to remove China from the Human Rights Council. According to Ho, China has engaged in kidnappings, jailed activists, disqualified pro-democracy lawmakers, and restricts universal suffrage. Her speech was interrupted twice by Chinese diplomat Dai Demao, who asserted Chinese sovereignty over Hong Kong. Dai accused Ho of "[mentioning] Hong Kong side-by-side with China", which he called an "affront" and accused her of using "abusive language."Her speech at the UNHRC was in reference to the China extradition bill protests and the ongoing freedom and democracy movement in Hong Kong. Speaking about the protests, Ho stated that police engage in excessive force, and that if the Hong Kong government continues to ignore citizen demands the opposition movement will continue. During an interview prior to the UN session, Ho called Beijing's abuses a global issue, and mentioned Tibet and Xinjiang as regions also suffering from human rights violations.On 20 August, Ho participated in Singularity University's (SU) annual Global Summit and did a keynote speech about how Hong Kong people utilize technology in their social movements. She attended the following events: Antidote 2019, a festival organized by the Sydney Opera House; "Be Water: Hong Kong vs China", a seminar co-organized with Badiucao in Melbourne; and this year's second Oslo Freedom Forum, which will take place in Taiwan. On 17 September, Ho and other activists participated in a Congressional-Executive Commission on China (CECC) commission in the United States Capitol. She emphasized that the Hong Kong police were using excessive violence on the protesters, and urged the U.S. Congress to pass the Hong Kong Human Rights and Democracy Act. In response, Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesman Geng Shuang called for foreign legislatures to not interfere in China's internal affairs. Ho rejected this in her testimony, saying, "This is not a plea for so-called foreign interference. This is a plea for democracy."A 90-minute documentary film produced by Sue Williams, Denise Ho: Becoming the Song, released on 1 July 2020 in solidarity with the protest, marking the 23rd anniversary of Britain's handover of Hong Kong to China in 1997.On 11 May 2022, Ho was arrested under the charge of "colluding with foreign forces" by the national security police. Discography Studio albums first. (EP) (2001) hocc² (EP) (2002) free {love} (2002) Dress Me Up (2003) Glamorous (2005) Butterfly Lovers (2005) Our Time Has Come (2006) What Really Matters (2007) Ten Days in the Madhouse (2008) Heroes (2009) Unnamed.Poem (2010) Awakening (2011) Coexistence (2013) Recollections (2013) Compilation albums Roundup (New + Best Selection) (2003) Goomusic Collection 2004-2008 (2008) Live albums HOCC Live in Unity (2007) Supergoo · Live (2009) Coexistence · Legacy Taipei Live (2013) Memento Live 2013 (2014) Reimagine Live 2015 (2015) Dear Friend, Concert 2016 Live (2017) Dear Self, Dear World · Live in Montreal (2019) On the Pulse of HOCC 2018 Live (2019) Filmography Film 1998 – Rumble Ages (烈火青春) 1999 - Anti Crime Squad 2000 – The Slayer of Demons (妖怪傳) – Voice only: Sakuya (聲演: 神木櫻夜) 2003 – 1:99 2003 – Naked Ambition (豪情) 2003 – Anna in Kungfuland (安娜與武林) 2003 – Hidden Track (尋找周杰倫) 2006 – Superstition 2007 – The Simpsons Movie (阿森一族大電影) – Hong Kong Voice only: Bart Simpson 2008 – Kung Fu Panda (功夫熊貓) – Hong Kong Voice only: Tigress 2009 – Look for a Star (游龍戲鳳) 2010 – 72 Tenants of Prosperity (72家租客) 2010 – Merry-Go-Round (東風破) 2011 – Kung Fu Panda (功夫熊貓) – Hong Kong Voice only: Tigress 2011 – Life Without Principle (奪命金) 2012 – I Love Hong Kong 2012 (2012我愛HK 喜上加囍) 2013 – Young and Dangerous: Reloaded (古惑仔：江湖新秩序) 2020 – Denise Ho: Becoming the Song – documentary film produced by Sue Williams TV series 1999 – Anti-Crime Squad (反黑先鋒) as 單解心 2004 – Shanghai Legend (上海灘之俠醫傳奇)as 江雪 2010 – O.L. Supreme (女王辦公室) as Music Miu 繆惜之 Concerts and tours Live in Unity (2006) Happiness is Free (2009) Supergoo (2009) Homecoming Live (2010) Memento Live (2013) Reimagine Hong Kong (2015) Dear Friend, (2016) Dear Self, Dear World (2017-2018) On The Pulse Of (2018) International conferences and talks May 2019 – Oslo Freedom Forum (Oslo) July 2019 – United Nations Human Rights Council's meeting (Geneva) August 2019 – Singularity University's (SU) annual Global Summit (San Francisco) September 2019 – Antidote 2019 by Sydney Opera House (Sydney) September 2019 – "Be Water: Hong Kong vs China" Seminar with Badiucao (Melbourne) September 2019 - Oslo Freedom Forum (Taipei) October 2019 - Oslo Freedom Forum (New York) December 2019- TEDWomen — Brilliant and Bold February 2020- Geneva Summit for Human Rights and Democracy — (Geneva) Awards and nominations Ho has received numerous awards. As a solo artist she has achieved IFPI's "Top 10 Best-selling Local Artists Award" for 9 consecutive years, making her one of the best-selling artists in Hong Kong. She had also won the title of "Best Female Singer" and "My Favourite Female Singer" in the CRHK Ultimate Song Chart Awards Presentation over the past years, securing her position as a leading pop diva in the city. In recent years, although she is blacklisted by China, she has started up her own record label and continued to produce music. In 2019, she has collaborated with CHTHONIC, a Taiwanese band, to make the song "Millennia's Faith Undone". The song is nominated as "Song of the Year" in the 30th Golden Melody Awards. Despite her robust music career, she has also made numerous attempts in the area of film and drama. As one of the leading actress in Johnnie To's award-winning film, "Life Without Principles", she had received recognition for her performance by achieving nominations and awards in the Hong Kong Film Awards, Golden Horse Awards and Chinese Film Media Awards respectively. Films Dramas Music See also LGBT culture in Hong Kong 2014 Umbrella Revolution 2019–20 Hong Kong protests Denise Ho's Official Blog Denise Ho's Former Official Blog Archived 28 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine Denise Ho on Twitter Denise Ho at IMDb
Ban Ki-moon (Korean: 반기문; Hanja: 潘基文; Korean pronunciation: [pan.ɡi.mun]; born 13 June 1944) is a South Korean politician and diplomat who served as the eighth secretary-general of the United Nations between 2007 and 2016. Prior to his appointment as secretary-general, Ban was the South Korean Minister of Foreign Affairs and Trade between 2004 and 2006. Ban was initially considered to be a long shot for the office of Secretary-General of the United Nations; he began to campaign for the office in February 2006. As the foreign minister of South Korea, he was able to travel to all the countries on the United Nations Security Council, a maneuver that subsequently turned him into the campaign's front runner. On 13 October 2006, he was elected as the eighth secretary-general by the United Nations General Assembly. On 1 January 2007, he succeeded Kofi Annan. As secretary-general, he was responsible for several major reforms on peacekeeping and UN employment practices around the world. Diplomatically, Ban has taken particularly strong views on global warming, pressing the issue repeatedly with U.S. President George W. Bush, and on the Darfur conflict, where he helped persuade Sudanese president Omar al-Bashir to allow peacekeeping troops to enter Sudan.Ban was named the world's 32nd most powerful person by the Forbes list of The World's Most Powerful People in 2013, the highest among South Koreans. In 2014, he was named the third most powerful South Korean after Lee Kun-hee and Lee Jae-yong. In 2016, Foreign Policy named Ban one of the Top 100 Global Thinkers for his achievement of helping the Paris Agreement to be ratified and enforced less than a year after it was adopted.António Guterres was appointed by the General Assembly on 13 October 2016 to be the successor of Ban Ki-moon as he exited on 31 December 2016. He was widely considered to be a potential candidate for the 2017 South Korean presidential election, before announcing, on 1 February, that he would not be running. On 14 September 2017, Ban was elected chair of the International Olympic Committee's Ethics Commission. Also in 2017, Ban co-founded the nonprofit Ban Ki-moon Centre for Global Citizens. He also currently serves as the Distinguished Chair Professor at Yonsei University's Institute for Global Engagement and Empowerment.On 20 February 2018, Ban was unanimously elected as the president of the assembly and chair of the council by the members of the assembly and council, respectively, the two governance organs of the Global Green Growth Institute (GGGI), a treaty-based international, inter-governmental organization dedicated to supporting and promoting environmentally sustainable and socially inclusive economic growth in developing countries and emerging economies. Since Ban's election as the president and chair, GGGI's list of Members has expanded from 27 to 43 Member Countries and Regional Integration Organizations. On 16 October 2018, the Global Commission on Adaptation was launched with Ban as co-chair, together with Bill Gates and Kristalina Georgieva. The commission's mandate to accelerate adaptation by elevating the political visibility of adaptation and focusing on concrete solutions came to an end following its Year of Action in 2020, with its work showcased at the Climate Adaptation Summit hosted by the Netherlands on 25 January 2021. Ban currently serves as co-chair for the Global Center on Adaptation, which is taking forward the commission's work through its programs. He became the first major international diplomat to throw his weight behind the Green New Deal, a nascent effort by the progressive wing of the Democratic Party in the United States to zero out planet-warming emissions and end poverty over the next decade. Early life and education Ban was born on 13 June 1944 in the small farming village of Haengchi, Wonnam Township (-myeon), in Eumseong County (insei), North Chungcheong Province in what was then Japanese Korea. His family then moved to the nearby town of Chungju, where he grew up. During Ban's childhood, his father had a warehouse business, but the warehouse went bankrupt and the family lost its middle-class standard of living. When Ban was six, his family fled to a remote mountainside for much of the Korean War. After the war ended, his family returned to Chungju. Ban has said that, during this time, he met American soldiers.During his secondary school education at Chungju High School, Ban became a star student, particularly in his studies of the English language. In 1962, Ban won an essay contest sponsored by the Red Cross and earned a trip to the United States where he lived in San Francisco with a host family for several months. As part of the trip, Ban met U.S. President John F. Kennedy. When a journalist at the meeting asked Ban what he wanted to be when he grew up, he said, "I want to become a diplomat."Ban graduated from Seoul National University in 1970 with a bachelor's degree in international relations. He subsequently went on to complete a Master of Public Administration degree at the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University in 1985. At Harvard, he studied under Joseph Nye, who remarked that Ban had "a rare combination of analytic clarity, humility and perseverance".In addition to his native Korean, Ban speaks English and French. According to a retired UN official, "one of Ban's biggest handicaps was his lack of fluency in English, which made it difficult for him to win over audiences in the US and elsewhere." There have also been questions, however, regarding the extent of his knowledge of French, one of the two working languages of the United Nations Secretariat. Career Diplomatic career After graduating from university, Ban received the top score on Korea's foreign service exam. He joined the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in May 1970 and worked his way up the career ladder during the years of the Yusin Constitution.Ban's first overseas posting was to New Delhi, India, where he served as vice consul and impressed many of his superiors in the foreign ministry with his competence. Ban reportedly accepted a posting to India rather than the United States, because in India he would be able to save more money to send to his family. In 1974 he received his first posting to the United Nations, as First Secretary of the South Permanent Observer Mission (South Korea became a full UN member-state on 17 September 1991). After Park Chung-hee's 1979 assassination, Ban assumed the post of Director of the United Nations Division. In 1980, Ban became director of the United Nations' International Organizations and Treaties Bureau, headquartered in Seoul. He has been posted twice to the South Korean embassy in Washington, D. C. Between these two assignments he served as Director-General for American Affairs in 1990–92. In 1992, he became Vice Chairman of the South-North Joint Nuclear Control Commission, following the adoption by South and North Korea of the Joint Declaration of the Denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula. From 1993 to 1994 Ban was Korea's deputy ambassador to the United States. He was promoted to the position of Deputy Minister for Policy Planning and International Organizations in 1995 and then appointed National Security Advisor to the President in 1996. Ban's lengthy career overseas has been credited with helping him avoid South Korea's unforgiving political environment.Ban was appointed Ambassador to Austria and Slovenia in 1998, and a year later he was also elected as Chairman of the Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO PrepCom). During the negotiations, in what Ban considers the biggest blunder of his career, he included in a public letter a positive statement about the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty in 2001, not long after the United States had decided to abandon the treaty. To avoid anger from the United States, Ban was fired by President Kim Dae-jung, who also issued a public apology for Ban's statement.Ban was unemployed for the only time in his career and was expecting to receive an assignment to work in a remote and unimportant embassy. In 2001, during the 56th Session of the United Nations General Assembly, South Korea held the rotating presidency, and to Ban's surprise, he was selected to be the chief of staff to general assembly president Han Seung-soo. In 2003, incoming president Roh Moo-hyun selected Ban as one of his foreign policy advisors. Foreign minister of South Korea In 2004, Ban replaced the resigning Yoon Young-kwan as foreign minister of South Korea under president Roh Moo-hyun. At the beginning of his term, Ban was faced with two major crises: in June 2004 Kim Sun-il, a South Korean working as an Arabic translator, was kidnapped and killed in Iraq by Islamic extremists; and in December 2004 dozens of Koreans died in the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. Ban survived scrutiny from lawmakers and saw an upturn in his popularity when talks began with North Korea. Ban became actively involved in issues relating to North-South Korean relationships. In September 2005, as foreign minister, he played a leading role in the diplomatic efforts to adopt the Joint Statement on resolving the North Korean nuclear issue at the fourth round of the Six-party talks held in Beijing.As foreign minister, Ban oversaw the trade and aid policies of South Korea. This work put Ban in the position of signing trade deals and delivering foreign assistance to diplomats who would later be influential in his candidacy for secretary-general. For example, Ban became the first senior South Korean minister to travel to the Republic of the Congo since its independence in 1960. United Nations career Campaign for secretary-general: 2007 In February 2006, Ban declared his candidacy to replace Kofi Annan as UN Secretary-General at the end of 2006, becoming the first South Korean to run for the office. Though Ban was the first to announce a candidacy, he was not originally considered a serious contender.Over the next eight months, Ban made ministerial visits to each of the 15 countries with a seat on the Security Council. Of the seven candidates, he topped each of the four straw polls conducted by the United Nations Security Council: on 24 July, 14 September, 28 September, and 2 October.During the period in which these polls took place, Ban made major speeches to the Asia Society and the Council on Foreign Relations in New York City. To be confirmed, Ban needed not only to win the support of the diplomatic community, but also to be able to avoid a veto from any of the five permanent members of the council: People's Republic of China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Ban was popular in Washington for having pushed to send South Korean troops to Iraq, and had the support of the Bush administration as he pursued the position. But Ban also opposed several U.S. positions: he expressed his support for the International Criminal Court and favoured an entirely non-confrontational approach to dealing with North Korea. Ban said during his campaign that he would like to visit North Korea in person to meet with Kim Jong-il directly. Ban was viewed as a stark contrast from Kofi Annan, who was considered charismatic, but perceived as a weak manager because of problems surrounding the UN's oil-for-food program in Iraq.Ban struggled to win the approval of France. His official biography states that he speaks both English and French, the two working languages of the UN Secretariat. However, he has repeatedly struggled to answer questions in French from journalists. Ban has repeatedly acknowledged his limitations at French, but assured French diplomats that he was devoted to continuing his study. At a press conference on 11 January 2007, Ban remarked, "My French perhaps could be improved, and I am continuing to work. I have taken French lessons over the last few months. I think that, even if my French isn't perfect, I will continue to study it."As the secretary-general election drew closer, there was rising criticism of the South Korean campaign on Ban's behalf. Specifically, his alleged practice of systematically visiting all member states of the Security Council in his role as the Minister of Foreign Affairs and Trade to secure votes in his support by signing trade deals with European countries and pledging aid to developing countries were the focus of many news articles. According to The Washington Post, "rivals have privately grumbled that Republic of Korea, which has the world's 11th-largest economy, has wielded its economic might to generate support for his candidacy". Ban reportedly said that these insinuations were "groundless". In an interview on 17 September 2006 he stated: "As front-runner, I know that I can become a target of this very scrutinizing process", and that he was "a man of integrity".In the final informal poll on 2 October, Ban received fourteen favorable votes and one abstention ("no opinion") from the fifteen members of the Security Council. The one abstention came from the Japanese delegation, who vehemently opposed the idea of a Korean taking the role of secretary-general. Due to the overwhelming support of Ban by the rest of the Security Council, Japan later voted in favor of Ban to avoid controversy. More importantly, Ban was the only one to escape a veto; each of the other candidates received at least one "no" vote from among the five permanent members. After the vote, Shashi Tharoor, who finished second, withdrew his candidacy and China's Permanent Representative to the UN told reporters that "it is quite clear from today's straw poll that Minister Ban Ki-moon is the candidate that the Security Council will recommend to the General Assembly".On 9 October, the Security Council formally chose Ban as its nominee. In the public vote, he was supported by all 15 members of the council. On 13 October, the 192-member General Assembly acclaimed Ban as secretary-general. First term as secretary-general When Ban became secretary-general, The Economist listed the major challenges facing him in 2007: "rising nuclear demons in Iran and North Korea, a haemorrhaging wound in Darfur, unending violence in the Middle East, looming environmental disaster, escalating international terrorism, the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, the spread of HIV/AIDS. And then the more parochial concerns, such as the largely unfinished business of the most sweeping attempt at reform in the UN's history". Before starting, Kofi Annan shared the story that when the first Secretary-General Trygve Lie left office, he told his successor, Dag Hammarskjöld, "You are about to take over the most impossible job on earth".On 23 January 2007 Ban took office as the eighth Secretary-General of the United Nations. Ban's term as Secretary-General opened with a flap. At his first encounter with the press as Secretary-General on 2 January 2007, he refused to condemn the death penalty imposed on Saddam Hussein by the Iraqi High Tribunal, remarking, "The issue of capital punishment is for each and every member State to decide". Ban's statements contradicted long-standing United Nations opposition to the death penalty as a human-rights concern. He quickly clarified his stance in the case of Barzan al-Tikriti and Awad al-Bandar, two top officials who were convicted of the deaths of 148 Shia Muslims in the Iraqi village of Dujail in the 1980s. In a statement through his spokesperson on 6 January, he "strongly urged the Government of Iraq to grant a stay of execution to those whose death sentences may be carried out in the near future". On the broader issue, he told a Washington, D.C. audience on 16 January 2007 that he recognized and encouraged the "growing trend in international society, international law and domestic policies and practices to phase out eventually the death penalty".On the tenth anniversary of Khmer Rouge leader Pol Pot's death, 15 April 2008, Ban Ki-moon appealed for the senior leaders of the regime to be brought to justice. The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia-tribunal, which was established by both the United Nations and Cambodia and which became operational in 2006, is responsible for prosecuting the aforementioned senior leaders.Ban has received strong criticism from the UN Office of Internal Oversight Services (OIOS), which stated that the secretariat under Ban's leadership was "drifting into irrelevance". Cabinet In early January, Ban appointed the key members of his cabinet. As his Deputy Secretary-General, he selected Tanzanian foreign minister and professor Asha-Rose Migiro, a move that pleased African diplomats who had concerns of losing power without Annan in office.The top position devoted exclusively to management, Under-Secretary-General for Management, was filled by Alicia Bárcena Ibarra of Mexico. Bárcena was considered a UN insider, having previously served as Annan's chief of staff. Her appointment was seen by critics as an indication that Ban would not make dramatic changes to UN bureaucracy. Ban appointed Sir John Holmes, the British Ambassador to France, as Under-Secretary-General for humanitarian affairs and coordinator of emergency relief.Ban initially said that he would delay making other appointments until his first round of reforms were approved, yet later abandoned this idea after receiving criticism. In February he continued with appointments, selecting B. Lynn Pascoe, the U.S. ambassador to Indonesia, to become Under-Secretary-General for political affairs. Jean-Marie Guéhenno, a French diplomat, who had served as Under-Secretary-General for peacekeeping operations under Annan, remained in office. Ban selected Vijay K. Nambiar as his chief of staff. Nambiar later stepped down in 2012 and was replaced by Susana Malcorra of Argentina who served as chief of staff from April 2012 to November 2016.The appointment of many women to top jobs was seen as fulfilling a campaign promise Ban had made to increase the role of women in the United Nations. During Ban's first year as secretary-general, more top jobs were being handled by women than ever before. Though not appointed by Ban, the president of the General Assembly, Haya Rashed Al-Khalifa, is only the third woman to hold this position in United Nations history. Reform agenda During his first month in office, Ban proposed two major reforms: to split the UN peacekeeping operation into two departments and to combine the political affairs and disarmament department. His proposals were met with stiff resistance from members of the UN General Assembly who bristled under Ban's request for rapid approval. The proposed merger of the disarmament and political affairs offices was criticized by many in the developing world, partially because of rumours that Ban hoped to place American B. Lynn Pascoe in charge of the new office. Alejandro D. Wolff, then acting American ambassador, said the United States backed his proposals. After the early bout of reproach, Ban began extensive consultation with UN ambassadors, agreeing to have his peacekeeping proposal extensively vetted. After the consultations, Ban dropped his proposal to combine political affairs and disarmament. Ban nevertheless pressed ahead with reforms on job requirements at the UN requiring that all positions be considered five-year appointments, all receive strict annual performance reviews, and all financial disclosures be made public. Though unpopular in the New York office, the move was popular in other UN offices around the world and lauded by UN observers. Ban's proposal to split the peacekeeping operation into one group handling operations and another handling arms was finally adopted in mid-March 2007. Key issues The Secretary-General of the United Nations has the ability to influence debate on nearly any global issue. Although unsuccessful in some areas, Ban's predecessor Annan had been successful in increasing the UN peacekeeping presence and in popularizing the Millennium Development Goals. UN observers were eager to see on which issues Ban intended to focus, in addition to his declared interest in reforming the United Nations bureaucracy.On several prominent issues, such as proliferation in Iran and North Korea, Ban has deferred to the Security Council. In 2007, the Republic of Nauru raised the issue of allowing the Republic of China (Taiwan) to sign the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women. Ban referenced the United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758, and refused the motion. On 19 July 2007, Taiwanese President Chen Shui-bian wrote to request admission into the UN by the name Taiwan. Ban rejected the request, stating that Resolution 2758 defined Taiwan as part of China. Global warming Ban early on identified global warming as one of the key issues of his administration. In a White House meeting with U.S. President George W. Bush in January, Ban urged Bush to take steps to curb greenhouse gas emissions. On 1 March 2007 in a speech before the UN General Assembly, Ban emphasized his concerns about global warming. Ban stated, "For my generation, coming of age at the height of the Cold War, fear of nuclear winter seemed the leading existential threat on the horizon. But the danger posed by war to all humanity—and to our planet—is at least matched by climate change" (referring to Global Warming, see P:GW portal). On 3 September 2009 he further emphasized his concerns at the World Climate Conference in Geneva, when he stated, "Our foot is stuck on the accelerator and we are heading towards an abyss". In September 2014, Ban joined demonstrators in the People's Climate March in New York City, and also called together world leaders for the UN Climate Summit, in preparation for the United Nations Climate Change Conference to be held in Paris in late 2015. Middle East On Thursday, 22 March 2007, while Ban was taking part in the first stop of a tour of the Middle East, a mortar attack hit just 80 meters (260 ft) from where the Secretary-General was standing, interrupting a press conference in Baghdad's Green Zone, and visibly shaking Ban and others. No one was hurt in the incident. The United Nations had already limited its role in Iraq after its Baghdad headquarters was bombed in August 2003, killing 22 people. Ban said, however, that he still hoped to find a way for the United Nations to "do more for Iraqi social and political development".On his trip, Ban visited Egypt, Israel, the West Bank, Jordan, Lebanon and Saudi Arabia, where Ban attended a conference with leaders of the Arab League and met for several hours with Omar Hassan al-Bashir, the Sudanese president who had resisted UN peacekeepers in Darfur. While Ban met with Mahmoud Abbas, the Palestinian president, he declined to meet with Ismail Haniya of Hamas. Ban Ki-moon criticized Israel on 10 March 2008 for planning to build housing units in a West Bank settlement, saying the decision conflicts with "Israel's obligation under the road map" for Middle East peace.During a meeting of the UN Security Council on Wednesday, 7 January 2009, Ban called for an immediate end to fighting in the Gaza Strip. He criticized both sides, Israel for bombarding Gaza and Hamas for firing rockets into Israel. Although the 2009 Iranian presidential election was widely disputed, Ban Ki-moon sent a traditional congratulation message to the Iranian president upon his inauguration. He kept silent over the request of Shirin Ebadi to visit Iran after the crackdown on peaceful post-election protests by the Iranian police, which was perceived as a crime against humanity. More than 4,000 people were arrested and nearly 70 were killed, some while being held in prison. In another incident, several prominent intellectuals, including Akbar Ganji, Hamid Dabashi and Noam Chomsky, went on a three-day hunger strike in front of the UN. The incident was followed by an official request by more than 200 intellectuals, human rights activists and reformist politicians in Iran for the UN reaction. Ban Ki-moon however did not take any action to stop the violence in Iran. The Libyan Civil War began in 2011, the last year of Ban's first term, and dominated his attention and public statements that year. Throughout the conflict, he lobbied for peaceful solutions to the crisis. He frequently spoke out against military action in Libya, believing that a diplomatic solution would be possible and preferable. However, he conceded that if then-leader Muammar Gaddafi refused to abide by a cease fire agreement, the international coalition of military forces would have no choice but to intervene to protect the human rights of Libyans. The Gaddafi government was eventually overthrown and Gaddafi killed in the conflict. Darfur Ban took the first foreign trip of his term to attend the African Union summit in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, in January 2007 as part of an effort to reach out to the Group of 77. He repeatedly identified Darfur as the top humanitarian priority of his administration. Ban played a large role, with several face-to-face meetings with Sudanese President Omar Hassan al-Bashir, in convincing Sudan to allow UN peacekeepers to enter the Darfur region. On 31 July 2007 the United Nations Security Council approved sending 26,000 UN peacekeepers into the region to join 7,000 troops from the African Union. The resolution was heralded as a major breakthrough in confronting the Darfur conflict (although the United States labeled the conflict a "genocide", the United Nations has declined to do so). The first phase of the peacekeeping mission began in October 2007. Myanmar Ban Ki-moon flew to Myanmar on 25 May 2008 to guide a conference with international agencies aimed at boosting donations for the nation, which was struck by Cyclone Nargis on 2 May 2008. The conference was initiated after Ban had met with Than Shwe, the leading figure of Myanmar's government 23 May 2008. Ban toured the devastation—especially in the hard-hit Irrawaddy Delta—23 May 2008 and 24 May 2008. Myanmar officials agreed to allow the Yangon International Airport to be used as a logistical hub for aid distribution. Campaign for second term as secretary-general: 2011 On 6 June 2011, Ban Ki-moon formally announced his candidacy for a second consecutive term as Secretary-General of the United Nations. He announced his candidacy at a press conference, following a meeting with the Asian group of countries at the United Nations. Ban Ki-moon's first mandate as the Secretary-General was set to end on 31 December 2011. The five permanent Security Council members supported his candidacy. There was no declared rival for the post. Second term as secretary-general On 17 June 2011, he received the recommendation of the Security Council by a unanimous vote, and, on 21 June, his nomination was confirmed by a unanimous acclamation vote at the United Nations General Assembly. His new five-year term as Secretary-General commenced on 1 January 2012 and ended on 31 December 2016. Cabinet Ban appointed Swedish diplomat Jan Eliasson as his new Deputy Secretary-General on 2 March 2012. His Chief of Staff is Edmond Mulet of Guatemala. The appointments were part of Ban's commitment to replace top positions in his group for his second term. Key issues Since beginning his second term in January 2012, Ban has focused his public statements and speeches on peace and equality in the Middle East and on equality issues. Middle East The aftermath of the Libyan Civil War and other events of the Arab Spring continued to command Ban's attention with the start of his second term. He focused in 2012 on what he termed "intolerance" in the Arab world. After travelling to Vienna to participate in the opening of the KAICIID Dialogue Centre to foster interreligious dialogue, Ban commented, "Many countries in the Arab world including Saudi Arabia are changing. Since the Arab Spring, the leaders have begun to listen to the voice of their people." He was however criticised in the Austrian press for associating himself with a project of Saudi King Abdullah, Saudi Arabia being a location of perceived religious intolerance.Throughout 2012, Ban expressed his concern about the continuing Israeli–Palestinian conflict, in particular the condition of the Palestinian hunger strikers in Israeli prisons and the movement restrictions imposed on Gaza Strip residents. On 30 August 2012 Ban criticized the Iranian leadership due to their statements regarding Israel's destruction and denying the Holocaust. On 16 August 2013, Ban Ki-moon admitted that the UN was biased against Israel, stating in a meeting with Israeli students that there was a biased attitude towards the Israeli people and Israeli government at the UN. He described this as "an unfortunate situation." A few days later, he backtracked on the utterance. During an interview on 16 December 2016, Ban said that the UN has issued a "disproportionate volume of resolutions, reports and conferences criticizing Israel."On 26 January 2016, Ban made a statement in relation to the attacks by Palestinians against Israelis. Ban Ki-moon said that "as oppressed peoples have demonstrated throughout the ages, it is human nature to react to occupation, which often serves as a potent incubator of hate and extremism". In rebuking Ban's statement, the Israeli PM Benjamin Netanyahu stated that "there is no justification for terror".Ban has criticized Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen, saying: "Grave violations against children increased dramatically as a result of the escalating conflict". In June 2016, Ban Ki-moon removed a Saudi-led coalition from a list of children's rights violators. He later admitted that Saudi Arabia threatened to cut Palestinian aid and funds to other UN programs if coalition was not removed from blacklist for killing children in Yemen. According to one source, there was also a threat of "clerics in Riyadh meeting to issue a fatwa against the UN, declaring it anti-Muslim, which would mean no contacts of OIC members, no relations, contributions, support, to any UN projects, programs". Ukraine On 26 June 2016, during a speech in Saint Petersburg, Russia, Ban said Russia "has a critical role to play" in addressing global issues "from ending the conflicts in Ukraine and Syria, to safeguarding human rights and controlling the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction." His comments were condemned by Ukraine's UN envoy Volodymyr Yelchenko, saying that he does not understand how the UN chief "can say such things which sort of praise the role of Russia in settling the conflict in Ukraine when the Russian Federation is the main player in aggressing Ukraine and in keeping this conflict boiling." He also noted that Russia is being accused of human rights abuses in Crimea and is "building up the nuclear potential" on the peninsula. LGBT rights On 7 March 2012 Ban delivered a speech titled "The Time Has Come" to the United Nations Human Rights Council urging the council to place greater emphasis on combating homophobia and promoting LGBT rights around the world. The speech was met by a protest by a group of delegates, who organized a walk-out protest during the speech.During a speech at the UN headquarters commemorating Human Rights Day, Ban condemned countries with anti-gay laws, mentioning 76 countries that criminalize homosexuality. He said: "It is an outrage that in our modern world, so many countries continue to criminalize people simply for loving another human being of the same sex."Ban has told senior managers that homophobia will not be tolerated. He pointed to countries such as Ukraine which has proposed criminalizing public discussion about homosexuality as threatening basic human rights. He further stated that government has a duty to defend vulnerable minorities. In April 2013, he described LGBT rights as one of the great neglected human rights of our time. He also said that religion, culture or tradition can never justify denial of basic rights. Syrian conflict Ban has been organizing and moderating the Geneva II Conference on Syria. Humanitarian action On 25 January 2012, Ban announced that he would convene the world's first summit on humanitarian aid in order to "share knowledge and establish common best practices." Known as the World Humanitarian Summit, the event took place in the 23–24 May 2016 in Istanbul, Turkey. In preparation for the summit, Ban released a report on 9 February 2016 titled 'One Humanity, Shared Responsibility' in which he laid out an "Agenda for Humanity" based on consultations with more than 23,000 people in 153 countries. The Agenda for Humanity outlines what is needed to reform humanitarian action, including political leadership to prevent and end conflict, new forms of financing, and a shift from providing aid to ending need. The summit is scheduled to include 5,000 participants, including representatives from governments, NGOs, civil society organizations, and the private sector, as well as individuals affected by humanitarian crises. Criticism as UN secretary-general According to The Washington Post, "some UN employees and delegates" expressed resentment at Ban's perceived favoritism in the appointment of South Korean nationals in key posts. Previous UN chiefs such as Kurt Waldheim (Austria), Javier Pérez de Cuéllar (Peru), and Boutros Boutros-Ghali (Egypt) brought small teams of trusted aides or clerical workers from their country's Foreign Ministry, and South Korean nationals have been historically underrepresented at the United Nations. Nonetheless, according to "some officials" in the Post story, Ban had allegedly gone further, boosting South Korea's presence in UN ranks by more than 20 percent during his first year in office. In response, Ban and his aides stated that the allegations of favoritism are wrong, and that some of the harshest criticisms against him have undercurrents of racism. He said that the South Korean nationals he had appointed—including Choi Young-jin, who had already served as a high-ranking official in the United Nations' peacekeeping department—are highly qualified for their positions. Others such as Donald P. Gregg, a former U.S. ambassador to South Korea, said that the complaints were driven by envy: "I think being from South Korea, and people have growing respect for South Korea, that's a great enhancement for the secretary general. If he brings along talented people who he knows very well, I think that's also a plus." UN records show that South Korea, the organization's eleventh-largest financial contributor, had only 54 South Korean nationals assigned to its mission six months before Ban took over the top UN post. By contrast, the Philippines, a significantly poorer country, had 759 nationals in its mission.Former UN Under Secretary General for Oversight Services Inga-Britt Ahlenius denounced Ban Ki-moon after resigning her post in 2010, calling him "reprehensible". Ahlenius claimed that the Secretary-General made efforts to undermine the Office of Internal Oversight Services (OIOS) mandate and challenge its operational independence. In particular, the two disputed Ahlenius's plans to hire a former prosecutor, Robert Appleton, who had carried out investigations into corruption in UN peacekeeping missions from 2006 to 2009. Ban's staff explained that Appleton's appointment was rejected because Ahlenius had not properly considered female candidates for the appointment, and said that the final selection should have been made by Ban, not Ahlenius. Ahlenius claimed in her End of Assignment memo that "for the Secretary-General to control appointments in OIOS is an infringement of the operational independence of OIOS". Ban's chief of staff Vijay Nambiar described Ahlenius's complaints as "a deeply unbalanced account", and also stated that "many pertinent facts were overlooked or misrepresented" in Ahlenius's memo. Nambiar further noted that Ban "fully recognizes the operational independence of OIOS, [but that] does not excuse [Ahlenius] from applying the standard rules of recruitment".American diplomat James Wasserstrom claimed that Ban attempted to limit the jurisdiction of the UN dispute tribunal following Wasserstrom's dismissal from his Kosovo post and lengthy appeals process. Ban had refused to hand over confidential documents relating to the case to the UN personnel tribunal, despite repeated orders by the court to do so. In relation to another case, Ban was admonished by Judge Michael Adams for "willful disobedience" for again refusing to hand over key documents in an internal promotions dispute.In 2013, Ban was accused of undermining collective bargaining rights of The Staff Coordinating Council, the union representing United Nations staff. Ban unilaterally eliminated the role of the union to negotiate on behalf of the employees and terminated talks when the union protested.Ban was named in a lawsuit challenging UN legal immunity on behalf of Haitians with cholera in the U.S. District Court of Manhattan. UN peacekeepers from Nepal are said to be the source of the 2010–13 Haiti cholera outbreak. Ban declared that the legal immunity of the United Nations before national courts should be upheld, but that this does not reduce the UN's moral responsibility to overcome Haiti's cholera epidemic. In January 2015, Judge J. Paul Oetken dismissed the lawsuit, affirming UN immunity. An appeal to Oetken's decision was submitted to the Court in May 2015.British magazine The Economist, in May 2016, called Ban "plodding, protocol-conscious and loth to stand up to the big powers" and "the dullest—and among the worst" secretary-generals. Japanese diplomat Kiyotaka Akasaka defended Ban's understated presence as more quietly Confucian, stating that "[Ban's] behaviour has been like that of the wise man, the sage in Oriental philosophy". One UN official claimed that while Ban would greet world leaders in their native language, he would then read directly from his talking points without small talk. The UN official opined, "Quiet diplomacy? He [Ban] displayed no skills for that." South African lawyer Nicholas Haysom also defended Ban, saying that the news media "caricatured [Ban] as invisible when he made outspoken comments that the media then failed to report". 2017 presidential candidacy speculation Until the outbreak of the 2016 South Korean political scandal, Ban was the leading potential candidate for President of South Korea in 2017. However, recent polls showed Moon Jae-in of the main opposition Minjoo Party of Korea in the lead with a support rating of 32.8 percent, while Ban trailed in distant second with 15.4 percent. Moon was eventually elected president on 10 May. Although Ban repeatedly expressed his desires for running, a UN resolution in 1946 says "a Secretary-General should refrain from accepting" any Governmental position "at any rate immediately on retirement." Exceptions to the rule have been made in history with the 1986 election of Kurt Waldheim to the post of President of Austria, although the position is ceremonial in nature. Contrary to Ban's public comments hinting at any likely run, private reports indicated otherwise. Kim Jong-pil, former Prime Minister of South Korea, was reported to say that Ban Ki-moon would announce his candidacy for the presidency shortly after his term as Secretary-General ends. Ban was originally predicted to run under the conservative Saenuri Party, but President Park Geun-hye's scandal cast doubts as to which party Ban would run under.Ban returned to South Korea on 13 January 2017. On 1 February 2017 he announced he would not be a candidate for president. Post-U.N. work In 2017, Ban and Heinz Fischer, former president of Austria, founded, and are co-chairs of, the Ban Ki-moon Centre for Global Citizens in Vienna, Austria. The nonprofit group's mission is to support youth and women, working within the UN's Sustainable Development Goal frameworks.In June 2017, Ban joined The Elders, a human rights group composed of international statesmen that was founded by Nelson Mandela. In November 2018, he became a deputy chair of the group, serving jointly with Graça Machel.In 2017, he joined French President Emmanuel Macron in calling for a Global Pact for the Environment.In early 2018, Ban was elected to lead the Global Green Growth Institute (GGGI), a treaty-based intergovernmental organization. Effective 20 Feb. 2018, he is serving a 2-year term in the dual roles of president of the assembly and chair of the council.Ban supports the U.S. Democrats' Green New Deal.In 2020, Ban Ki-Moon was appointed as the Official Ambassador of the GEMS World Academy Model United Nations. Personal life Family Ban Ki-moon met Yoo Soon-taek in 1962 when they were both in high school. Ban was 18 years old, and Yoo Soon-taek was his secondary school's student council president. Ban Ki-moon married Yoo Soon-taek in 1971. They have three adult children: two daughters and a son. His elder daughter, Seon-yong, was born in 1972 and now works for the Korea Foundation in Seoul. Her spouse is a native of India. His son Woo-hyun was born in 1974 in India. He received an MBA from Anderson School of Management at University of California, Los Angeles, and works for an investment firm in New York. His younger daughter, Hyun-hee (born 1976), is a field officer for UNICEF in Nairobi.After his election as secretary-general, Ban became an icon in his hometown, where his extended family still resides. Over 50,000 gathered in a soccer stadium in Chungju for celebration of the result. In the months following his election, thousands of practitioners of geomancy went to his village to determine how it produced such an important person. Ban himself is not a member of any church or religious group and has declined to expound his beliefs: "Now, as Secretary-General, it will not be appropriate at this time to talk about my own belief in any particular religion or god. So maybe we will have some other time to talk about personal matters." His mother is Buddhist.In January 2017, Ban's brother Ban Ki-sang and nephew Bahn Joo-hyun were indicted on charges that they had engaged in a scheme to bribe a Middle Eastern official in connection with the attempted $800 million sale of a building complex in Vietnam. In September 2018, Bahn Joo-hyun was sentenced to six months in prison in Manhattan federal court. Personality and public image During his tenure at the South Korean Foreign Ministry, Ban's nickname was jusa (주사), meaning "the administrative clerk". The name was used as both positive and negative: complimenting Ban's attention to detail and administrative skill while deriding what was seen as a lack of charisma and subservience to his superiors. The South Korean press corps calls him "the slippery eel" (기름장어), for his ability to dodge questions. His peers praise his understated "Confucian approach", and he is regarded by many as a "stand-up guy" and is known for his "easy smile". After he assumed a post of United Nations secretary general, he was caricatured as "invisible man", "powerless observer", or "nowhere man" for his lack of powerful personality and leadership. Honours and awards National South Korea: Blue Stripes or 1st Class of the Order of Service Merit (1975), (1986), (2006). Foreign Austria: Grand Decoration of Honour in Gold with Star (Grosses Goldenes Ehrenzeichen mit Stern) of the Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria (2001). Brazil: Grand Cross of the Order of Rio Branco Peru: Grand Cross of the Order of the Sun (2006) Algeria: National Order of Merit of Algeria El Salvador: Grand Cross with Silver Star of the Order of Jose Matias Delgado Philippines: Grand Cross of the Order of Sikatuna, Rank of Raja (30 October 2008) Kazakhstan: Order of Friendship, 1st class (2010) Tajikistan: Order of Ismoili Samoni (2010) Burkina Faso: Grand Cross of the National Order of Burkina Faso (2008) Ivory Coast: Grand Officer of the National Order of Ivory Coast (2008) Monaco: Grand Cross of the Order of Saint-Charles (2013) San Marino: Order of Saint Agatha (2013) Uruguay: Medal of the Oriental Republic of Uruguay (2011). Netherlands: Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion (19 April 2016) Russia: Order of Friendship (8 June 2016) Argentina: Grand Cross of the Order of the Liberator General San Martín (2016) Portugal: Grand Cross of the Order of Liberty (13 May 2016) Foreign Awards Turkmenistan : Jubilee medal "25th anniversary of the neutrality of Turkmenistan" (2020) Austria : Grand Golden Order of the City of Vienna (2013) Samoa : High Matai title conferred by Samoa as Prince Tapua Ban Ki-Moon of Suipapa Saleapaga. September 2014 during UN SIDS Conference. Ban Ki-moon, in his capacity as Secretary-General of the United Nations, was one of the Olympic Torch carriers of the 2016 Summer Olympics. Ban Ki-moon, in his capacity as Secretary-General of the United Nations, was one of the Olympic Torch carriers and he was also one of the Olympic Flag carriers of the 2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony. He was awarded the Arctic Circle Prize in 2016 in recognition of his advocacy for climate diplomacy during his tenure as UN Secretary-General, specifically for his role in negotiating the Paris Agreement. He was honored with James A. Van Fleet Award by the Korea Society in New York City for his contributions to friendship between the United States and South Korea. He accepted the 2014 Tipperary International Peace Award, described as "Ireland's outstanding award for humanitarian work", in County Tipperary, Ireland in May 2015. Commemorative Medal of Freedom Heroes of the Republic of Hungary Honorary degrees Honorary Doctor of Public Service degree from University of Maryland, College Park on 17 October 2016 Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree from Loyola Marymount University on 6 April 2016 Honorary Doctor of Laws degree of The University of Auckland on 3 September 2014 Honorary Doctorate in Human Letters from Fairleigh Dickinson University on 10 September 2008 Honorary doctorate from Seoul National University (2008) Doctor Honoris Causa from the National University of San Marcos, the main university in Peru and the oldest of the Americas (2011) Doctor of Laws Degree Honoris Causa from the College of Law at the University of the Philippines Diliman, the national university of the country, in 2008 Honorary Doctor by the National University of Mongolia in 2009 "Doctors of Letters" by Jamia Millia Islamia in New Delhi Honorary doctorates in law from the University of Malta (2009) and the University of Washington (2009) Honorary doctorate of public service from University of Denver (2013) Honorary doctorate from Georgetown University (2015) Honorary doctorate from Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (2015) Doctor honoris causa from Comenius University (2015) Degree of Doctor of Civil Law Honoris Causa from University of Mauritius (2016) Honorary Doctor of Laws from Columbia University (2016) Honorary Degree from Marymount Manhattan College (2016) Doctor honoris causa from Panthéon-Sorbonne University (2016) Doctor of Law (honoris causa) from the University of Cambridge (3 February 2016) Honorary doctorate from the University of Groningen (2018) Honorary doctorate in Global Peace and Sustainable Development from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (2019)Honorary doctorate in recognition of work in pursuing peace, promoting human rights, and advancing UN Sustainable Development from Tampere University (2022) Books Resolved: Uniting Nations in a Divided World, New York: Columbia University Press, 2021. See also List of trips by Ban Ki-moon Further reading Encyclopedia of World Biography: Supplement #27 (Thomson-Gale, 2007), pp. 29–31. Ban Ki-moon, official United Nations profile as former secretary-general Ban Ki-moon papers at the United Nations Archives Ban Ki-moon Centre for Global Citizens Column archive at The Guardian Appearances on C-SPAN Ban Ki-moon on Charlie Rose Ban Ki-moon at IMDb Ban Ki-moon collected news and commentary at Al Jazeera English Ban Ki-moon collected news and commentary at The Guardian Ban Ki-moon collected news and commentary at The New York Times Ban Ki-moon interview with Dennis Wholey on 23 February 2006 Ban Ki-moon's address to the United Nations General Assembly, General Debate of the 63rd Session, 23 September 2008 "Ban Ki-moon on Sixty Years of UN Peacekeeping". Institute of International and European Affairs. 7 July 2009. Archived from the original on 17 January 2010. Dublin Castle.
Andy Lau Tak-wah (Chinese: 劉德華; Jyutping: Lau4 Dak1 Waa4; born 27 September 1961) is a Hong Kong actor, singer-songwriter and film producer. He has been one of Hong Kong's most commercially successful film actors since the mid-1980s, performing in more than 160 films while maintaining a successful singing career at the same time. In the 1990s, Lau was branded by the media as one of the Four Heavenly Kings of Cantopop and was named as "Fourth Tiger" among the Five Tiger Generals of TVB during the 1980s.By April 2000, Lau won an unprecedented total of 292 awards. He also holds numerous film acting awards, having won the Hong Kong Film Award for Best Actor three times and the Golden Horse Award for Best Leading Actor twice. In 2005, Lau received the "No.1 Box office Actor 1985–2005" award of Hong Kong, yielding a box office total of HK$1,733,275,816 for shooting 108 films in the past 20 years, In 2018, Lau was invited to be a member of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. Early life Andy Lau was born in Tai Po, Hong Kong, as the son of a fireman named Lau Lai (劉禮). He was the fourth child in the family, with three elder sisters, one younger sister, and a younger brother named Lau Tak-sing. Although his family was considered wealthy due to his grandfather being a landowner, his father moved them to the slums of Diamond Hill when he was six years old. The area was full of wooden houses, which unfortunately burnt down when he was eleven. During his childhood, Lau had to fetch water for his family up to eight times a day as their house lacked plumbing. He graduated from a Band One secondary school, Ho Lap College in San Po Kong, Kowloon. He was named as Lau Fook-wing (劉福榮) during his academic years. He also practices Chinese calligraphy. Lau converted to Buddhism in the 1980s. He was raised in a nominally Buddhist household and is now a follower of the Lingyan Mountain Temple in Taiwan. Career Actor In 1981, Lau enrolled in the artist training program offered by TVB, marking the beginning of his acting career. It was his portrayal of the lead role in the 1982 TVB series The Emissary that initially propelled him to fame. Lau's popularity further soared in 1983 with his role as Yang Guo in the TVB wuxia series The Return of the Condor Heroes (神鵰俠侶). Following this breakthrough, he went on to assume numerous lead roles in various TVB series. In September 1983, TVB aimed to improve their variety show ratings in competition with Korea and Japan by producing the show TVB All-star challenge (星光熠熠勁爭輝). The program featured almost the entire lineup of the most popular actors and singers at that time. Lau, alongside Tony Leung, Michael Miu, Felix Wong, and Kent Tong became known as the "Five Tiger Generals of TVB" (無線五虎將) due to their popularity on the show.In the late '80s, Lau departed from TVB due to contract disputes. TVB insisted on a binding five-year exclusive contract, which Lau declined to sign, leading to his blacklisting by the network. Consequently, Lau shifted his focus towards his film career.In 1981, Lau made a guest appearance in one of Susanna Kwan's music videos and caught the eye of the manager Teddy Robin. Teddy Robin then gave Lau a chance to play a small role in the film, Once Upon a Rainbow. This was the first step in Lau's film acting career. He landed a role in Ann Hui's 1982 film, Boat People. Later in 1983, he had his first leading role in the Shaw Brothers-produced action film, On the Wrong Track.One of his early leading roles included the more serious 1988 film, The Truth (法內情). However, Lau is best known in films for his (often) recurring roles as a "Heroic Gangster", such as Wong Kar-wai's 1988 film As Tears Go By (旺角卡門) and Benny Chan's 1990 film A Moment of Romance. Although now a respected actor, Lau was initially known more for his handsome features. Some people he has worked with have called him a matinee idol, but he has claimed to be an artist. Lau has proved his acting skills in many of his films. His first major acting prize came with A Fighter's Blues, which was his first Golden Bauhinia Award for Best Actor. He won the Hong Kong Film Award for Best Actor award that year for Running Out of Time. In 2004, he won the Golden Horse Award for Best Leading Actor for his performance in Infernal Affairs III, the second sequel to the popular Infernal Affairs. In 2005, Lau received the "No.1 Box office Actor 1985–2005" award of Hong Kong, yielding a box office total of HKD 1,733,275,816 for shooting 108 films in the past 20 years. The aforementioned figure is as compared to the first runner-up Stephen Chow's (HKD 1,317,452,311) and second runner-up Jackie Chan's (HKD 894,090,962). "I've never imagined that it would be as much as 1.7 billion!" he told reporters. For his contributions, a wax figure of Lau was unveiled on 1 June 2005 at the Madame Tussauds Hong Kong. In 2007, Lau also received the "Nielsen Box Office Star of Asia" award by the Nielsen Company (ACNielsen).In May 2014, he starred in China's first anti-trafficking film Lost and Love, playing a stubborn and kind-hearted farmer Lei Zekuan, which was released on 20 March 2015.In April 2017, he starred in the Hong Kong police action film Shock Wave, which earned him another Best Actor Award at the 37th Hong Kong Film Awards in 2018.In February 2021, Lau reunited with Tony Leung since the Infernal Affairs series in the big-budget action film Once Upon a Time in Hong Kong, backed by Emperor Motion Pictures and mainland Chinese partners, with a reported budget of around $30.8 million (RMB200 million). Film producer In 1991, Lau set up his own film production company, Teamwork Motion Pictures, which in 2002 was renamed to Focus Group Holdings Limited. His contributions in the film industry as well as his involvement in nurturing new talent in the Asian film industry led him to winning the "Asian Filmmaker of the Year" award in the Pusan International Film Festival in 2006. Some of the films Lau has produced include award-winning films, Made in Hong Kong and A Simple Life, his 100th film, A Fighter's Blues, the Chinese digital film Crazy Stone, and big budget action blockbusters, Firestorm and Shock Wave. Musical career Lau released his first album "Only Know that I Still Love You" (只知道此刻愛你) under Capital Artists in 1985. This album was not a big hit, but despite having a voice not traditionally associated with popular music, Lau's hard work and perseverance resulted in him becoming one of the most successful singers in Cantopop. His singing career reached stellar status in 1990 with the release of the album entitled "Would It Be Possible" (可不可以), and his subsequent releases only solidified his status as a marketable singer. For that song, he won his first 1990 RTHK Top 10 Gold Songs Awards. He then won at least one RTHK award category every year consecutively until the year 2007. From Jade Solid Gold Top 10 Awards he has won the "Most Popular Hong Kong Male Artist" award 7 times and the "Asia Pacific Most Popular Hong Kong Male Artist" award 15 times. He was also entered into the Guinness World Records for "Most Awards Won by a Cantopop Male Artist". By April 2000, he had already won an unprecedented total of 292 awards.Many of Lau's songs quickly topped the music charts not only in Hong Kong, but also in Taiwan, Mainland China, and in many different parts of Asia. Some of his most notable hits include "The Days We Spent Together" (一起走過的日子), "If You Are My Legend" (如果你是我的傳說), "The Tide" (潮水), "Forget Love Potion" (忘情水), "True Forever" (真永遠), "Chinese people" (中國人), "Love You Forever" (愛你一萬年), "You Are My Woman" (你是我的女人), and "Secret Admiration" (暗裡著迷). Besides singing in Cantonese and Mandarin, he has also sung in other languages such as English, Japanese, Malay, and Taiwanese Hokkien. One example of a Hokkien song was (世界第一等), and he has also performed a Cantonese cover of Joan Jett's "I Hate Myself for Loving You" (我恨我痴心). Since the early 1990s, Lau, along with Jacky Cheung 張學友, Aaron Kwok 郭富城 and Leon Lai 黎明, have been referred to by the Chinese media as the Cantopop Four Heavenly Kings.Lau sang alongside Jackie Chan during a part of the 2008 Summer Olympics closing ceremony on 24 August 2008. In addition, Lau, who has been supporting disabled athletes in Hong Kong for more than a decade, was appointed as the Goodwill ambassador for the 2008 Summer Paralympics. He led other performers in singing and performing the song "Everyone is No.1" at the Beijing National Stadium just a few hours before the 2008 Paralympics opening ceremony began. He also sang the theme song "Flying with the Dream" with Han Hong during the Paralympics opening ceremony on 6 September 2008.As a songwriter, most of Lau's creative works are as a lyricist. To date, Lau has composed five songs, which include "Missing You Everyday" (天天想你), co-composed with Eric Moo, "If One Day" (如果有一天), "Happiness Is So Far... So Sweet" (幸福.這麼遠.那麼甜), "Spending the Rest Our Lives Together" (餘生一起過), all of which he also sang and wrote the lyrics, and "Brothers" (兄弟), the theme song of his 2004 film, Jiang Hu, which he wrote the lyrics for but was sung by co-star Chapman To. Most of the songs he has written have been for himself. Books written To date, Lau has written and published two books. They include his 1995 autobiography, This Is How I Grew Up (我是這樣長大的) written in prose, and his 2012 book, My 30 Work Days (我的30個工作天), which is a collection of his 30 personal diaries he wrote while working on the 2011 film, A Simple Life. Appearance in other media Lau is alleged to have been featured as a non-player character (NPC) as a random pedestrian in a sandbox-style action video game called Prototype. Philanthropy In 1994, Lau established the Andy Lau Charity Foundation which helps people in need and promotes a wide range of youth education services. In 1999, he received the Ten Outstanding Young Persons of the World award, being the third person from Hong Kong at that time to receive this distinguished honour. In 2008, Lau took a main role in putting together the Artistes 512 Fund Raising Campaign for relief toward the victims of the 2008 Sichuan earthquake. It was one of the largest and most ambitious charity events ever assembled in the territory. Personal life In 2008, Lau married his wife Carol Chu (朱麗倩) after 24 years of speculation over their relationship. Both are vegetarian and devout Buddhists. The couple has been married in America. On 9 May 2012, Chu gave birth to their first child, a daughter, Hanna. In January 2017, Lau was seriously injured after being thrown off and stomped by a horse during a commercial shoot in Khao Lak, an area three hours outside of Thailand's capital city, Bangkok. However, Lau was able to fully return to work in August 2017, stating he has recovered 95 per cent from his injuries and has fully recovered by the end of the year. Awards and nominations Honors Lau was noted for his highly positive energy, his hard work and active involvement in charity works throughout his 30 years in showbiz and honoured as a "Justice of Peace" by the Hong Kong SAR government in 2008. In May 2010, he received the "World Outstanding Chinese" award and an "honorary doctorate" from the University of New Brunswick, Canada. On 14 December 2017, Lau was awarded a Doctor of Letters degree from the Hong Kong Shue Yan University, with the citation highlighting his popularity among locals which stated: "His low-key, modest, friendly and approachable personality has endeared him to millions of fans and ordinary folks alike, who also consider him to be a 'heartthrob' and the 'unofficial Chief Executive of Hong Kong'".In 2018, asteroid 55381 Lautakwah, discovered by Bill Yeung at the Desert Eagle Observatory in 2001, was named for Lau. The asteroid measures approximately 8.5 kilometers (5.3 miles) in diameter and is located in the outermost region of the asteroid belt, just inside the Hecuba gap. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 11 July 2018.In 2023, Lau was presented with a Special Tribute award at 2023 Toronto International Film Festival. Awards and achievements See also Andy Lau filmography Andy Lau Official Dou Yin (in Chinese) Andy Lau at the Hong Kong Movie DataBase Andy Lau at IMDb
North Korea, officially the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK), is a country in East Asia. It constitutes the northern half of the Korean Peninsula and borders China and Russia to the north at the Yalu (Amnok) and Tumen rivers, and South Korea to the south at the Korean Demilitarized Zone. North Korea's border with South Korea is a disputed border as both countries claim the entirety of the Korean Peninsula. The country's western border is formed by the Yellow Sea, while its eastern border is defined by the Sea of Japan. North Korea, like its southern counterpart, claims to be the legitimate government of the entire peninsula and adjacent islands. Pyongyang is the capital and largest city. Archaeology indicates that the Korean Peninsula was inhabited by early humans starting from the Lower Paleolithic period (2.6 Ma–300 Ka). The history of present-day North Korea began with the foundation of Gojoseon in 2333 BC by the mythic king Dangun, but no archaeological evidence and writing was found from this period. The Gija Joseon was purportedly founded in 11th century BCE, and its existence and role has been controversial in the modern era. The written historical record on Gojoseon (Old Joseon) was first mentioned in Chinese records in the early 7th century BCE. Following the unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea under Unified Silla in AD 668, Korea was subsequently ruled by the Goryeo dynasty (918–1392) and the Joseon dynasty (1392–1910). In 1910, Korea was annexed by the Empire of Japan. In 1945, after the Japanese surrender at the end of World War II, Korea was divided into two zones along the 38th parallel, with the north occupied by the Soviet Union and the south occupied by the United States. Negotiations on reunification failed, and in 1948, separate governments were formed: the socialist and Soviet-aligned Democratic People's Republic of Korea in the north, and the capitalist, Western-aligned Republic of Korea in the south. The Korean War began when North Korean forces invaded South Korea in 1950. In 1953, the Korean Armistice Agreement brought about a ceasefire and established a demilitarized zone (DMZ), but no formal peace treaty has ever been signed. Post-war North Korea benefited greatly from economic aid and expertise provided by other Eastern Bloc countries, particularly the Soviet Union and China. However, relations between North Korea and the Soviet Union soured after the ascension of Nikita Khrushchev to the Soviet premiership in 1953, as Khrushchev denounced Stalinism while Kim Il Sung, North Korea's first leader, upheld it. Kim briefly turned to China in the late 1950s before purging both pro-Soviet and pro-Chinese elements from the ruling Workers' Party of Korea and promoting his personal philosophy of Juche as the state ideology. From the 1970s South Korea's economy began to boom, while North Korea entered a state of stagnation. Pyongyang's international isolation sharply accelerated from the 1980s onwards as the Cold War came to an end and China opened up to the West. The fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 then brought about a sharp decline to the North Korean economy. From 1994 to 1998, North Korea suffered a famine that resulted in the deaths of between 240,000 and 420,000 people, and the population continues to suffer from malnutrition. According to Article 1 of the state constitution, North Korea is an "independent socialist state". It holds elections, though they have been described by independent observers as sham elections, as North Korea is a totalitarian dictatorship with a comprehensive cult of personality around the Kim family. The Workers' Party of Korea is the ruling party of North Korea and leads the Democratic Front for the Reunification of Korea, the sole legal political movement in the country. According to Article 3 of the constitution, Kimilsungism–Kimjongilism is the official ideology of North Korea. The means of production are owned by the state through state-run enterprises and collectivized farms. Most services – such as healthcare, education, housing, and food production – are subsidized or state-funded. North Korea follows Songun, a "military first" policy which prioritizes the Korean People's Army in state affairs and the allocation of resources. It possesses nuclear weapons, and is the country with the highest number of military and paramilitary personnel, with a total of 7.77 million active, reserve, and paramilitary personnel, or approximately 30% of its population. Its active-duty army of 1.28 million soldiers is the fourth largest in the world, consisting of 4.9% of its population. North Korea is widely considered to have the worst human rights record in the world. A 2014 inquiry by the United Nations into abuses of human rights in North Korea concluded that "the gravity, scale and nature of these violations reveal a state that does not have any parallel in the contemporary world," with Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch holding similar views. In addition to being a member of the United Nations since 1991, North Korea is also a member of the Non-Aligned Movement, G77, and the ASEAN Regional Forum. Names The name Korea is derived from the name Goryeo (also spelled Koryŏ). The name Goryeo itself was first used by the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo (Koguryŏ) which was one of the great powers in East Asia during its time. The 10th-century kingdom of Goryeo succeeded Goguryeo, and thus inherited its name, which was pronounced by visiting Persian merchants as "Korea". The modern spelling of Korea first appeared in the late 17th century in the travel writings of the Dutch East India Company's Hendrick Hamel.After the division of the country into North and South Korea, the two sides used different terms to refer to Korea: Chosun or Joseon (조선) in North Korea, and Hanguk (한국) in South Korea. In 1948, North Korea adopted Democratic People's Republic of Korea (Korean: 조선민주주의인민공화국, Chosŏn Minjujuŭi Inmin Konghwaguk; ) as its new legal name. In the wider world, because its government controls the northern part of the Korean Peninsula, it is commonly called North Korea to distinguish it from South Korea, which is officially called the Republic of Korea in English. Both governments consider themselves to be the legitimate government of the whole of Korea. For this reason, the people do not consider themselves as 'North Koreans' but as Koreans in the same divided country as their compatriots in the South, and foreign visitors are discouraged from using the former term. History Ancient Korea The history of Korea begins with the founding of Joseon (also known as "Gojoseon", or Old Joseon, to differentiate it with the 14th century dynasty) in 2333 BC by Dangun, according to Korea's foundation mythology. Gojoseon expanded until it controlled the northern Korean Peninsula and parts of Manchuria. Gija Joseon was purportedly founded in the 12th century BC, but its existence and role have been controversial in the modern era. In 108 BC, the Han dynasty defeated Wiman Joseon and installed four commanderies in the northern Korean peninsula. Three of the commanderies fell or retreated westward within a few decades. As Lelang commandery was destroyed and rebuilt around this time, the place gradually moved toward Liaodong. Thus, its force was diminished, and it only served as a trade center until it was conquered by Goguryeo in 313. Three Kingdoms of Korea During the period known as the Proto–Three Kingdoms of Korea, the states of Buyeo, Okjeo, Dongye and Samhan occupied the whole Korean peninsula and southern Manchuria. From them, Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla emerged to control the peninsula as the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Goguryeo, the largest and most powerful among them, was a highly militaristic state, and competed with various Chinese dynasties during its 700 years of history. Goguryeo experienced a golden age under Gwanggaeto the Great and his son Jangsu, who both subdued Baekje and Silla during their times, achieving a brief unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea and becoming the most dominant power on the Korean Peninsula. In addition to contesting for control of the Korean Peninsula, Goguryeo had many military conflicts with various Chinese dynasties, most notably the Goguryeo–Sui War, in which Goguryeo defeated a huge force said to number over a million men. Baekje was a great maritime power; its nautical skill, which made it the Phoenicia of East Asia, was instrumental in the dissemination of Buddhism throughout East Asia and continental culture to Japan. Baekje was once a great military power on the Korean Peninsula, especially during the time of Geunchogo, but was critically defeated by Gwanggaeto the Great and declined. Silla was the smallest and weakest of the three, but it used cunning diplomatic means to make opportunistic pacts and alliances with the more powerful Korean kingdoms, and eventually Tang China, to its great advantage.The unification of the Three Kingdoms by Silla in 676 led to the North South States Period, in which much of the Korean Peninsula was controlled by Later Silla, while Balhae controlled the northern parts of Goguryeo. Balhae was founded by a Goguryeo general and formed as a successor state to Goguryeo. During its height, Balhae controlled most of Manchuria and parts of the Russian Far East and was called the "Prosperous Country in the East". Later Silla was a golden age of art and culture, as evidenced by the Hwangnyongsa, Seokguram, and Emille Bell. Relationships between Korea and China remained relatively peaceful during this time. Later Silla carried on the maritime prowess of Baekje, which acted like the Phoenicia of medieval East Asia, and during the 8th and 9th centuries dominated the seas of East Asia and the trade between China, Korea and Japan, most notably during the time of Jang Bogo; in addition, Silla people made overseas communities in China on the Shandong Peninsula and the mouth of the Yangtze River. Later Silla was a prosperous and wealthy country, and its metropolitan capital of Gyeongju was the fourth largest city in the world. Buddhism flourished during this time, and many Korean Buddhists gained great fame among Chinese Buddhists and contributed to Chinese Buddhism, including: Woncheuk, Wonhyo, Uisang, Musang, and Kim Gyo-gak, a Silla prince whose influence made Mount Jiuhua one of the Four Sacred Mountains of Chinese Buddhism. However, Later Silla weakened under internal strife and the revival of Baekje and Goguryeo, which led to the Later Three Kingdoms period in the late 9th century. Unified Dynasties In 936, the Later Three Kingdoms were united by Wang Geon, a descendant of Goguryeo nobility, who established Goryeo as the successor state of Goguryeo. Balhae had fallen to the Khitan Empire in 926, and a decade later the last crown prince of Balhae fled south to Goryeo, where he was warmly welcomed and included into the ruling family by Wang Geon, thus unifying the two successor nations of Goguryeo. Like Silla, Goryeo was a highly cultural state, and invented the metal movable type printing press. After defeating the Khitan Empire, which was the most powerful empire of its time, in the Goryeo–Khitan War, Goryeo experienced a golden age that lasted a century, during which the Tripitaka Koreana was completed and there were great developments in printing and publishing, promoting learning and dispersing knowledge on philosophy, literature, religion, and science; by 1100, there were 12 universities that produced famous scholars and scientists. However, the Mongol invasions in the 13th century greatly weakened the kingdom. Goryeo was never conquered by the Mongols, but exhausted after three decades of fighting, the Korean court sent its crown prince to the Yuan capital to swear allegiance to Kublai Khan, who accepted, and married one of his daughters to the Korean crown prince. Henceforth, Goryeo continued to rule Korea, though as a tributary ally to the Mongols for the next 86 years. During this period, the two nations became intertwined as all subsequent Korean kings married Mongol princesses, and the last empress of the Yuan dynasty was a Korean princess. In the mid-14th century, Goryeo drove out the Mongols to regain its northern territories, briefly conquered Liaoyang, and defeated invasions by the Red Turbans. However, in 1392, General Yi Seong-gye, who had been ordered to attack China, turned his army around and staged a coup. Yi Seong-gye declared the new name of Korea as "Joseon" in reference to Gojoseon, and moved the capital to Hanseong (one of the old names of Seoul). The first 200 years of the Joseon dynasty were marked by peace, and saw great advancements in science and education, as well as the creation of Hangul by Sejong the Great to promote literacy among the common people. The prevailing ideology of the time was Neo-Confucianism, which was epitomized by the seonbi class: nobles who passed up positions of wealth and power to lead lives of study and integrity. Between 1592 and 1598, Toyotomi Hideyoshi launched invasions of Korea, but his advance was halted by Korean forces (most notably the Joseon Navy led by Admiral Yi Sun-sin and his renowned "turtle ship") with assistance from Righteous Army militias formed by Korean civilians, and Ming dynasty Chinese troops. Through a series of successful battles of attrition, the Japanese forces were eventually forced to withdraw, and relations between all parties became normalized. However, the Manchus took advantage of Joseon's war-weakened state and invaded in 1627 and 1637, and then went on to conquer the destabilized Ming dynasty. After normalizing relations with the new Qing dynasty, Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace. Kings Yeongjo and Jeongjo particularly led a new renaissance of the Joseon dynasty during the 18th century. In the 19th century, the royal in-law families gained control of the government, leading to mass corruption and weakening of the state, and severe poverty and peasant rebellions throughout the country. Furthermore, the Joseon government adopted a strict isolationist policy, earning the nickname "the hermit kingdom", but ultimately failed to protect itself against imperialism and was forced to open its borders. Japanese colonial rule and World War II In the late 19th century, Japan became a significant regional power after winning the First Sino-Japanese War against Qing China and the Russo-Japanese War against the Russian Empire. In 1897, King Gojong, the last king of Korea, proclaimed Joseon as the Korean Empire. However, Japan compelled Korea to become its protectorate in 1905 and formally annexed it in 1910. What followed was a period of forced assimilation, in which Korean language, culture, and history were suppressed. This led to the March 1st Movement protests in 1919, and the subsequent foundation of resistance groups in exile, primarily in China. Among the Korean resistance groups known as Dongnipgun (Liberation Army) operated along the Sino-Korean border, fighting guerrilla warfare against Japanese forces. Some of them took part in allied action in China and parts of South East Asia. One of the guerrilla leaders was the communist Kim Il Sung, who was trained by the Soviet Union and later became the first leader of North Korea. At the end of World War II, the Japanese surrendered to Soviet and U.S. forces who occupied the northern and southern halves of Korea, respectively. Modern history since 1945 Founding After the Japanese surrender at the end of World War II in 1945, the Korean Peninsula was divided into two zones along the 38th parallel, with the northern half of the peninsula occupied by the Soviet Union and the southern half by the United States. Negotiations on reunification failed. Soviet general Terentii Shtykov recommended the establishment of the Soviet Civil Authority in October 1945, and supported Kim Il Sung as chairman of the Provisional People's Committee for North Korea, established in February 1946. In September 1946, South Korean citizens rose up against the Allied Military Government. In April 1948, an uprising of the Jeju islanders was violently crushed. The South declared its statehood in May 1948 and two months later the ardent anti-communist Syngman Rhee became its ruler. The Democratic People's Republic of Korea was established in the North on 9 September 1948. Shtykov served as the first Soviet ambassador, while Kim Il Sung became premier. Soviet forces withdrew from the North in 1948, and most American forces withdrew from the South in 1949. Ambassador Shtykov suspected Rhee was planning to invade the North and was sympathetic to Kim's goal of Korean unification under socialism. The two successfully lobbied Joseph Stalin to support a quick war against the South, which culminated in the outbreak of the Korean War. Korean War The military of North Korea invaded the South on 25 June 1950, and swiftly overran most of the country. The United Nations Command (UNC) was subsequently established following the UN Security Council's recognition of North Korean aggression against South Korea. The motion passed because the Soviet Union, a close ally of North Korea and a member of the UN Security Council, was boycotting the UN over its recognition of the Republic of China rather than the People's Republic of China. The UNC, led by the United States, intervened to defend the South, and rapidly advanced into North Korea. As they neared the border with China, Chinese forces intervened on behalf of North Korea, shifting the balance of the war again. Fighting ended on 27 July 1953, with an armistice that approximately restored the original boundaries between North and South Korea, but no peace treaty was signed. Approximately 3 million people died in the Korean War, with a higher proportional civilian death toll than World War II or the Vietnam War. In both per capita and absolute terms, North Korea was the country most devastated by the war, which resulted in the death of an estimated 12–15% of the North Korean population (c. 10 million), "a figure close to or surpassing the proportion of Soviet citizens killed in World War II," according to Charles K. Armstrong. As a result of the war, almost every substantial building in North Korea was destroyed. Some have referred to the conflict as a civil war, with other factors involved.A heavily guarded demilitarized zone (DMZ) still divides the peninsula, and an anti-communist and anti-North Korea sentiment remains in South Korea. Since the war, the United States has maintained a strong military presence in the South which is depicted by the North Korean government as an imperialist occupation force. It claims that the Korean War was caused by the United States and South Korea. Post-war developments The post-war 1950s and 1960s saw an ideologicial shift in North Korea, as Kim Il Sung sought to consolidate his power. Kim Il Sung was highly critical of Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev and his de-Stalinization policies and echoed Chinese critiques of Khrushchev as "revisionist". During the 1956 August Faction Incident, Kim Il Sung successfully resisted efforts by the Soviet Union and China to depose him in favor of Soviet Koreans or the pro-Chinese Yan'an faction. Some scholars believe that the 1956 August incident was an example of North Korea demonstrating political independence. However, most scholars consider the final withdrawal of Chinese troops from North Korea in October 1958 to be the latest date when North Korea became effectively independent. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, North Korea sought to distinguish itself internationally by becoming a leader of the Non-Aligned Movement and promoting the ideology of Juche. In United States policymaking, North Korea was considered among the Captive Nations. Despite its efforts to break out of the Soviet and Chinese spheres of influence, North Korea remained closely aligned with both countries throughout the Cold War. Industry was the favored sector in North Korea. Industrial production returned to pre-war levels by 1957. In 1959, relations with Japan had improved somewhat, and North Korea began allowing the repatriation of Japanese citizens in the country. The same year, North Korea revalued the North Korean won, which held greater value than its South Korean counterpart. Until the 1960s, economic growth was higher than in South Korea, and North Korean GDP per capita was equal to that of its southern neighbor as late as 1976. However, by the 1980s, the economy had begun to stagnate; it started its long decline in 1987 and almost completely collapsed after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, when all Soviet aid was suddenly halted.An internal CIA study acknowledged various achievements of the North Korean government post-war: compassionate care for war orphans and children in general, a radical improvement in the status of women, free housing, free healthcare, and health statistics particularly in life expectancy and infant mortality that were comparable to even the most advanced nations up until the North Korean famine. Life expectancy in the North was 72 before the famine which was only marginally lower than in the South. The country once boasted a comparatively developed healthcare system; pre-famine North Korea had a network of nearly 45,000 family practitioners with some 800 hospitals and 1,000 clinics.The relative peace between the North and South following the armistice was interrupted by border skirmishes, celebrity abductions, and assassination attempts. The North failed in several assassination attempts on South Korean leaders, such as in 1968, 1974, and the Rangoon bombing in 1983; tunnels were found under the DMZ and tensions flared over the axe murder incident at Panmunjom in 1976. For almost two decades after the war, the two states did not seek to negotiate with one another. In 1971, secret, high-level contacts began to be conducted culminating in the 1972 July 4th North–South Joint Statement that established principles of working toward peaceful reunification. The talks ultimately failed because in 1973, South Korea declared its preference that the two Koreas should seek separate memberships in international organizations. Since 1991 The Soviet Union was dissolved on 26 December 1991, ending its aid and support to North Korea. In 1992, as Kim Il Sung's health began deteriorating, Kim Jong Il slowly began taking over various state tasks. Kim Il Sung died of a heart attack in 1994; Kim Jong Il declared a three-year period of national mourning, afterward officially announcing his position as the new leader.North Korea promised to halt its development of nuclear weapons under the Agreed Framework, negotiated with U.S. president Bill Clinton and signed in 1994. Building on Nordpolitik, South Korea began to engage with the North as part of its Sunshine Policy. Kim Jong Il instituted a policy called Songun, or "military first".Flooding in the mid-1990s exacerbated the economic crisis, severely damaging crops and infrastructure and leading to widespread famine that the government proved incapable of curtailing, resulting in the deaths of between 240,000 and 420,000 people. In 1996, the government accepted UN food aid.The international environment changed once George W. Bush became U.S. President in 2001. His administration rejected South Korea's Sunshine Policy and the Agreed Framework. Bush included North Korea in his axis of evil in his 2002 State of the Union address. The U.S. government accordingly treated North Korea as a rogue state, while North Korea redoubled its efforts to acquire nuclear weapons. On 9 October 2006, North Korea announced it had conducted its first nuclear weapons test. U.S. President Barack Obama adopted a policy of "strategic patience", resisting making deals with North Korea. Tensions with South Korea and the United States increased in 2010 with the sinking of the South Korean warship Cheonan and North Korea's shelling of Yeonpyeong Island.On 17 December 2011, Kim Jong Il died from a heart attack. His youngest son Kim Jong Un was announced as his successor. In the face of international condemnation, North Korea continued to develop its nuclear arsenal, possibly including a hydrogen bomb and a missile capable of reaching the United States.Throughout 2017, following Donald Trump's ascension to the US presidency, tensions between the United States and North Korea increased, and there was heightened rhetoric between the two, with Trump threatening "fire and fury" if North Korea ever attacked U.S. territory amid North Korean threats to test missiles that would land near Guam. The tensions substantially decreased in 2018, and a détente developed. A series of summits took place between Kim Jong Un of North Korea, President Moon Jae-in of South Korea, and President Trump.On 10 January 2021, Kim Jong Un was formally elected as the General Secretary in 8th Congress of the Workers' Party of Korea, a title previously held by Kim Jong Il. On 24 March 2022, North Korea conducted a successful ICBM test launch for the first time since the 2017 crisis. In September 2022, North Korea passed a law that declared itself a nuclear state. Geography North Korea occupies the northern portion of the Korean Peninsula, lying between latitudes 37° and 43°N, and longitudes 124° and 131°E. It covers an area of 120,540 square kilometers (46,541 sq mi). To its west are the Yellow Sea and Korea Bay, and to its east lies Japan across the Sea of Japan. Early European visitors to Korea remarked that the country resembled "a sea in a heavy gale" because of the many successive mountain ranges that crisscross the peninsula. Some 80 percent of North Korea is composed of mountains and uplands, separated by deep and narrow valleys. All of the Korean Peninsula's mountains with elevations of 2,000 meters (6,600 ft) or more are located in North Korea. The highest point in North Korea is Paektu Mountain, a volcanic mountain with an elevation of 2,744 meters (9,003 ft) above sea level. Considered a sacred place by North Koreans, Mount Paektu holds significance in Korean culture and has been incorporated in the elaborate folklore and personality cult around the Kim family. For example, the song, "We Will Go To Mount Paektu" sings in praise of Kim Jong Un and describes a symbolic trek to the mountain. Other prominent ranges are the Hamgyong Range in the extreme northeast and the Rangrim Mountains, which are located in the north-central part of North Korea. Mount Kumgang in the Taebaek Range, which extends into South Korea, is famous for its scenic beauty.The coastal plains are wide in the west and discontinuous in the east. A great majority of the population lives in the plains and lowlands. According to a United Nations Environmental Programme report in 2003, forest covers over 70 percent of the country, mostly on steep slopes. North Korea had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.02/10, ranking it 28th globally out of 172 countries. The longest river is the Amnok (Yalu) River which flows for 790 kilometers (491 mi). The country contains three terrestrial ecoregions: Central Korean deciduous forests, Changbai Mountains mixed forests, and Manchurian mixed forests. Climate North Korea experiences a combination of continental climate and an oceanic climate, but most of the country experiences a humid continental climate within the Köppen climate classification scheme. Winters bring clear weather interspersed with snow storms as a result of northern and northwestern winds that blow from Siberia. Summer tends to be by far the hottest, most humid, and rainiest time of year because of the southern and southeastern monsoon winds that carry moist air from the Pacific Ocean. Approximately 60 percent of all precipitation occurs from June to September. Spring and autumn are transitional seasons between summer and winter. The daily average high and low temperatures for Pyongyang are −3 and −13 °C (27 and 9 °F) in January and 29 and 20 °C (84 and 68 °F) in August. Administrative divisions Government and politics North Korea functions as a highly centralized, one-party totalitarian dictatorship. According to its constitution, it is a self-described revolutionary and socialist state "guided in its building and activities only by great Kimilsungism–Kimjongilism". In addition to the constitution, North Korea is governed by the Ten Principles for the Establishment of a Monolithic Ideological System (also known as the "Ten Principles of the One-Ideology System") which establishes standards for governance and a guide for the behaviors of North Koreans. The Workers' Party of Korea (WPK), a communist party led by a member of the Kim family, has an estimated 6.5 million members and dominates every aspect of North Korean politics. It has two satellite organizations, the Korean Social Democratic Party and the Chondoist Chongu Party which participate in the WPK-led Democratic Front for the Reunification of Korea of which all political officers are required to be members.Kim Jong Un of the Kim family is the current Supreme Leader or Suryeong of North Korea. He heads all major governing structures: he is the general secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea, president of the State Affairs. His grandfather Kim Il Sung, the founder and leader of North Korea until his death in 1994, is the country's "eternal President", while his father Kim Jong Il who succeeded Kim Il Sung as the leader was announced "Eternal General Secretary" and "Eternal Chairman of the National Defence Commission" after his death in 2011.According to the constitution, there are officially three main branches of government. The first of these is the State Affairs Commission (SAC), which acts as "the supreme national guidance organ of state sovereignty". Its role is to deliberate and decide the work on defense building of the State, including major policies of the State, and to carry out the directions of the president of the commission, Kim Jong Un. The SAC also directly supervises the Ministry of Defence, Ministry of State Security and the Ministry of Social Security. Legislative power is held by the unicameral Supreme People's Assembly (SPA). Its 687 members are elected every five years by universal suffrage, though the elections have been described by outside observers as sham elections. Supreme People's Assembly sessions are convened by the SPA Standing Committee, whose Chairman (Choe Ryong-hae since 2019) is the third-ranking official in North Korea. Deputies formally elect the Chairman, the vice-chairmen and members of the Presidium and take part in the constitutionally appointed activities of the legislature: pass laws, establish domestic and foreign policies, appoint members of the cabinet, review and approve the state economic plan, among others. The SPA itself cannot initiate any legislation independently of party or state organs. It is unknown whether it has ever criticized or amended bills placed before it, and the elections are based around a single list of WPK-approved candidates who stand without opposition.Executive power is vested in the Cabinet of North Korea, which has been headed by Premier Kim Tok-hun since 14 August 2020, who's officially the second-ranking official after Kim Jong Un. The Premier represents the government and functions independently. His authority extends over two vice-premiers, 30 ministers, two cabinet commission chairmen, the cabinet chief secretary, the president of the Central Bank, the director of the Central Bureau of Statistics and the president of the Academy of Sciences.North Korea, like its southern counterpart, claims to be the legitimate government of the entire Korean Peninsula and adjacent islands. Despite its official title as the "Democratic People's Republic of Korea", some observers have described North Korea's political system as an absolute monarchy or a "hereditary dictatorship". It has also been described as a Stalinist dictatorship. Political ideology Kimilsungism–Kimjongilism is the official ideology of North Korea and the WPK, and is the cornerstone of party works and government operations. Juche, part of the larger Kimilsungism–Kimjongilism along with Songun under Kim Jong Un, is viewed by the official North Korean line as an embodiment of Kim Il Sung's wisdom, an expression of his leadership, and an idea which provides "a complete answer to any question that arises in the struggle for national liberation". Juche was pronounced in December 1955 in a speech called On Eliminating Dogmatism and Formalism and Establishing Juche in Ideological Work in order to emphasize a Korea-centered revolution. Its core tenets are economic self-sufficiency, military self-reliance and an independent foreign policy. The roots of Juche were made up of a complex mixture of factors, including the cult of personality centered on Kim Il Sung, the conflict with pro-Soviet and pro-Chinese dissenters, and Korea's centuries-long struggle for independence. Juche was introduced into the constitution in 1972.Juche was initially promoted as a "creative application" of Marxism–Leninism, but in the mid-1970s, it was described by state propaganda as "the only scientific thought... and most effective revolutionary theoretical structure that leads to the future of communist society". Juche eventually replaced Marxism–Leninism entirely by the 1980s, and in 1992 references to the latter were omitted from the constitution. The 2009 constitution dropped references to communism and elevated the Songun military first policy while explicitly confirming the position of Kim Jong Il. However, the constitution retains references to socialism. The WPK reasserted its commitment to communism in 2021. Juche's concepts of self-reliance have evolved with time and circumstances, but still provide the groundwork for the spartan austerity, sacrifice, and discipline demanded by the party. Scholar Brian Reynolds Myers views North Korea's actual ideology as a Korean ethnic nationalism similar to statism in Shōwa Japan and European fascism. Kim family Since the founding of the nation, North Korea's supreme leadership has stayed within the Kim family, which in North Korea is referred to as the Mount Paektu Bloodline. It is a three-generation lineage descending from the country's first leader, Kim Il Sung, who developed North Korea around the Juche ideology, and stayed in power until his death. Kim developed a cult of personality closely tied to the state philosophy of Juche, which was later passed on to his successors: his son Kim Jong Il in 1994 and grandson Kim Jong Un in 2011. In 2013, Clause 2 of Article 10 of the newly edited Ten Fundamental Principles of the Workers' Party of Korea stated that the party and revolution must be carried "eternally" by the "Mount Paektu Bloodline".According to New Focus International, the cult of personality, particularly surrounding Kim Il Sung, has been crucial for legitimizing the family's hereditary succession. The control the North Korean government exercises over many aspects of the nation's culture is used to perpetuate the cult of personality surrounding Kim Il Sung, and Kim Jong Il. While visiting North Korea in 1979, journalist Bradley Martin wrote that nearly all music, art, and sculpture that he observed glorified "Great Leader" Kim Il Sung, whose personality cult was then being extended to his son, "Dear Leader" Kim Jong Il.Claims that the family has been deified are contested by North Korea researcher B. R. Myers: "Divine powers have never been attributed to either of the two Kims. In fact, the propaganda apparatus in Pyongyang has generally been careful not to make claims that run directly counter to citizens' experience or common sense." He further explains that the state propaganda painted Kim Jong Il as someone whose expertise lay in military matters and that the famine of the 1990s was partially caused by natural disasters out of Kim Jong Il's control. The song "No Motherland Without You", sung by the North Korean army choir, was created especially for Kim Jong Il and is one of the most popular tunes in the country. Kim Il Sung is still officially revered as the nation's "Eternal President". Several landmarks in North Korea are named for Kim Il Sung, including Kim Il Sung University, Kim Il-sung Stadium, and Kim Il-sung Square. Defectors have been quoted as saying that North Korean schools deify both father and son. Kim Il Sung rejected the notion that he had created a cult around himself and accused those who suggested this of "factionalism". Following the death of Kim Il Sung, North Koreans were prostrating and weeping to a bronze statue of him in an organized event; similar scenes were broadcast by state television following the death of Kim Jong Il.Critics maintain that Kim Jong Il's personality cult was inherited from his father. Kim Jong Il was often the center of attention throughout ordinary life. His birthday is one of the most important public holidays in the country. On his 60th birthday (based on his official date of birth), mass celebrations occurred throughout the country. Kim Jong Il's personality cult, although significant, was not as extensive as his father's. One point of view is that Kim Jong Il's cult of personality was solely out of respect for Kim Il Sung or out of fear of punishment for failure to pay homage, while North Korean government sources consider it genuine hero worship. Foreign relations As a result of its isolation, North Korea is sometimes known as the "hermit kingdom", a term that originally referred to the isolationism in the latter part of the Joseon Dynasty. Initially, North Korea had diplomatic ties only with other communist countries, and even today, most of the foreign embassies accredited to North Korea are located in Beijing rather than in Pyongyang. In the 1960s and 1970s, it pursued an independent foreign policy, established relations with many developing countries, and joined the Non-Aligned Movement. In the late 1980s and the 1990s its foreign policy was thrown into turmoil with the collapse of the Soviet Bloc. Suffering an economic crisis, it closed a number of its embassies. At the same time, North Korea sought to build relations with developed free market countries.North Korea joined the United Nations in 1991 together with South Korea. North Korea is also a member of the Non-Aligned Movement, G77 and the ASEAN Regional Forum. As of 2015, North Korea had diplomatic relations with 166 countries and embassies in 47 countries. North Korea does not have diplomatic relations with Argentina, Botswana, Estonia, France, Iraq, Israel, Japan, Taiwan, the United States, and Ukraine. North Korea enjoys a close relationship with China which is often called North Korea's closest ally. Relations were strained beginning in 2006 because of China's concerns about North Korea's nuclear program. Relations improved after Xi Jinping, General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party and Chinese President visited North Korea in April 2019. North Korea continues to have strong ties with several Southeast Asian countries such as Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, and Indonesia. Relations with Malaysia were strained in 2017 by the assassination of Kim Jong-nam.North Korea has a close relationship with Russia under Vladimir Putin and supported the Russian invasion of Ukraine.North Korea was previously designated a state sponsor of terrorism by the U.S. because of its alleged involvement in the 1983 Rangoon bombing and the 1987 bombing of a South Korean airliner. On 11 October 2008, the United States removed North Korea from its list of states that sponsor terrorism after Pyongyang agreed to cooperate on issues related to its nuclear program. North Korea was re-designated a state sponsor of terrorism by the U.S. under the administration of Donald Trump on 20 November 2017. The kidnapping of at least 13 Japanese citizens by North Korean agents in the 1970s and the 1980s has had a detrimental effect on North Korea's relationship with Japan.US President Trump met with Kim in Singapore on 12 June 2018. An agreement was signed between the two countries endorsing the 2017 Panmunjom Declaration signed by North and South Korea, pledging to work towards denuclearizing the Korean Peninsula. They met in Hanoi from 27 to 28 February 2019, but failed to achieve an agreement. On 30 June 2019, Trump met with Kim along with South Korean president Moon Jae-in at the Korean DMZ. Inter-Korean relations The Korean Demilitarized Zone with South Korea remains the most heavily fortified border in the world. Inter-Korean relations are at the core of North Korean diplomacy and have seen numerous shifts in the last few decades. North Korea's policy is to seek reunification without what it sees as outside interference, through a federal structure retaining each side's leadership and systems. In 1972, the two Koreas agreed in principle to achieve reunification through peaceful means and without foreign interference. On 10 October 1980, the then North Korean leader Kim Il Sung proposed a federation between North and South Korea named the Democratic Federal Republic of Korea in which the respective political systems would initially remain. However, relations remained cool well until the early 1990s, with a brief period in the early 1980s when North Korea offered to provide flood relief to its southern neighbor. Although the offer was initially welcomed, talks over how to deliver the relief goods broke down and none of the promised aid ever crossed the border. The two countries also organized a reunion of 92 separated families. The Sunshine Policy instituted by South Korean president Kim Dae-jung in 1998 was a watershed in inter-Korean relations. It encouraged other countries to engage with the North, which allowed Pyongyang to normalize relations with a number of European Union states and contributed to the establishment of joint North-South economic projects. The culmination of the Sunshine Policy was the 2000 Inter-Korean summit, when Kim Dae-jung visited Kim Jong Il in Pyongyang. Both North and South Korea signed the June 15th North–South Joint Declaration, in which both sides promised to seek peaceful reunification. On 4 October 2007, South Korean president Roh Moo-hyun and Kim Jong Il signed an eight-point peace agreement. However, relations worsened when South Korean president Lee Myung-bak adopted a more hard-line approach and suspended aid deliveries pending the de-nuclearization of the North. In 2009, North Korea responded by ending all of its previous agreements with the South. It deployed additional ballistic missiles and placed its military on full combat alert after South Korea, Japan and the United States threatened to intercept a Unha-2 space launch vehicle. The next few years witnessed a string of hostilities, including the alleged North Korean involvement in the sinking of South Korean warship Cheonan, mutual ending of diplomatic ties, a North Korean artillery attack on Yeonpyeong Island, and growing international concern over North Korea's nuclear program.In May 2017, Moon Jae-in was elected president of South Korea with a promise to return to the Sunshine Policy. In February 2018, a détente developed at the Winter Olympics held in South Korea. In April, South Korean president Moon Jae-in and Kim Jong Un met at the DMZ, and, in the Panmunjom Declaration, pledged to work for peace and nuclear disarmament. In September, at a joint news conference in Pyongyang, Moon and Kim agreed upon turning the Korean Peninsula into a "land of peace without nuclear weapons and nuclear threats". Law enforcement and internal security North Korea has a civil law system based on the Prussian model and influenced by Japanese traditions and communist legal theory. Judiciary procedures are handled by the Central Court (the highest court of appeal), provincial or special city-level courts, people's courts, and special courts. People's courts are at the lowest level of the system and operate in cities, counties and urban districts, while different kinds of special courts handle cases related to military, railroad, or maritime matters.Judges are theoretically elected by their respective local people's assemblies, but in practice they are appointed by the Workers' Party of Korea. The penal code is based on the principle of nullum crimen sine lege (no crime without a law), but remains a tool for political control despite several amendments reducing ideological influence. Courts carry out legal procedures related to not only criminal and civil matters, but also political cases as well. Political prisoners are sent to labor camps, while criminal offenders are incarcerated in a separate system.The Ministry of Social Security (MSS) maintains most law enforcement activities. It is one of the most powerful state institutions in North Korea and oversees the national police force, investigates criminal cases and manages non-political correctional facilities. It handles other aspects of domestic security like civil registration, traffic control, fire departments and railroad security. The State Security Department was separated from the MPS in 1973 to conduct domestic and foreign intelligence, counterintelligence and manage the political prison system. Political camps can be short-term reeducation zones or "kwalliso" (total control zones) for lifetime detention. Camp 15 in Yodok and Camp 18 in Bukchang have been described in detailed testimonies.The security apparatus is extensive, exerting strict control over residence, travel, employment, clothing, food and family life. Security forces employ mass surveillance. It is believed they tightly monitor cellular and digital communications. Human rights North Korea is widely described as having the worst human rights record in the world. A 2014 UN inquiry into human rights in North Korea concluded that, "the gravity, scale and nature of these violations reveal a state that does not have any parallel in the contemporary world", with Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch holding similar views. North Koreans have been referred to as "some of the world's most brutalized people" by Human Rights Watch, because of the severe restrictions placed on their political and economic freedoms. The North Korean population is strictly managed by the state and all aspects of daily life are subordinated to party and state planning. Employment is managed by the party on the basis of political reliability, and travel is tightly controlled by the Ministry of People's Security. North Koreans do not have a choice in the jobs they work and are not free to change jobs at will.There are severe restrictions on the freedom of association, expression and movement; arbitrary detention, torture and other ill-treatment result in death and execution. Citizens in North Korea are denied freedom of movement including the right to leave the country at will and its government denies access to international human rights observers.The State Security Department extrajudicially apprehends and imprisons those accused of political crimes without due process. People perceived as hostile to the government, such as Christians or critics of the leadership, are deported to labor camps without trial, often with their whole family and mostly without any chance of being released. Forced labor is part of an established system of political repression.Based on satellite images and defector testimonies, an estimated 200,000 prisoners are held in six large political prison camps, where they are forced to work in conditions approaching slavery. Supporters of the government who deviate from the government line are subject to reeducation in sections of labor camps set aside for that purpose. Those who are deemed politically rehabilitated may reassume responsible government positions on their release.North Korean defectors have provided detailed testimonies on the existence of the total control zones where abuses such as torture, starvation, rape, murder, medical experimentation, forced labor, and forced abortions have been reported. On the basis of these abuses, as well as persecution on political, religious, racial, and gender grounds, forcible transfer of populations, enforced disappearance of persons, and forced starvation, the United Nations Commission of Inquiry has accused North Korea of crimes against humanity. The International Coalition to Stop Crimes Against Humanity in North Korea (ICNK) estimates that over 10,000 people die in North Korean prison camps every year.With 1,100,000 people in modern slavery (via forced labor), North Korea is ranked highest in the world in terms of the percentage of population in modern slavery, with 10.4 percent enslaved according to the Walk Free Foundation's 2018 Global Slavery Index. North Korea is the only country in the world that has not explicitly criminalized any form of modern slavery. A United Nations report listed slavery among the crimes against humanity occurring in North Korea.Based on interviews with defectors, North Korean women are routinely subjected to sexual violence, unwanted sexual contact, and rape. Men in positions of power, including police, high-ranking officials, market supervisors, and guards can abuse women at will and are not prosecuted for it. It happens so often that it is accepted as a routine part of life. Women assume they can not do anything about it. The only ones with protection are those whose husbands or fathers are themselves in positions of power.The North Korean government does not fully comply with the minimum standards for the elimination of human trafficking and is not making significant efforts to do so. The most common form of trafficking involves North Korean women and girls forced into marriage or prostitution in China.The North Korean government rejects the human rights abuse claims, calling them "a smear campaign" and a "human rights racket" aimed at government change. In a 2014 report to the UN, North Korea dismissed accusations of atrocities as "wild rumors". The official state media, KCNA, responded with an article that included homophobic insults against the author of the human rights report, Michael Kirby, calling him "a disgusting old lecher with a 40-odd-year-long career of homosexuality ... This practice can never be found in the DPRK boasting of the sound mentality and good morals ... In fact, it is ridiculous for such gay [sic] to sponsor dealing with others' human rights issue." The government, however, admitted some human rights issues related to living conditions and stated that it is working to improve them. Military The North Korean armed forces, or the Korean People's Army (KPA), is estimated to comprise 1,280,000 active and 6,300,000 reserve and paramilitary troops, making it one of the largest military institutions in the world. With an active duty army consisting of 4.9% of its population, the KPA is the fourth largest active military force in the world behind China, India and the United States. About 20 percent of men aged 17–54 serve in the regular armed forces, and approximately one in every 25 citizens is an enlisted soldier.The KPA is divided into five branches: Ground Force, Navy, Air Force, Special Operations Force, and Rocket Force. Command of the KPA lies in both the Central Military Commission of the Workers' Party of Korea and the independent State Affairs Commission, which controls the Ministry of Defence.Of all the KPA's branches, the Ground Force is the largest, comprising approximately one million personnel divided into 80 infantry divisions, 30 artillery brigades, 25 special warfare brigades, 20 mechanized brigades, 10 tank brigades and seven tank regiments. It is equipped with 3,700 tanks, 2,100 armored personnel carriers and infantry fighting vehicles, 17,900 artillery pieces, 11,000 anti-aircraft guns and some 10,000 MANPADS and anti-tank guided missiles. The Air Force is estimated to possess around 1,600 aircraft (with between 545 – 810 serving combat roles), while the Navy operates approximately 800 vessels, including the largest submarine fleet in the world. The KPA's Special Operation Force is also the world's largest special forces unit. North Korea is a nuclear-armed state, though the nature and strength of its arsenal is uncertain. In January 2018, estimates of North Korea's nuclear arsenal ranged between 15 and 60 bombs, probably including hydrogen bombs. Delivery capabilities are provided by the Rocket Force, which has some 1,000 ballistic missiles with a range of up to 11,900 km (7,400 mi).According to a 2004 South Korean assessment, North Korea also possesses a stockpile of chemical weapons estimated to amount to between 2,500–5,000 tons, including nerve, blister, blood, and vomiting agents, as well as the ability to cultivate and produce biological weapons including anthrax, smallpox, and cholera. As a result of its nuclear and missile tests, North Korea has been sanctioned under United Nations Security Council resolutions 1695 of July 2006, 1718 of October 2006, 1874 of June 2009, 2087 of January 2013, and 2397 in December 2017. The sale of weapons to North Korea by other states is prohibited by UN sanctions, and the KPA's conventional capabilities are limited by a number of factors including obsolete equipment, insufficient fuel supplies and a shortage of digital command and control assets. To compensate for these deficiencies, the KPA has deployed a wide range of asymmetric warfare technologies including anti-personnel blinding lasers, GPS jammers, midget submarines and human torpedoes, stealth paint, and cyberwarfare units. In 2015, North Korea was reported to employ 6,000 sophisticated computer security personnel in a cyberwarfare unit operating out of China. KPA units were blamed for the 2014 Sony Pictures hack and have allegedly attempted to jam South Korean military satellites.Much of the equipment in use by the KPA is engineered and manufactured by the domestic defense industry. Weapons are manufactured in roughly 1,800 underground defense industry plants scattered throughout the country, most of them located in Chagang Province. The defense industry is capable of producing a full range of individual and crew-operated weapons, artillery, armored vehicles, tanks, missiles, helicopters, submarines, landing and infiltration craft and Yak-18 trainers, and may even have limited jet aircraft manufacturing capacity. According to North Korean state media, military expenditure amounted to 15.8 percent of the state budget in 2010. The U.S. State Department has estimated that North Korea's military spending averaged 23% of its GDP from 2004 to 2014, the highest level in the world. North Korea successfully tested a new type of submarine-launched ballistic missile on 19 October 2021. Society Demographics North Korea's population was 10.9 million in 1961. With the exception of a small Chinese community and a few ethnic Japanese, North Korea's 25,971,909 people are ethnically homogeneous. Demographic experts in the 20th century estimated that the population would grow to 25.5 million by 2000 and 28 million by 2010, but this increase never occurred due to the North Korean famine. The famine began in 1995, lasted for three years, and resulted in the deaths of between 240,000 and 420,000 North Koreans.International donors led by the United States initiated shipments of food through the World Food Program in 1997 to combat the famine. Despite a drastic reduction of aid under the George W. Bush administration, the situation gradually improved: the number of malnourished children declined from 60% in 1998 to 37% in 2006 and 28% in 2013. Domestic food production almost recovered to the recommended annual level of 5.37 million tons of cereal equivalent in 2013, but the World Food Program reported a continuing lack of dietary diversity and access to fats and proteins. By the mid-2010s national levels of severe wasting, an indication of famine-like conditions, were lower than in other low-income countries and about on par with developing nations in the Pacific and East Asia. Children’s health and nutrition is significantly better on a number of indicators than in many other Asian countries.The famine had a significant impact on the population growth rate, which declined to 0.9% annually in 2002. It was 0.5% in 2014. Late marriages after military service, limited housing space and long hours of work or political studies further exhaust the population and reduce growth. The national birth rate is 14.5 births per year per 1,000 population. Two-thirds of households consist of extended families mostly living in two-room units. Marriage is virtually universal and divorce is extremely rare. Health North Korea has a life expectancy of 72.3 years in 2019, according to HDR 2020. While North Korea is classified as a low-income country, the structure of North Korea's causes of death (2013) is unlike that of other low-income countries. Instead, it is closer to worldwide averages, with non-communicable diseases—such as cardiovascular disease and cancers—accounting for 84 percent of the total deaths in 2016.According to the World Bank report of 2016 (based on WHO's estimate), only 9.5% of the total deaths recorded in North Korea are attributed to communicable diseases and maternal, prenatal and nutrition conditions, a figure which is slightly lower than that of South Korea (10.1%) and one fifth of other low-income countries (50.1%) but higher than that of high income countries (6.7%). Only one out of ten leading causes of overall deaths in North Korea is attributed to communicable diseases (lower respiratory infection), a disease which is reported to have declined by six percent since 2007.In 2013, cardiovascular disease as a single disease group was reported as the largest cause of death in North Korea. The three major causes of death in North Korea are stroke, COPD and Ischaemic heart disease. Non-communicable diseases risk factors in North Korea include high rates of urbanization, an aging society, and high rates of smoking and alcohol consumption amongst men.Maternal mortality is lower than other low-income countries, but significantly higher than South Korea and other high income countries, at 89 per 100,000 live births. In 2008 child mortality was estimated to be 45 per 1,000, which is much better than other economically comparable countries. Chad for example had a child mortality rate of 120 per 1,000, despite the fact that Chad was most likely wealthier than North Korea at the time.Healthcare Access and Quality Index, as calculated by IHME, was reported to stand at 62.3, much lower than that of South Korea.According to a 2003 report by the United States Department of State, almost 100% of the population has access to water and sanitation. Further, 80% of the population had access to improved sanitation facilities in 2015.North Korea has the highest number of doctors per capita amongst low-income countries, with 3.7 physicians per 1,000 people, a figure which is also significantly higher than that of South Korea, according to WHO's data.Conflicting reports between Amnesty and WHO have emerged, where the Amnesty report claimed that North Korea had an inadequate health care system, while the Director of the World Health Organization claimed that North Korea's healthcare system was considered the envy of the developing world and had "no lack of doctors and nurses".A free universal insurance system is in place. Quality of medical care varies significantly by region and is often low, with severe shortages of equipment, drugs and anesthetics. According to WHO, expenditure on health per capita is one of the lowest in the world. Preventive medicine is emphasized through physical exercise and sports, nationwide monthly checkups and routine spraying of public places against disease. Every individual has a lifetime health card which contains a full medical record. Education The 2008 census listed the entire population as literate. An 11-year free, compulsory cycle of primary and secondary education is provided in more than 27,000 nursery schools, 14,000 kindergartens, 4,800 four-year primary and 4,700 six-year secondary schools. 77% of males and 79% of females aged 30–34 have finished secondary school. An additional 300 universities and colleges offer higher education.Most graduates from the compulsory program do not attend university but begin their obligatory military service or proceed to work in farms or factories instead. The main deficiencies of higher education are the heavy presence of ideological subjects, which comprise 50% of courses in social studies and 20% in sciences, and the imbalances in curriculum. The study of natural sciences is greatly emphasized while social sciences are neglected. Heuristics is actively applied to develop the independence and creativity of students throughout the system. The study of Russian and English was made compulsory in upper middle schools in 1978. Language North Korea shares the Korean language with South Korea, although some dialectal differences exist within both Koreas. North Koreans refer to their Pyongyang dialect as munhwaŏ ("cultured language") as opposed to the dialects of South Korea, especially the Seoul dialect or p'yojun'ŏ ("standard language"), which are viewed as decadent because of its use of loanwords from Chinese and European languages (particularly English). Words of Chinese, Manchu or Western origin have been eliminated from munhwa along with the usage of Chinese hancha characters. Written language uses only the Chosŏn'gŭl (Hangul) phonetic alphabet, developed under Sejong the Great (1418–1450). Religion North Korea is officially an atheist state. Its constitution guarantees freedom of religion under Article 68, but this principle is limited by the requirement that religion may not be used as a pretext to harm the state, introduce foreign forces, or harm the existing social order. Religious practice is therefore heavily restricted, despite nominal constitutional protections. Proselytizing is also prohibited due to concerns about foreign influence. The number of Christian churchgoers nonetheless more than doubled between the 1980s and the early 2000s due to the recruitment of Christians who previously worshipped privately or in small house churches. The Open Doors mission, a Protestant group based in the United States and founded during the Cold War era, claims the most severe persecution of Christians in the world occurs in North Korea.There are no known official statistics of religions in North Korea. According to a 2020 study published by the Centre for the Study of World Christianity, 73% of the population are irreligious (58% agnostic, 15% atheist), 13% practice Chondoism, 12% practice Korean shamanism, 1.5% are Buddhist, and less than 0.5% practice another religion such as Christianity, Islam, or Chinese folk religion. Amnesty International has expressed concerns about religious persecution in North Korea. Pro-North groups such as the Paektu Solidarity Alliance deny these claims, saying that multiple religious facilities exist across the nation. Some religious places of worship are located in foreign embassies in the capital city of Pyongyang. Five Christian churches built with state funds stand in Pyongyang: three Protestant, one Roman Catholic, and one Russian orthodox. Critics claim these are showcases for foreigners.Buddhism and Confucianism still influence spirituality. Chondoism ("Heavenly Way") is an indigenous syncretic belief combining elements of Korean shamanism, Buddhism, Taoism and Catholicism that is officially represented by the WPK-controlled Chondoist Chongu Party. Chondoism is recognized and favored by the government, being seen as an indigenous form of "revolutionary religion". Formal ranking of citizens' loyalty According to North Korean documents and refugee testimonies, all North Koreans are sorted into groups according to their Songbun, an ascribed status system based on a citizen's assessed loyalty to the government. Based on their own behavior and the political, social, and economic background of their family for three generations as well as behavior by relatives within that range, Songbun is allegedly used to determine whether an individual is trusted with responsibility, given opportunities, or even receives adequate food.Songbun allegedly affects access to educational and employment opportunities and particularly whether a person is eligible to join North Korea's ruling party. There are 3 main classifications and about 50 sub-classifications. According to Kim Il Sung, speaking in 1958, the loyal "core class" constituted 25% of the North Korean population, the "wavering class" 55%, and the "hostile class" 20%. The highest status is accorded to individuals descended from those who participated with Kim Il Sung in the resistance against Japanese occupation before and during World War II and to those who were factory workers, laborers, or peasants in 1950.While some analysts believe private commerce recently changed the Songbun system to some extent, most North Korean refugees say it remains a commanding presence in everyday life. The North Korean government claims all citizens are equal and denies any discrimination on the basis of family background. Economy North Korea has maintained one of the most closed and centralized economies in the world since the 1940s. For several decades, it followed the Soviet pattern of five-year plans with the ultimate goal of achieving self-sufficiency. Extensive Soviet and Chinese support allowed North Korea to rapidly recover from the Korean War and register very high growth rates. Systematic inefficiency began to arise around 1960, when the economy shifted from the extensive to the intensive development stage. The shortage of skilled labor, energy, arable land and transportation significantly impeded long-term growth and resulted in consistent failure to meet planning objectives. The major slowdown of the economy contrasted with South Korea, which surpassed the North in terms of absolute GDP and per capita income by the 1980s. North Korea declared the last seven-year plan unsuccessful in December 1993 and thereafter stopped announcing plans. The loss of Eastern Bloc trading partners and a series of natural disasters throughout the 1990s caused severe hardships, including widespread famine. By 2000, the situation improved owing to a massive international food assistance effort, but the economy continues to suffer from food shortages, dilapidated infrastructure and a critically low energy supply. In an attempt to recover from the collapse, the government began structural reforms in 1998 that formally legalized private ownership of assets and decentralized control over production. A second round of reforms in 2002 led to an expansion of market activities, partial monetization, flexible prices and salaries, and the introduction of incentives and accountability techniques. Despite these changes, North Korea remains a command economy where the state owns almost all means of production and development priorities are defined by the government.North Korea has the structural profile of a relatively industrialized country where nearly half of the Gross Domestic Product is generated by industry and human development is at medium levels. Purchasing power parity (PPP) GDP is estimated at $40 billion, with a very low per capita value of $1,800. In 2012, Gross national income per capita was $1,523, compared to $28,430 in South Korea. The North Korean won is the national currency, issued by the Central Bank of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. The economy has been developing dramatically in recent years despite sanctions. The Sejong Institute describes these changes as "astonishing".The economy is heavily nationalized. Food and housing are extensively subsidized by the state; education and healthcare are free; and the payment of taxes was officially abolished in 1974. A variety of goods are available in department stores and supermarkets in Pyongyang, though most of the population relies on small-scale jangmadang markets. In 2009, the government attempted to stem the expanding free market by banning jangmadang and the use of foreign currency, heavily devaluing the won and restricting the convertibility of savings in the old currency, but the resulting inflation spike and rare public protests caused a reversal of these policies. Private trade is dominated by women because most men are required to be present at their workplace, even though many state-owned enterprises are non-operational. Industry and services employ 65% of North Korea's 12.6 million labor force. Major industries include machine building, military equipment, chemicals, mining, metallurgy, textiles, food processing and tourism. Iron ore and coal production are among the few sectors where North Korea performs significantly better than its southern neighbor—it produces about 10 times more of each resource. Using ex-Romanian drilling rigs, several oil exploration companies have confirmed significant oil reserves in the North Korean shelf of the Sea of Japan, and in areas south of Pyongyang. The agricultural sector was shattered by the natural disasters of the 1990s. Its 3,500 cooperatives and state farms were moderately successful until the mid-1990s but now experience chronic fertilizer and equipment shortages. Rice, corn, soybeans and potatoes are some of the primary crops. A significant contribution to the food supply comes from commercial fishing and aquaculture. Smaller specialized farms, managed by the state, also produce high-value crops, including ginseng, honey, matsutake and herbs for traditional Korean and Chinese medicine. Tourism has been a growing sector for the past decade. North Korea has been aiming to increase the number of foreign visitors through projects like the Masikryong Ski Resort. On 22 January 2020, North Korea closed its borders to foreign tourists in response to the threat of the COVID-19 pandemic in North Korea.Foreign trade surpassed pre-crisis levels in 2005 and continues to expand. North Korea has a number of special economic zones (SEZs) and Special Administrative Regions where foreign companies can operate with tax and tariff incentives while North Korean establishments gain access to improved technology. Initially four such zones existed, but they yielded little overall success. The SEZ system was overhauled in 2013 when 14 new zones were opened and the Rason Special Economic Zone was reformed as a joint Chinese-North Korean project. The Kaesong Industrial Region is a special economic zone where more than 100 South Korean companies employ some 52,000 North Korean workers. As of August 2017, China is the biggest trading partner of North Korea outside inter-Korean trade, accounting for more than 84% of the total external trade ($5.3 billion) followed by India at 3.3% share ($205 million). In 2014, Russia wrote off 90% of North Korea's debt and the two countries agreed to conduct all transactions in rubles. Overall, external trade in 2013 reached a total of $7.3 billion (the highest amount since 1990), while inter-Korean trade dropped to an eight-year low of $1.1 billion. Infrastructure and transport North Korea's energy infrastructure is obsolete and in disrepair. Power shortages are chronic and would not be alleviated even by electricity imports because the poorly maintained grid causes significant losses during transmission. Coal accounts for 70% of primary energy production, followed by hydroelectric power with 17%. The government under Kim Jong Un has increased emphasis on renewable energy projects like wind farms, solar parks, solar heating and biomass. A set of legal regulations adopted in 2014 stressed the development of geothermal, wind and solar energy along with recycling and environmental conservation. North Korea's long-term objective is to curb fossil fuel usage and reach an output of 5 million kilowatts from renewable sources by 2044, up from its current total of 430,000 kilowatts from all sources. Wind power is projected to satisfy 15% of the country's total energy demand under this strategy.North Korea also strives to develop its own civilian nuclear program. These efforts are under much international dispute due to their military applications and concerns about safety.Transport infrastructure includes railways, highways, water and air routes, but rail transport is by far the most widespread. North Korea has some 5,200 kilometers (3,200 mi) of railways mostly in standard gauge which carry 80% of annual passenger traffic and 86% of freight, but electricity shortages undermine their efficiency. Construction of a high-speed railway connecting Kaesong, Pyongyang and Sinuiju with speeds exceeding 200 kilometers per hour (120 mph) was approved in 2013. North Korea connects with the Trans-Siberian Railway through Rajin. Road transport is very limited—only 724 kilometers (450 mi) of the 25,554 kilometers (15,879 mi) road network are paved, and maintenance on most roads is poor. Only 2% of the freight capacity is supported by river and sea transport, and air traffic is negligible. All port facilities are ice-free and host a merchant fleet of 158 vessels. Eighty-two airports and 23 helipads are operational and the largest serve the state-run airline, Air Koryo. Cars are relatively rare, but bicycles are common. There is only one international airport—Pyongyang International Airport—serviced by Russia and China (see List of public airports in North Korea) Science and technology R&D efforts are concentrated at the State Academy of Sciences, which runs 40 research institutes, 200 smaller research centers, a scientific equipment factory and six publishing houses. The government considers science and technology to be directly linked to economic development. A five-year scientific plan emphasizing IT, biotechnology, nanotechnology, marine technology, and laser and plasma research was carried out in the early 2000s. A 2010 report by the South Korean Science and Technology Policy Institute identified polymer chemistry, single carbon materials, nanoscience, mathematics, software, nuclear technology and rocketry as potential areas of inter-Korean scientific cooperation. North Korean institutes are strong in these fields of research, although their engineers require additional training, and laboratories need equipment upgrades. Under its "constructing a powerful knowledge economy" slogan, the state has launched a project to concentrate education, scientific research and production into a number of "high-tech development zones". International sanctions remain a significant obstacle to their development. The Miraewon network of electronic libraries was established in 2014 under similar slogans.Significant resources have been allocated to the national space program, which is managed by the National Aerospace Development Administration (formerly managed by the Korean Committee of Space Technology until April 2013) Domestically produced launch vehicles and the Kwangmyŏngsŏng satellite class are launched from two spaceports, the Tonghae Satellite Launching Ground and the Sohae Satellite Launching Station. After four failed attempts, North Korea became the tenth spacefaring nation with the launch of Kwangmyŏngsŏng-3 Unit 2 in December 2012, which successfully reached orbit but was believed to be crippled and non-operational. It joined the Outer Space Treaty in 2009 and has stated its intentions to undertake crewed and Moon missions. The government insisted the space program is for peaceful purposes, but the United States, Japan, South Korea and other countries maintained that it serves to advance North Korea's ballistic missile program. On 7 February 2016, a statement broadcast on Korean Central Television said that a new Earth observation satellite, Kwangmyongsong-4, had successfully been put into orbit.Usage of communication technology is controlled by the Ministry of Post and Telecommunications. An adequate nationwide fiber-optic telephone system with 1.18 million fixed lines and expanding mobile coverage is in place. Most phones are installed for senior government officials and installation requires written explanation why the user needs a telephone and how it will be paid for. Cellular coverage is available with a 3G network operated by Koryolink, a joint venture with Orascom Telecom Holding. The number of subscribers has increased from 3,000 in 2002 to almost two million in 2013. International calls through either fixed or cellular service are restricted, and mobile Internet is not available.Internet access itself is limited to a handful of elite users and scientists. Instead, North Korea has a walled garden intranet system called Kwangmyong, which is maintained and monitored by the Korea Computer Center. Its content is limited to state media, chat services, message boards, an e-mail service and an estimated 1,000–5,500 websites. Computers employ the Red Star OS, an operating system derived from Linux, with a user shell visually similar to that of OS X. On 19 September 2016, a TLDR project noticed the North Korean Internet DNS data and top-level domain was left open which allowed global DNS zone transfers. A dump of the data discovered was shared on GitHub. Culture Despite a historically strong Chinese influence, Korean culture has shaped its own unique identity. It came under attack during the Japanese rule from 1910 to 1945, when Japan enforced a cultural assimilation policy. Koreans were forced to learn and speak Japanese, adopt the Japanese family name system and Shinto religion, and were forbidden to write or speak the Korean language in schools, businesses, or public places.After the peninsula was divided in 1945, two distinct cultures formed out of the common Korean heritage. North Koreans have little exposure to foreign influence. The revolutionary struggle and the brilliance of the leadership are some of the main themes in art. "Reactionary" elements from traditional culture have been discarded and cultural forms with a "folk" spirit have been reintroduced.Korean heritage is protected and maintained by the state. Over 190 historical sites and objects of national significance are cataloged as National Treasures of North Korea, while some 1,800 less valuable artifacts are included in a list of Cultural Assets. The Historic Monuments and Sites in Kaesong and the Complex of Koguryo Tombs are UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Art Visual arts are generally produced in the esthetic of Socialist realism. North Korean painting combines the influence of Soviet and Japanese visual expression to instill a sentimental loyalty to the system. All artists in North Korea are required to join the Artists' Union, and the best among them can receive an official license to portray the leaders. Portraits and sculptures depicting Kim Il Sung, Kim Jong Il and Kim Jong Un are classed as "Number One works".Most aspects of art have been dominated by Mansudae Art Studio since its establishment in 1959. It employs around 1,000 artists in what is likely the biggest art factory in the world where paintings, murals, posters and monuments are designed and produced. The studio has commercialized its activity and sells its works to collectors in a variety of countries including China, where it is in high demand. Mansudae Overseas Projects is a subdivision of Mansudae Art Studio that carries out construction of large-scale monuments for international customers. Some of the projects include the African Renaissance Monument in Senegal, and the Heroes' Acre in Namibia. World Heritage In the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, the Goguryeo tumulus is registered on the World Heritage list of UNESCO. These remains were registered as the first World Heritage property of North Korea in the UNESCO World Heritage Committee (WHC) in July 2004. There are 63 burial mounds in the tomb group, with clear murals preserved. The burial customs of the Goguryeo culture have influenced Asian civilizations beyond Korea, including Japan. Music The government emphasized optimistic folk-based tunes and revolutionary music throughout most of the 20th century. Ideological messages are conveyed through massive orchestral pieces like the "Five Great Revolutionary Operas" based on traditional Korean ch'angguk. Revolutionary operas differ from their Western counterparts by adding traditional instruments to the orchestra and avoiding recitative segments. Sea of Blood is the most widely performed of the Five Great Operas: since its premiere in 1971, it has been played over 1,500 times, and its 2010 tour in China was a major success. Western classical music by Brahms, Tchaikovsky, Stravinsky and other composers is performed both by the State Symphony Orchestra and student orchestras.Pop music appeared in the 1980s with the Pochonbo Electronic Ensemble and Wangjaesan Light Music Band. Improved relations with South Korea following the 2000 inter-Korean summit caused a decline in direct ideological messages in pop songs, but themes like comradeship, nostalgia and the construction of a powerful country remained. In 2014, the all-girl Moranbong Band was described as the most popular group in the country. North Koreans also listen to K-pop which spreads through illegal markets. Literature All publishing houses are owned by the government or the WPK because they are considered an important tool for agitprop. The Workers' Party of Korea Publishing House is the most authoritative among them and publishes all works of Kim Il Sung, ideological education materials and party policy documents. The availability of foreign literature is limited, examples being North Korean editions of Indian, German, Chinese and Russian fairy tales, Tales from Shakespeare, some works of Bertolt Brecht and Erich Kästner, and the Harry Potter series.Kim Il Sung's personal works are considered "classical masterpieces" while the ones created under his instruction are labeled "models of Juche literature". These include The Fate of a Self-Defense Corps Man, The Song of Korea and Immortal History, a series of historical novels depicting the suffering of Koreans under Japanese occupation. More than four million literary works were published between the 1980s and the early 2000s, but almost all of them belong to a narrow variety of political genres like "army-first revolutionary literature".Science fiction is considered a secondary genre because it somewhat departs from the traditional standards of detailed descriptions and metaphors of the leader. The exotic settings of the stories give authors more freedom to depict cyberwarfare, violence, sexual abuse, and crime, which are absent in other genres. Sci-fi works glorify technology and promote the Juche concept of anthropocentric existence through depictions of robotics, space exploration, and immortality. Media Government policies towards film are no different from those applied to other arts—motion pictures serve to fulfill the targets of "social education". Some of the most influential films are based on historic events (An Jung-geun shoots Itō Hirobumi) or folk tales (Hong Gildong). Most movies have predictable propaganda story lines which make cinema an unpopular entertainment; viewers only see films that feature their favorite actors. Western productions are only available at private showings to high-ranking Party members, although the 1997 film Titanic is frequently shown to university students as an example of Western culture. Access to foreign media products is available through smuggled DVDs and television or radio broadcasts in border areas. Western films like The Interview, Titanic, and Charlie's Angels are just a few films that have been smuggled across the borders of North Korea, allowing for access to the North Korean citizens.North Korean media are under some of the strictest government control in the world. The censorship in North Korea encompasses all the information produced by the media. Monitored heavily by government officials, the media is strictly used to reinforce ideals approved by the government. There is no freedom of press in North Korea as all the media is controlled and filtered through governmental censors. Freedom of the press in 2017 was 180th out of 180 countries in Reporters Without Borders' annual Press Freedom Index. According to Freedom House, all media outlets serve as government mouthpieces, all journalists are party members and listening to foreign broadcasts carries the threat of the death penalty. The main news provider is the Korean Central News Agency. All 12 major newspapers and 20 periodicals, including Rodong Sinmun, are published in the capital.There are three state-owned TV stations. Two of them broadcast only on weekends and the Korean Central Television is on air every day in the evenings. Uriminzokkiri and its associated YouTube and Twitter accounts distribute imagery, news and video issued by government media. The Associated Press opened the first Western all-format, full-time bureau in Pyongyang in 2012.Media coverage of North Korea has often been inadequate as a result of the country's isolation. Stories like Kim Jong Un executing his ex-girlfriend or feeding his uncle to a pack of hungry dogs have been circulated by foreign media as truth despite the lack of a credible source. Many of the claims originate from the South Korean right-wing newspaper The Chosun Ilbo. Max Fisher of The Washington Post has written that "almost any story [on North Korea] is treated as broadly credible, no matter how outlandish or thinly sourced". Occasional deliberate disinformation on the part of North Korean establishments further complicates the issue. Cuisine Korean cuisine has evolved through centuries of social and political change. Originating from ancient agricultural and nomadic traditions in southern Manchuria and the Korean Peninsula, it has gone through a complex interaction of the natural environment and different cultural trends. Rice dishes and kimchi are staple Korean food. In a traditional meal, they accompany both side dishes (panch'an) and main courses like juk, pulgogi or noodles. Soju liquor is the best-known traditional Korean spirit.North Korea's most famous restaurant, Okryu-gwan, located in Pyongyang, is known for its raengmyeon cold noodles. Other dishes served there include gray mullet soup with boiled rice, beef rib soup, green bean pancake, sinsollo and dishes made from terrapin. Okryu-gwan sends research teams into the countryside to collect data on Korean cuisine and introduce new recipes. Some Asian cities host branches of the Pyongyang restaurant chain where waitresses perform music and dance. Sports Most schools have daily practice in association football, basketball, table tennis, gymnastics, boxing and others. The DPR Korea League is popular inside the country and its games are often televised. The national football team, Chollima, competed in the FIFA World Cup in 2010, when it lost all three matches against Brazil, Portugal and Ivory Coast. Its 1966 appearance was much more successful, seeing a surprise 1–0 victory over Italy and a quarter final loss to Portugal by 3–5. A national team represents the nation in international basketball competitions as well. In December 2013, former American basketball professional Dennis Rodman visited North Korea to help train the national team after he developed a friendship with Kim Jong Un.North Korea's first appearance in the Olympics came in 1964. The 1972 Olympics saw its summer games debut and five medals, including one gold. With the exception of the boycotted Los Angeles and Seoul Olympics, North Korean athletes have won medals in all summer games since then. Weightlifter Kim Un-guk broke the world record of the Men's 62 kg category at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London. Successful Olympians receive luxury apartments from the state in recognition for their achievements. The Arirang Festival has been recognized by the Guinness World Records as the biggest choreographic event in the world. Some 100,000 athletes perform rhythmic gymnastics and dances while another 40,000 participants create a vast animated screen in the background. The event is an artistic representation of the country's history and pays homage to Kim Il Sung and Kim Jong Il. Rungrado 1st of May Stadium, the largest stadium in the world with its capacity of 150,000, hosts the Festival. The Pyongyang Marathon is another notable sports event. It is an IAAF Bronze Label Race where amateur runners from around the world can participate.Between 2010 and 2019, North Korea has imported 138 purebred horses from Russia at cost of over $584,000. See also Outline of North Korea Bibliography of North Korea General and cited sources Government websites KCNA Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine – website of the Korean Central News Agency Naenara Archived 18 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine – the official North Korean governmental portal Naenara DPRK Foreign Ministry Archived 24 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine – official North Korean foreign ministry website The Pyongyang Times – official foreign language newspaper of the DPRK General websites North Korea at the Encyclopædia Britannica North Korea at Curlie Official website of the DPR of Korea – Administered by the Korean Friendship Association 38North North Korea profile at BBC News North Korea – link collection (University of Colorado at Boulder Libraries GovPubs) NKnews – a news agency covering North Korean topics. Friend.com.kp Archived 6 November 2015 at archive.today – website of the Committee for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries Korea Education Fund Rodong Sinmun – the newspaper of the Central Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea Rodong Sinmun Uriminzokkiri DPRK Portal Archived 5 October 2022 at the Wayback Machine United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights – Report of the Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea
The Scout Association of Hong Kong is the largest scouting organisation in Hong Kong. Scout training was first introduced in Hong Kong in 1909 and 1910 by the Protestant based Boys' Brigade, Chums Scout Patrols and British Boy Scouts. The Catholic St. Joseph's College, formed its Boy Scout Troop in 1913, and registered with the Boy Scouts Association of the United Kingdom in 1914. The Boy Scouts Association formed its Hong Kong Local Association in July 1915 which became its Hong Kong Branch. After changes to the name of the United Kingdom organisation in 1967, the branch name was changed to The Scout Association Hong Kong Branch. In 1977, The Scout Association of Hong Kong was constituted as an autonomous association and successor to The Scout Association's Hong Kong Branch and became the 111th member of the World Organization of the Scout Movement (WOSM) in 1977. In 2008, the association had 95,877 uniformed members, with approximately 2700 Scout groups in the sections Grasshopper Scouts, Cubs, Scouts, Venture and Rover Scouts, making it the largest uniformed youth organisation in Hong Kong. The headquarters at the Hong Kong Scout Centre (香港童軍中心) in Tsim Sha Tsui, Kowloon host the administration, headed by the Hong Kong Chief Commissioner (香港總監). The association runs campsites, including Gilwell Campsite (基維爾營地), Tai Tam Scout Centre (大潭童軍中心) and Tung Tsz Scout Centre (洞梓童軍中心), as well as hostels and Scout Activity Centres. It annually organises the traditional Scout Rally, providing Scout competitions and activities. For specific anniversaries, themed jamborees have been organised. The Scout movement is the largest uniform group in Hong Kong, consisting of more than 100,000 members. History Founding of Hong Kong Scouting movement Scout training was first introduced to boys in Hong Kong in 1909 and 1910, only a few years after the beginning of the Scout movement in the United Kingdom, when Rev. Spink started a Boys' Brigade Company attached to the St. Andrew's Church in Kowloon, in response to popular requests for Scouting activities in the expatriate community of Hong Kong. By 1911, British merchants and military personnel had started to organise Boy Scout troops in the city. On 16 April 1912, Lieutenant-General Baden-Powell, Chief Scout of The Boy Scouts Association, arrived in Hong Kong by HMS Lutzou. He was a guest in the Government House and discussed with officials of the Hong Kong Government the establishment of a branch of The Boy Scouts Association of the United Kingdom and the organisation of a Boy Scout Movement in the city.Enthusiasts and organisations, including Queen's College and St. Joseph's College, established Boy Scout troops. On 20 September 1913, St. Joseph's College formed a Boy Scout troop. Baden-Powell sent a letter of congratulation to the St. Joseph's College Boy Scouts on 26 November 1913, which was published in the first issue of the Scout Gazette, the first Scout publication in Hong Kong. The St. Joseph's College troop was the first affiliated with the Boy Scout Association being registered as the 1st Hong Kong Boy Scout Troop on 1 May 1914. At the time, the Chief Scout was Major F.J. Bowen and the Scoutmaster was Albert Edwards. Besides training in map reading and communication, the troop also provided training in ambulance by Dr Coleman. On 29 December 1914, the troop was extended with a short-life Sea Scout Troop by Capt. P. Streafield, connected to HMS Triumph of the Royal Navy. The Troop also held the first Scout camp in Murray Barracks. At the same time, Bowen was invited to Peak School to educate pupils in Scouting and the school later established a Wolf Cub Pack. The 2nd Hong Kong Scout Troop of St. Andrew's Church was registered on 25 November 1914. Major Alexander Anderson McHardy was appointed Colony Commissioner on 1 May 1914 and then-Governor of Hong Kong Francis Henry May became Chief Scout of Hong Kong. At the beginning all member Scouts were of European descent and not well-recognised by Chinese society. Membership was restricted to those of British nationality. Vice Admiral Robert Hamilton Anstruther succeeded Major McHardy as Colony Commissioner on 1 May 1915. The Boy Scout Association Hong Kong branch started up in July 1915, and was responsible for Scout training. At the end of September 1915, there were in total 155 members in the first census. Growth and development During World War I, many Scouting leaders served in the war, which limited Scouting in Hong Kong, but the 1st World Scout Jamboree between 30 July and 8 August 1920 revived Hong Kong Scouting. Lieutenant-Colonel F. J. Bowen returned to Hong Kong after the end of the war, and actively participated in the Movement. He became the Colony Commissioner in July 1920 and reorganised the Hong Kong Branch. At the end of 1920, membership was approximately 140 members. The reorganised branch held a Scout Rally at the Murray Parade Ground on 8 January 1921 at Garden Road, now called Cheung Kong Center. In September 1921, the Reverend George Turner Waldegrave succeeded Bowen, and the Scout Movement was firmly established in Hong Kong, though it was still small at 384 members. In the same year, Hong Kong Scouting expanded to the Wolf Cub Section. Sea Scout training had been started in May 1921 with the assistance of the staff of HMS Tamar. Following its success, Waldegrave started the first Sea Scout Troop which he registered in October 1923. The first Prince of Wales Banner Competition (威爾斯太子錦標賽), named for Edward VIII of the United Kingdom, was held in Happy Valley on 26 May 1923. The banner stayed with the victorious troop for a year and the troop was honoured with the honorary title of Governor's Troop (督憲團).Early Scouters were military officers, priests, teachers and older Scouts. Not every Scouter would apply for a warrant, which would be required for the formal registration with the headquarters in London. It took several months to complete the whole application process through mail. Many Scouters stayed only for a short period and opted for serving without a warrant.In order to protect Scouting activity and institute its constitution, the Hong Kong branch was incorporated in the Boys Scouts Association Ordinance, nr 22 of the Law of Hong Kong on 2 December 1927. After amendments in 1939, 1950, 1975 and 1997, the ordinance became chapter 1005 of the Law of Hong Kong. Waldegrave returned to England in August 1934 and, in recognition of his work for the Hong Kong branch, he was awarded the civil membership of the Order of the British Empire by His Majesty the King. A year or two prior to his retirement, the Chief Scout Baden-Powell had awarded him the highest Scout award, the Bronze Wolf. The Scout Association, Hong Kong Branch, grew to 682 members that year. The Reverend Victor Halward became Colony Commissioner on 11 May 1935 after the retirement of Waldegrave. Shortly before he took over the Commissionership, at the request of the Chinese Government in Guangdong, Halward had spent weekends directing a training course for Scouters of the Boy Scouts of China in Guangzhou. The results of his efforts were a great improvement in the relations between the Boy Scouts Association and the Boy Scouts of China, and between the Hong Kong branch and the Guangzhou section of the Boy Scouts of China. For this he also was awarded the Bronze Wolf. Numbers were still increasing yearly and in 1938 Halward appointed District Commissioners from either side of the harbour, viz., Quah Chow Cheung and Chan, who amply justified their appointment and a large step in membership showed to approximately 1200 members in 1942. World War II After 1937, China was at war with the Japanese army. Troops of the Boy Scouts of China came to Hong Kong and were incorporated into the Hong Kong Branch. Hong Kong Scouts were instrumental in aiding war refugees. During World War II, Scoutmasters and adult members performed civic duties in the Special Constabulary, Police and Volunteer Defence Corps.On 8 December 1941, Japanese forces crossed the Sham Chun River and the Battle of Hong Kong began. The forces landed on Hong Kong Island on 18 December 1941, and incurred a heavy toll of death during the resistance at Wong Nai Chung Gap. Many Hong Kong Scouts died in the resistance activities. Although heavily resisted, the whole territory of Hong Kong came in Japanese hands on 25 December 1941. Under Japanese rule, all formal Scouting activities halted and many Scouts joined guerrilla units against the Japanese in the New Territories and adjacent prefectures in China. The Scouting headquarters on Garden Road was demolished during the war. The campus of St. Stephen's College (an all-boy boarding school) in Stanley, which was being used as a military hospital for British forces at the outbreak of the war, was quickly turned into a POW camp by the occupying Imperial Japanese army. Westerners were detained there for the duration of the war. (Hong Kong was occupied for over 3 years and 8 months.) In the concentration camp, Scouting activities were conducted in the shadow. Scout Ronald Whitfield even completed proficiency badges in this period and became a King's Scout when he was back in Scotland.After the war, Hong Kong was repossessed by British forces. For the reconstruction of Scouting, the Imperial Headquarters of The Boy Scouts Association in the United Kingdom dispatched a five-member Scout International Relief Service Team to revive the Hong Kong Scout movement. A post-war St. George's Day Parade was held on 28 April 1946 at the Botanical Garden with the participation of 672 Scouts and leaders. The salute was taken by the General Officer Commanding, Major General Francis Wogan Festing. In the early 1950s, Hong Kong Scouting was first divided into districts. Changes to name and system In 1967, in line with the name change of the Boy Scouts Association, the name was changed to the Scout Association, Hong Kong Branch. In 1969, also sections were renamed, e.g., Wolf Cub to Cub Scouts, Boy Scouts to Scouts (age changed to 11–16) and Senior Scouts to Venture Scouts (age changed to 16–20).A mixed unit of boy and girl Venture Scouts was set up in 1975. Girl members were accepted starting July 1978, making the Hong Kong branch a co-educational organisation, much earlier than the Scout Association of the United Kingdom. Commonwealth Commissioner Sir Marc Noble suggested that the Hong Kong branch become a full member of the WOSM, and they were accepted as its 111th full member on 26 April 1977 with its name formally changed to The Scout Association of Hong Kong. International activities up to 2000 The 60th anniversary of Hong Kong Scouting was held between 23 and 29 July 1971 at the Castle Peak and was attended by more than 5,000 Scouts. The British contingent to the 14th World Scout Jamboree, led by Robert Baden-Powell, 3rd Baron Baden-Powell, included Scouts from branches in Bermuda, Hong Kong and Rhodesia. Hong Kong hosted the 11th annual Asia-Pacific Regional Scout Conference in 1978. It was attended by 19 countries and 300 delegates. In 1980, the Administration Conference for Commissioners was held. The Scout Association of Hong Kong has organised activities to echo the International Youth Year in 1985.In the early 1990s, the Chief Commissioner Chau Cham-son brought the association into a new era by having planned and completed in 1994 the 25-story Hong Kong Scout Centre, providing the association with a meaningful foundation for its development to be financially self-sufficient. The 19th Asia-Pacific Regional Scout Conference was held in 1998 at the Hong Kong Scout Centre, and was the first Scout Conference held fully on Scout premises.Honorary President of the World Scout Foundation and King of Sweden Carl XVI Gustaf made a visit to Hong Kong for the 45th Baden-Powell World Fellowship Event at the Hong Kong Scout Centre, which raised US$385,000 for the World Scout Foundation. Sovereignty transfer The sovereignty of Hong Kong was transferred to The People's Republic of China (PRC) on 1 July 1997, but Hong Kong Scouting remained unchanged. Thirteen years previous to Hong Kong's sovereignty transfer, the UK and the PRC had reached an agreement on the future of Hong Kong and embodied the agreement by signing the Sino-British Joint Declaration. Under the framework of the declaration, Scouting is part of the way of life in Hong Kong, and can be preserved for fifty years. With Scouting being protected under this declaration, Hong Kong remains a full member of WOSM today. Although no major change occurred in Hong Kong Scouting, adjustments were made before and after the sovereignty transfer including the withdrawal of the Gurkha district as the British forces together with Gurkha Brigades left Hong Kong, and the cessation of Scouting support by British Forces. Under PRC rule, the People's Liberation Army entered in no such connection with the association. One increasing trend is to practise the PRC anthem and teach the knowledge of the PRC flag, with the British anthem and flag emphasised only in historical context. In line with the sovereignty change, the Promises of Scouts, Cub Scouts, and Grasshopper Scouts were modified on 12 January 2001, and the phrases the territory or Hong Kong were replaced with my country. The Scout Policy, Organisation and Rules (POR) were also changed accordingly. Since the sovereignty change, the association encourages Scouts to participate in cultural exchange programmes in mainland China. A Scout Jamboree for both Hong Kong Scouts and Young Pioneers of China was held in Shenzhen in 2004. Educational organisations in mainland China participated the Metropolitan Jamboree in December 2006 in Hong Kong. After the split of China in 1949, Chinese Scouting existed mainly in Taiwan-based Republic of China. The Scout Association of Hong Kong maintains good relationship with Scouts of China. This good relationship continues even after the sovereignty transfer, albeit that political symbols such as the anthems and the flag of the People's Republic of China become sensitive in exchange activities. New millennium Herman Hui, the Deputy Chief Commissioner (Support) of Hong Kong was elected to the World Scout Committee at the 36th World Scout Conference in 2002, and was the second Hong Kong Scout leader to be elected. In the 37th World Scout Conference held in Tunisia in 2005, Hui was elected as the Chairman of the World Scout Committee for a term of three years.In order to further develop the Scout Movement in Hong Kong and to heighten it output quality, they published the document Scout Association of Hong Kong, Into the 21st century in 1999. The target set in 1991 to increase Scout membership to 83,000 members in ten years was achieved: membership was 89,925 at the end of 2002. The next target of membership growth was 100,000 members in 2004.Pau Shiu-hung was appointed Chief Commissioner by Tung Chee-hwa, Chief Scout of Hong Kong and Chief Executive of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. He commenced his official duties as Chief Commissioner on 2004-01-01. Air Scouting The history of Air Scouting in Hong Kong began in 1967 when a Jesuit priest, Father Cunningham, formed an Air Scout Troop in the 11th Kowloon Scout Group of Kowloon Wah Yan College during the five-year expansion plan of the Scout Association of Hong Kong. Initially, participation in the Air Scouts was limited to students of the Wan Yan College. Then this closed group added a Venture Air Scout unit as the original 1967 Air Scouts reached the age of sixteen, the minimum age required to become Venture Air Scouts. In 1972, the Chief Scout of Hong Kong appointed Mr. Francis Yiu Cheong CHIN, Q.S., J.P. as the first Air Scout Commissioner to develop and expand Air Scouting. Mr. Chin is a Queen's Scout, a Scout Leader Trainer, and a member of the Hong Kong Chin Brothers aviators who established the long-distance flying record of successfully completed "The First 100 horsepower Single-engine England to Hong Kong Long Distance Cross-Country Flight in History". As a result, Air Scouting spread and flourished and expanded to 18 Air Scout units in 5 Regions of Scout Groups in Hong Kong. Mr. Chin is the first Air Scout Commissioner of Hong Kong who built up the foundation of Air Scouting in Hong Kong and his air scouting training system continued up to today. Presently an Air Activity Board which draws members from airline pilots, the Government Flying Service, and local aviation clubs. The Board acts as the core policy and program-making group, and helps to grow the Air Scout Movement. The Learning Training Institute of the Scout Association also runs an Aviation Training Centre which houses a number of flight simulators, including full motion simulators, and conducts training for Scout members for the purpose of aviation education and preparation for private pilot training. Banquets In April 2021, SCMP reported that the Scout Association was under investigation by the Office of the Licensing Authority, as well as the Food and the Environmental Hygiene Department for allegedly hosting banquets above the limit of 20 people. In October 2021, the government revealed it would prosecute the case, and that one banquet had more than five times the legal limit of people. Organisation The organisation is governed according to Chapter 1005 of the Law of Hong Kong, and the statutory Policy, Organisation and Rules (POR, 政策、組織及規條) of the association.All members join the association voluntarily and it is open to all who are willing to follow the association's guiding principles, the Scout Promise and the Scout Law. All races, creeds, classes and sexes are welcome. The only limit is the minimum age of five years. The association encourages members to be in touch with a religion in its religion policy, but like the population of Hong Kong, the vast majority of Scouts belong to no religious denomination. The POR mentions that members are required to pay a membership subscription fee, which is in line with WOSM regulation. However, most members are not aware of this subscription because it is not collected directly from individuals or any Scout units, but through the selling of each individual World Membership Badge. Chief Scouts and Chief Commissioners The Chief Scout of Hong Kong (香港童軍總領袖) is the head of the Scout Association of Hong Kong. From 1914 to 1997 the function was held by the Governor of Hong Kong, and from 1997 onward by the Chief Executive of Hong Kong. The Chief Scout is responsible for appointing the Hong Kong Chief Commissioner. Francis May (1912–1919) Reginald Stubbs (1919–1925) Cecil Clementi (1925–1930) William Peel (1930–1935) Andrew Caldecott (1935–1937) Geoffry Northcote (1937–1941) Mark Young (1941–1947) Alexander Grantham (1947–1958) Robert Brown Black (1958–1964) David Trench (1964–1971) Murray MacLehose (1971–1982) Edward Youde (1982–1986) David Wilson (1987–1992) Christopher Patten (1992–1997) Tung Chee-hwa (1997–2005) Donald Tsang Yam-kuen (2005–2012) Leung Chun-ying (2012–2017) Carrie Lam (2017–present)The chief commissioner (香港總監), usually abbreviated as CC, is the administrative head of the Scout Association of Hong Kong. The function was formerly known as Colony Commissioner. The first commissioner, Alexander Anderson McHardy, was appointed 1 May 1914 when the Hong Kong Branch was formally registered with the Scout Association. The Chief Commissioner from 1997 to 2004 was Hui Chiu-yin, from 2004 to 2007 was Pau Shiu Hung, and from 2007 to 2011 was Chan Kit Chu. The current Chief Commissioner is Cheung Chi Sun. The president of the association is Geoffrey Ma. Regions, districts, and groups In 1951, the Hong Kong branch of the Scout Association was divided into Hong Kong, Kowloon and New Territories districts. Later the former two were each subdivided into two separate districts, resulting in a total of five districts. In 1958, these were reclassified as areas, which were each subdivided into smaller districts, and in 1967 again renamed to be regions, with thirty-five districts among them. Groups are basic units where member Scouts are educated. The POR recognises only two group categories, namely a Scout Group (公開旅) with unrestricted recruitment, and a Sponsored Scout Group (團體旅), organised by a sponsor organisation, by which the recruitment might be restricted. In practice, the vast majority of Groups are Sponsored Scout Groups organised by primary schools and secondary schools. Alternatively, these are referred to as School Scout Groups (學校旅), the unrestricted groups as Open Scout Groups (公開旅), and other non-school-organised groups with restricted recruitment Organisation Scout Groups (團體旅). A group is led by a Group Scout Leader (旅長). The management of a group is organised around the Group Scouters Meeting (旅領袖會議), the Group Council (旅務委員會), and the Group Executive Committee (旅執行委員會). A group can operate any number of units in all sections. The association does not directly finance any group. Groups may gather funds from their sponsored organisation, individual donations, the group membership fee, and the release of raffle proceeds in the same annual Raffle Campaign. Scouting sections The youth members of the Scout Association in Hong Kong are currently divided into five Scouting sections. Grasshopper Scouts, from 6 to 8 years Cub Scouts, from 7 to 12 years Scouts, from 11 to 16 years Venture Scouts, from 15 to 21 years Rover Scouts, from 18 to 26 yearsThere are still groups specialising in Air Scouting and Sea Scouting, but no new groups have been allowed for such specialisation after 1 April 1987. Instead, any group can operate a Sea Scout Troop or Air Scout Troop in their Scout Section, and Venture Sea Scout Unit or Venture Air Scout Unit in their Venture Scout Section, providing the same level of progressive training in sea and air activities. A special Extension Scouting section was set up for the disabled. It is not an independent section, but customises the programmes of the five sections for specific needs of disabled people. Ranks Scouts A Cub Scout or Scout has ranks in their own patrol. For Scouts they are divided into Patrol Leader (PL), the highest rank in a patrol, Assistant Patrol Leader (APL), the second rank & P#, with the # referring to their placement in the Patrol. For example, P4 is the fourth place in a patrol, P12 is the twelfth rank in the patrol. Only the PL and the APL have a special badge to wear on their uniform. There is also a rank named Senior Patrol Leader (SPL). This Scout is usually older than others and is not in any patrol. He or she is responsible for the entire Cub Scout or Scout group. For Cubs, the structure is similar but the names are different. The highest rank is the Sixer, with the second rank being the Seconder. Rank badges for both Cubs and Scouts are about two inches wide and half an inch long. There is a gold fleur de lis in the middle with one, two or three lines next to it. The APL or Seconder badge has one line, PL or Sixer has two, and the SPL has three. That is also why the ranks are also called 單柴 (one-bar) for APL/Seconder, 兩柴 (two-bar) for PL/Sixer and 三柴 (three-bar) for SPL according to the golden bars next to the fleur de lis on the rank badge. The badge background is dark green. The badge is worn under the membership badge. The rankings, from high to low of Scouts (excluding Scouters) are: SPL, PL/Sixer, APL/Seconder and the others. Leaders An adult is eligible to be a Scout Leader (Scouter) from 18 to 65 years. They can serve in all five sections, or work for districts, regions, or branches in the headquarters. Adult Venture and Rover Scouts may be leaders of younger sections as part of their services. All leaders except instructors are appointed by the association under the nomination of Group Scout Leaders, and receive a warrant after completing at least the intermediate stage of the Woodbadge Training Programme. Group leader and assistant group leaders are nominated by District Commissioners. Motto, Promise, and Law The localised versions of the Scout Motto, Scout Promise, and Scout Law for each section are inherited from those of the Scout Association. They are officially provided in Chinese and English. At investiture it can be in a Scout's own language. The Motto is the same for all sections: Be Prepared (準備). Emblem The Emblem of the association is a purple arrowhead with a back background, on which is superimposed the two Chinese characters for "Hong Kong" and the English words "Hong Kong" in purple. Headquarters There were no permanent headquarters in the early days of Hong Kong Scouting. The office was housed temporarily in old government buildings. The Chief Commissioner George Turner Waldegrave, offered the Seamen's Institute as a place for Scouting activities. After the second World War, the British forces donated a piece of land near the Peak Tram Terminal in Garden Road. Here a new headquarters was erected and named Morse Hut (摩士小屋) after the President Sir Arthur Morse. Morse Hut was officially opened on 12 November 1949, and served as the headquarters until 1954. In this period, the headquarters of Wong Nai Chung District was also relocated to Morse Hut. Subsequently, Morse Hut was the headquarters of newly established Hong Kong Island Region from 1958 to 1978. As the Hong Kong Scouting grew rapidly, after five years the Morse Hut was too small for the development. A new 3-story headquarter building in Yau Ma Tei, Kowloon was erected at No. 9 Cox's Road with donations and assistance from Sir Arthur Morse and the Royal Hong Kong Jockey Club, as well as subsidies from Hong Kong Government. It was opened officially in 1954. The house was named Morse House (摩士大廈), and served as the headquarters until June 1994, when the premises were returned to the Hong Kong Government for redevelopment. Morse House was handed back to the Government in July 1994, after completion of the new headquarters. Since June 1994, the headquarters of the Scout association is in the Hong Kong Scout Centre (香港童軍中心). It is on Austin Road, beside Kowloon Park and Victoria Towers (港景峰) of Tsim Sha Tsui, Kowloon. The headquarters organisation is housed on the 8th to 11th floor of the building, including Scout shops, meeting rooms, and a Scout exhibition of the history of the Hong Kong Scout organisation on the 11th. Large part of the centre is B P International (龍堡國際賓館), a commercial hotel. Its profit is financing the building cost of the centre and the future development of Scouting in Hong Kong. Scout Path (童軍徑) is a short road between the Hong Kong Scout Centre and Victoria Towers. It became associated with Scouting in Hong Kong, probably on the suggestion of the Scout association. It connects Austin Road and a terminal for Hong Kong-China cross-border buses under the Hong Kong Scout Centre. Campsites The Scout association runs five campsites in Hong Kong. The first permanent campsite, was Barker's Bungalow in Chaiwan. It was purchased in July 1929 by the Scout association at a cost of HK$16,000, and officially opened the same year as the Chai Wan Campsite. Here, the first Wood Badge training course was held in 1936. The site was returned to Hong Kong government in 1970 for urban development as the Chai Wan Park. The 1960s saw the further expansion of the Scout Movement; the government gave a site at Fei Ngo Shan (Kowloon Peak) to the Scout association as a permanent campsite, which was named Gilwell Campsite (基維爾營地). It is used for camping and other Scouting activities. The site is located on the edge of Sai Kung District, five to ten minutes from Choi Hung. Nearby is the MacLehose Trail with road access through an unnamed road that joins with Fei Ngo Shan Road. The site is at an altitude of 430 m above sea level. Unlike other campsites managed by the Scout association, the Gilwell Campsite does not provide catering services. The site has only buildings for offices, lectures and activities. The campsite is 45 minutes walk from the nearest bus stop of route 91, 91M, 92, 96R of Kowloon Motor Bus at Clear Water Bay Road near Anderson Road. In the 1972, Tai Tam Scout Centre (大潭童軍中心) was granted to the Scout association in exchange for the Chai Wan Campsite. The site hosts a sea activities centre, officially opened in September of that year. It is located in Tai Tam Harbour at Tai Tam Tuk on the south shore of the Hong Kong Island. At the back of the site is a small hill, separating it from Tai Tam Tuk Reservoir. Along the shore is a path leading to the dam of the reservoir, with a re-sited indigenous village of Tai Tam Tuk. Mangroves gather at the muddy beach of the mouth rivers. The sites facilitates both a stay at the hostel and campingsite for training and leisure. While Scouts have priority to use the site, it is also open for public use. Sports on offer include games of rope, rock climbing, archery, pioneering, canoeing, and orienteering. The campsite is reachable by public buses passing through Tai Tam Road near Tai Tam Reservoir Road. They are available in Shau Kei Wan station and Chai Wan station of the MTR.More land in Tung Tsz, Tai Po in the New Territories, was also granted to the Scout association, and was developed into the Tung Tsz Scout Centre (洞梓童軍中心), formally opened for Scouts on 1975-03-09. Sea activities can be done in the nearby Tai Mei Tuk Sea Activity Centre in Tai Mei Tuk, Tai Po, with bungalows for accommodation. Tai Mei Tuk Sea Activity Centre (大尾督水上活動中心) is situated next to the Plover Cove Reservoir in Tai Mei Tuk for day camping and water sports training. Shatin Scout Centre (沙田童軍中心) is in Tsok Pok Hang, near Pok Hong Estate in Sha Tin, providing Scouts a place for wild camping. Pak Sha Wan Tam Wah Ching Sea Activity Centre (白沙灣譚華正水上活動中心) is in Pak Sha Wan of Sai Kung District. It is a venue for residential camp, outdoor camping and sea activities training. Scout events Hong Kong Scout Rally The Scout Rally is a gathering of Hong Kong Scouts in which they are given awards and compete in drills. Occurring once every year, Scouts from all over Hong Kong gather, usually in the Hong Kong Stadium, for the event. There are award ceremonies for honourable awards, such as the Golden Bauhenia Award for the Cub Scout Section, the Chief Scout's Award for the Scout Section, the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR) Scout Award for the Venture Scout Section, and the Baden Powell (BP) Award for the Rover Scout Section, as well as distinctive awards for Scout Leaders and Commissioners. In the 1940s, the Scout Rally was merged with the former St. George's Day Parade. As the Scouts attendance increased significantly and the space in Hong Kong declined, owing to rapid urbanisation in past decades, traditions are simplified and only selected Scouts are allowed to actively participate in the drill and activities in the rally and others remain spectators. Jamborees Jamborees in Hong Kong are held for specific anniversaries. According to a display in Metropolitan Jamboree in 2006, the early jamborees were held in Chai Wan, Hong Kong around the late 1930s. After World War II, the 1st Colony Jamborette (香港童子軍大露營) was held in Kam Chien Village in the New Territories from 19 to 22 October 1957. There were 1361 Scouts attending the jamboree, celebrating the 50 year anniversary of World Scouting and 100 year birthday of the founder. The next jamboree, the Hong Kong Golden Jubilee Jamborette (香港金禧大露營), was held between 27 December 1961 and 2 January 1962, celebrating the Golden jubilee (50 year anniversary) of Hong Kong Scouting with the theme One World (天下一家). At Kowloon Tsai, now named Morse Park, the Jamboree hosted 2732 Scouts in the challenging winter with heavy rain.For the 60th anniversary of Hong Kong Scouting, the branch held the Diamond Jubilee Jamboree (鑽禧大露營) for 5000 Scouts, applying the theme World Harmony (大同) from 23 to 29 July 1971 in present-day Tai Hing Estate in Castle Peak. The event was originally planned to be held 22 to 28 July 1971 but shifted to one day later because of the typhoon attack to Hong Kong. The jamboree was seriously affected by the bad weather. The campsite was flooded and facilities were damaged. Campers had to retreat to San Fat Estate in Tuen Mun for shelter overnight. The Hong Kong Post Office issued a set of three stamps for the jamboree on 23 July.In 1986, in celebrating the 75th anniversary of Hong Kong Scouting, the Hong Kong Diamond Jubilee Jamboree (香港鑽禧大露營) was held in Kohima Camp, present-day Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, in Tai Po Tsai from 27 December 1986 to 1 January 1987 with the theme March On (邁進). It was the first jamboree held after the Scout Association of Hong Kong became a full member of WOSM. The association invited Scouts from thirteen other Scout organisations around the world, and eight other local uniformed youth groups to the jamboree. Members of the Guangzhou Youth Federation (廣州市青年聯合會) from Guangzhou, People's Republic of China also joined the jamboree. The number of attendants reached 5143. On 30 December 1986, the Enjoy Yourself Tonight TVB television programme launched a programme to introduce the jamboree and Scouting to the residents in Hong Kong. The jamboree also was featured because of breaking two Guinness World Records: 3000 Cub Scouts joined the Egg Hunt and found 72,731 hidden eggs throughout the campsite and ended in an arrangement of the 75th logo. The failed knotting competition was retried later in the Hong Kong Scout Millennium Jamboree. During the Millennium changeover, the Hong Kong Scout Millennium Jamboree (跨世紀大露營) was held in Wan Tsai from 28 December 1999 to 2 January 2000 with the theme Live the Natural Way (邁向新紀元，同享大自然), fourteen years after the previous jamboree. There were 3350 participants in the jamboree. The Chief Scout Tung Chee-hwa, the Chief Executive of Hong Kong, joined the open ceremony on 30 December. To complete the failed knotting competition of the previous jamboree, the Chief Scout began the first reef knots and the rest of the campers tied 4500 reef knots in 5 minutes, chaining in 6858 metres long.Two years later, in 2001, the association held the 90th Anniversary of Hong Kong Scouting Jamboree (香港童軍90週年紀念大露營) again in Wan Tsai from 23 to 26 December 2001. Do My Best (竭盡所能) was the theme. Local Scouts, with nine other overseas Scout contingents, tolled 3500 participants in the jamboree.In celebrating the 95th anniversary of Hong Kong Scouting in 2006 and the 100th anniversary of World Scouting, the Metropolitan Jamboree (大都會露營) was held in the proposed West Kowloon Cultural District site near Tsim Sha Tsui in urban Hong Kong from 27 December 2006 to 1 January 2007. Near the Victoria Harbour, it was the first time a jamboree was hosted in urban Hong Kong. Under the theme Gifts for Peace (和平獻禮), there were 4225 participants with 600 from mainland China, Republic of China (Taiwan) and overseas. Many outreaching activities visiting various parts and public facilities in Hong Kong. Other NGOs, like Hong Kong Red Cross and Oxfam were invited introducing their works to Scouts through stall games. Herman Hui, the chairman of World Scout Committee joined the countdown to 2007 jointly held by the association and Radio Television Hong Kong. The campsite suffered from strong gusts, damaging a main gate of pioneering damaged and hurting one participant and one worker. During the summer, coinciding with the international events, the Join-in-Centenary Jamboree (Chinese: 慶祝童軍百週年同步大露營) in Hong Kong was held on High Island Reservoir on Sai Kung Peninsula from 29 July to 2 August 2007. Leader's Mess Night Leader's Mess Night (童軍領袖聚餐) is the annual dining event for leaders, commissioners and lay members. The mess night is usually held in the Hong Kong Scout Centre around 22 February, i.e., the Founder's Day. Participants are required to dress in mess dress. The Chief Commissioner, together with an honourable guest, presides over the mess night. Carlton Trophy Carlton Trophy (嘉爾頓錦標賽), named after the late Carlton W. Tinn, former Deputy Colony Commissioner, is a bi-annual patrol-based competition in the Scout section. Representative patrols from different groups compete on the district and regional level before they can advance to the final competition, which usually consists of camping, pioneering, first aid, backwoods cooking, hiking/orienteering. The Carlton Trophy is considered the highest level skill competition in the Scout section in Hong Kong Scouting. Each year's champion patrol is awarded the trophy colors in the Hong Kong Scout Rally by the Chief Scout of Hong Kong. Recent winners See also Hong Kong Girl Guides Association List of World Organization of the Scout Movement members Scout Association of Macau World Buddhist Scout Brotherhood Old District Office North Official website of the Scout Association of Hong Kong Official website of the Gilwell Campsite Official website of the Tai Tam Campsite History of Hong Kong Island Region (in Chinese)
西, meaning "west", may refer to: Radical 146 in the Kangxi Dictionary system of classifying Chinese characters Nishi (surname), Japanese surname Xi (surname), Chinese surname See also Nishi-ku (disambiguation), various districts in Japan Seo-gu (disambiguation), various districts in South Korea 西山 (disambiguation) ("west mountain") 西海 (disambiguation) ("west sea") 西湖 (disambiguation) ("west lake")
Sima Qian ([sɹ̩́mà tɕʰjɛ́n]; c. 145 – c. 86 BC) was a Chinese historian of the early Han dynasty. He is considered the father of Chinese historiography for his Records of the Grand Historian, a general history of China covering more than two thousand years beginning from the rise of the legendary Yellow Emperor and the formation of the first Chinese polity to the reigning sovereign of Sima Qian's time, Emperor Wu of Han. As the first universal history of the world as it was known to the ancient Chinese, the Records of the Grand Historian served as a model for official history-writing for subsequent Chinese dynasties and the Chinese cultural sphere (Korea, Vietnam, Japan) up until the 20th century.Sima Qian's father, Sima Tan, first conceived of the ambitious project of writing a complete history of China, but had completed only some preparatory sketches at the time of his death. After inheriting his father's position as court historian in the imperial court, he was determined to fulfill his father's dying wish of composing and putting together this epic work of history. However, in 99 BC, he would fall victim to the Li Ling affair for speaking out in defense of the general, who was blamed for an unsuccessful campaign against the Xiongnu. Given the choice of being executed or castrated, he chose the latter in order to finish his historical work. Although he is universally remembered for the Records, surviving works indicate that he was also a gifted poet and prose writer, and he was instrumental in the creation of the Taichu calendar, which was officially promulgated in 104 BC. As his position in the imperial court was "Grand Historian" (tàishǐ 太史, variously translated as court historian, scribe, or astronomer/astrologer), later generations would accord him with the honorific title of "Lord Grand Historian" (Tàishǐ Gōng 太史公) for his monumental work, though his magnum opus was completed many years after his tenure as Grand Historian ended in disgrace and after his acceptance of punitive actions against him, including imprisonment, castration, and subjection to servility. He was acutely aware of the importance of his work to posterity and its relationship to his own personal suffering. In the postface of the Records, he implicitly compared his universal history of China to the classics of his day, the Guoyu by Zuoqiu Ming, Lisao by Qu Yuan, and the Art of War by Sun Bin, pointing out that their authors all suffered great personal misfortunes before their lasting monumental works could come to fruition. Sima Qian is depicted in the Wu Shuang Pu (無雙譜, Table of Peerless Heroes) by Jin Guliang. Early life and education Sima Qian was born at Xiayang in Zuopingyi (around present-day Hancheng, Shaanxi Province). He was most likely born about 145 BC, although some sources say he was born about 135 BC. Around 136 BC, his father, Sima Tan, received an appointment to the position of "grand historian" (tàishǐ 太史, alt. "grand scribe" or "grand astrologer"). "Grand historian" was a relatively low-ranking position whose primary duty was to formulate the yearly calendar, identifying which days were ritually auspicious or inauspicious, and present it to the emperor prior to New Year's Day. The grand historian's other duties included traveling with the emperor for important rituals and recording daily events both at the court and around the country. By his account, by the age of ten Sima was able to "read the old writings" and was considered to be a promising scholar. Sima grew up in a Confucian environment, and Sima always regarded his historical work as an act of Confucian filial piety to his father.In 126 BC, around the age of 20, Sima Qian began an extensive tour around China as it existed in the Han dynasty. He started his journey from the imperial capital, Chang'an (near modern Xi'an), then went south across the Yangtze River to Changsha Kingdom (modern Hunan Province), where he visited the Miluo River site where the Warring States era poet Qu Yuan was traditionally said to have drowned himself. He then went to seek the burial place of the legendary rulers Yu on Mount Kuaiji and Shun in the Jiuyi Mountains (modern Ningyuan County, Hunan). He then went north to Huaiyin (modern Huai'an, Jiangsu Province) to see the grave of Han dynasty general Han Xin, then continued north to Qufu, the hometown of Confucius, where he studied ritual and other traditional subjects. As Han court official After his travels, Sima was chosen to be a Palace Attendant in the government, whose duties were to inspect different parts of the country with Emperor Wu in 122 BC. Sima married young and had one daughter. In 110 BC, at the age of 35, Sima Qian was sent westward on a military expedition against some "barbarian" tribes. That year, his father fell ill due to the distress of not being invited to attend the Imperial Feng Sacrifice. Suspecting that his time was running out, he summoned his son back home to take over the historical work he had begun. Sima Tan wanted to follow the Annals of Spring and Autumn, the first chronicle in the history of Chinese literature. It appears that Sima Tan was only able to put together an outline of the work before he died. The postface of the completed Shiji, there is a short essay on the six philosophical schools that is explicitly attributed to Sima Tan. Otherwise, there are only fragments of the Shiji that are speculated to be authored by Sima Tan or based on his notes. Fueled by his father's inspiration, Sima Qian spent much of the subsequent decade authoring and compiling the Records of the Grand Historian and completed it before 91 BC, probably around 94 BC. Three years after the death of his father, Sima Qian assumed his father's previous position as taishi. In 105 BC, Sima was among the scholars chosen to reform the calendar. As a senior imperial official, Sima was also in the position to offer counsel to the emperor on general affairs of state. Li Ling affair In 99 BC, Sima became embroiled in the Li Ling affair, where Li Ling and Li Guangli, two military officers who led a campaign against the Xiongnu in the north, were defeated and taken captive. Emperor Wu attributed the defeat to Li Ling, with all government officials subsequently condemning him for it. Sima was the only person to defend Li Ling, who had never been his friend but whom he respected. Emperor Wu interpreted Sima's defence of Li as an attack on his brother-in-law, Li Guangli, who had also fought against the Xiongnu without much success, and sentenced Sima to death. At that time, execution could be commuted either by money or castration. Since Sima did not have enough money to atone his "crime", he chose the latter and was then thrown into prison, where he endured three years. He described his pain thus: "When you see the jailer you abjectly touch the ground with your forehead. At the mere sight of his underlings you are seized with terror ... Such ignominy can never be wiped away." Sima called his castration "the worst of all punishments".In 96 BC, on his release from prison, Sima chose to live on as a palace eunuch to complete his histories, rather than commit suicide as was expected of a gentleman-scholar who had been disgraced by being castrated. As Sima Qian himself explained in his Letter to Ren An: Later years and death Upon his release from prison in 97/96 BC, Sima Qian continued to serve in the Han court as zhongshuling (中書令), a court archivist position reserved for eunuchs with considerable status and with higher pay than his previous position of historian.The Letter to Ren An was written by Sima Qian in reply to Ren An in response to the latter's involvement in Crown Prince Liu Ju's rebellion in 91 BC. This is the last record of Sima Qian in contemporary documents. The letter is a reply to a lost letter by Ren An to Sima Qian, perhaps asking Sima Qian to intercede on his behalf as Ren An was facing execution for accusations of being an opportunist and displaying equivocal loyalty to the emperor during the rebellion. In his reply, Sima Qian stated that he is a mutilated man with no influence at court. Some later historians claimed that Sima Qian himself became implicated in the rebellion as a result of his friendship with Ren An and was executed as part of the purge of the crown prince's supporters in court; however, the earliest attested record of this account dates from the 4th century. Moreover, it has also been pointed out that Sima Qian would have been reluctant to render substantive aid to Ren An, given the severe consequences that he suffered for supporting General Li Ling, as well as Ren An's failure to act on his behalf during the Li Ling affair. Although there are many theories regarding the exact dating as well as the true nature and purpose of the Letter to Ren An, one common interpretation suggests that the letter, in part, tacitly expressed a refusal to play an active role in securing a reduced punishment for Ren An.The early 20th century scholar Wang Guowei stated that there are no reliable records establishing when Sima Qian died. He and most modern historians believe that Sima Qian spent his last days as a scholar in reclusion (隱士; yǐnshì) after leaving the Han court, perhaps dying around the same time as Emperor Wu in 87/86 BC. Records of the Grand Historian Format Although the style and form of Chinese historical writings varied through the ages, Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji) has defined the quality and style from then onwards. Before Sima, histories were written as certain events or certain periods of history of states; his idea of a general history affected later historiographers like Zheng Qiao (鄭樵) in writing Tongzhi and Sima Guang in writing Zizhi Tongjian. The Chinese historical form of dynasty history, or jizhuanti history of dynasties, was codified in the second dynastic history by Ban Gu's Book of Han, but historians regard Sima's work as their model, which stands as the "official format" of the history of China. The Shiji comprises 130 chapters consisting of half a million characters.The jizhuanti format refers to the organization of the work into benji (本紀) or 'basic annals' chapters containing the biographies of the sovereigns ('sons of heaven') organized by dynasty and liezhuan (列傳) or 'ordered biographies' chapters containing the biographies of influential non-nobles, sometimes for one prominent individual, but often for two or more people who, in Sima Qian's judgment, played similarly important roles in history. In addition to these namesake categories, there are chapters falling under the categories of biao (表) or 'tables', containing graphical chronologies of royalty and nobility, and shu (書) or 'treatises', consisting of essays giving a historical perspective on various topics like music, ritual, or economics. Most importantly, the shijia (世家) chapters, or 'house chronicles', document important events in the histories of the rulers of each of the quasi-independent states of the Zhou dynasty (originally serving as vassals to the Zhou kings), as well as the histories of contemporary aristocratic houses established during the Han dynasty. In all, the Records consist of 12 Basic Annals, 10 Tables, 8 Treatises, 30 House Chronicles, and 70 Ordered Biographies. The last of the Ordered Biographies is the postface. This final chapter details the background of how the Shiji was composed and compiled, and gives brief justifications for the inclusion of the major topics, events, and individuals in the work. As part of the background, the postface provides a short sketch of the history of the Sima clan, from legendary times to his father Sima Tan. It also details the dying words of Sima Tan, tearfully exhorting the author to compose the present work, and contains a biographical sketch of the author himself. The postface concludes with a self-referential description of the postface as the 70th and last of the Ordered Biographies chapters. Influences and works influenced Sima was greatly influenced by Confucius's Spring and Autumn Annals, which on the surface is a succinct chronology from the events of the reigns of the twelve dukes of Lu from 722 to 484 BC. Many Chinese scholars have and still do view how Confucius ordered his chronology as the ideal example of how history should be written, especially with regards to what he chose to include and to exclude, and his choice of words as indicating moral judgments. Seen in this light, the Spring and Autumn Annals are a moral guide to the proper way of living. Sima took this view himself as he explained: 夫春秋 ... 別嫌疑，明是非，定猶豫，善善惡惡，賢賢賤不肖，存亡國，繼絕世，補敝起廢。 It [Spring and Autumn Annals] distinguishes what is suspicious and doubtful, clarifies right and wrong, and settles points which are uncertain. It calls good good and bad bad, honours the worthy, and condemns the unworthy. It preserves states which are lost and restores the perishing family. It brings to light what was neglected and restores what was abandoned. Sima saw the Shiji as being in the same tradition as he explained in his introduction to chapter 61 of the Shiji where he wrote: 或曰：天道無親，常與善人。若伯夷、叔齊，可謂善人者非邪。積仁絜行如此而餓死。... 盜蹠日殺不辜，肝人之肉 ... 竟以壽終。是遵何德哉。 ... 余甚惑焉，儻所謂天道，是邪非邪。 Some people say "It is Heaven's way, without distinction of persons, to keep the good perpetually supplied." Can we say then that Boyi and Shuqi were good men or not? They clung to righteousness and were pure in their deeds yet they starved to death ... Robber Zhi day after day killed innocent men, making mincemeat of their flesh ... But in the end he lived to a great old age. For what virtue did he deserve this? ... I find myself in much perplexity. Is this so-called "Way of Heaven" right or wrong? To resolve this theodical problem, Sima argued that while the wicked may succeed and the good may suffer in their own life-times, it is the historian who ensures that in the end good triumphs. For Sima, the writing of history was no mere antiquarian pursuit, but was rather a vital moral task as the historian would "preserve memory", and thereby ensure the ultimate victory of good over evil. Along these lines, Sima wrote: 蘇秦兄弟三人，皆游說諸侯以顯名，其術長於權變。而蘇秦被反閒以死，天下共笑之，諱學其術。 ... 夫蘇秦起閭閻，連六國從親，此其智有過人者。吾故列其行事，次其時序，毋令獨蒙惡聲焉。 Su Qin and his two brothers all achieved fame among the feudal lords as itinerant strategists. Their policies laid great stress upon stratagems and shifts of power. But because Su Qin died a traitor's death, the world has united in scoffing at him and has been loath to study his policies ... Su Qin arose from the humblest beginnings to lead the Six States in the Vertical Alliance, and this is evidence that he possessed an intelligence surpassing the ordinary person. For this reason I have set forth this account of his deeds, arranging them in proper chronological order, so that he may not forever suffer from an evil reputation and be known for nothing else. Such a moralizing approach to history with the historian high-guiding the good and evil to provide lessons for the present could be dangerous for the historian as it could bring down the wrath of the state onto the historian as happened to Sima himself. As such, the historian had to tread carefully and often expressed his judgements in a circuitous way designed to fool the censor.Sima himself in the conclusion to chapter 110 of the Shiji declared that he was writing in this tradition where he stated: 孔氏著春秋，隱桓之閒則章，至定哀之際則微，為其切當世之文而罔褒，忌諱之辭也。 When Confucius wrote the Spring and Autumn Annals, he was very open in treating the reigns of Yin and Huan, the early dukes of Lu; but when he came to the later period of Dukes Ding and Ai, his writing was much more covert. Because in the latter case he was writing about his own times, he did not express his judgements frankly, but used subtle and guarded language. Bearing this in mind, not everything that Sima wrote should be understood as conveying didactical moral lessons. But several historians have suggested that parts of the Shiji, such as where Sima placed his section on Confucius's use of indirect criticism in the part of the book dealing with the Xiongnu "barbarians" might indicate his disapproval of the foreign policy of the Emperor Wu.In writing Shiji, Sima initiated a new writing style by presenting history in a series of biographies. His work extends over 130 chapters—not in historical sequence, but divided into particular subjects, including annals, chronicles, and treatises—on music, ceremonies, calendars, religion, economics, and extended biographies. Sima's work influenced the writing style of other histories outside of China as well, such as the Goryeo (Korean) history the Samguk sagi. Sima adopted a new method in sorting out the historical data and a new approach to writing historical records. At the beginning of the Shiji, Sima declared himself a follower of Confucius's approach in the Analects to "hear much but leave to one side that which is doubtful, and speak with due caution concerning the remainder". Reflecting these rigorous analytic methods, Sima declared that he would not write about periods of history where there was insufficient documentation. As such, Sima wrote "the ages before the Ch'in dynasty are too far away and the material on them too scanty to permit a detailed account of them here". In the same way, Sima discounted accounts in the traditional records that were "ridiculous" such as the pretense that Prince Tan could via the use of magic make the clouds rain grain and horses grow horns. Sima constantly compared accounts found in the manuscripts with what he considered reliable sources like Confucian classics like the Book of Odes, Book of History, Book of Rites, Book of Music, Book of Changes and Spring and Autumn Annals. When Sima encountered a story that could not be cross-checked with the Confucian classics, he systemically compared the information with other documents. Sima mentioned at least 75 books he used for cross-checking. Furthermore, Sima often questioned people about historical events they had experienced. Sima mentioned after one of his trips across China that: "When I had occasion to pass through Feng and Beiyi I questioned the elderly people who were about the place, visited the old home of Xiao He, Cao Can, Fan Kuai and Xiahou Ying, and learned much about the early days. How different it was from the stories one hears!" Reflecting the traditional Chinese reverence for age, Sima stated that he preferred to interview the elderly as he believed that they were the most likely to supply him with correct and truthful information about what had happened in the past. During one of this trips, Sima mentioned that he was overcome with emotion when he saw the carriage of Confucius together with his clothes and various other personal items that had belonged to Confucius. Innovations and unique features Despite his very large debts to Confucian tradition, Sima was an innovator in four ways. To begin with, Sima's work was concerned with the history of the known world. Previous Chinese historians had focused on only one dynasty and/or region. Sima's history of 130 chapters began with the legendary Yellow Emperor and extended to his own time, and covered not only China, but also neighboring nations like Korea and Vietnam. In this regard, Sima was significant as the first Chinese historian to treat the peoples living to the north of the Great Wall like the Xiongnu as human beings who were implicitly the equals of the Middle Kingdom, instead of the traditional approach which had portrayed the Xiongnu as savages who had the appearance of humans, but the minds of animals. In his comments about the Xiongnu, Sima refrained from evoking claims about the innate moral superiority of the Han over the "northern barbarians" that were the standard rhetorical tropes of Chinese historians in this period. Likewise, Sima in his chapter about the Xiongnu condemns those advisors who pursue the "expediency of the moment", that is advise the Emperor to carry policies such as conquests of other nations that bring a brief moment of glory, but burden the state with the enormous financial and often human costs of holding on to the conquered land. Sima was engaging in an indirect criticism of the advisors of the Emperor Wu who were urging him to pursue a policy of aggression towards the Xiongnu and conquer all their land, a policy to which Sima was apparently opposed.Sima also broke new ground by using more sources like interviewing witnesses, visiting places where historical occurrences had happened, and examining documents from different regions and/or times. Before Chinese historians had tended to use only reign histories as their sources. The Shiji was further very novel in Chinese historiography by examining historical events outside of the courts, providing a broader history than the traditional court-based histories had done. Lastly, Sima broke with the traditional chronological structure of Chinese history. Sima instead had divided the Shiji into five divisions: the basic annals which comprised the first 12 chapters, the chronological tables which comprised the next 10 chapters, treatises on particular subjects which make up 8 chapters, accounts of the ruling families which take up 30 chapters, and biographies of various eminent people which are the last 70 chapters. The annals follow the traditional Chinese pattern of court-based histories of the lives of various emperors and their families. The chronological tables are graphs recounting the political history of China. The treatises are essays on topics such as astronomy, music, religion, hydraulic engineering and economics. The last section dealing with biographies covers individuals judged by Sima to have made a major impact on the course of history, regardless of whether they were of noble or humble birth and whether they were born in the central states, the periphery, or barbarian lands. Unlike traditional Chinese historians, Sima went beyond the androcentric, nobility-focused histories by dealing with the lives of women and men such as poets, bureaucrats, merchants, comedians/jesters, assassins, and philosophers. The treatises section, the biographies sections and the annals section relating to the Qin dynasty (as a former dynasty, there was more freedom to write about the Qin than there was about the reigning Han dynasty) that make up 40% of the Shiji have aroused the most interest from historians and are the only parts of the Shiji that have been translated into English.When Sima placed his subjects was often his way of expressing obliquely moral judgements. Empress Lü and Xiang Yu were the effective rulers of China during reigns Hui of the Han and Yi of Chu, respectively, so Sima placed both their lives in the basic annals. Likewise, Confucius is included in the fourth section rather the fifth where he properly belonged as a way of showing his eminent virtue. The structure of the Shiji allowed Sima to tell the same stories in different ways, which allowed him to pass his moral judgements. For example, in the basic annals section, the Emperor Gaozu is portrayed as a good leader whereas in the section dealing with his rival Xiang Yu, the Emperor is portrayed unflatteringly. Likewise, the chapter on Xiang presents him in a favorable light whereas the chapter on Gaozu portrays him in more darker colors. At the end of most of the chapters, Sima usually wrote a commentary in which he judged how the individual lived up to traditional Chinese values like filial piety, humility, self-discipline, hard work and concern for the less fortunate. Sima analyzed the records and sorted out those that could serve the purpose of Shiji. He intended to discover the patterns and principles of the development of human history. Sima also emphasized, for the first time in Chinese history, the role of individual men in affecting the historical development of China and his historical perception that a country cannot escape from the fate of growth and decay. Unlike the Book of Han, which was written under the supervision of the imperial dynasty, Shiji was a privately written history since he refused to write Shiji as an official history covering only those of high rank. The work also covers people of the lower classes and is therefore considered a "veritable record" of the darker side of the dynasty. In Sima's time, literature and history were not seen as separate disciplines as they are now, and Sima wrote his magnum opus in a very literary style, making extensive use of irony, sarcasm, juxtaposition of events, characterization, direct speech and invented speeches, which led the American historian Jennifer Jay to describe parts of the Shiji as reading more like a historical novel than a work of history. For an example, Sima tells the story of a Chinese eunuch named Zhonghang Yue who became an advisor to the Xiongnu kings. Sima provides a long dialogue between Zhonghang and an envoy sent by the Emperor Wen of China during which the latter disparages the Xiongnu as "savages" whose customs are barbaric while Zhonghang defends the Xiongnu customs as either justified and/or as morally equal to Chinese customs, at times even morally superior as Zhonghang draws a contrast between the bloody succession struggles in China where family members would murder one another to be Emperor vs. the more orderly succession of the Xiongnu kings. The American historian Tamara Chin wrote that though Zhonghang did exist, the dialogue is merely a "literacy device" for Sima to make points that he could not otherwise make. The favorable picture of the traitor Zhonghang who went over to the Xiongnu who bests the Emperor's loyal envoy in an ethnographic argument about what is the morally superior nation appears to be Sima's way of attacking the entire Chinese court system where the Emperor preferred the lies told by his sycophantic advisors over the truth told by his honest advisors as inherently corrupt and depraved. The point is reinforced by the fact that Sima has Zhonghang speak the language of an idealized Confucian official whereas the Emperor's envoy's language is dismissed as "mere twittering and chatter". Elsewhere in the Shiji Sima portrayed the Xiongnu less favorably, so the debate was almost certainly more Sima's way of criticizing the Chinese court system and less genuine praise for the Xiongnu.Sima has often been criticized for "historizing" myths and legends as he assigned dates to mythical and legendary figures from ancient Chinese history together with what appears to be suspiciously precise genealogies of leading families over the course of several millennia (including his own where he traces the descent of the Sima family from legendary emperors in the distant past). However, archaeological discoveries in recent decades have confirmed aspects of the Shiji, and suggested that even if the sections of the Shiji dealing with the ancient past are not totally true, at least Sima wrote down what he believed to be true. In particular, archaeological finds have confirmed the basic accuracy of the Shiji including the reigns and locations of tombs of ancient rulers. Literary figure Sima's Shiji is respected as a model of biographical literature with high literary value and still stands as a textbook for the study of classical Chinese. Sima's works were influential to Chinese writing, serving as ideal models for various types of prose within the neo-classical ("renaissance" 复古) movement of the Tang-Song period. The great use of characterisation and plotting also influenced fiction writing, including the classical short stories of the middle and late medieval period (Tang-Ming) as well as the vernacular novel of the late imperial period. Sima had immense influence on historiography not only in China, but also in Japan and Korea. For centuries afterwards, the Shiji was regarded as the greatest history book written in Asia. Sima is little known in the English-speaking world as a full translation of the Shiji in English has not yet been completed. His influence was derived primarily from the following elements of his writing: his skillful depiction of historical characters using details of their speech, conversations, and actions; his innovative use of informal, humorous, and varied language; and the simplicity and conciseness of his style. Even the 20th-century literary critic Lu Xun regarded Shiji as "the historians' most perfect song, a "Li Sao" without the rhyme" (史家之絶唱，無韻之離騷) in his Outline of Chinese Literary History (漢文學史綱要). Other literary works Sima's famous letter to his friend Ren An about his sufferings during the Li Ling Affair and his perseverance in writing Shiji is today regarded as a highly admired example of literary prose style, studied widely in China even today. The Letter to Ren An contains the quote, "Men have always had but one death. For some it is as weighty as Mount Tai; for others it is as insignificant as a goose down. The difference is what they use it for." (人固有一死，或重于泰山，或輕于鴻毛，用之所趨異也。) This quote has become one of the most well known in all of Chinese literature. In modern times, Chairman Mao paraphrased this quote in a speech in which he paid tribute to a fallen PLA soldier. Sima Qian wrote eight rhapsodies (fu), which are listed in the bibliographic treatise of the Book of Han. All but one, the "Rhapsody in Lament for Gentlemen who do not Meet their Time" (士不遇賦) have been lost, and even the surviving example is probably not complete. Astronomer/astrologer Sima and his father both served as the taishi (太史) of the Former Han dynasty, a position which includes aspects of being a historian, a court scribe, calendarist, and court astronomer/astrologer. At that time, the astrologer had an important role, responsible for interpreting and predicting the course of government according to the influence of the Sun, Moon, and stars, as well as other astronomical and geological phenomena such as solar eclipses and earthquakes, which depended on revising and upholding an accurate calendar. Before compiling Shiji, Sima Qian was involved in the creation of the 104 BC Taichu Calendar 太初暦 (太初 became the new era name for Emperor Wu and means "supreme beginning"), a modification of the Qin calendar. This is the first Chinese calendar whose full method of calculation (暦法) has been preserved. The minor planet "12620 Simaqian" is named in his honour. Family Sima Qian is the son of court astrologer (太史令) Sima Tan, who is a descendant of Qin general Sima Cuo (司馬錯), the commander of Qin army in the state's conquest of Ba and Shu. Before his castration, Sima Qian was recorded to have two sons and a daughter. While little is recorded of his sons, his daughter later married Yang Chang (楊敞), and had sons Yang Zhong (楊忠) and Yang Yun (楊惲). It was Yang Yun who hid his grandfather's great work, and decided to release it during the reign of Emperor Xuan. Unsubstantiated descendants According to local legend, Sima Qian had two sons, the older named Sima Lin (司馬臨) and younger named Sima Guan (司馬觀), who fled the capital to Xu Village (徐村) in what is now Shanxi province during the Li Ling affair, for fear of falling victim to familial extermination. They changed their surnames to Tong (同 = 丨+ 司) and Feng (馮 = 仌 + 馬), respectively, to hide their origins while continuing to secretly offer sacrifices to the Sima ancestors. To this day, people living in the village with surnames Feng and Tong are forbidden from intermarrying on the grounds that the relationship would be incestuous.According to the Book of Han, Wang Mang sent an expedition to search for and ennoble a male-line descent of Sima Qian as 史通子 ("Viscount of Historical Mastery"), although it was not recorded who received this title of nobility. A Qing dynasty stele 重修太史廟記 (Records of the Renovation of the Temple of the Grand Historian) erected in the nearby county seat Han City (韓城) claims that the title was given to the grandson of Sima Lin. Further reading Markley, J. Peace and Peril. Sima Qian's portrayal of Han - Xiongnu relations (Silk Road Studies XIII), Turnhout, 2016, ISBN 978-2-503-53083-3 Allen, J.R "An Introductory Study of Narrative Structure in the Shi ji" pages 31–61 from Chinese Literature: Essays, Articles, Reviews, Volume 3, Issue 1, 1981. Allen, J.R. "Records of the Historian" pages 259–271 from Masterworks of Asian Literature in Comparative Perspective: A Guide for Teaching, Armonk: Sharpe, 1994. Beasley, W. G & Pulleyblank, E. G Historians of China and Japan, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961. Dubs, H.H. "History and Historians under the Han" pages 213-218 from Journal of Asian Studies, Volume 20, Issue # 2, 1961. Durrant S.W "Self as the Intersection of Tradition: The Autobiographical Writings of Ssu-Ch'ien" pages 33–40 from Journal of the American Oriental Society, Volume 106, Issue # 1, 1986. Cardner, C. S Traditional Historiography, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1970. Hardy, G.R "Can an Ancient Chinese historian Contribute to Modern Western Theory?" pages 20–38 from History and Theory, Volume 33, Issue # 1, 1994. Kroll, J.L "Ssu-ma Ch'ien Literary Theory and Literary Practice" pages 313-325 from Altorientalische Forshungen, Volume 4, 1976. Li, W.Y "The Idea of Authority in the Shi chi" pages 345-405 from Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, Volume 54, Issue # 2, 1994. Moloughney, B. "From Biographical History to Historical Biography: A Transformation in Chinese Historical Writings" pages 1–30 from East Asian History, Volume 4, Issue 1, 1992. Works by Sima Qian at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Sima Qian at Internet Archive Works by Sima Qian at Open Library Significance of Shiji on literature Sima Qian: China's 'grand historian', article by Carrie Gracie in BBC News Magazine, 7 October 2012
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86 may refer to: 86 (number), a natural number 86 (term), a slang term for getting rid of something Dates 86 BC, a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar AD 86, a common year of the Julian calendar 1986, a common year of the Gregorian calendar 2086, a common year of the Gregorian calendar Art and entertainment 86 (novel series), a Japanese light novel series and anime series "86", a song by Green Day from Insomniac Agent 86 or Maxwell Smart, a character on Get Smart Eighty-Sixed, a 2017 web series created by Cazzie David and Elisa Kalani Eighty-Sixed, a 1989 novel by David B. Feinberg 86'd, a 2009 novel by Dan Fante "86" (Dawn Richard song) Transportation Toyota 86, sports car List of highways numbered 86 86 (MBTA bus) 86 (New Jersey bus) See also All pages with titles containing 86 A86 (disambiguation) x86
87 may refer to: 87 (number) one of the years 87 BC, AD 87, 1987, 2087, etc. Atomic number 87, francium Intel 8087, a floating-point coprocessor 87; Common gasoline rating See also All pages with titles containing 87 List of highways numbered 87
88 may refer to: 88 (number) one of the years 88 BC, AD 88, 1888 CE, 1988 CE, 2088 CE, etc. "88", a song by Sum 41 from Chuck "88", a song by The Cool Kids from The Bake Sale The 88, an American indie rock band The 88 (album), the 2003 debut album by New Zealand band Minuit Highway 88, see List of highways numbered 88 The 88 (San Jose), a residential skyscraper in San Jose, California, USA The 88, a nickname for the piano derived from the number of keys it typically has A Morse code abbreviation meaning "Love and kisses" 88 Generation Students Group, a Burmese pro-democracy movement 8.8 cm Flak 18/36/37/41, known as the eighty-eight, a German anti-tank and anti-aircraft gun from World War II 88 (film), a 2015 film directed by April Mullen, starring Katharine Isabelle Atomic number 88: radium The butterfly genus Diaethria, which has an 88-like pattern on its wings The butterfly genus Callicore, which has an 88-like pattern on its wings 88, a code number for "Heil Hitler" based on "H" being the eighth letter of the alphabet All pages with titles beginning with 88 All pages with titles containing 88 All pages with titles containing eighty-eight Squadron 88, an Australian far-right extremist group Unit 88, a New Zealand neo-Nazi group of the 1990s
89 may refer to: 89 (number) Atomic number 89: actinium Years 89 BC AD 89 1989 2089 etc. See also All pages with titles containing 89 List of highways numbered 89
90 may refer to: 90 (number) one of the years 90 BC, AD 90, 1990, 2090, etc. 90 (album), an album by the electronic music group 808 State 90 (EP), an album by the band South Club Atomic number 90: thorium Audi 90, a precursor of the Audi A4 automobile Saab 90, a compact executive car See also All pages with titles containing 90 List of highways numbered 90
91 may refer to: Years 91 BC AD 91 1991 2091 etc. Transportation List of highways numbered 91 91 Line, a rail line Saab 91, an aircraft Other uses 91 (number) 91:an, a Swedish comic '91, a 2017 album by Jamie Grace Ninety One (group), a Kazakh boy group Ninety-One (solitaire) Ninety One plc, an Anglo-South African asset management business Protactinium, atomic number 91 See also All pages with titles containing 91 All pages with titles containing Ninety-one
92 may refer to: 92 (number) one of the years 92 BC, AD 92, 1992, 2092, etc. Atomic number 92: uranium Beretta 92 Saab 92 "92" (song) a Serbian-language song by Elena Risteska See also All pages with titles containing 92 List of highways numbered 92
MSN Messenger (also known colloquially simply as "Messenger"), later rebranded as Windows Live Messenger, was a cross-platform instant-messaging client developed by Microsoft. It connected to the Microsoft Messenger service and, in later versions, was compatible with Yahoo! Messenger and Facebook Messenger. Versions were developed for Windows, Xbox 360, Mac OS X (later under the name Microsoft Messenger for Mac), BlackBerry OS, iOS, Java ME, S60 on Symbian OS 9.x, MSN TV, Zune HD, Windows Phone, Windows Mobile and Windows CE. The client was first released as MSN Messenger Service on July 22, 1999, and was marketed under the MSN brand until 2005, when it was rebranded under the Windows Live name. It has since been officially known by the latter name, although its first name remained in common use. In June 2009, Microsoft reported the service attracted over 330 million active users each month, placing it among the most widely used instant-messaging clients in the world.Following its acquisition of Skype Technologies in May 2011, Microsoft added interoperability between Skype and Microsoft accounts, allowing Skype—which had features unique to its platform and a wider user base—to communicate with Windows Live Messenger contacts. In 2013, the product was discontinued, and Microsoft began cutting service to existing clients. It remained active in China for another 18 months and ceased operations there on October 31, 2014. History MSN Messenger 1.0–7.5 (1999–2005) Before the product was renamed Windows Live Messenger, it was named "MSN Messenger" from 1999 to 2006. During that time, Microsoft released seven major versions as follows. The first version of MSN Messenger Service, version 1.0 (1.0.0863), was released July 22, 1999. It included only basic features, such as plain text messaging and a simplistic contact list. When it was first released, it featured support for access to America Online's AIM network. America Online continually tried to block Microsoft from having access to their service until eventually the feature was removed, and it has not re-surfaced in any later versions of the software. AOL did this by exploiting a buffer overflow bug in AIM, which causes it to execute a bit of machine code sent by the server. When this code runs, it determines if the client is AIM and sends a message back to verify the client. Since then, the software has only allowed connections to its own service, requiring a Windows Live ID (.NET Passport at that time) account to connect. Microsoft released the first major update, version 2.0 (2.0.0083), on November 16, 1999. It included a rotating advertising banner and the ability to customize the appearance of the chat window. It came as an install option for Windows Me. This version was followed the next year by version 3.0 (3.0.0080), which was released May 29, 2000. It included file transfers and PC-to-PC and PC-to-phone audio capabilities with Net2Phone and Callserve, two of the larger VoIP providers. Along with the release of Windows XP came version 4.6 of MSN Messenger, on October 23, 2001. It included major changes to the user interface, the ability to group contacts, and support for voice conversations. In this version, the client software was renamed from "MSN Messenger Service" to just "MSN Messenger", while the underlying service became known as ".NET Messenger Service". This version was only compatible with Windows 95, 98, ME, NT 4.0, and 2000, because Microsoft provided a scaled-down new program for Windows XP, called Windows Messenger. Version 5.0 of MSN Messenger was released on October 24, 2002. It was the first version that was allowed to be installed along with Windows Messenger on Windows XP. It included UPnP (Universal Plug and Play) based file transfers, minor changes to the user interface artwork, and a Windows Media Player interface plug-in.Version 6.0 of MSN Messenger was released July 17, 2003. MSN Messenger 6.0 was a major overhaul of the whole platform, upgrading its simple text-based interface to include customizable elements such as emoticons, personalized avatars, and backgrounds. An update, version 6.1, focused on improvements to the conversation window, enabling users to hide the window frame and menu bar, and also the ability to change the theme color. The theme color could be set differently for each user. Another update, version 6.2, was released April 22, 2004, and it was the last version of the MSN Messenger 6 series. The most notable changes were a dedicated Mobile group for mobile contacts, a connection troubleshooter, and the Launch Site feature was renamed to Fun & Games. MSN Messenger received a major upgrade to version 7.0 on April 7, 2005. This version brought wink features that were previously only available in threedegrees. This version also advertised items to sell to you including animated display pictures, emoticons and backgrounds. The contact list window style was also updated to match instant message windows. This version also introduced the Xbox Live Integration feature. This version also introduced digital ink and handwriting recognition support. It is the last version of MSN Messenger to support Windows 98, Windows Me and Windows 2000. The last version of MSN Messenger before the name change, version 7.5, was released August 23, 2005. New features included the Dynamic Backgrounds feature and the "msnim" protocol handler, which allowed Web sites to provide links which automatically add a contact or start conversations. Additionally, a new Voice Clips feature allowed users to hold down F2 and record a message for a maximum of 15 seconds and send it to the recipient. The window for conversations was changed slightly with an added video button. This version also introduced the Windows Installer for its auto-update feature. Windows Live Messenger 8.0–8.5 (2005–2009) As part of Microsoft's Windows Live effort, which rebranded many existing MSN services and programs, MSN Messenger was renamed "Windows Live Messenger" beginning with version 8.0. The first beta of the newly renamed Windows Live Messenger, Beta 1, was released on December 13, 2005. Major changes and additions included offline messaging, an option to change the color theme of the windows, separated send and search boxes, a word wheel search box in the main window, and additional details for contacts when hovering over their names in the contact list window. The second beta of version 8.0, Beta 2, was released on February 26, 2006. The overall theme of this version was improved, fixing and improving several smaller places in the program. Major changes and additions included the introduction of Windows Live Contacts, the reintroduction of single file transfer, improvements to the "Add a Contact" dialog box, improved color themes, minor changes in the conversation window, and revert of the "Busy" status icon back to the normal dash icon.The final beta version, Beta 3, was released on May 2, 2006. Major changes and additions included new icons for the program, PC-to-phone calling, an updated look for the Windows Live Call window, a new default display picture, the Windows Live Today window, improvements to the grouping of sequential messages from each contact, Rhapsody integration in the U.S., and an option for sounds to be edited and/or turned off.The official release of Windows Live Messenger version 8.0 was on June 19, 2006. Although no notable changes were made between Beta 3 and the final version, the change from MSN Messenger to Windows Live Messenger brought some additional changes, such as customization for the nicknames of individual contacts, timestamps on messages, the ability to see a contact's name only once if the same person writes multiple messages in a row, and color schemes for the entire application. The main authentication system, Microsoft Passport Network, was replaced with Windows Live ID at the same time. A refresh to version 8.0 was released on August 10, 2006. It included audio and video improvements and fixed up minor bugs.The first update to Windows Live Messenger was previewed on October 30, 2006, with the release of Beta 1 of version 8.1. No major changes were made, but several minor changes were included. These include the addition of the roaming identity feature (so that the same user's display name and picture would appear on any computer), a new contact card appearance, a "recently used" list for the emoticon, wink, display picture and background menus, an SMS phone book in the main menu allowing the association and editing of a phone number to the contact and allowing text messaging to a contact, a "sign out" button, a "report abuse" option in the help menu, interoperability with Yahoo! Messenger, and improvements to user status on Windows VistaA minor update, the Windows Live Messenger 8.1 Beta 1 Refresh, was released on December 13, 2006, and fixed bugs that were causing some people to be unable to sign in and others unable to see their contact list.The final version 8.1 was released on January 29, 2007. No changes were made from the Beta 1 Refresh. All versions of Windows Live Messenger below version 8.1 were rendered obsolete on September 12, 2007, due to a security issue identified when a user accepts a webcam or video chat invitation from an attacker.On September 12, 2007, the Windows Live Messenger blog posted a fix that resolved a security problem. It reported of a security vulnerability in versions of Messenger older than 8.1, that the released fix would resolve. This led to an auto-update being released to all older versions. Versions running on Windows 2000 and below were required to update to a new version of MSN Messenger 7.0, and versions running on Windows XP and above were required to update to Windows Live Messenger 8.1.On August 27, 2009, the Windows Live Messenger blog posted that due to a security problem, all users of versions 8.1 and newer need to update to the latest version, 14.0.8089. The mandatory upgrade requirement would be fully phased in by late October 2009 and began on September 15, 2009. The first beta of Windows Live Messenger 8.5, Beta 1, was released on May 31, 2007. An update was released on June 21, 2007, to test updates being installed by Microsoft Update. This version required Windows XP SP2, compared to previous versions requiring Windows XP SP1. It was the first version to be installed in a "Windows Live" folder under "Program Files", with the shortcuts placed in a "Windows Live" folder in the Start Menu. Major changes and additions in Beta 1 included a new installation program in conjunction with the release of Windows Live 2.0, a new look for all of its windows that matches the aesthetic styles of Windows Vista, a new "bunny" emoticon, and integration with Windows Live OneCare Family Safety. Beginning with this version, updates could be downloaded and installed through Microsoft Update. The second beta of Windows Live Messenger 8.5, Beta 2, was released on September 5, 2007. Several issues were fixed in Beta 2, but no significant changes were applied. Compared with the first beta, the build does not say "Beta" on the top of the window, although developers had noted that it was not the final release. The new Windows Live Installer, which is used to install Windows Live Messenger 8.5 Beta 2, does not run on Windows Server 2003. The final release of Windows Live Messenger version 8.5 was released on November 6, 2007, and it introduced no major changes. Windows Live Messenger 14.0–16.4 (2009–2012) Windows Live Messenger 2009 was originally designated version 9.0, it was later assigned the technical version number 14.0, in order to be unified with the other Windows Live programs and Microsoft Office programs. In a presentation to the Georgia Institute of Technology's IEEE Student Branch, Microsoft employee Andrew Jenks reported that the Messenger team had been working on multi-person audio/video chat, and they are also attempting to create interoperability with AIM/XMPP/ICQ. There is a basic internal version that works with XMPP already. However, these features were not seen in any versions of Windows Live Messenger 2009. Microsoft sent an invitation to participate in the Windows Live Messenger "9" beta program to Microsoft Connect members on November 20, 2007; a week later, Microsoft began sending out emails welcoming them to the Windows Live Messenger "9" beta program for the first release, known as Beta 0. A fan site for Windows Live Messenger, Mess.be, claimed to have a new build of Windows Live Messenger "9" on August 11, 2008, and published screenshots along with a brief summary of new features. The screenshots featured a new user interface design matching the "Wave 3" design in development by Microsoft. The images were later removed by the site after a DMCA notice was received. The installer for the same build was leaked through private forums on August 23, 2008. It would later be discovered this build was a preview of Milestone 2, or M2. News web site LiveSide published an article on September 4, 2008, with screenshots of M2 of the newly minted "Windows Live Messenger 2009", which had become version 14.0 instead of 9.0 as previously expected. LiveSide summarized its new features, including protection against messaging spam, the ability to stay signed into the application from several computers (referred to as "Multiple Points of Presence Support"), animated GIF files in the photo area, per-contact customized sounds for various user actions, and clickable URLs in the status area.Microsoft began the official beta program for Windows Live Messenger 2009 on September 17, 2008, when it released a new beta officially known as Windows Live Messenger 2009 Beta (Milestone 3, Build 14.0.5027.908), which was made available to the general public as a free download. The ability to submit feedback, however, was restricted to select participants of the Microsoft Connect closed beta program. Notable changes in Milestone 3 include a new revamped and refined user interface to follow suit with the rest of the Windows Live "Wave 3" design, the ability to set a "Scene" by customizing the background image and color of the contact list, and the display of these scenes in conversation windows for improved contact identification and window management. Milestone 3 also brings a new "Groups" feature that allows users to create a continuous group conversation between select contacts, newly redesigned status icons which now resemble small gems rather than the previous "Messenger Buddy" icons, a new default "Favorites" category in which you can place your favorite contacts for easy access to them, a new Photo Sharing utility that allows contacts to quickly and easily browse photos together, and a "What's New" section at the bottom of the contact list to outline recent contact updates. Display pictures have been moved over to the left side of conversation windows, and new colorful borders appear around display pictures to display the current status of that contact. Milestone 3 is the first version of Windows Live Messenger to use the standard window frame on Windows Vista in accordance with the user experience guidelines. Several features were removed in version 9.0 however, such as the ability to use add-ins, the ability to transfer files when the recipient is signed in as offline, the "Be right back", "Out to lunch", and "In a call" status options, the Go to my space button, the ability to adjust webcam settings during a video call, the Send button, some games (depending on your localization) and integration with Windows Contacts. Other features were replaced, such as Sharing Folders (replaced by integration with Windows Live SkyDrive) and background sharing (replaced by the "Scene" feature). On December 15, 2008, Windows Live Messenger 2009 RC (Build 14.0.8050.1202) was released together with the other Windows Live Wave 3 software applications, now renamed as Windows Live Essentials. This version saw a removal of the custom sign-in sound feature however it is still possible to select a sound for other individuals, as well as changes to how the background image chosen is applied to the conversation windows. This build also included over 200 bug fixes including the "Custom Emoticon Bug" and saving of pictures when using the Photo sharing feature. On January 7, 2009, the same build was released as the final version of Windows Live Messenger 2009.The last QFE update for Wave 3 was released on May 12, 2010, and saw the removal of some features from Windows Live Messenger. Specifically, the ability to independently show only your own webcam or your contacts' webcam (one way webcam) and without an audio call is gone. It is only possible to start a video call which starts the webcams of both people communicating, and which also automatically starts audio calling. Also removed is the ability to import and save/export instant messaging contacts to and from .CTT files.On June 14, 2012, Microsoft has made the update from 2009 to 2011 mandatory for those using Windows Vista or 7. 2009 continues to be usable for those still running XP. This can be circumvented by running Windows Live Messenger in Windows XP compatibility mode, thus making it believe it is running on Windows XP.In late March 2010, a beta of Windows Live Essentials Wave 4 was leaked onto the internet and has since spread to various BitTorrent networks, which included a private beta build of Windows Live Messenger Wave 4. However, as the software was designed for private beta testing, non-beta testers cannot sign into this leaked build.The new software features a revamped interface which brings the "What's new" section of Windows Live to the new "social pane", similar to the way a social networking site presents updates. Among the new features are tabbed conversations, a redesign of the old emoticons, integration of Bing results, built-in video message support, HD video chat, in-line commenting of social updates, a new social photo viewer that supports commenting (for Facebook and SkyDrive photos), badges support, synchronized status updates, availability by categories, as well as integration with Facebook chat. However, several features had also been removed from the previous version, such as the removal of display names, handwriting tool, one-way webcam requests and import/export of instant messaging contacts feature. The "Wave 4" release of Windows Live Essentials, which includes Messenger, also dropped compatibility with Windows XP and only runs on Windows Vista or Windows 7.The new Windows Live Messenger for the iOS became available on the App Store on June 21, 2010, in addition to other mobile versions of Windows Live Messenger for Windows Phone, BlackBerry, and Symbian mobile platforms.On June 24, 2010, a public beta of Windows Live Messenger Wave 4 was released as part of the new Windows Live Essentials beta. A "beta refresh" of Windows Live Messenger Wave 4 was released on August 17, 2010, as part of an upgraded Windows Live Essentials beta. The final version of Windows Live Messenger 2011 (Wave 4) was released on September 30, 2010. On the same date, a version of Windows Live Messenger for Zune HD also became available.On August 7, 2012, Microsoft delivered a new version of the Windows Essentials 2012 suite, which includes Windows Live Messenger 2012. Discontinuation On November 6, 2012, Microsoft announced that Messenger and Skype services would merge in the first quarter of 2013. According to Tony Bates (president of Skype Division at the time), Messenger users could sign into Skype using their Microsoft accounts, access their Messenger contacts and communicate as usual. On January 8, 2013, Microsoft emailed Messenger users and informed them that with the exception of mainland China, the Messenger service would stop working on March 15, 2013, and users would not be able to sign in.On February 15, 2013, ZDNet wrote the discontinuation email was only sent to one percent of Messenger users, a test group. On the same day, Microsoft announced its plans to phase out Messenger: the process would start on April 8, 2013, with English users and would end on April 30, 2013; Messenger would remain available in mainland China. According to ZDNet, this might only apply to the ability to sign in with Messenger client; Microsoft would keep its Messenger service running for another year. "Windows Live Messenger Upgrades to Skype", as they were referred to by Microsoft, started on April 8, 2013. This transition took place language by language. Brazil was the last country to be "upgraded", on April 30. Chinese Messenger users received an email from Microsoft in August 2014, containing an announcement that Messenger service in China would end on October 31, 2014; users were advised to migrate to Skype and receive free credits. Features In addition to its basic functionality and general capability as an instant messaging client, the latest version of Windows Live Messenger offered the following features: Album Viewer Windows Live Messenger's album viewer is based on Windows Photo Gallery and provides users a photo viewing experience for photo albums shared via SkyDrive and Facebook. The album viewer is interactive and supports full screen and slideshow modes, as well as viewing and uploading comments on Facebook and SkyDrive albums. It also supports people tagging for SkyDrive. The album viewer closely resembles the Microsoft Silverlight counterpart for web photo albums present on SkyDrive. Appear offline to individuals or categories Windows Live Messenger allows users to appear offline to particular individual contacts, as well as to an entire category within Windows Live Messenger, while appearing online to other contacts. This is a recent feature of Windows Live Messenger 2011, and is a departure from the previous versions of Windows Live Messenger, where blocking a contact would prevent the "blockee" from sending the user any messages to the "blocker". With the "appear offline to" configuration currently implemented, "hidden from" users can still send "offline messages" to the target. Social networks integration Users can connect services such as Facebook, MySpace and LinkedIn using Windows Live Profile, and display their contact's Messenger social updates within the "Full view" of Windows Live Messenger. Users can also post status updates and photos directly to the connected services within Windows Live Messenger. Additionally, Messenger also imports all contacts from the connected services and integrates with Facebook Chat (via the XMPP protocol) for instant messaging support with users on Facebook. Offline messaging One can send messages to contacts who are offline; they will receive the messages once they come online. Additionally, a user can start conversations even when their status is set to Appear Offline in Windows Live Messenger 2009 or before. Games and applications There are various games and applications available in Windows Live Messenger that can be accessed via the conversation window by clicking on the games icon, and challenging your friend or contact to a competition in a game, or inviting them to launch a shared external application. Messenger Companion Windows Live Messenger Companion was an add-in for Windows Internet Explorer that detects when a user is on a website that one of their friends has shared content from and surfaces that update so that the user can instantly view what their friends have shared and leave a comment to the shared content on Windows Live. The service utilizes Windows Live ID and integrates tightly with Windows Live Messenger to obtain the user's contact list and their shared contents. The features of Windows Live Messenger Companion include: Sharing links to web pages with the user's friends on Windows Live within the web browser See links to web pages the user's friends have shared Add comments to the links the user's friends have sharedWindows Live Messenger Companion was made available as part of Windows Live Essentials 2011. However, Microsoft discontinued Messenger Companion in its newer Windows Essentials 2012 suite. Protocol Windows Live Messenger used the Microsoft Notification Protocol (MSNP) over TCP (and optionally over HTTP to deal with proxies) to connect to Microsoft Messenger service—a service offered on port 1863 of "messenger.hotmail.com." The protocol is not completely secret; Microsoft disclosed version 2 (MSNP2) to developers in 1999 in an Internet Draft, but never released versions 8 or higher to the public. The Messenger service servers currently only accept protocol versions from 8 and higher, so the syntax of new commands sent from versions 8 and higher is only known by using packet sniffers like Wireshark. This has been an easy task because – in comparison to many other modern instant messaging protocols, such as XMPP – the Microsoft Notification Protocol does not provide any encryption and everything can be captured easily using packet sniffers. The lack of proper encryption also makes wiretapping friend lists and personal conversations a trivial task, especially in unencrypted public Wi-Fi networks. Content filtering The content of users' messages is filtered on server side of the client. For example, the user can't send the links to The Pirate Bay's pages neither from the Windows Live Messenger, nor through other clients supporting the protocol. However, links to other P2P networks are allowed. "i'm" initiative The i'm initiative was a program Microsoft launched in March 2007, that connects the user with ten organizations dedicated to social causes through Windows Live Messenger, only for conversations sent or received in the USA. Every time someone had a conversation using i'm, Microsoft Corp. shared a portion of the program's advertising revenue with the organization of the user's choice. There was no set cap on the amount donated to each organization. The more i'm conversations the user had, the more money went to one of the ten causes. Each participating organization was guaranteed a minimum donation of $100,000 during the first year of the program. The i'm initiative worked with version 8.1 and above. In March 2010, the initiative concluded, having raised over 3 million dollars. Platforms Messenger Mobile (formerly named Windows Live Messenger Mobile) was the version of Messenger that was aimed to be used on mobile devices over a cellular data plan or Wi-Fi (if supported by the phone). There was also a WAP-compatible version that may be used on any mobile device, and also specific client versions designed for Windows Mobile, iOS, BlackBerry and Nokia Series 60 devices. Windows Mobile A client version of Windows Live Messenger Mobile was a part of client application named "Windows Live for Windows Mobile" included with the Windows Mobile 6 operating system. It was included on both Windows Mobile 6 smartphone edition (non-touch screen phones) and professional (touch screen phones). Among other features you could send voice-clips (max 10 seconds), pictures & emoticons. Xbox Windows Live Messenger support was included in the Xbox 360 spring 2007 dashboard update released on May 9, 2007. It was known as Xbox Live Messenger.Those using Windows Live Messenger were able to see the Gamertags of friends logged into Xbox Live, including the games that they were playing. Xbox 360 users could chat in-game or while watching a movie. Although only text chat was supported, Microsoft suggested that voice and video chatting may come in a future update. Support for child accounts was added in December 2007. To coincide with the arrival of the integration of Windows Live Messenger with Xbox Live, Microsoft released a new Xbox 360 keyboard adapter called the Xbox 360 Messenger Kit for easier text input. The keyboard device attaches to the standard Xbox 360 controller through the headphone jack and features a QWERTY-style key layout with 47 backlit keys. However, any USB keyboard is also compatible with the Xbox 360. Microsoft also announced on June 14, 2010, that users on Xbox LIVE with the controller-free Kinect could have real-time video conversations with Windows Live Messenger contacts. This feature was enabled at launch. MSN TV (WebTV) Starting in the summer of 2000, the Microsoft-owned web access product MSN TV (then known as WebTV) introduced a software upgrade for users of its internet terminals that added a basic messaging client among other features. The messaging client was designed to work with the Microsoft Messenger service and was simply named MSN Messenger. The client for the original WebTV/MSN TV internet terminals supported basic presence, plain text messages (no graphical emoticons), and buddy lists, with the overall WebTV/MSN TV service hosting services for users to add, remove, or block Messenger contacts and manage their Messenger settings. Windows Live Messenger support was later added to the MSN TV 2, introducing a new UI to fit the rest of the MSN TV 2's interface and support for graphical emotions. It's believed these clients still worked up until the discontinuation of the MSN TV service in September 2013. Although WebTV was also available in Japan well before the Summer 2000 upgrade was introduced in the U.S., it does not appear that Japanese WebTV users ever received this Messenger feature. Mac Microsoft Messenger for Mac (previously MSN Messenger for Mac) was the official Mac OS X instant messaging client for use with Microsoft Messenger service, developed by the Macintosh Business Unit, a division of Microsoft. Its feature list was limited in comparison to that of its counterpart Windows Live Messenger; the client lacked a number of features that its Windows counterpart contained. The versions 3.x and later of Microsoft Messenger for Mac featured new Aqua graphics, whereas version 2.x and below have graphics similar to Windows Messenger 4.0. Versions 5.x used the brushed metal theme. Version 2.5.1, update to version 2.5, which is a mandatory update to version 2.1 that is available for users running Mac OS 9.2.2. Version 3.5 for Mac OS X revisions older than 10.2.8 Version 4.0.1 for Mac OS X revisions 10.2.8 and newer Version 5.1.1 for Mac OS X revisions 10.3 and newer Version 6.0.3 for Mac OS X revisions 10.3.9 and newer Version 7.0.0 for Mac OS X 10.4.9 or newer was released on April 29, 2008. Version 7.0.1 for Mac OS X 10.4 or later includes minor bug fixes. Version 7.0.2 for Mac OS X 10.4 or later: improves overall quality and conversations with Microsoft Office Communicator 2007 R2. Version 8.0.0 beta for Mac OS X 10.5 or later, for Intel Macs only: Official Beta released on March, 24th 2010. Adds A/V conferencing between Mac OS X users and Windows Live Messenger 2009 users. Version 8.0.0 for Mac OS X 10.5 or later, for Intel Macs only: Released with Microsoft Office 2011 for Mac in October 2010 and bears a visual similarity to previous Windows counterparts. It features somewhat more stable functional voice and video calls.With the release of Microsoft Messenger for Mac 7.0, Microsoft has discontinued the client's support for older versions of their Corporate messaging systems (such as Live Communications Server 2005). The latest version to support these older systems is Version 6.0.3, which is still available for download on the Microsoft website. Webcam and audio support was delayed due to Windows Live Messenger's webcam and audio engine being reworked, which meant that the Mac version had to wait until this was complete in order for both platform releases to function correctly. iOS The Windows Live Messenger for iOS client supported receiving of instant messaging notifications even when the application closed, and allowed Multiple Points of Presence (MPOP) such that a user can be signed into multiple locations at the same time. Photos and albums could also be uploaded from the mobile devices onto Windows Live Photos, based on SkyDrive, and the application allowed simple image editing capabilities and people tagging within the photos. The application also supported the "Messenger social" feed on Windows Live Profile, allowing users to view and comment on the social updates and activities of their contacts on Windows Live, as well as those on Facebook, MySpace and LinkedIn once these social networks had been connected to Windows Live as a "Service". Java ME Nokia Series 40 The Windows Live Messenger Mobile client came as a Java ME mobile application pre-loaded on devices such as Nokia 7610, Nokia 7510, Nokia 7210, Nokia 6700c, Nokia 6600s, Nokia 6303c, Nokia 6260s, Nokia 5220, Nokia 5130XM, Nokia 3720c, Nokia 3710f, Nokia, 3600s, Nokia 2730c, Nokia 2700c, Nokia 5530, Nokia 6303c and Nokia X3. Sony Ericsson A version of the Windows Live Messenger Mobile client was also pre-loaded on most Sony Ericsson mobile devices as a Java ME application. Symbian A client for Windows Live Messenger was developed by Microsoft for the Symbian S60 Platform commonly used on mobile phones such as Nokia smartphones and released on August 23, 2007, to selected markets. In May 2009, the client was made available on the Ovi Store. This version of Windows Live Messenger included many of the features of the Windows Live Messenger client, including grouped contacts, voice clips (max 10 seconds), image and file sending; as well as features unique to S60 such as tabbed chat windows and integration with contact list and other features of the S60 platform. When the trial expires the cost to users of Messenger for S60 is £1.50/$2.94 for 30 calendar days of use. As of February 2009, Microsoft stopped charging for Windows Live Mobile and the service is now offered for free. Interoperability On October 13, 2005, Yahoo! and Microsoft announced plans to add interoperability between their messenger services. The announcement came after years of third-party interoperability success (most notably, PowWow by Tribal Voice, Trillian, Pidgin) and criticisms from Tribal Voice and iCast that the major real time communications services were locking their networks. Yahoo! and Windows Live Messenger became interoperable on July 12, 2006. For six years, Yahoo! Messenger and Windows Live Messenger users in possession of up-to-date software could communicate across the two networks. Instant messaging as well as transmission of emoticons, nudges, offline messages, presence information and personal status messages were supported. On December 14, 2012, the interoperability ended.Interoperability with Facebook Chat was added on September 30, 2010, with the launch of Windows Live Messenger 2011. See also Comparison of instant messaging clients Comparison of instant messaging protocols Microsoft Lync Messenger Plus! Live Windows Live Web Messenger
MSN Messenger (also known colloquially simply as "Messenger"), later rebranded as Windows Live Messenger, was a cross-platform instant-messaging client developed by Microsoft. It connected to the Microsoft Messenger service and, in later versions, was compatible with Yahoo! Messenger and Facebook Messenger. Versions were developed for Windows, Xbox 360, Mac OS X (later under the name Microsoft Messenger for Mac), BlackBerry OS, iOS, Java ME, S60 on Symbian OS 9.x, MSN TV, Zune HD, Windows Phone, Windows Mobile and Windows CE. The client was first released as MSN Messenger Service on July 22, 1999, and was marketed under the MSN brand until 2005, when it was rebranded under the Windows Live name. It has since been officially known by the latter name, although its first name remained in common use. In June 2009, Microsoft reported the service attracted over 330 million active users each month, placing it among the most widely used instant-messaging clients in the world.Following its acquisition of Skype Technologies in May 2011, Microsoft added interoperability between Skype and Microsoft accounts, allowing Skype—which had features unique to its platform and a wider user base—to communicate with Windows Live Messenger contacts. In 2013, the product was discontinued, and Microsoft began cutting service to existing clients. It remained active in China for another 18 months and ceased operations there on October 31, 2014. History MSN Messenger 1.0–7.5 (1999–2005) Before the product was renamed Windows Live Messenger, it was named "MSN Messenger" from 1999 to 2006. During that time, Microsoft released seven major versions as follows. The first version of MSN Messenger Service, version 1.0 (1.0.0863), was released July 22, 1999. It included only basic features, such as plain text messaging and a simplistic contact list. When it was first released, it featured support for access to America Online's AIM network. America Online continually tried to block Microsoft from having access to their service until eventually the feature was removed, and it has not re-surfaced in any later versions of the software. AOL did this by exploiting a buffer overflow bug in AIM, which causes it to execute a bit of machine code sent by the server. When this code runs, it determines if the client is AIM and sends a message back to verify the client. Since then, the software has only allowed connections to its own service, requiring a Windows Live ID (.NET Passport at that time) account to connect. Microsoft released the first major update, version 2.0 (2.0.0083), on November 16, 1999. It included a rotating advertising banner and the ability to customize the appearance of the chat window. It came as an install option for Windows Me. This version was followed the next year by version 3.0 (3.0.0080), which was released May 29, 2000. It included file transfers and PC-to-PC and PC-to-phone audio capabilities with Net2Phone and Callserve, two of the larger VoIP providers. Along with the release of Windows XP came version 4.6 of MSN Messenger, on October 23, 2001. It included major changes to the user interface, the ability to group contacts, and support for voice conversations. In this version, the client software was renamed from "MSN Messenger Service" to just "MSN Messenger", while the underlying service became known as ".NET Messenger Service". This version was only compatible with Windows 95, 98, ME, NT 4.0, and 2000, because Microsoft provided a scaled-down new program for Windows XP, called Windows Messenger. Version 5.0 of MSN Messenger was released on October 24, 2002. It was the first version that was allowed to be installed along with Windows Messenger on Windows XP. It included UPnP (Universal Plug and Play) based file transfers, minor changes to the user interface artwork, and a Windows Media Player interface plug-in.Version 6.0 of MSN Messenger was released July 17, 2003. MSN Messenger 6.0 was a major overhaul of the whole platform, upgrading its simple text-based interface to include customizable elements such as emoticons, personalized avatars, and backgrounds. An update, version 6.1, focused on improvements to the conversation window, enabling users to hide the window frame and menu bar, and also the ability to change the theme color. The theme color could be set differently for each user. Another update, version 6.2, was released April 22, 2004, and it was the last version of the MSN Messenger 6 series. The most notable changes were a dedicated Mobile group for mobile contacts, a connection troubleshooter, and the Launch Site feature was renamed to Fun & Games. MSN Messenger received a major upgrade to version 7.0 on April 7, 2005. This version brought wink features that were previously only available in threedegrees. This version also advertised items to sell to you including animated display pictures, emoticons and backgrounds. The contact list window style was also updated to match instant message windows. This version also introduced the Xbox Live Integration feature. This version also introduced digital ink and handwriting recognition support. It is the last version of MSN Messenger to support Windows 98, Windows Me and Windows 2000. The last version of MSN Messenger before the name change, version 7.5, was released August 23, 2005. New features included the Dynamic Backgrounds feature and the "msnim" protocol handler, which allowed Web sites to provide links which automatically add a contact or start conversations. Additionally, a new Voice Clips feature allowed users to hold down F2 and record a message for a maximum of 15 seconds and send it to the recipient. The window for conversations was changed slightly with an added video button. This version also introduced the Windows Installer for its auto-update feature. Windows Live Messenger 8.0–8.5 (2005–2009) As part of Microsoft's Windows Live effort, which rebranded many existing MSN services and programs, MSN Messenger was renamed "Windows Live Messenger" beginning with version 8.0. The first beta of the newly renamed Windows Live Messenger, Beta 1, was released on December 13, 2005. Major changes and additions included offline messaging, an option to change the color theme of the windows, separated send and search boxes, a word wheel search box in the main window, and additional details for contacts when hovering over their names in the contact list window. The second beta of version 8.0, Beta 2, was released on February 26, 2006. The overall theme of this version was improved, fixing and improving several smaller places in the program. Major changes and additions included the introduction of Windows Live Contacts, the reintroduction of single file transfer, improvements to the "Add a Contact" dialog box, improved color themes, minor changes in the conversation window, and revert of the "Busy" status icon back to the normal dash icon.The final beta version, Beta 3, was released on May 2, 2006. Major changes and additions included new icons for the program, PC-to-phone calling, an updated look for the Windows Live Call window, a new default display picture, the Windows Live Today window, improvements to the grouping of sequential messages from each contact, Rhapsody integration in the U.S., and an option for sounds to be edited and/or turned off.The official release of Windows Live Messenger version 8.0 was on June 19, 2006. Although no notable changes were made between Beta 3 and the final version, the change from MSN Messenger to Windows Live Messenger brought some additional changes, such as customization for the nicknames of individual contacts, timestamps on messages, the ability to see a contact's name only once if the same person writes multiple messages in a row, and color schemes for the entire application. The main authentication system, Microsoft Passport Network, was replaced with Windows Live ID at the same time. A refresh to version 8.0 was released on August 10, 2006. It included audio and video improvements and fixed up minor bugs.The first update to Windows Live Messenger was previewed on October 30, 2006, with the release of Beta 1 of version 8.1. No major changes were made, but several minor changes were included. These include the addition of the roaming identity feature (so that the same user's display name and picture would appear on any computer), a new contact card appearance, a "recently used" list for the emoticon, wink, display picture and background menus, an SMS phone book in the main menu allowing the association and editing of a phone number to the contact and allowing text messaging to a contact, a "sign out" button, a "report abuse" option in the help menu, interoperability with Yahoo! Messenger, and improvements to user status on Windows VistaA minor update, the Windows Live Messenger 8.1 Beta 1 Refresh, was released on December 13, 2006, and fixed bugs that were causing some people to be unable to sign in and others unable to see their contact list.The final version 8.1 was released on January 29, 2007. No changes were made from the Beta 1 Refresh. All versions of Windows Live Messenger below version 8.1 were rendered obsolete on September 12, 2007, due to a security issue identified when a user accepts a webcam or video chat invitation from an attacker.On September 12, 2007, the Windows Live Messenger blog posted a fix that resolved a security problem. It reported of a security vulnerability in versions of Messenger older than 8.1, that the released fix would resolve. This led to an auto-update being released to all older versions. Versions running on Windows 2000 and below were required to update to a new version of MSN Messenger 7.0, and versions running on Windows XP and above were required to update to Windows Live Messenger 8.1.On August 27, 2009, the Windows Live Messenger blog posted that due to a security problem, all users of versions 8.1 and newer need to update to the latest version, 14.0.8089. The mandatory upgrade requirement would be fully phased in by late October 2009 and began on September 15, 2009. The first beta of Windows Live Messenger 8.5, Beta 1, was released on May 31, 2007. An update was released on June 21, 2007, to test updates being installed by Microsoft Update. This version required Windows XP SP2, compared to previous versions requiring Windows XP SP1. It was the first version to be installed in a "Windows Live" folder under "Program Files", with the shortcuts placed in a "Windows Live" folder in the Start Menu. Major changes and additions in Beta 1 included a new installation program in conjunction with the release of Windows Live 2.0, a new look for all of its windows that matches the aesthetic styles of Windows Vista, a new "bunny" emoticon, and integration with Windows Live OneCare Family Safety. Beginning with this version, updates could be downloaded and installed through Microsoft Update. The second beta of Windows Live Messenger 8.5, Beta 2, was released on September 5, 2007. Several issues were fixed in Beta 2, but no significant changes were applied. Compared with the first beta, the build does not say "Beta" on the top of the window, although developers had noted that it was not the final release. The new Windows Live Installer, which is used to install Windows Live Messenger 8.5 Beta 2, does not run on Windows Server 2003. The final release of Windows Live Messenger version 8.5 was released on November 6, 2007, and it introduced no major changes. Windows Live Messenger 14.0–16.4 (2009–2012) Windows Live Messenger 2009 was originally designated version 9.0, it was later assigned the technical version number 14.0, in order to be unified with the other Windows Live programs and Microsoft Office programs. In a presentation to the Georgia Institute of Technology's IEEE Student Branch, Microsoft employee Andrew Jenks reported that the Messenger team had been working on multi-person audio/video chat, and they are also attempting to create interoperability with AIM/XMPP/ICQ. There is a basic internal version that works with XMPP already. However, these features were not seen in any versions of Windows Live Messenger 2009. Microsoft sent an invitation to participate in the Windows Live Messenger "9" beta program to Microsoft Connect members on November 20, 2007; a week later, Microsoft began sending out emails welcoming them to the Windows Live Messenger "9" beta program for the first release, known as Beta 0. A fan site for Windows Live Messenger, Mess.be, claimed to have a new build of Windows Live Messenger "9" on August 11, 2008, and published screenshots along with a brief summary of new features. The screenshots featured a new user interface design matching the "Wave 3" design in development by Microsoft. The images were later removed by the site after a DMCA notice was received. The installer for the same build was leaked through private forums on August 23, 2008. It would later be discovered this build was a preview of Milestone 2, or M2. News web site LiveSide published an article on September 4, 2008, with screenshots of M2 of the newly minted "Windows Live Messenger 2009", which had become version 14.0 instead of 9.0 as previously expected. LiveSide summarized its new features, including protection against messaging spam, the ability to stay signed into the application from several computers (referred to as "Multiple Points of Presence Support"), animated GIF files in the photo area, per-contact customized sounds for various user actions, and clickable URLs in the status area.Microsoft began the official beta program for Windows Live Messenger 2009 on September 17, 2008, when it released a new beta officially known as Windows Live Messenger 2009 Beta (Milestone 3, Build 14.0.5027.908), which was made available to the general public as a free download. The ability to submit feedback, however, was restricted to select participants of the Microsoft Connect closed beta program. Notable changes in Milestone 3 include a new revamped and refined user interface to follow suit with the rest of the Windows Live "Wave 3" design, the ability to set a "Scene" by customizing the background image and color of the contact list, and the display of these scenes in conversation windows for improved contact identification and window management. Milestone 3 also brings a new "Groups" feature that allows users to create a continuous group conversation between select contacts, newly redesigned status icons which now resemble small gems rather than the previous "Messenger Buddy" icons, a new default "Favorites" category in which you can place your favorite contacts for easy access to them, a new Photo Sharing utility that allows contacts to quickly and easily browse photos together, and a "What's New" section at the bottom of the contact list to outline recent contact updates. Display pictures have been moved over to the left side of conversation windows, and new colorful borders appear around display pictures to display the current status of that contact. Milestone 3 is the first version of Windows Live Messenger to use the standard window frame on Windows Vista in accordance with the user experience guidelines. Several features were removed in version 9.0 however, such as the ability to use add-ins, the ability to transfer files when the recipient is signed in as offline, the "Be right back", "Out to lunch", and "In a call" status options, the Go to my space button, the ability to adjust webcam settings during a video call, the Send button, some games (depending on your localization) and integration with Windows Contacts. Other features were replaced, such as Sharing Folders (replaced by integration with Windows Live SkyDrive) and background sharing (replaced by the "Scene" feature). On December 15, 2008, Windows Live Messenger 2009 RC (Build 14.0.8050.1202) was released together with the other Windows Live Wave 3 software applications, now renamed as Windows Live Essentials. This version saw a removal of the custom sign-in sound feature however it is still possible to select a sound for other individuals, as well as changes to how the background image chosen is applied to the conversation windows. This build also included over 200 bug fixes including the "Custom Emoticon Bug" and saving of pictures when using the Photo sharing feature. On January 7, 2009, the same build was released as the final version of Windows Live Messenger 2009.The last QFE update for Wave 3 was released on May 12, 2010, and saw the removal of some features from Windows Live Messenger. Specifically, the ability to independently show only your own webcam or your contacts' webcam (one way webcam) and without an audio call is gone. It is only possible to start a video call which starts the webcams of both people communicating, and which also automatically starts audio calling. Also removed is the ability to import and save/export instant messaging contacts to and from .CTT files.On June 14, 2012, Microsoft has made the update from 2009 to 2011 mandatory for those using Windows Vista or 7. 2009 continues to be usable for those still running XP. This can be circumvented by running Windows Live Messenger in Windows XP compatibility mode, thus making it believe it is running on Windows XP.In late March 2010, a beta of Windows Live Essentials Wave 4 was leaked onto the internet and has since spread to various BitTorrent networks, which included a private beta build of Windows Live Messenger Wave 4. However, as the software was designed for private beta testing, non-beta testers cannot sign into this leaked build.The new software features a revamped interface which brings the "What's new" section of Windows Live to the new "social pane", similar to the way a social networking site presents updates. Among the new features are tabbed conversations, a redesign of the old emoticons, integration of Bing results, built-in video message support, HD video chat, in-line commenting of social updates, a new social photo viewer that supports commenting (for Facebook and SkyDrive photos), badges support, synchronized status updates, availability by categories, as well as integration with Facebook chat. However, several features had also been removed from the previous version, such as the removal of display names, handwriting tool, one-way webcam requests and import/export of instant messaging contacts feature. The "Wave 4" release of Windows Live Essentials, which includes Messenger, also dropped compatibility with Windows XP and only runs on Windows Vista or Windows 7.The new Windows Live Messenger for the iOS became available on the App Store on June 21, 2010, in addition to other mobile versions of Windows Live Messenger for Windows Phone, BlackBerry, and Symbian mobile platforms.On June 24, 2010, a public beta of Windows Live Messenger Wave 4 was released as part of the new Windows Live Essentials beta. A "beta refresh" of Windows Live Messenger Wave 4 was released on August 17, 2010, as part of an upgraded Windows Live Essentials beta. The final version of Windows Live Messenger 2011 (Wave 4) was released on September 30, 2010. On the same date, a version of Windows Live Messenger for Zune HD also became available.On August 7, 2012, Microsoft delivered a new version of the Windows Essentials 2012 suite, which includes Windows Live Messenger 2012. Discontinuation On November 6, 2012, Microsoft announced that Messenger and Skype services would merge in the first quarter of 2013. According to Tony Bates (president of Skype Division at the time), Messenger users could sign into Skype using their Microsoft accounts, access their Messenger contacts and communicate as usual. On January 8, 2013, Microsoft emailed Messenger users and informed them that with the exception of mainland China, the Messenger service would stop working on March 15, 2013, and users would not be able to sign in.On February 15, 2013, ZDNet wrote the discontinuation email was only sent to one percent of Messenger users, a test group. On the same day, Microsoft announced its plans to phase out Messenger: the process would start on April 8, 2013, with English users and would end on April 30, 2013; Messenger would remain available in mainland China. According to ZDNet, this might only apply to the ability to sign in with Messenger client; Microsoft would keep its Messenger service running for another year. "Windows Live Messenger Upgrades to Skype", as they were referred to by Microsoft, started on April 8, 2013. This transition took place language by language. Brazil was the last country to be "upgraded", on April 30. Chinese Messenger users received an email from Microsoft in August 2014, containing an announcement that Messenger service in China would end on October 31, 2014; users were advised to migrate to Skype and receive free credits. Features In addition to its basic functionality and general capability as an instant messaging client, the latest version of Windows Live Messenger offered the following features: Album Viewer Windows Live Messenger's album viewer is based on Windows Photo Gallery and provides users a photo viewing experience for photo albums shared via SkyDrive and Facebook. The album viewer is interactive and supports full screen and slideshow modes, as well as viewing and uploading comments on Facebook and SkyDrive albums. It also supports people tagging for SkyDrive. The album viewer closely resembles the Microsoft Silverlight counterpart for web photo albums present on SkyDrive. Appear offline to individuals or categories Windows Live Messenger allows users to appear offline to particular individual contacts, as well as to an entire category within Windows Live Messenger, while appearing online to other contacts. This is a recent feature of Windows Live Messenger 2011, and is a departure from the previous versions of Windows Live Messenger, where blocking a contact would prevent the "blockee" from sending the user any messages to the "blocker". With the "appear offline to" configuration currently implemented, "hidden from" users can still send "offline messages" to the target. Social networks integration Users can connect services such as Facebook, MySpace and LinkedIn using Windows Live Profile, and display their contact's Messenger social updates within the "Full view" of Windows Live Messenger. Users can also post status updates and photos directly to the connected services within Windows Live Messenger. Additionally, Messenger also imports all contacts from the connected services and integrates with Facebook Chat (via the XMPP protocol) for instant messaging support with users on Facebook. Offline messaging One can send messages to contacts who are offline; they will receive the messages once they come online. Additionally, a user can start conversations even when their status is set to Appear Offline in Windows Live Messenger 2009 or before. Games and applications There are various games and applications available in Windows Live Messenger that can be accessed via the conversation window by clicking on the games icon, and challenging your friend or contact to a competition in a game, or inviting them to launch a shared external application. Messenger Companion Windows Live Messenger Companion was an add-in for Windows Internet Explorer that detects when a user is on a website that one of their friends has shared content from and surfaces that update so that the user can instantly view what their friends have shared and leave a comment to the shared content on Windows Live. The service utilizes Windows Live ID and integrates tightly with Windows Live Messenger to obtain the user's contact list and their shared contents. The features of Windows Live Messenger Companion include: Sharing links to web pages with the user's friends on Windows Live within the web browser See links to web pages the user's friends have shared Add comments to the links the user's friends have sharedWindows Live Messenger Companion was made available as part of Windows Live Essentials 2011. However, Microsoft discontinued Messenger Companion in its newer Windows Essentials 2012 suite. Protocol Windows Live Messenger used the Microsoft Notification Protocol (MSNP) over TCP (and optionally over HTTP to deal with proxies) to connect to Microsoft Messenger service—a service offered on port 1863 of "messenger.hotmail.com." The protocol is not completely secret; Microsoft disclosed version 2 (MSNP2) to developers in 1999 in an Internet Draft, but never released versions 8 or higher to the public. The Messenger service servers currently only accept protocol versions from 8 and higher, so the syntax of new commands sent from versions 8 and higher is only known by using packet sniffers like Wireshark. This has been an easy task because – in comparison to many other modern instant messaging protocols, such as XMPP – the Microsoft Notification Protocol does not provide any encryption and everything can be captured easily using packet sniffers. The lack of proper encryption also makes wiretapping friend lists and personal conversations a trivial task, especially in unencrypted public Wi-Fi networks. Content filtering The content of users' messages is filtered on server side of the client. For example, the user can't send the links to The Pirate Bay's pages neither from the Windows Live Messenger, nor through other clients supporting the protocol. However, links to other P2P networks are allowed. "i'm" initiative The i'm initiative was a program Microsoft launched in March 2007, that connects the user with ten organizations dedicated to social causes through Windows Live Messenger, only for conversations sent or received in the USA. Every time someone had a conversation using i'm, Microsoft Corp. shared a portion of the program's advertising revenue with the organization of the user's choice. There was no set cap on the amount donated to each organization. The more i'm conversations the user had, the more money went to one of the ten causes. Each participating organization was guaranteed a minimum donation of $100,000 during the first year of the program. The i'm initiative worked with version 8.1 and above. In March 2010, the initiative concluded, having raised over 3 million dollars. Platforms Messenger Mobile (formerly named Windows Live Messenger Mobile) was the version of Messenger that was aimed to be used on mobile devices over a cellular data plan or Wi-Fi (if supported by the phone). There was also a WAP-compatible version that may be used on any mobile device, and also specific client versions designed for Windows Mobile, iOS, BlackBerry and Nokia Series 60 devices. Windows Mobile A client version of Windows Live Messenger Mobile was a part of client application named "Windows Live for Windows Mobile" included with the Windows Mobile 6 operating system. It was included on both Windows Mobile 6 smartphone edition (non-touch screen phones) and professional (touch screen phones). Among other features you could send voice-clips (max 10 seconds), pictures & emoticons. Xbox Windows Live Messenger support was included in the Xbox 360 spring 2007 dashboard update released on May 9, 2007. It was known as Xbox Live Messenger.Those using Windows Live Messenger were able to see the Gamertags of friends logged into Xbox Live, including the games that they were playing. Xbox 360 users could chat in-game or while watching a movie. Although only text chat was supported, Microsoft suggested that voice and video chatting may come in a future update. Support for child accounts was added in December 2007. To coincide with the arrival of the integration of Windows Live Messenger with Xbox Live, Microsoft released a new Xbox 360 keyboard adapter called the Xbox 360 Messenger Kit for easier text input. The keyboard device attaches to the standard Xbox 360 controller through the headphone jack and features a QWERTY-style key layout with 47 backlit keys. However, any USB keyboard is also compatible with the Xbox 360. Microsoft also announced on June 14, 2010, that users on Xbox LIVE with the controller-free Kinect could have real-time video conversations with Windows Live Messenger contacts. This feature was enabled at launch. MSN TV (WebTV) Starting in the summer of 2000, the Microsoft-owned web access product MSN TV (then known as WebTV) introduced a software upgrade for users of its internet terminals that added a basic messaging client among other features. The messaging client was designed to work with the Microsoft Messenger service and was simply named MSN Messenger. The client for the original WebTV/MSN TV internet terminals supported basic presence, plain text messages (no graphical emoticons), and buddy lists, with the overall WebTV/MSN TV service hosting services for users to add, remove, or block Messenger contacts and manage their Messenger settings. Windows Live Messenger support was later added to the MSN TV 2, introducing a new UI to fit the rest of the MSN TV 2's interface and support for graphical emotions. It's believed these clients still worked up until the discontinuation of the MSN TV service in September 2013. Although WebTV was also available in Japan well before the Summer 2000 upgrade was introduced in the U.S., it does not appear that Japanese WebTV users ever received this Messenger feature. Mac Microsoft Messenger for Mac (previously MSN Messenger for Mac) was the official Mac OS X instant messaging client for use with Microsoft Messenger service, developed by the Macintosh Business Unit, a division of Microsoft. Its feature list was limited in comparison to that of its counterpart Windows Live Messenger; the client lacked a number of features that its Windows counterpart contained. The versions 3.x and later of Microsoft Messenger for Mac featured new Aqua graphics, whereas version 2.x and below have graphics similar to Windows Messenger 4.0. Versions 5.x used the brushed metal theme. Version 2.5.1, update to version 2.5, which is a mandatory update to version 2.1 that is available for users running Mac OS 9.2.2. Version 3.5 for Mac OS X revisions older than 10.2.8 Version 4.0.1 for Mac OS X revisions 10.2.8 and newer Version 5.1.1 for Mac OS X revisions 10.3 and newer Version 6.0.3 for Mac OS X revisions 10.3.9 and newer Version 7.0.0 for Mac OS X 10.4.9 or newer was released on April 29, 2008. Version 7.0.1 for Mac OS X 10.4 or later includes minor bug fixes. Version 7.0.2 for Mac OS X 10.4 or later: improves overall quality and conversations with Microsoft Office Communicator 2007 R2. Version 8.0.0 beta for Mac OS X 10.5 or later, for Intel Macs only: Official Beta released on March, 24th 2010. Adds A/V conferencing between Mac OS X users and Windows Live Messenger 2009 users. Version 8.0.0 for Mac OS X 10.5 or later, for Intel Macs only: Released with Microsoft Office 2011 for Mac in October 2010 and bears a visual similarity to previous Windows counterparts. It features somewhat more stable functional voice and video calls.With the release of Microsoft Messenger for Mac 7.0, Microsoft has discontinued the client's support for older versions of their Corporate messaging systems (such as Live Communications Server 2005). The latest version to support these older systems is Version 6.0.3, which is still available for download on the Microsoft website. Webcam and audio support was delayed due to Windows Live Messenger's webcam and audio engine being reworked, which meant that the Mac version had to wait until this was complete in order for both platform releases to function correctly. iOS The Windows Live Messenger for iOS client supported receiving of instant messaging notifications even when the application closed, and allowed Multiple Points of Presence (MPOP) such that a user can be signed into multiple locations at the same time. Photos and albums could also be uploaded from the mobile devices onto Windows Live Photos, based on SkyDrive, and the application allowed simple image editing capabilities and people tagging within the photos. The application also supported the "Messenger social" feed on Windows Live Profile, allowing users to view and comment on the social updates and activities of their contacts on Windows Live, as well as those on Facebook, MySpace and LinkedIn once these social networks had been connected to Windows Live as a "Service". Java ME Nokia Series 40 The Windows Live Messenger Mobile client came as a Java ME mobile application pre-loaded on devices such as Nokia 7610, Nokia 7510, Nokia 7210, Nokia 6700c, Nokia 6600s, Nokia 6303c, Nokia 6260s, Nokia 5220, Nokia 5130XM, Nokia 3720c, Nokia 3710f, Nokia, 3600s, Nokia 2730c, Nokia 2700c, Nokia 5530, Nokia 6303c and Nokia X3. Sony Ericsson A version of the Windows Live Messenger Mobile client was also pre-loaded on most Sony Ericsson mobile devices as a Java ME application. Symbian A client for Windows Live Messenger was developed by Microsoft for the Symbian S60 Platform commonly used on mobile phones such as Nokia smartphones and released on August 23, 2007, to selected markets. In May 2009, the client was made available on the Ovi Store. This version of Windows Live Messenger included many of the features of the Windows Live Messenger client, including grouped contacts, voice clips (max 10 seconds), image and file sending; as well as features unique to S60 such as tabbed chat windows and integration with contact list and other features of the S60 platform. When the trial expires the cost to users of Messenger for S60 is £1.50/$2.94 for 30 calendar days of use. As of February 2009, Microsoft stopped charging for Windows Live Mobile and the service is now offered for free. Interoperability On October 13, 2005, Yahoo! and Microsoft announced plans to add interoperability between their messenger services. The announcement came after years of third-party interoperability success (most notably, PowWow by Tribal Voice, Trillian, Pidgin) and criticisms from Tribal Voice and iCast that the major real time communications services were locking their networks. Yahoo! and Windows Live Messenger became interoperable on July 12, 2006. For six years, Yahoo! Messenger and Windows Live Messenger users in possession of up-to-date software could communicate across the two networks. Instant messaging as well as transmission of emoticons, nudges, offline messages, presence information and personal status messages were supported. On December 14, 2012, the interoperability ended.Interoperability with Facebook Chat was added on September 30, 2010, with the launch of Windows Live Messenger 2011. See also Comparison of instant messaging clients Comparison of instant messaging protocols Microsoft Lync Messenger Plus! Live Windows Live Web Messenger
Wikipedia is a free multilingual open source wiki-based online encyclopedia edited and maintained by a community of volunteer editors, started on 15 January 2001 (2001-01-15) as an English-language encyclopedia. Non-English editions were soon created: the German and Catalan editions were created on circa 16 March, the French edition was created on 23 March, and the Swedish edition was created on 23 May. As of September 2023, Wikipedia articles have been created in 335 editions, with 322 currently active and 13 closed.The Meta-Wiki language committee manages policies on creating new Wikimedia projects. To be eligible, a language must have a valid ISO 639 code, be "sufficiently unique", and have a "sufficient number of fluent users". Variations in editions Wikipedia projects vary in how they divide dialects and variants. For example, the English Wikipedia includes most modern varieties of English including American English and British English. Similarly, the Spanish Wikipedia includes both Peninsular Castilian and Latin American Spanish, and the Portuguese Wikipedia includes both European Portuguese and Brazilian Portuguese. In contrast, some languages have multiple Wikipedias. For example, the Serbo-Croatian language encompasses four Wikipedia editions, Serbo-Croatian and three different standardized varieties (Bosnian, Croatian, and Serbian).Additionally, some Wikipedia projects apply different approaches to orthography. For instance, the Chinese Wikipedia automatically transliterates between six standard forms: three using simplified Chinese characters (Mainland China, Malaysia, and Singapore) and three using traditional Chinese characters (Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau). And rather than relying on transliteration, Belarusian has separate Wikipedia projects for the official Narkamaŭka and Taraškievica orthographies. Wikipedia edition codes Each Wikipedia project has a code, which is used as a subdomain of wikipedia.org. The codes mostly conform to ISO 639-1 two-letter codes or ISO 639-3 three-letter codes, with preference given to a two-letter code if available. For example, en stands for English in ISO 639-1, so the English Wikipedia is at en.wikipedia.org. Wikipedia editions Active editions The table below lists the active language editions of Wikipedia roughly sorted by magnitude of the number of active users (registered users who have made at least one edit in the last thirty days). Inactive editions The table below lists the inactive language editions of Wikipedia. This list includes closed, deleted, test, and archived editions.The Nostalgia Wikipedia is an archive of the English Wikipedia's initial display. See also History of Wikipedia List of online encyclopedias Languages used on the Internet Wikimedia Foundation § Wikimedia projects Statistics of Wikipedias Wikipedia portal Media related to Wikipedia at Wikimedia Commons Wikipedia at Wikinews Learning materials related to Wikipedia at Wikiversity Works related to Wikipedia press releases at Wikisource
93 may refer to: 93 (number) one of the years 93 BC, AD 93, 1993, 2093, etc. 93 Seine-Saint-Denis, French department, Paris, Île-de-France Atomic number 93: neptunium Ninety-Three, English title of Quatrevingt-treize (same meaning), a novel by the French writer Victor Hugo Ninety-three (horse), a racehorse Saab 93 United Airlines Flight 93, hijacked on September 11, 2001 "93", a song by 6ix9ine from Day69 See also All pages with titles containing 93 List of highways numbered 93
94 may refer to: 94 (number) one of the years 94 BC, AD 94, 1994, 2094, etc. Atomic number 94: plutonium Saab 94 See also All pages with titles containing 94 List of highways numbered 94
95 or 95th may refer to: 95 (number) one of the years 95 BC, AD 95, 1995, 2095, etc. 95th Division (disambiguation) 95th Regiment 95th Regiment of Foot (disambiguation) 95th Squadron (disambiguation) Atomic number 95: americium Interstate 95 Microsoft Office 95 Saab 95 Windows 95 See also 9 to 5 (disambiguation) All pages with titles containing 95 List of highways numbered 95
96 or Ninety-Six it may refer to: 96 (number) one of the years 96 BC, AD 96, 1996, 2096, etc. Places Ninety Six, South Carolina Film & Television '96 (film) An Australian soap opera, Number 96. Music "96", a song by Uverworld, a Japanese band. Sports Hannover 96, a German football club nicknamed "96" Science Atomic number 96: curium See also All pages with titles containing 96 List of highways numbered 96
97 may refer to: 97 (number) Years 97 BC AD 97 1997 Other uses "97", song from the compilation album Alkaline Trio (2002) by American punk rock band Alkaline Trio "97", song from the album Scarlet (2023) by American rapper Doja Cat See also All pages with titles containing 97 Berkelium (atomic number), a chemical element List of highways numbered 97
98 may refer to: 98 (number) Windows 98, a Microsoft operating system Years 98 BC AD 98 1798 1898 1998 2098 See also Californium (atomic number), a chemical element 98 Degrees (98°), a band
The PlayStation 3 (PS3) is a home video game console developed and marketed by Sony Interactive Entertainment. The successor to the PlayStation 2, it is part of the PlayStation brand of consoles. It was first released on November 11, 2006, in Japan, November 17, 2006, in North America, and March 23, 2007, in Europe and Australia. The PlayStation 3 competed primarily against Microsoft's Xbox 360 and Nintendo's Wii as part of the seventh generation of video game consoles. The console was first officially announced at E3 2005, and was released at the end of 2006. It was the first console to use Blu-ray Disc technology as its primary storage medium. The console was the first PlayStation to integrate social gaming services, including the PlayStation Network, as well as the first to be controllable from a handheld console, through its remote connectivity with PlayStation Portable and PlayStation Vita. In September 2009, the Slim model of the PlayStation 3 was released. It no longer provided the hardware ability to run PS2 games. It was lighter and thinner than the original version, and featured a redesigned logo and marketing design, as well as a minor start-up change in software. A Super Slim variation was then released in late 2012, further refining and redesigning the console. During its early years, the system received a mixed reception, due to its high price ($599 for a 60-gigabyte model, $499 for a 20 GB model), a complex processor architecture, and lack of quality games but was praised for its Blu-ray capabilities and "untapped potential". The reception would get more positive over time. The system had a slow start in the market but managed to recover, particularly after the introduction of the Slim model. Its successor, the PlayStation 4, was released later in November 2013. On September 29, 2015, Sony confirmed that sales of the PlayStation 3 were to be discontinued in New Zealand, but the system remained in production in other markets. Shipments of new units to Europe and Australia ended in March 2016, followed by North America which ended in October 2016. Heading into 2017, Japan was the last territory where new units were still being produced until May 29, 2017, when Sony confirmed the PlayStation 3 was discontinued in Japan. History The PlayStation 3 began development on March 9, 2001 when Ken Kutaragi, then the President of Sony Interactive Entertainment, announced that Sony, Toshiba, and IBM would collaborate on developing the Cell microprocessor. At the time, Shuhei Yoshida led a group of programmers within this hardware team to explore next-generation game creation. By early 2005, focus within Sony shifted towards developing PS3 launch titles. Sony officially unveiled PlayStation 3 to the public on May 16, 2005, at E3 2005, along with a boomerang-shaped prototype design of the Sixaxis controller. A functional version of the system was not present there, nor at the Tokyo Game Show in September 2005, although demonstrations (such as Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots) were held at both events on software development kits and comparable personal computer hardware. Video footage based on the predicted PlayStation 3 specifications was also shown (notably a Final Fantasy VII tech demo).The initial prototype shown in May 2005 featured two HDMI ports, three Ethernet ports and six USB ports; however, when the system was shown again a year later at E3 2006, these were reduced to one HDMI port, one Ethernet port and four USB ports, presumably to cut costs. Two hardware configurations were also announced for the console: a 20 GB model and a 60 GB model, priced at US$499 (€499) and US$599 (€599), respectively. The 60 GB model was to be the only configuration to feature an HDMI port, Wi-Fi internet, flash card readers and a chrome trim with the logo in silver. Both models were announced for a simultaneous worldwide release: November 11, 2006, for Japan and November 17, 2006, for North America and Europe.On September 6, 2006, Sony announced that PAL region PlayStation 3 launch would be delayed until March 2007, because of a shortage of materials used in the Blu-ray drive. At the Tokyo Game Show on September 22, 2006, Sony announced that it would include an HDMI port on the 20 GB system, but a chrome trim, flash card readers, silver logo and Wi-Fi would not be included. Also, the launch price of the Japanese 20 GB model was reduced by over 20%, and the 60 GB model was announced for an open pricing scheme in Japan. During the event, Sony showed 27 playable PS3 games running on final hardware. Launch The PlayStation 3 was first released in Japan on November 11, 2006, at 07:00. According to Media Create, 81,639 PS3 systems were sold within 24 hours of its introduction in Japan. There were reports that many of the initial systems were obtained by businessmen who paid mainly Chinese nationals to buy the system without any software to resell on eBay, and, as a result of this, there were more hardware units sold than there were games. Ridge Racer 7 was the highest selling game on launch day. Soon after its release in Japan, the PS3 was released in North America on November 17, 2006. Reports of violence surrounded the release of the PS3. A customer was shot, campers were robbed at gunpoint, customers were shot in a drive-by shooting with BB guns, and 60 campers fought over 10 systems. The PS3 was released on the same day in Hong Kong and Taiwan as well.The console was originally planned for a global release through November, but at the start of September the release in Europe and the rest of the world was delayed until March. Since it was a somewhat last-minute delay, some companies had taken deposits for pre-orders, at which Sony informed customers that they were eligible for full refunds or could continue the pre-order. On January 24, 2007, Sony announced that PlayStation 3 would go on sale on March 23, 2007, in Europe, Australia, the Middle East, Africa and New Zealand.On March 7, 2007, the 60 GB PlayStation 3 launched in Singapore with a price of S$799. In the United Arab Emirates, the system retailed for 2499 dirhams on March 23, slightly less than the price in Europe. Sony also hosted a large launch party with singer Shakira performing at the Dubai Autodrome.The PS3 sold 600,000 units in the first two days of its release in Europe. It became the fastest-selling home system in the United Kingdom with 165,000 units sold in two days, and became the second-fastest-selling system in the UK overall, the fastest being the PlayStation Portable. Some British retailers claim that the PS3 was subjected to as many as 20,000 pre-order cancellations, while others cited a "huge demand" for the system. System sales for the following week were down 82%, selling 30,000 units, with a 60% drop in sales of the two most popular titles, MotorStorm and Resistance: Fall of Man. Its UK launch price of £425 was higher than its Japanese and American prices, with value-added tax cited as a reason by a staff member. The continental Europe price was €599, while in Ireland it was €629.Over 27,000 units were sold in Australia over the course of the first ten days of sales and nine of the top ten best-selling games, including systems and handheld, of the week were for the PS3; overall, software and hardware sales resulted in A$33 million netted for Sony. One analyst called it "a spike in retail spending not previously witnessed at the launch of any other system in Australia". In New Zealand, over 4,800 units were sold in the first week generating "over NZ$6.8 million dollars in hardware and software retail sales."On April 27, 2007, it launched in India, with the 60 GB model retailing for ₹39,990 (US$1000 at the conversion rate at the time). In Mexico, the 20 GB model launched with a price of 10,495 pesos, or US$974 at the time. The console was launched in South Korea on June 16, 2007, as a single version equipped with an 80 GB hard drive and IPTV. Slim model Following speculation that Sony was working on a 'slim' model, Sony officially announced the PS3 CECH-2000 model on August 18, 2009, at the Sony Gamescom press conference. New features included a slimmer form factor, decreased power consumption, and a quieter cooling system. It was released in major territories by September 2009. At the same time, a new logo was introduced for the console to replace the previous "Spider-Man" wordmarks (named due to their use of the same font as the logos of Sony's then-current Spider-Man films), with a new "PS3" wordmark evoking the design of the PlayStation 2 wordmark replacing the capitalized PlayStation 3 lettering. Super Slim model In September 2012 at the Tokyo Game Show, Sony announced that a new, slimmer PS3 redesign (CECH-4000) was due for release in late 2012 and that it would be available with either a 250 GB or 500 GB hard drive. Three versions of the Super Slim model were revealed: one with a 500 GB hard drive, a second with a 250 GB hard drive which was not available in PAL regions, and a third with a 12 GB flash storage that was available in PAL regions, and in Canada. The storage of 12 GB model was upgradable with an official standalone 250 GB hard drive, and a vertical stand was also released for the model. In the United Kingdom, the 500 GB model was released on September 28, 2012; and the 12 GB model was released on October 12, 2012. In the United States, the PS3 Super Slim was first released as a bundled console. The 250 GB model was bundled with the Game of the Year edition of Uncharted 3: Drake's Deception and released on September 25, 2012; and the 500 GB model was bundled with Assassin's Creed III and released on October 30, 2012. In Japan, the black colored Super Slim model was released on October 4, 2012; and the white colored Super Slim model was released on November 22, 2012. The Super Slim model is 20 percent smaller and 25 percent lighter than the Slim model and features a manual sliding disc cover instead of a motorized slot-loading disc cover of the Slim model. The white colored Super Slim model was released in the United States on January 27, 2013, as part of the Instant Game Collection Bundle. The Garnet Red and Azurite Blue colored models were launched in Japan on February 28, 2013. The Garnet Red version was released in North America on March 12, 2013, as part of the God of War: Ascension bundle with 500 GB storage and contained God of War: Ascension as well as the God of War Saga. The Azurite Blue model was released on October 8, 2013, as a GameStop exclusive with 250 GB storage. Games PlayStation 3 launched in North America with 14 titles, with another three being released before the end of 2006. After the first week of sales it was confirmed that Resistance: Fall of Man from Insomniac Games was the top-selling launch game in North America. The game was heavily praised by numerous video game websites, including GameSpot and IGN, both of whom awarded it their PlayStation 3 Game of the Year award for 2006. Some titles missed the launch window and were delayed until early 2007, such as The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion, F.E.A.R. and Sonic the Hedgehog. During the Japanese launch, Ridge Racer 7 was the top-selling game, while Mobile Suit Gundam: Crossfire also fared well in sales, both of which were offerings from Namco Bandai Games. PlayStation 3 launched in Europe with 24 titles, including ones that were not offered in North American and Japanese launches, such as Formula One Championship Edition, MotorStorm and Virtua Fighter 5. Resistance: Fall of Man and MotorStorm were the most successful titles of 2007, and both games subsequently received sequels in the form of Resistance 2 and MotorStorm: Pacific Rift.At E3 2007, Sony was able to show a number of their upcoming video games for PlayStation 3, including Heavenly Sword, Lair, Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction, Warhawk and Uncharted: Drake's Fortune; all of which were released in the third and fourth quarters of 2007. It also showed off a number of titles that were set for release in 2008 and 2009; most notably Killzone 2, Infamous, Gran Turismo 5 Prologue, LittleBigPlanet and SOCOM U.S. Navy SEALs: Confrontation. A number of third-party exclusives were also shown, including the highly anticipated Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots, alongside other high-profile third-party titles such as Grand Theft Auto IV, Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare, Assassin's Creed, Devil May Cry 4 and Resident Evil 5. Two other important titles for PlayStation 3, Final Fantasy XIII and Final Fantasy Versus XIII, were shown at TGS 2007 in order to appease the Japanese market.Sony have since launched their budget range of PlayStation 3 titles, known as the Greatest Hits range in North America, the Platinum range in Europe and Australia and The Best range in Japan. Among the titles available in the budget range include Resistance: Fall of Man, MotorStorm, Uncharted: Drake's Fortune, Rainbow Six: Vegas, Call of Duty 3, Assassin's Creed and Ninja Gaiden Sigma. As of October 2009 Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots, Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction, Devil May Cry 4, Army of Two, Battlefield: Bad Company and Midnight Club: Los Angeles have also joined the list. As of March 31, 2012, there have been 595 million games sold for PlayStation 3. The best selling PS3 games are Grand Theft Auto V, Gran Turismo 5, The Last of Us, Uncharted 3: Drake's Deception and Uncharted 2: Among Thieves. The last game released on the PlayStation 3 was Shakedown: Hawaii, on August 20, 2020. Stereoscopic 3D In December 2008, the CTO of Blitz Games announced that it would bring stereoscopic 3D gaming and movie viewing to Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 with its own technology. This was first demonstrated publicly on PS3 using Sony's own technology in January 2009 at the Consumer Electronics Show. Journalists were shown Wipeout HD and Gran Turismo 5 Prologue in 3D as a demonstration of how the technology might work if it is implemented in the future. Firmware update 3.30 officially allowed PS3 titles to be played in 3D, requiring a compatible display for use. System software update 3.50 prepared it for 3D films. While the game itself must be programmed to take advantage of the 3D technology, titles may be patched to add in the functionality retroactively. Titles with such patches include Wipeout HD, Pain, and Super Stardust HD. Hardware PlayStation 3 is convex on its left side, with the PlayStation logo upright, when vertical (the top side is convex when horizontal) and has a glossy black finish. PlayStation designer Teiyu Goto stated that the Spider-Man-font-inspired logo "was one of the first elements SCEI president Ken Kutaragi decided on and the logo may have been the motivating force behind the shape of PS3".On March 22, 2007, SCE and Stanford University released the Folding@home software for PlayStation 3. This program allows PS3 owners to lend the computing power of their consoles to help study the process of protein folding for disease research. Use in supercomputing PS3's hardware has also been used to build supercomputers for high-performance computing. Fixstars Solutions sells a version of Yellow Dog Linux for PlayStation 3 (originally sold by Terra Soft Solutions). RapidMind produced a stream programming package for PS3, but were acquired by Intel in 2009. Also, on January 3, 2007, Dr. Frank Mueller, Associate Professor of Computer Science at NCSU, clustered 8 PS3s. Mueller commented that the 256 MB of system RAM is a limitation for this particular application and is considering attempting to retrofit more RAM. Software includes: Fedora Core 5 Linux ppc64, MPICH2, OpenMP v 2.5, GNU Compiler Collection and CellSDK 1.1. As a more cost-effective alternative to conventional supercomputers, the U.S. military has purchased clusters of PS3 units for research purposes. Retail PS3 Slim units cannot be used for supercomputing, because PS3 Slim lacks the ability to boot into a third-party OS. In December 2008, a group of hackers used a cluster of 200 PlayStation 3 computers to crack SSL authentication. In November 2010 the Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) created a powerful supercomputer by connecting together 1,760 Sony PS3s which include 168 separate graphical processing units and 84 coordinating servers in a parallel array capable of performing 500 trillion floating-point operations per second (500 TFLOPS). As built the Condor Cluster was the 33rd largest supercomputer in the world and would be used to analyze high definition satellite imagery. Technical specifications PlayStation 3 features a slot-loading 2× speed Blu-ray Disc drive for games, Blu-ray movies, DVDs, and CDs. It was originally available with hard drives of 20 and 60 GB (20 GB model was not available in PAL regions) but various sizes up to 500 GB have been made available since then (see: model comparison). All PS3 models have user-upgradeable 2.5" SATA hard drives.PlayStation 3 uses the 64-bit Cell microprocessor, designed by Sony, Toshiba and IBM, as its CPU, which is made up of one 3.2 GHz PowerPC-based "Power Processing Element" (PPE) and eight Synergistic Processing Elements (SPEs). To increase yields and reduce costs, the chip has 8 SPEs. After manufacture, every chip is tested and a defective SPE disconnected using laser trimming, leaving 7 SPEs. This means that otherwise discarded processors can be used, reducing costs and waste. Only six of the seven SPEs are accessible to developers as the seventh SPE is reserved by the console's operating system. Graphics processing is handled by the Nvidia RSX 'Reality Synthesizer', which can produce resolutions from 480i/576i SD up to 1080p HD. PlayStation 3 has 256 MB of XDR DRAM main memory and 256 MB of GDDR3 video memory for the RSX. Originally, Sony did not plan to include any GPU in the PlayStation 3, because they thought that the Cell could handle everything, but the developers, including the ICE team from Naughty Dog, demonstrated to Sony that without a dedicated GPU, the PlayStation 3 performance would not be sufficient, particularly in comparison to the Xbox 360. Sony henced added a GPU, the Nvidia RSX, at the final stage of the PlayStation 3 development.The system has Bluetooth 2.0 (with support for up to seven Bluetooth devices), Gigabit Ethernet, USB 2.0 and HDMI 1.4 built in. Wi-Fi networking is also built-in on all but the 20 GB models, while a flash card reader (compatible with Memory Stick, SD/MMC and CompactFlash/Microdrive media) is built-in on 60 GB and CECHExx 80 GB models. Models PlayStation 3 has been produced in various models: the original, the Slim, and the Super Slim. Successive models have added or removed various features, reduced the console's initial purchase price and weight, and increased storage capacity (with exceptions). Controllers and accessories Numerous accessories for the console have been developed. These accessories include the wireless Sixaxis and DualShock 3 controllers, the Logitech Driving Force GT, the Logitech Cordless Precision Controller, the BD Remote, the PlayStation Eye camera, and the PlayTV DVB-T tuner/digital video recorder accessory.At Sony's E3 press conference in 2006, the then-standard wireless Sixaxis controller was announced. The controller was based on the same basic design as the PlayStation 2's DualShock 2 controller but was wireless, lacked vibration capabilities, had a built-in accelerometer (that could detect motion in three directional and three rotational axes; six in total, hence the name Sixaxis) and had a few cosmetic tweaks. At its press conference at the 2007 Tokyo Game Show, Sony announced DualShock 3 (trademarked DUALSHOCK 3), a PlayStation 3 controller with the same function and design as Sixaxis, but with vibration capability included. Hands-on accounts describe the controller as being noticeably heavier than the standard Sixaxis controller and capable of vibration forces comparable to DualShock 2. It was released in Japan on November 11, 2007; in North America on April 5, 2008; in Australia on April 24, 2008; in New Zealand on May 9, 2008; in mainland Europe on July 2, 2008, and in the United Kingdom and Ireland on July 4, 2008. During E3 2009, Sony unveiled plans to release a motion controller later to be named PlayStation Move at GDC 2010. It was released on September 15, 2010, in Europe; September 19, 2010, in North America and October 21, 2010, in Japan.On October 13, 2010, Sony announced an official surround sound system for PS3 through the official PlayStation YouTube channel.The PlayStation 3 can also use DualShock 4 controller initially via USB cable, but Firmware update 4.60 enabled wireless connection. Statistics regarding reliability According to Ars Technica, the number of PlayStation 3 consoles that have experienced failure is well within the normal failure rates in the consumer electronics industry; a 2009 study by SquareTrade, a warranty provider, found a two-year failure rate of 10% for PlayStation 3s.In September 2009, BBC's Watchdog television program aired a report investigating the issue, calling it the "yellow light of death" (YLOD). Among the consoles that experienced the failure, they found that it usually occurred 18–24 months after purchase, while the standard Sony warranty covers one year after purchase. After this time period, PlayStation 3 owners can pay Sony a fixed fee for a refurbished console.Sony claimed that, according to its statistics of returned consoles, approximately 0.5% of consoles were reported as showing the YLOD. In response to the televised report, Sony issued a document criticizing the program's accuracy and conclusions; specifically that the faults were evidence of a manufacturing defect. The document also complained that the report had been inappropriate in tone and might damage Sony's brand name. Software System software Sony has included the ability for the operating system, referred to as System Software, to be updated. The updates can be acquired in several ways: If PlayStation 3 has an active Internet connection, updates may be downloaded directly from the PlayStation Network to PlayStation 3 and subsequently installed. Systems with active Internet will automatically check online for software updates each time the console is started. Using an external PC, a user may download the update from the official PlayStation website, transfer it to portable storage media and install it on the system. Some game discs come with system software updates on the disc. This may be due to the game requiring an update in order to run. If so, the software may be installed from the disc.The original PlayStation 3 also included the ability to install other operating systems, such as Linux. This was not included in the newer slim models and was removed from all older PlayStation 3 consoles with the release of firmware update 3.21 in April 2010. The functionality is now only available to users of original consoles who choose not to update their system software beyond version 3.15 or who have installed third-party, modified and unofficial versions of the firmware instead. Graphical user interface The standard PlayStation 3 version of the XrossMediaBar (pronounced "Cross Media Bar" and abbreviated XMB) includes nine categories of options. These are: Users, Settings, Photo, Music, Video, TV/Video Services, Game, Network, PlayStation Network and Friends (similar to the PlayStation Portable media bar). TheTV/Video Services category is for services like Netflix and/or if PlayTV or torne is installed; the first category in this section is "My Channels", which lets users download various streaming services, including Sony's own streaming services Crackle and PlayStation Vue. By default, the What's New section of PlayStation Network is displayed when the system starts up. PS3 includes the ability to store various master and secondary user profiles, manage and explore photos with or without a musical slide show, play music and copy audio CD tracks to an attached data storage device, play movies and video files from the hard disk drive, an optical disc (Blu-ray Disc or DVD-Video) or an optional USB mass storage or Flash card, compatibility for a USB keyboard and mouse and a web browser supporting compatible-file download function. Additionally, UPnP media will appear in the respective audio/video/photo categories if a compatible media server or DLNA server is detected on the local network. The Friends menu allows mail with emoticon and attached picture features and video chat which requires an optional PlayStation Eye or EyeToy webcam. The Network menu allows online shopping through the PlayStation Store and connectivity to PlayStation Portable via Remote Play. Digital rights management PlayStation 3 console protects certain types of data and uses digital rights management to limit the data's use. Purchased games and content from the PlayStation Network store are governed by PlayStation's Network Digital Rights Management (NDRM). The NDRM allows users to access the data from up to 2 different PlayStation 3's that have been activated using a user's PlayStation Network ID. PlayStation 3 also limits the transfer of copy protected videos downloaded from its store to other machines and states that copy protected video "may not restore correctly" following certain actions after making a backup such as downloading a new copy protected movie. Photo management Photo GalleryPhoto Gallery is an optional application to view, create, and group photos from PS3, which is installed separately from the system software at 105 MB. It was introduced in system software version 2.60 and provides a range of tools for sorting through and displaying the system's pictures. The key feature of this application is that it can organize photos into groups according to various criteria. Notable categorizations are colors, ages, or facial expressions of the people in the photos. Slideshows can be viewed with the application, along with music and playlists. The software was updated with the release of system software version 3.40 allowing users to upload and browse photos on Facebook and Picasa. PlayMemories StudioPlayMemories is an optional stereoscopic 3D (and also standard) photo viewing application, which is installed from the PlayStation Store at 956 MB. The application is dedicated specifically to 3D photos and features the ability to zoom into 3D environments and change the angle and perspective of panoramas. It requires system software 3.40 or higher; 3D photos; a 3D HDTV, and an HDMI cable for the 3D images to be viewed properly. Video services Video editor and uploaderA new application was released as part of system software version 3.40 which allows users to edit videos on PlayStation 3 and upload them to the Internet. The software features basic video editing tools including the ability to cut videos and add music and captions. Videos can then be rendered and uploaded to video sharing websites such as Facebook and YouTube. Video on demandIn addition to the video service provided by the Sony Entertainment Network, the PlayStation 3 console has access to a variety of third-party video services, dependent on the region: Since June 2009, VidZone has offered a free music video streaming service in Europe, Australia and New Zealand. In October 2009, Sony Computer Entertainment and Netflix announced that the Netflix streaming service would also be available on PlayStation 3 in the United States. A paid Netflix subscription was required for the service. The service became available in November 2009. Initially users had to use a free Blu-ray disc to access the service; however, in October 2010 the requirement to use a disc to gain access was removed.In April 2010, support for MLB.tv was added, allowing MLB.tv subscribers to watch regular season games live in HD and access new interactive features designed exclusively for PSN.In November 2010, access to the video and social networking site MUBI was enabled for European, New Zealand, and Australian users; the service integrates elements of social networking with rental or subscription video streaming, allowing users to watch and discuss films with other users. Also in November 2010 the video rental service VUDU, NHL GameCenter Live, and subscription service Hulu Plus launched on PlayStation 3 in the United States.In August 2011, Sony, in partnership with DirecTV, added NFL Sunday Ticket. Then in October 2011, Best Buy launched an app for its CinemaNow service. In April 2012, Amazon.com launched an Amazon Video app, accessible to Amazon Prime subscribers (in the US).Upon reviewing the PlayStation and Netflix collaboration, Pocket-Lint said "We've used the Netflix app on Xbox too and, as good as it is, we think the PS3 version might have the edge here." and stated that having Netflix and LoveFilm on PlayStation is "mind-blowingly good."In July 2013, YuppTV OTT player launched its branded application on the PS3 computer entertainment system in the United States. Audio capabilities The PlayStation 3 has the ability to play standard audio CDs, a feature that was notably removed from its successors. PlayStation 3 added the ability for ripping audio CDs to store them on the system's hard disk; the system has transcoders for ripping to either MP3, AAC, or Sony's own ATRAC (ATRAC3plus) formats. Early models were also able to playback Super Audio CDs, however this support was dropped in the third generation revision of the console from late 2007. However, all models do retain Direct Stream Digital playback ability.PlayStation 3 can also play music from portable players by connecting the player to the system's USB port, including from Walkman digital audio players and other ATRAC players and other players that use the UMS protocol. The PlayStation 3 did not feature the Sony CONNECT Music Store. OtherOS support PlayStation 3 initially shipped with the ability to install an alternative operating system alongside the main system software; Linux and other Unix-based operating systems were available. The hardware allowed access to six of the seven Synergistic Processing Elements of the Cell microprocessor, but not the RSX 'Reality Synthesizer' graphics chip. The 'OtherOS' functionality was not present in the updated PS Slim models, and the feature was subsequently removed from previous versions of the PS3 as part of the machine's firmware update version 3.21 which was released on April 1, 2010; Sony cited security concerns as the rationale. The firmware update 3.21 was mandatory for access to the PlayStation Network. The removal caused some controversy; as the update removed officially advertised features from already sold products, and gave rise to several class action lawsuits aimed at making Sony return the feature or provide compensation.On December 8, 2011, U.S. District Judge Richard Seeborg dismissed the last remaining count of the class action lawsuit (other claims in the suit had previously been dismissed), stating: "As a legal matter, ... plaintiffs have failed to allege facts or articulate a theory on which Sony may be held liable."As of January 2014, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit partially reversed the dismissal and have sent the case back to the district court. Leap year bug On March 1, 2010 (UTC), many of the original PlayStation 3 models worldwide were experiencing errors related to their internal system clock. The error had many symptoms. Initially, the main problem seemed to be the inability to connect to the PlayStation Network. However, the root cause of the problem was unrelated to the PlayStation Network, since even users who had never been online also had problems playing installed offline games (which queried the system timer as part of startup) and using system themes. At the same time, many users noted that the console's clock had gone back to December 31, 1999. The event was nicknamed the ApocalyPS3, a play on the word apocalypse and PS3, the abbreviation for the PlayStation 3 console.The error code displayed was typically 8001050F and affected users were unable to sign in, play games, use dynamic themes, and view/sync trophies. The problem only resided within the first- through third-generation original PS3 units while the newer "Slim" models were unaffected because of different internal hardware for the clock. Sony confirmed that there was an error and stated that it was narrowing down the issue and were continuing to work to restore service. By March 2 (UTC), 2010, owners of original PS3 models could connect to PSN successfully and the clock no longer showed December 31, 1999. Sony stated that the affected models incorrectly identified 2010 as a leap year, because of a bug in the BCD method of storing the date. However, for some users, the hardware's operating system clock (mainly updated from the internet and not associated with the internal clock) needed to be updated manually or by re-syncing it via the internet. On June 29, 2010, Sony released PS3 system software update 3.40, which improved the functionality of the internal clock to properly account for leap years. Features PlayStation Portable connectivity PlayStation Portable can connect with PlayStation 3 in many ways, including in-game connectivity. For example, Formula One Championship Edition, a racing game, was shown at E3 2006 using a PSP as a real-time rear-view mirror. In addition, users are able to download original PlayStation format games from the PlayStation Store, transfer and play them on PSP as well as PS3 itself. It is also possible to use the Remote Play feature to play these and some PlayStation Network games, remotely on PSP over a network or internet connection. Sony has also demonstrated PSP playing back video content from PlayStation 3 hard disk across an ad hoc wireless network. This feature is referred to as Remote Play located under the browser icon on both PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable. Remote play has since expanded to allow remote access to PS3 via PSP from any wireless access point in the world. PlayStation Network PlayStation Network is the unified online multiplayer gaming and digital media delivery service provided by Sony Computer Entertainment for PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable, announced during the 2006 PlayStation Business Briefing meeting in Tokyo. The service is always connected, free, and includes multiplayer support. The network enables online gaming, the PlayStation Store, PlayStation Home and other services. PlayStation Network uses real currency and PlayStation Network Cards as seen with the PlayStation Store and PlayStation Home. PlayStation Plus PlayStation Plus (commonly abbreviated PS+ and occasionally referred to as PSN Plus) is a premium PlayStation Network subscription service that was officially unveiled at E3 2010 by Jack Tretton, President and CEO of SCEA. Rumors of such service had been in speculation since Kaz Hirai's announcement at TGS 2009 of a possible paid service for PSN but with the current PSN service still available. Launched alongside PS3 firmware 3.40 and PSP firmware 6.30 on June 29, 2010, the paid-for subscription service provides users with enhanced services on the PlayStation Network, on top of the current PSN service which is still available with all of its features. These enhancements include the ability to have demos and game updates download automatically to PlayStation 3. Subscribers also get early or exclusive access to some betas, game demos, premium downloadable content, and other PlayStation Store items. North American users also get a free subscription to Qore. Users may choose to purchase either a one-year or a three-month subscription to PlayStation Plus. PlayStation Store The PlayStation Store is an online virtual market available to users of Sony's PlayStation 3 (PS3) and PlayStation Portable (PSP) game consoles via the PlayStation Network. The Store offers a range of downloadable content both for purchase and available free of charge. Available content includes full games, add-on content, playable demos, themes and game and movie trailers. The service is accessible through an icon on the XMB on PS3 and PSP. The PS3 store can also be accessed on PSP via a Remote Play connection to PS3. The PSP store is also available via the PC application, Media Go. As of September 24, 2009, there have been over 600 million downloads from the PlayStation Store worldwide. The PlayStation Store is updated with new content each Tuesday in North America, and each Wednesday in PAL regions. In May 2010 this was changed from Thursdays to allow PSP games to be released digitally, closer to the time they are released on UMD. On March 29, 2021, Sony announced that it would shut down the PS3 version of the Store on July 2, though previous purchases on the store will remain downloadable. However, on April 19, following fan feedback, Sony reversed their decision and confirmed that the PS3 store would remain operational. What's New What's New was announced at Gamescom 2009 and was released on September 1, 2009, with PlayStation 3 system software 3.0. The feature was to replace the existing [Information Board], which displayed news from the PlayStation website associated with the user's region. The concept was developed further into a major PlayStation Network feature, which interacts with the [Status Indicator] to display a ticker of all content, excluding recently played content (currently in North America and Japan only). The system displays the What's New screen by default instead of the [Games] menu (or [Video] menu, if a movie was inserted) when starting up. What's New has four sections: "Our Pick", "Recently Played", the latest information, and new content available in PlayStation Store. There are four kinds of content the What's New screen displays and links to, on the sections. "Recently Played" displays the user's recently played games and online services only, whereas, the other sections can contain website links, links to play videos, and access to selected sections of the PlayStation Store. The PlayStation Store icons in the [Game] and [Video] section act similarly to the What's New screen, except that they only display and link to games and videos in the PlayStation Store, respectively. PlayStation Home PlayStation Home was a virtual 3D social networking service for the PlayStation Network. Home allowed users to create a custom avatar, which could be groomed realistically. Users could edit and decorate their personal apartments, avatars, or club houses with free, premium, or won content. Users could shop for new items or win prizes from PS3 games, or Home activities. Users could interact and connect with friends and customize content in a virtual world. Home also acted as a meeting place for users that wanted to play multiplayer video games with others.A closed beta began in Europe from May 2007 and expanded to other territories soon after. Home was delayed and expanded several times before initially releasing. The Open Beta test was started on December 11, 2008. It remained as a perpetual beta until its closure on March 31, 2015. Home was available directly from the PlayStation 3 XrossMediaBar. Membership was free, but required a PSN account. Home featured places to meet and interact, dedicated game spaces, developer spaces, company spaces, and events. The service underwent a weekly maintenance and frequent updates. At the time of its closure in March 2015, Home had been downloaded by over 41 million users. Life with PlayStation Life with PlayStation, released on September 18, 2008 to succeed Folding@home, was retired November 6, 2012. Life with PlayStation used virtual globe data to display news and information by city. Along with Folding@home functionality, the application provided access to three other information "channels", the first being the Live Channel offering news headlines and weather which were provided by Google News, The Weather Channel, the University of Wisconsin–Madison Space Science and Engineering Center, among other sources. The second channel was the World Heritage channel which offered historical information about historical sites. The third channel was the United Village channel. United Village was designed to share information about communities and cultures worldwide. An update allowed video and photo viewing in the application. The fourth channel was the U.S. exclusive PlayStation Network Game Trailers Channel for direct streaming of game trailers. Outage On April 20, 2011, Sony shut down the PlayStation Network and Qriocity for a prolonged interval, revealing on April 23 that this was due to "an external intrusion on our system". Sony later revealed that the personal information of 77 million users might have been taken, including: names; addresses; countries; email addresses; birthdates; PSN/Qriocity logins, passwords and handles/PSN online IDs. It also stated that it was possible that users' profile data, including purchase history and billing address, and PlayStation Network/Qriocity password security answers may have been obtained. There was no evidence that any credit card data had been taken, but the possibility could not be ruled out, and Sony advised customers that their credit card data may have been obtained. Additionally, the credit card numbers were encrypted and Sony never collected the three digit CVC or CSC number from the back of the credit cards which is required for authenticating some transactions. In response to the incident, Sony announced a "Welcome Back" program, 30 days free membership of PlayStation Plus for all PSN members, two free downloadable PS3 games, and a free one-year enrollment in an identity theft protection program. Sales and production costs Although its PlayStation predecessors had been very dominant against the competition and were hugely profitable for Sony, PlayStation 3 had an inauspicious start, and Sony chairman and CEO Sir Howard Stringer initially could not convince investors of a turnaround in its fortunes. The PS3 lacked the unique gameplay of the more affordable Wii which became that generation's most successful console in terms of units sold. Furthermore, PS3 had to compete directly with Xbox 360 which had a market head start, and as a result the platform no longer had exclusive titles that the PS2 enjoyed such as the Grand Theft Auto and Final Fantasy series (regarding cross-platform games, Xbox 360 versions were generally considered superior in 2006, although by 2008 the PS3 versions had reached parity or surpassed), and it took longer than expected for PS3 to enjoy strong sales and close the gap with Xbox 360. Sony also continued to lose money on each PS3 sold through 2010, although the redesigned "slim" PS3 cut these losses.PlayStation 3's initial production cost is estimated by iSuppli to have been US$805.85 for the 20 GB model and US$840.35 for the 60 GB model. However, they were priced at US$499 and US$599, respectively, meaning that units may have been sold at an estimated loss of $306 or $241 depending on model, if the cost estimates were correct, and thus may have contributed to Sony's games division posting an operating loss of ¥232.3 billion (US$1.97 billion) in the fiscal year ending March 2007. In April 2007, soon after these results were published, Ken Kutaragi, President of Sony Computer Entertainment, announced plans to retire. Various news agencies, including The Times and The Wall Street Journal reported that this was due to poor sales, while SCEI maintains that Kutaragi had been planning his retirement for six months prior to the announcement.In January 2008, Kaz Hirai, CEO of Sony Computer Entertainment, suggested that the console may start making a profit by early 2009, stating that, "the next fiscal year starts in April and if we can try to achieve that in the next fiscal year that would be a great thing" and that "[profitability] is not a definite commitment, but that is what I would like to try to shoot for". However, market analysts Nikko Citigroup have predicted that PlayStation 3 could be profitable by August 2008. In a July 2008 interview, Hirai stated that his objective is for PlayStation 3 to sell 150 million units by its ninth year, surpassing PlayStation 2's sales of 140 million in its nine years on the market. In January 2009 Sony announced that their gaming division was profitable in Q3 2008. After the system's launch, production costs were reduced significantly as a result of phasing out the Emotion Engine chip and falling hardware costs. The cost of manufacturing Cell microprocessors had fallen dramatically as a result of moving to the 65 nm production process, and Blu-ray Disc diodes had become cheaper to manufacture. As of January 2008, each unit cost around $400 to manufacture; by August 2009, Sony had reduced costs by a total of 70%, meaning it only cost Sony around $240 per unit. Critical reception Early PlayStation 3 reviews after launch were critical of its high price and lack of quality games. Game developers regarded the architecture as difficult to program for. PS3 was, however, commended for its hardware including its Blu-ray home theater capabilities and graphics potential.Critical and commercial reception to PS3 improved over time, after a series of price revisions, Blu-ray's victory over HD DVD, and the release of several well received titles. Ars Technica's original launch review gave PS3 only a 6/10, but second review of the console in June 2008 rated it a 9/10. In September 2009, IGN named PlayStation 3 the 15th-best gaming console of all time, behind both of its competitors: Wii (10th) and Xbox 360 (6th). However, PS3 has won IGN's "Console Showdown"—based on which console offers the best selection of games released during each year—in three of the four years since it began (2008, 2009 and 2011, with Xbox winning in 2010). IGN judged PlayStation 3 to have the best game line-up of 2008, based on their review scores in comparison to those of Wii and Xbox 360. In a comparison piece by PC Magazine's Will Greenwald in June 2012, PS3 was selected as an overall better console compared to Xbox 360. Pocket-Lint said of the console "The PS3 has always been a brilliant games console," and that "For now, this is just about the best media device for the money." Original model PS3 was given the number-eight spot on PC World magazine's list of "The Top 21 Tech Screwups of 2006", where it was criticized for being "Late, Expensive and Incompatible". GamesRadar ranked PS3 as the top item in a feature on game-related PR disasters, asking how Sony managed to "take one of the most anticipated game systems of all time and—within the space of a year—turn it into a hate object reviled by the entire internet", but added that despite its problems the system has "untapped potential". Business Week summed up the general opinion by stating that it was "more impressed with what the PlayStation 3 could do than with what it currently does".Developers also found the machine difficult to program for. In 2007, Gabe Newell of Valve said "The PS3 is a total disaster on so many levels, I think it's really clear that Sony lost track of what customers and what developers wanted". He continued "I'd say, even at this late date, they should just cancel it and do a do over. Just say, 'This was a horrible disaster and we're sorry and we're going to stop selling this and stop trying to convince people to develop for it'". Doug Lombardi VP of Marketing for Valve has since stated that Valve is interested in developing for the console and is looking to hire talented PS3 programmers for future projects. He later restated Valve's position, "Until we have the ability to get a PS3 team together, until we find the people who want to come to Valve or who are at Valve who want to work on that, I don't really see us moving to that platform". At Sony's E3 2010 press conference, Newell made a live appearance to recant his previous statements, citing Sony's move to make the system more developer-friendly, and to announce that Valve would be developing Portal 2 for the system. He also claimed that the inclusion of Steamworks (Valve's system to automatically update their software independently) would help to make the PS3 version of Portal 2 the best console version on the market. Activision Blizzard CEO Bobby Kotick has criticized PS3's high development costs and inferior attach rate and return to that of Xbox 360 and Wii. He believes these factors are pushing developers away from working on the console. In an interview with The Times Kotick stated "I'm getting concerned about Sony; the PlayStation 3 is losing a bit of momentum and they don't make it easy for me to support the platform." He continued, "It's expensive to develop for the console, and the Wii and the Xbox are just selling better. Games generate a better return on invested capital (ROIC) on the Xbox than on the PlayStation." Kotick also claimed that Activision Blizzard may stop supporting the system if the situation is not addressed. "[Sony has] to cut the [PS3's retail] price, because if they don't, the attach rates are likely to slow. If we are being realistic, we might have to stop supporting Sony." Kotick received heavy criticism for the statement, notably from developer BioWare who questioned the wisdom of the threatened move, and referred to the statement as "silly."Despite the initial negative press, several websites have given the system very good reviews mostly regarding its hardware. CNET United Kingdom praised the system saying, "the PS3 is a versatile and impressive piece of home-entertainment equipment that lives up to the hype [...] the PS3 is well worth its hefty price tag." CNET awarded it a score of 8.8 out of 10 and voted it as its number one "must-have" gadget, praising its robust graphical capabilities and stylish exterior design while criticizing its limited selection of available games. In addition, both Home Theater Magazine and Ultimate AV have given the system's Blu-ray playback very favorable reviews, stating that the quality of playback exceeds that of many current standalone Blu-ray Disc players.In an interview, Kazuo Hirai, chairman of Sony Computer Entertainment argued for the choice of a complex architecture. Hexus Gaming reviewed the PAL version and summed the review up by saying, "as the PlayStation 3 matures and developers start really pushing it, we'll see the PlayStation 3 emerge as the console of choice for gaming." At GDC 2007, Shiny Entertainment founder Dave Perry stated, "I think that Sony has made the best machine. It's the best piece of hardware, without question". Slim model and rebranding The PlayStation 3 Slim received extremely positive reviews as well as a boost in sales; less than 24 hours after its announcement, PS3 Slim took the number-one bestseller spot on Amazon.com in the video games section for fifteen consecutive days. It regained the number-one position again one day later. PS3 Slim also received praise from PC World giving it a 90 out of 100 praising its new repackaging and the new value it brings at a lower price as well as praising its quietness and the reduction in its power consumption. This is in stark contrast to the original PS3's launch in which it was given position number-eight on their "The Top 21 Tech Screwups of 2006" list.CNET awarded PS3 Slim four out of five stars praising its Blu-ray capabilities, 120 GB hard drive, free online gaming service and more affordable pricing point, but complained about the lack of backward compatibility for PlayStation 2 games. TechRadar gave PS3 Slim four and a half stars out of five praising its new smaller size and summed up its review stating "Over all, the PS3 Slim is a phenomenal piece of kit. It's amazing that something so small can do so much". However, they criticized the exterior design and the build quality in relation to the original model.Eurogamer called it "a product where the cost-cutting has—by and large—been tastefully done" and said "It's nothing short of a massive win for Sony." Super Slim model The Super Slim model of PS3 has received positive reviews. Gaming website Spong praised the new Super Slim's quietness, stating "The most noticeable noise comes when the drive seeks a new area of the disc, such as when starting to load a game, and this occurs infrequently." They added that the fans are quieter than those of Slim, and went on to praise the new smaller, lighter size. Criticism was placed on the new disc loader, stating: "The cover can be moved by hand if you wish, there's also an eject button to do the work for you, but there is no software eject from the triangle button menus in the Xross Media Bar (XMB) interface. In addition, you have to close the cover by hand, which can be a bit fiddly if it's upright, and the PS3 won't start reading a disc unless you do [close the cover]." They also said there is no real drop in retail price.Tech media website CNET gave new Super Slim 4 out of 5 stars ("Excellent"), saying "The Super Slim PlayStation 3 shrinks a powerful gaming machine into an even tinier package while maintaining the same features as its predecessors: a great gaming library and a strong array of streaming services [...]", whilst also criticising the "cheap" design and disc-loader, stating: "Sometimes [the cover] doesn't catch and you feel like you're using one of those old credit card imprinter machines. In short, it feels cheap. You don't realize how convenient autoloading disc trays are until they're gone. Whether it was to cut costs or save space, this move is ultimately a step back." The criticism also was due to price, stating the cheapest Super Slim model was still more expensive than the cheapest Slim model, and that the smaller size and bigger hard drive should not be considered an upgrade when the hard drive on a Slim model is easily removed and replaced. They did praise that the hard drive of the Super Slim model is "the easiest yet. Simply sliding off the side panel reveals the drive bay, which can quickly be unscrewed." They also stated that whilst the Super Slim model is not in any way an upgrade, it could be an indicator as to what's to come. "It may not be revolutionary, but the Super Slim PS3 is the same impressive machine in a much smaller package. There doesn't seem to be any reason for existing PS3 owners to upgrade, but for the prospective PS3 buyer, the Super Slim is probably the way to go if you can deal with not having a slot-loading disc drive."Pocket-Lint gave Super Slim a very positive review saying "It's much more affordable, brilliant gaming, second-to-none video and media player." They think it is "A blinding good console and one that will serve you for years to come with second-hand games and even new releases. Without doubt, if you don't have a PS3, this is the time to buy." They gave Super Slim 4-and-a-half stars out of 5.Technology magazine T3 gave the Super Slim model a positive review, stating the console is almost "nostalgic" in the design similarities to the original "fat" model, "While we don't know whether it will play PS3 games or Blu-ray discs any differently yet, the look and feel of the new PS3 Slim is an obvious homage to the original PS3, minus the considerable excess weight. Immediately we would be concerned about the durability of the top loading tray that feels like it could be yanked straight out off the console, but ultimately it all feels like Sony's nostalgic way of signing off the current-generation console in anticipation for the PS4." Official websites Asia Australia Archived February 24, 2011, at the Wayback Machine Canada New Zealand Archived October 25, 2014, at the Wayback Machine United Kingdom Archived January 25, 2010, at the Wayback Machine United States Auxiliary sites by Sony Hardware press images User's guide Directories PlayStation 3 at Curlie
Yiguandao / I-Kuan Tao (traditional Chinese: 一貫道; simplified Chinese: 一贯道; pinyin: Yīguàn Dào; Wade–Giles: I1-Kuan4 Tao4), meaning the Consistent Way or Persistent Way, is a Chinese salvationist religious sect that emerged in the late 19th century, in Shandong, to become China's most important redemptive society in the 1930s and 1940s, especially during the Japanese invasion. In the 1930s Yiguandao spread rapidly throughout China led by Zhang Tianran, who is the eighteenth patriarch of the Latter Far East Tao Lineage, and Sun Suzhen, the first matriarch of the Lineage. Yiguandao started off with a few thousand followers in Shandong in the 1930s, but under the Patriarch and Matriarch's leadership and with missionary work the group grew to become the biggest movement in China in the 1940s with millions of followers. In 1949, Yiguandao was proscribed in mainland China as an illegal secret society and heretical cult as part of the greater antireligious campaign that took place. Yiguandao has since flourished in Taiwan, despite decades of persecution by the Kuomintang that officially ended in 1987 with the legalization of Yiguandao and a government apology. Yiguandao is still not able to be officially promoted in the mainland, but there are many members who live and practice there.According to Dr. Sebastien Billioud, Yiguandao can be viewed as an updated version of the tradition unity of the three teachings of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. In Yiguandao's case it also incorporated Christianity and Islam becoming a unity of the five teachings.Yiguandao is characterized by an eschatological and soteriological doctrine, presenting itself as a way to salvation. It also encourages adherents to engage in missionary activity. Yiguandao is the worship of the source of the universal reality personified as the Eternal Venerable Mother, or the Splendid Highest Deity (Chinese: 明明上帝; pinyin: Míngmíng Shàngdì). The highest deity is the primordial energy of the universe, identified in Yiguandao thought with the Tao in the wuji or "unlimited" state and with fire. The name used in contemporary Yiguandao scriptures is the "Infinite Mother" (Chinese: 無極母; pinyin: Wújímǔ) and the "lantern of the Mother" (Chinese: 母燈; pinyin: mǔdēng)—a flame representing the Mother—is the central focus of Yiguandao shrines. Beliefs Eternal Venerable Mother Yiguandao focuses on the worship of the Infinite Mother (Wujimu), also known as the Eternal Venerable Mother (Wusheng Laomu), which is also a feature of other Chinese folk religions. The source of things, It is neither male nor female, though it is called "Mother" or "Heavenly Mater". It is the primordial force of the universe, the fire, that animates all things. It is the Tao, as Yiguandao doctrines explain.In the 16th century the Eternal Mother began to take the place of the Holy Patriarch. A mythology surrounding the Mother began to form, integrating the beliefs about Maitreya, which had been widespread since the Yuan dynasty. The Maitreya belief is millenarian, claiming that the world would come to an end soon and Maitreya would incarnate himself in the physical plane to save humanity.In the Mother belief, the Maitreya is one of the three enlightened beings sent by the Mother herself to bring salvation. Further myths explained the creation of the world and mankind: the Eternal Venerable Mother gave birth to yin and yang and two children, Fuxi and Nüwa, who begot auspicius stars and all sentient beings. The human beings were sent to the east and lost their memory of the Mother. The myth of Fuxi and Nüwa is found also in orthodox Chinese mythology.The figure of the Eternal Mother derives from that of Xiwangmu, the "Queen Mother of the West", the ancient mother goddess of China, related to the mythical Kunlun, the axis mundi, and thus to the Hundun. The Infinite Mother is thought as omnipotent, and regarded by Yiguandao followers as merciful, worried by her sons and daughters who lost their true nature, and for this reason trying to bring them back to the original heaven. Through its development, the Eternal Mother belief has shown the qualities of the three goddesses Xiwangmu, Nüwa and Guanyin. Gods and teachers In all Yiguandao temples, there are three lamps situated on an altar. The central lamp represents the Eternal Mother, while the two sides lamps, both evenly situated at a lower level, represent Yin and Yang. Generally, in larger public temples, a statue of Maitreya is placed in the central position, accompanied by the Holy Teachers, Jigong on the right, and Yue Hui Bodhisattva on the left. In private temples, there is no required configuration. Members can choose statues of other deities, such as Guanyin and Guangong, or they can even choose to have none at all.As Yiguandao's written material explains: The important thing to keep in mind is that these deities ... serve as reminders for us to always keep their teachings in mind, and we honor them for the virtues they embody, such as tolerance, open-mindedness, cheerfulness and generosity (Maitreya); justice, fairness, honor, courage and loyalty (Guangong); compassion, giving, caring and nurturing (Guanyin). The patriarchs of the faith are Zhang Tianran and Sun Suzhen. They are considered the final patriarchs of the divine revelation and are revered as divine entities. Cosmology Yiguandao conceives the cosmos as tripartite, consisting of litian (the right heaven), qitian (the spiritual heaven) and xiangtian (the material plane). Litian is the heaven of the Eternal Mother, where there's no cycle of rebirth; qitian is the plane imbued by the gods and spirits who despite being in a higher realm than human beings, can still incarnate as matter. Xiangtian is the physical world that is composed of all visible things, with colors and shapes, including all the stars and the sky. Only litian is eternal, and qitian and xiangtian will be re-absorbed into litian. Salvation Yiguandao involves an eschatological—soteriological belief: Grieving over the loss of her children, the Eternal Mother sent to the material world three enlightened beings over the "Three Eras". Accordingly, the human history is divided into "Three Eras": Qingyang Qi or Green Yang Era, Hongyang Qi or Red Yang Era, and Baiyang Qi or White Yang Era. Dipankara Buddha presided over salvation in the Green Yang Era, Gautama Buddha in the Red Yang Era, and Maitreya Buddha will preside over the third period of salvation, the White Yang Era, which began in 1912 and continues even now.Extreme ruthlessness and craftiness in human behavior and disasters are associated with the end of the third period and final salvation. Cultivation of the Tao is the opportunity for repentance and purification during the White Yang Era. Those who devote their efforts to the spread of the Tao will be repaid for their merits, regardless of their societal status. Vegetarianism Vegetarianism is one of the core teachings of Yiguandao. Vegetarianism is taught from a variety of perspectives including health, ecology, environmental sustainability, reducing animal suffering and spiritual development. Yiguandao followers are said to operate 90% of Taiwan's vegetarian restaurants. Practices and writings Three Treasures The rite of initiation involves the "offering of the Three Treasures" (chuan Sanbao), which are the xuanguan (the heavenly portal), the koujue (a mantra), and hetong (the hand gesture). The Three Treasures are the saving grace offered by the Eternal Mother to people who received the initiation. They enable Yiguandao members to transcend the circle of birth and death and directly ascend to Heaven after they die.Yiguandao followers regard the initiation ceremony as the most important ritual. The full meaning of the Three Treasures is a secret of Yiguandao followers and is strictly prohibited from being spread openly to those who have not gone through the initiation process. The Three Treasures are also used in daily life as a form of meditation. Yiguandao Canon A unitary anthology of Yiguandao's writings, the Yiguandao Canon (一貫道藏 Yīguàndào zàng), was published in the 2010s with the purpose of offering a systematic overview of the religious doctrines. History 19th century origins Yiguandao originated in the late 19th century in Shandong as a branch of Xiantiandao ("Way of Former Heaven"), which in turn was founded in Jiangxi in the 17th century Qing dynasty as an offshoot of the Venerable Officials' teaching of fasting (老官齋教 Lǎoguān zhāijiào), a branch of the Dacheng (大乘 "Great Vehicle") or Yuandun (圓頓 "Sudden Stillness") eastern proliferation of Luoism. It has also been traced to the White Lotus tradition.In the 1870s, under persecutions from the Qing, Xiantiandao fragmented into several independent groups. One branch led by the Shandong native Wang Jueyi later developed into Yiguandao. According to Yiguandao records, Wang Jueyi was designated as the 15th patriarch of Xiantiandao through a divine revelation through writing. Wang renamed his sect the "Final Salvation" (Mohou Yizhu) and deeply contributed to the development of its theology and ritual, now being regarded as the real founder of modern Yiguandao.After a persecution started in 1883 because the Qing suspected that the sect intended to organize a rebellion, Wang was forced to live secretly until his death. Liu Qingxu succeeded the leadership becoming the 16th patriarch. In 1905, borrowing a Confucius saying that "the way that I follow is the one that unifies all" (wudao yiyiguanzhi), he gave the religion the name Yiguandao ("Unity Way").Under Liu the Yiguandao remained small. Things changed after Lu Zhongyi became the 17th patriarch in 1919. Claiming to be the incarnation of Maitreya, Lu gathered thousands of members in Shandong. When Lu died in 1925 one group of the followers he left was led by Zhang Tianran, the man who became the 18th patriarch in following years. Zhang Tianran's leadership and spread in the 1930s Between the late years of the Qing dynasty and 1945, China went through a period of crisis, civil unrest and foreign invasion. The Confucian orthodoxy and the empire crumbled quickly. In the republican China between 1912 and 1949 folk religious sects mushroomed and expanded rapidly.Zhang Tianran, whose secular name was Zhang Guangbi, was born in 1889 in Jining, Shandong. In 1915, he was initiated into Yiguandao by Lu Zhongyi, the 17th patriarch of the sect. After the death of Lu in 1925 the movement fragmented due to strife over the leadership. One of the subgroups that formed was led by Zhang Tianran.In 1930, Zhang Tianran became the 18th patriarch of Yiguandao. He took Sun Suzhen as his partner, proclaiming that their marriage was a message from the Eternal Mother, and that he was the incarnation of Jigong, a deified miracle monk that lived between the late 12th and the 13th century. However, few members welcomed the new claims; many challenged the validity of the revelation and left the group. For this reason, Zhang Tianran and his wife moved to Jinan in 1931. There, different religious groups were competing with each other, and Zhang Tianran began preaching Yiguandao himself.Zhang Tianran recruited hundreds of followers, and Jinan became the main base of Yiguandao. Many initiated members began preaching in other big cities, where Yiguandao was well received. From 1934 Yiguandao missionaries were sent to Tianjin and Qingdao. To facilitate the spread Zhang Tianran restructured Yiguandao, that since then had preserved the nine-levels structure (jiupin liantai) of Xiantiandao. The new structure had four levels, Zhang as the patriarch, and below him the leaders of the way (daozhang), the initiators (dianchuan shi), and further below the masters of the altars (tanzhu). The initiators functioned as missionaries, while the masters of altars were managers of administrative units composed of multiple congregations.With the rapid growth of Yiguandao, Zhang Tianran's status as a divine patriarch (shizun) was strengthened, with a large number of pamphlets published to justify his divinity. The following one is an example: When our great teacher was born, his eyes and eyebrows were perfectly shaped, and there was depth and wisdom in his eyes. [...] On his forehead, he had a third eye. His nose was straight like that of a dragon, and his head was like that of a god. His mouth was perfect and he already had a long beard. His earlobes touched his shoulders, and his arms were very long (all signs of great wisdom and ability). He walked beautifully and perfectly, with long strides, and was obviously not of the mortal world. On his left hand, he had a red birthmark shaped like the sun and on his right one like the moon; they were so red that they would leave a mark when he touched his hand to paper. On his left foot, he had the seven stars of the Big Dipper, and on his right foot, the six stars of the Southern Dipper. Because of this, although he had been born into the mortal world, everyone knew that he was one with the Universe—the living enlightened Jigong, who was sent by heaven to save humanity. Fuji, shanshu and rituals With its centralized authority and highly degree of organization, Yiguandao had an extraordinary power of mobilization. At first, fuji, the practice of receiving direct revelations from the gods which is closely linked to the Chinese intellectual tradition since the Song dynasty, contributed to the dynamism of the movement.Divine revelations were published in "morality books" (shanshu), and distributed to the general public for moral edification of the society. Divine writing was also used to offer oracles for everyday problems.Fuji was introduced into Yiguandao despite Wang Jueyi, the 15th patriarch of the lineage, discouraging it. Zhang Tianran distinguished between "innate writing" (xiantian ji), received by juvenile media and considered superior to "acquired writing" (houtian ji), received by old media. Youth purity is considered more conductive of divine revelation. Zhang stressed that only Yiguandao fuji is xiantian ji (revealing the original Heaven).Divinely inspired writing was later rejected by some branches of Yiguandao, as new scriptures produced new schisms, and gradually declined within the religion as a whole.Yiguandao also spread and gathered financial support through the performance of "rituals of salvation of the ancestors". Rules and practices for the followers were also systematized. Zhang Tianran also gave much importance to aggressive missionary work, contrasting with the Chinese tradition of peaceful coexistence. In 1938 he held missionary workshops named "stove meetings" (lu hui) to train missionaries in Tianjin. Hundreds of missionaries were trained in these workshops, and they were sent all over the country. Many became influential leaders of Yiguandao. Rapid growth in the 1940s Through missionary activity, in the political and social turmoil caused by the Japanese invasion of China in the 1940s, that made Yiguandao's millenarian beliefs more convincing to the masses, the religion grew rapidly, reaching an estimated membership of 12 million. Even a number of top officials of the Japanese puppet government of Wang Jingwei converted to Yiguandao. Suppression in China after 1949 With the rise of the Chinese Communist Party in 1949, Yiguandao was suppressed, being viewed as the biggest reactionary huidaomen. In December 1950 The People's Daily published the editorial "Firmly Banning Yiguandao" (Jianjue Qudi Yiguandao), proclaiming that the movement had been used as a counterrevolutionary tool by imperialists and the Kuomintang. The article claimed that Yiguandao members were traitors collaborating with the Japanese invaders, Kuomintang spies, and reactionary landlords.The editorial marked the beginning of the nationwide campaign of eradication of Yiguandao. The main target of the campaign was to destroy the movement's organization and leadership. The top leaders were executed or sent to prison, the members were forced to undergo political re-education and they were kept under close surveillance.An exhibition denouncing Yiguandao was held in Beijing in January 1951. In 1952 the communists released "The Way of Persistently Harming People" (Yiguan Hairen Dao), a film against Yiguandao. A number of Yiguandao believers, including Sun Suzhen, fled to Hong Kong and later to Taiwan, where the religion currently thrives. Spread to other regions and return to the mainland Taiwan In Kuomintang-governed Taiwan after 1949, there was initially a climate of restrictions of Chinese traditional religions and Yiguandao was attacked as immoral, politically charged, and suspect of cooperation with communists of mainland China. Yiguandao was officially outlawed in 1952 and driven underground. The Buddhist circles of Taiwan denounced it as heterodox "White Lotus" and called for its suppression, and succeeded in opposing the government when there was a proposal for lifting the ban in 1981. The effort to legalize Yiguandao came from Chou Lien-hua and Chu Hai-yuan of the Institute of Ethnology at Academia Sinica, who lobbied on its behalf.In the period of rapid economic growth of Taiwan, starting in the 1960s and proceeding through the 1980s and 1990s, Yiguandao spread its influence by entering business and industrial development. Many members became important businessmen, for instance Chang Yung-fa, the founder of the Evergreen Marine Corporation, was the chief initiator of a Yiguandao subdivision and in the 1990s almost all the managers of his corporation were Yiguandao members. The same strategy of "combining missionary work and business" facilitates the development of Yiguandao in mainland China, where Yiguandao businessmen began reestablishing the religion since the 1980s by means of investment. Another mean by which Yiguandao expanded in Taiwan was that of charity.Through the years of the ban Yiguandao persisted as an underground phenomenon. In 1963 it was reported that the religion had about fifty thousand members, and grew rapidly through the 1970s and the 1980s, counting more than 324,000 members in 1984. Five years later in 1989 Yiguandao had 443,000 members or 2.2% of Taiwan's population. Recognizing the social power of the religion, the Kuomintang officially gave Yiguandao legal status on 13 January 1987. As of 2005 Yiguandao has 810,000 members in Taiwan (3.5% of the population) and tens of thousands of worship halls. Its members operate many of Taiwan's vegetarian restaurants. Korea Yiguandao was transmitted in the Korean peninsula (Hanja: 일관도 Ilgwando) in the 1940s through the pioneering work of Dukbuk Lee, Sujeun Jang, Buckdang Kim and Eunsun Kim. Korean Ilgwando is incorporated as the International Moral Association which was founded in the 1960s by Buckdang Kim (1914-1991), and as of 2015 it has 1.3 million members in South Korea (2.5% of the population). Japan In the 1950s Yiguandao spread to Japan (where its name is Ikkandō), during the persecutions in mainland China, and there it has attracted about fifty thousand members from both Chinese minorities and Japanese ethnic groups. It is articulated into two main branches: ① Kōmōseidōin (孔孟聖道院 Kǒng Mèng Shèngdào Yuàn, "School of the Holy Way of Confucius and Mencius") and Sentendaidōnihonsoōtendan (先天大道日本総天壇 Xiāntiāndàdào Rìběn Zǒng Tiāntán, "Japan Headquarters of the Great Way of Former Heaven") with 8000 members each; and ② Tendō (天道 Tiāndào, "Heavenly Way") and Tendo Sotendan (天道総天壇 Tiāndào Zǒng Tiāntán, "Headquarters of the Heavenly Way") respectively with 300 and 30,000 members. Southeast Asia Since the 1970s Yiguandao spread to Southeast Asia. In Thailand (where it is named อนุตตรธรรม Anuttharatham) it has grown so strong in recent decades to come into conflict with Buddhism; as of 2009 there were over 7000 worship halls, and it is reported that 200.000 Thais each year convert into the religion. In Singapore the Yiguandao has three great public halls (white multiple-storied buildings with traditional Chinese architectural features) and more than 2000 house churches. Mainland China The relationship between the government of mainland China and Yiguandao began to change by the mid-1980s. In those years, Yiguandao was spreading secretly back to mainland China from Taiwan; entrepreneurs belonging to Yiguandao were building temples, networks and factories. According to scholar Philip Clart, missionaries from Taiwan have been particularly active in proselytization in Fujian, where there is strong presence of Taiwanese-owned companies and joint ventures. According to a 1996 report the movement can be found in every province of China, and in 1978 there was one of the biggest cases of government suppression against the "Fraternal Army of the Soldiers of Heaven" (天兵弟子軍 Tiānbīng Dìzǐjūn) formed by thousands of Yiguandao members. As of 1999 the Japanese publication Tokyo Sentaku reported that there were 2 million Tiandao members in Sichuan, equal to 2.4% of the province's population.In the 1990s backroom meetings between Chinese government officials and representatives of Yiguandao were held; by the mid-2000s these meetings had become public. Between 2000 and 2005 Yiguandao was removed from the Chinese government's official list of "evil cults", and branches of the organization were tacitly allowed to return to China. Yiguandao also cooperates with academic and non-governmental organizations in mainland China. In an attitude of growing interest for the movement on the mainland, by the 2010s a Yiguandao text was published in the People's Republic. Structure and schisms Yiguandao is a collection of at least nineteen divisions (subsects). Generally all of them share the rule to not proselytize among members of other branches of the "golden line" of Yiguandao. Since the 1980s some denominations of Yiguandao have established a professionalized clergy.The primary organization unit of Yiguandao are local worship halls (佛堂 fótáng, literally "halls of awakening"). Although some of them may develop into elaborate complexes of public buildings, they are in most cases private house churches (the gatherings are held in private homes of Yiguandao members), a type of organism which provides Yiguandao the ability to blossom in the private sphere circumventing states' definitions and management of "religion".There are a number of divisions which are no longer considered to be part of Yiguandao; some of them are: the Miledadao founded by Wang Hao-te in 1982, the Haizidao founded by Lin Jixiong in 1984, the Holy Church of China (Zhonghua Shengjiao) founded by Ma Yongchang in 1980, the Guanyindao founded by Chen Huoguo in 1984, the Yuande Shentan founded by Wu Ruiyuan, and the Jiulian Shengdao founded by Lin Zhenhe in 1992. See also Maitreya teachings Ama-gi Caodaism Footnotes Billioud, Sébastien; Joel Thoraval (2015), The Sage and the People: The Confucian Revival in China, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0190258146: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Billioud, Sébastien (2017). "Yiguandao's Patriarch Zhang Tianran: Hagiography, Deification and Production of Charisma in a Modern Religious Organization". In Ownby, David; Goossaert, Vincent; Zhe, Ji (eds.). Making Saints in Modern China. Oxford University Press. pp. 209–240. ISBN 978-0190494568. Billioud, Sébastien (2020), Reclaiming the Wilderness, Contemporary Dynamics of the Yiguandao, Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780197529133 Goossaert, Vincent; Palmer, David A. (2012), The Religious Question in Modern China, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 9780226005331 Haar, B. J. ter (1992), The White Lotus Teachings in Chinese Religious History, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 9780824822187 Kim, David William (2015). A Chinese New Religious Movement in Modern Korea. XXI. World Congress of the International Association for the History of Religions. Erfurt, Germany. Kuo, Cheng-Tian (2017), Religion and nationalism in Chinese societies, Amsterdam University Press, ISBN 978-9048535057 Lu, Yunfeng (2008), The Transformation of Yiguan Dao in Taiwan Adapting to a Changing Religious Economy, Lexington Books, ISBN 9780739117194 Ma, Xisha; Huiying Meng (2011), Popular Religion and Shamanism, Brill, ISBN 978-9004174559: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Munro, Robin; Mickey Spiegel (1994). Detained in China and Tibet: A Directory of Political and Religious Prisoners. Human Rights Watch. ISBN 978-1564321053.: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) List first published in: "Appendix: Sects and Societies Recently or Currently Active in the PRC". Chinese Sociology & Anthropology. 21 (4): 103–104. 1989. doi:10.2753/CSA0009-46252104102. Ownby, David (2015). "Redemptive Societies in Twentieth Century China". In Goosaert, Vincent; Kiely, Jan; Lagerway, John (eds.). Modern Chinese Religion, 1850-1950. Brill. pp. 685–730. ISBN 9789004304642. Palmer, David (2011), "Redemptive Societies in Cultural and Historical Context", Journal of Chinese Theatre, Ritual and Folklore / Minsu Quyi (173): 1–12 Topley, Marjorie; DeBernardi, Jean (2011), Cantonese Society in Hong Kong and Singapore: Gender, Religion, Medicine and Money, Hong Kong University Press, ISBN 9789888028146 World Yiguandao Headquarters Australia Yiguandao Headquarters Korea Ilgwando International Morality Association Taiwan Yiguandao Association
Chinese martial arts, often called by the umbrella terms kung fu (; Chinese: 功夫; pinyin: gōngfu; Cantonese Yale: gūng fū), kuoshu (國術; guóshù) or wushu (武術; wǔshù), are multiple fighting styles that have developed over the centuries in Ancient China. These fighting styles are often classified according to common traits, identified as "families" of martial arts. Examples of such traits include Shaolinquan (少林拳) physical exercises involving All Other Animals (五形) mimicry or training methods inspired by Old Chinese philosophies, religions and legends. Styles that focus on qi manipulation are called internal (内家拳; nèijiāquán), while others that concentrate on improving muscle and cardiovascular fitness are called external (外家拳; wàijiāquán). Geographical association, as in northern (北拳; běiquán) and southern (南拳; nánquán), is another popular classification method. Terminology Kung fu and wushu are loanwords from Cantonese and Mandarin respectively that, in English, are used to refer to Chinese martial arts. However, the Chinese terms kung fu and wushu (; Cantonese Yale: móuh seuht) have distinct meanings. The Chinese equivalent of the term "Chinese martial arts" would be Zhongguo wushu (Chinese: 中國武術; pinyin: zhōngguó wǔshù) (Mandarin). In Chinese, the term kung fu refers to any skill that is acquired through learning or practice. It is a compound word composed of the words 功 (gōng) meaning "work", "achievement", or "merit", and 夫 (fū) which is a particle or nominal suffix with diverse meanings. Wushu literally means "martial art". It is formed from the two Chinese characters 武術: 武 (wǔ), meaning "martial" or "military" and 術 or 术 (shù), which translates into "art", "discipline", "skill" or "method". The term wushu has also become the name for the modern sport of wushu, an exhibition and full-contact sport of bare-handed and weapon forms (套路), adapted and judged to a set of aesthetic criteria for points developed since 1949 in the People's Republic of China.Quánfǎ (拳法) is another Chinese term for Chinese martial arts. It means "fist method" or "the law of the fist" (quán means "boxing" or "fist", and fǎ means "law", "way" or "method"), although as a compound term it usually translates as "boxing" or "fighting technique." The name of the Japanese martial art kempō is represented by the same hanzi characters. History The genesis of Chinese martial arts has been attributed to the need for self-defense, hunting techniques and military training in ancient China. Hand-to-hand combat and weapons practice were important in training ancient Chinese soldiers.Detailed knowledge about the state and development of Chinese martial arts became available from the Nanjing decade (1928–1937), as the Central Guoshu Institute established by the Kuomintang regime made an effort to compile an encyclopedic survey of martial arts schools. Since the 1950s, the People's Republic of China has organized Chinese martial arts as an exhibition and full-contact sport under the heading of “wushu”. Legendary origins According to legend, Chinese martial arts originated before the semi-mythical Xia Dynasty over 4,000 years ago. It is said that the Yellow Emperor (Huangdi), who ascended to power in 2698 BCE, introduced the earliest fighting systems to China. The Yellow Emperor is renowned as a great general who, prior to becoming China's leader, authored extensive treatises on medicine, astrology, and the martial arts. One of his primary adversaries was Chi You, credited as the progenitor of jiao di, a precursor to modern Chinese wrestling. Early history The earliest references to Chinese martial arts are found in the Spring and Autumn Annals (5th century BCE), where a hand-to-hand combat theory, one that integrates notions of "hard" and "soft" techniques, is mentioned. A combat wrestling system called juélì or jiǎolì (角力) is mentioned in the Classic of Rites. This combat system included techniques such as strikes, throws, joint manipulation, and pressure point attacks. Jiao Di became a sport during the Qin Dynasty (221–207 BCE). The Han History Bibliographies record that, by the Former Han (206 BCE – 8 CE), there was a distinction between no-holds-barred weaponless fighting, which it calls shǒubó (手搏), for which training manuals had already been written, and sportive wrestling, then known as juélì (角力). Wrestling is also documented in the Shǐ Jì, Records of the Grand Historian, written by Sima Qian (ca. 100 BCE).In the Tang Dynasty, descriptions of sword dances were immortalized in poems by Li Bai. In the Song and Yuan dynasties, xiangpu contests were sponsored by the imperial courts. The modern concepts of wushu were fully developed by the Ming and Qing dynasties. Philosophical influences The ideas associated with Chinese martial arts changed with the evolution of Chinese society and over time acquired some philosophical bases: Passages in the Zhuangzi (莊子), a Taoist text, pertain to the psychology and practice of martial arts. Zhuangzi, its eponymous author, is believed to have lived in the 4th century BCE. The Tao Te Ching, often credited to Laozi, is another Taoist text that contains principles applicable to martial arts. According to one of the classic texts of Confucianism, Zhou Li (周禮), Archery and charioteering were part of the "six arts" (Chinese: 六藝; pinyin: liu yi, including rites, music, calligraphy and mathematics) of the Zhou Dynasty (1122–256 BCE). The Art of War (孫子兵法), written during the 6th century BCE by Sun Tzu (孫子), deals directly with military warfare but contains ideas that are used in the Chinese martial arts. Taoist practitioners have been practicing Tao Yin (physical exercises similar to qigong that was one of the progenitors to tai chi) from as early as 500 BCE. In 39–92 CE, "Six Chapters of Hand Fighting", were included in the Han Shu (history of the Former Han Dynasty) written by Pan Ku. Also, the noted physician, Hua Tuo, composed the "Five Animals Play"—tiger, deer, monkey, bear, and bird, around 208 CE. Taoist philosophy and their approach to health and exercise have influenced the Chinese martial arts to a certain extent. Direct reference to Taoist concepts can be found in such styles as the "Eight Immortals," which uses fighting techniques attributed to the characteristics of each immortal. Southern and Northern dynasties (420–589 AD) Shaolin temple established In 495 CE, a Shaolin temple was constructed on Song Mountain in Henan province. The initial Buddhist monk who propagated Buddhism there was an Indian monk named Buddhabhadra, known as Batuo in Chinese. Historical records suggest that Batuo's first Chinese disciples, Huiguang and Sengchou, possessed exceptional martial skills. For instance, Sengchou's proficiency with the tin staff is documented in the Chinese Buddhist canon. Following Buddhabhadra, another Indian monk named Bodhidharma, also known as Damo in Chinese, arrived at Shaolin in 527 CE. His Chinese disciple, Huike, was likewise a highly skilled martial artist. There are indications that these first three Chinese Shaolin monks—Huiguang, Sengchou, and Huike—may have had a military background prior to embracing monastic life. Shaolin and temple-based martial arts The Shaolin style of kung fu is considered one of the earliest organized Chinese martial arts. The oldest documented evidence of Shaolin's involvement in combat dates back to a stele from 728 CE, which records two significant events: the defense of the Shaolin Monastery against bandits around 610 CE and their subsequent contribution to the defeat of Wang Shichong at the Battle of Hulao in 621 CE. However, between the 8th and 15th centuries, there are no surviving records that provide concrete proof of Shaolin's involvement in combat activities. Between the 16th and 17th centuries, at least forty sources exist to provide evidence both that monks of Shaolin practiced martial arts, and that martial practice became an integral element of Shaolin monastic life. The earliest appearance of the frequently cited legend concerning Bodhidharma's supposed foundation of Shaolin Kung Fu dates to this period. The origin of this legend has been traced to the Ming period's Yijin Jing or "Muscle Change Classic", a text written in 1624 attributed to Bodhidharma. Modern history Republican period Most fighting styles that are being practiced as traditional Chinese martial arts today reached their popularity within the 20th century. Some of these include Baguazhang, Drunken Boxing, Eagle Claw, Five Animals, Xingyi, Hung Gar, Monkey, Bak Mei Pai, Northern Praying Mantis, Southern Praying Mantis, Fujian White Crane, Jow Ga, Wing Chun and tai chi. The increase in the popularity of those styles is a result of the dramatic changes occurring within the Chinese society. In 1900–01, the Righteous and Harmonious Fists rose against foreign occupiers and Christian missionaries in China. This uprising is known in the West as the Boxer Rebellion due to the martial arts and calisthenics practiced by the rebels. Empress Dowager Cixi gained control of the rebellion and tried to use it against the foreign powers. The failure of the rebellion led ten years later to the fall of the Qing Dynasty and the creation of the Chinese Republic. The present view of Chinese martial arts is strongly influenced by the events of the Republican Period (1912–1949). In the transition period between the fall of the Qing Dynasty as well as the turmoil of the Japanese invasion and the Chinese Civil War, Chinese martial arts became more accessible to the general public as many martial artists were encouraged to openly teach their art. At that time, some considered martial arts as a means to promote national pride and build a strong nation. As a result, many training manuals (拳譜) were published, a training academy was created, two national examinations were organized and demonstration teams traveled overseas. Numerous martial arts associations were formed throughout China and in various overseas Chinese communities. The Central Guoshu Academy (Zhongyang Guoshuguan, 中央國術館) established by the National Government in 1928 and the Jing Wu Athletic Association (精武體育會) founded by Huo Yuanjia in 1910 are examples of organizations that promoted a systematic approach for training in Chinese martial arts. A series of provincial and national competitions were organized by the Republican government starting in 1932 to promote Chinese martial arts. In 1936, at the 11th Olympic Games in Berlin, a group of Chinese martial artists demonstrated their art to an international audience for the first time. The term kuoshu (or guoshu, 國術 meaning "national art"), rather than the colloquial term gongfu was introduced by the Kuomintang in an effort to more closely associate Chinese martial arts with national pride rather than individual accomplishment. People's Republic Chinese martial arts experienced rapid international dissemination with the end of the Chinese Civil War and the founding of the People's Republic of China on October 1, 1949. Many well known martial artists chose to escape from the PRC's rule and migrate to Taiwan, Hong Kong, and other parts of the world. Those masters started to teach within the overseas Chinese communities but eventually they expanded their teachings to include people from other ethnic groups. Within China, the practice of traditional martial arts was discouraged during the turbulent years of the Chinese Cultural Revolution (1969–1976). Like many other aspects of traditional Chinese life, martial arts were subjected to a radical transformation by the People's Republic of China to align them with Maoist revolutionary doctrine. The PRC promoted the committee-regulated sport of Wushu as a replacement for independent schools of martial arts. This new competition sport was disassociated from what was seen as the potentially subversive self-defense aspects and family lineages of Chinese martial arts.In 1958, the government established the All-China Wushu Association as an umbrella organization to regulate martial arts training. The Chinese State Commission for Physical Culture and Sports took the lead in creating standardized forms for most of the major arts. During this period, a national Wushu system that included standard forms, teaching curriculum, and instructor grading was established. Wushu was introduced at both the high school and university level. The suppression of traditional teaching was relaxed during the Era of Reconstruction (1976–1989), as Communist ideology became more accommodating to alternative viewpoints. In 1979, the State Commission for Physical Culture and Sports created a special task force to reevaluate the teaching and practice of Wushu. In 1986, the Chinese National Research Institute of Wushu was established as the central authority for the research and administration of Wushu activities in the People's Republic of China.Changing government policies and attitudes towards sports, in general, led to the closing of the State Sports Commission (the central sports authority) in 1998. This closure is viewed as an attempt to partially de-politicize organized sports and move Chinese sport policies towards a more market-driven approach. As a result of these changing sociological factors within China, both traditional styles and modern Wushu approaches are being promoted by the Chinese government.Chinese martial arts are an integral element of 20th-century Chinese popular culture.Wuxia or "martial arts fiction" is a popular genre that emerged in the early 20th century and peaked in popularity during the 1960s to 1980s. Wuxia films were produced from the 1920s. The Kuomintang suppressed wuxia, accusing it of promoting superstition and violent anarchy. Because of this, wuxia came to flourish in British Hong Kong, and the genre of kung fu movie in Hong Kong action cinema became wildly popular, coming to international attention from the 1970s. The genre underwent a drastic decline in the late 1990s as the Hong Kong film industry was crushed by economic depression. In the wake of Ang Lee's Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000), there has been somewhat of a revival of Chinese-produced wuxia films aimed at an international audience, including Zhang Yimou's Hero (2002), House of Flying Daggers (2004) and Curse of the Golden Flower (2006), as well as Su Chao-pin and John Woo's Reign of Assassins (2010). Styles China boasts a rich history of martial arts traditions encompassing numerous styles, totaling in the hundreds. Over the course of the past two millennia, a multitude of distinct styles have been developed, each with its own unique techniques and philosophies. These styles are often categorized into "families" (家; jiā), "schools" (派; pai), or "sects" (門; men). While each style possesses its own characteristics, there are also common themes that thread through different styles. Some styles draw inspiration from animal movements, replicating the agility and power of creatures such as tigers, snakes, or monkeys. Others derive their inspiration from Chinese philosophies, myths, and legends, incorporating their principles and symbolism into their techniques. Certain styles place significant emphasis on harnessing and manipulating qi, while others prioritize competitive aspects, focusing on sparring and tournaments. The diversity of Chinese martial arts reflects the vast array of cultural and regional influences throughout history. From the graceful and flowing movements of Tai Chi to the explosive and acrobatic techniques of Wushu, China's martial arts traditions showcase a vibrant tapestry of physical prowess, philosophical principles, and cultural heritage. Chinese martial arts can be split into various categories to differentiate them: For example, "external" (外家拳) and "internal" (內家拳). Chinese martial arts can also be categorized by location, as in "northern" and "southern" as well, referring to what part of China the styles originated from, separated by the Yangtze River; Chinese martial arts may even be classified according to their province or city. The main perceived difference between northern and southern styles is that the northern styles tend to emphasize fast and powerful kicks, high jumps and generally fluid and rapid movement, while the southern styles focus more on strong arm and hand techniques, and stable, immovable stances and fast footwork. Examples of the northern styles include changquan and xingyiquan. Examples of the southern styles include Bak Mei, Wuzuquan, Choy Li Fut, and Wing Chun. Chinese martial arts can also be divided according to religion, imitative-styles (象形拳), and family styles such as Hung Gar (洪家). There are distinctive differences in the training between different groups of the Chinese martial arts regardless of the type of classification. However, few experienced martial artists make a clear distinction between internal and external styles, or subscribe to the idea of northern systems being predominantly kick-based and southern systems relying more heavily on upper-body techniques. Most styles contain both hard and soft elements, regardless of their internal nomenclature. Analyzing the difference in accordance with yin and yang principles, philosophers would assert that the absence of either one would render the practitioner's skills unbalanced or deficient, as yin and yang alone are each only half of a whole. If such differences did once exist, they have since been blurred. Training Chinese martial arts training consists of the following components: basics, forms, applications and weapons; different styles place varying emphasis on each component. In addition, philosophy, ethics and even medical practice are highly regarded by most Chinese martial arts. A complete training system should also provide insight into Chinese attitudes and culture.Moreover, many Chinese martial arts styles integrate traditional medical practices into their training. This includes the understanding of meridians, pressure points, and herbal remedies, as well as exercises that promote health, vitality, and longevity. The holistic approach to training seeks to cultivate both internal and external strength, promoting overall well-being and balance. Furthermore, Chinese martial arts serve as a vessel for preserving and transmitting cultural values and attitudes. Respect for teachers, dedication, discipline, and perseverance are instilled in practitioners, fostering a sense of community and loyalty within martial arts schools and lineages. Chinese martial arts also often incorporate cultural elements such as music, costumes, and rituals, further deepening the connection to Chinese heritage and traditions. Overall, Chinese martial arts encompass not just physical techniques but a comprehensive system that encompasses philosophy, ethics, medical knowledge, and cultural appreciation. It is this holistic approach that distinguishes Chinese martial arts as not just a means of self-defense but as a way of life, promoting personal growth, cultural understanding, and the pursuit of harmony and excellence. Basics The Basics (基本功) are a vital part of any martial training, as a student cannot progress to the more advanced stages without them. Basics are usually made up of rudimentary techniques, conditioning exercises, including stances. Basic training may involve simple movements that are performed repeatedly; other examples of basic training are stretching, meditation, striking, throwing, or jumping. Without strong and flexible muscles, management of qi or breath, and proper body mechanics, it is impossible for a student to progress in the Chinese martial arts. A common saying concerning basic training in Chinese martial arts is as follows: 内外相合，外重手眼身法步，内修心神意氣力。 Which translates as: Train both Internal and External. External training includes the hands, the eyes, the body and stances. Internal training includes the heart, the spirit, the mind, breathing and strength. Stances Stances (steps or 步法) are structural postures employed in Chinese martial arts training. They represent the foundation and the form of a fighter's base. Each style has different names and variations for each stance. Stances may be differentiated by foot position, weight distribution, body alignment, etc. Stance training can be practiced statically, the goal of which is to maintain the structure of the stance through a set time period, or dynamically, in which case a series of movements is performed repeatedly. The Horse stance (騎馬步/馬步; qí mǎ bù/mǎ bù) and the bow stance are examples of stances found in many styles of Chinese martial arts. Meditation In many Chinese martial arts, meditation is considered to be an important component of basic training. Meditation can be used to develop focus, mental clarity and can act as a basis for qigong training.Through meditation, martial arts practitioners learn to regulate their breath, relax their bodies, and enter a state of deep focus. This kind of concentration helps them to stay present in their movements and techniques, enhancing their responsiveness and physical coordination. Meditation also cultivates the ability for introspection, enabling practitioners to become more keenly aware of their bodily sensations, energy flow, and inner state. Meditation is also closely related to qigong. Through the concentration and adjustments achieved through meditation, martial arts practitioners can better perceive and direct the internal energy (known as "qi" in qigong). They learn to manipulate the flow of qi through deep breathing and visualization exercises to promote bodily balance, harmony, and health. Therefore, meditation, as a part of foundational training, offers Chinese martial arts practitioners a comprehensive approach to cultivating both the internal and external aspects. It assists them in developing various aspects of their body, energy, and mind, thereby enhancing their technical skills. Use of qi The concept of qi is encountered in a number of Chinese martial arts. Qi is variously defined as an inner energy or "life force" that is said to animate living beings; as a term for proper skeletal alignment and efficient use of musculature (sometimes also known as fa jin or jin); or as a shorthand for concepts that the martial arts student might not yet be ready to understand in full. These meanings are not necessarily mutually exclusive. The existence of qi as a measurable form of energy as discussed in traditional Chinese medicine has no basis in the scientific understanding of physics, medicine, biology or human physiology.There are many ideas regarding the control of one's qi energy to such an extent that it can be used for healing oneself or others. Some styles believe in focusing qi into a single point when attacking and aim at specific areas of the human body. Such techniques are known as dim mak and have principles that are similar to acupressure. Weapons training Most Chinese styles also make use of training in the broad arsenal of Chinese weapons for conditioning the body as well as coordination and strategy drills. Weapons training (器械; qìxiè) is generally carried out after the student becomes proficient with the basic forms and applications training. The basic theory for weapons training is to consider the weapon as an extension of the body. It has the same requirements for footwork and body coordination as the basics. The process of weapon training proceeds with forms, forms with partners and then applications. Most systems have training methods for each of the Eighteen Arms of Wushu(十八般兵器; shíbābānbīngqì) in addition to specialized instruments specific to the system. Application Application refers to the practical use of combative techniques. Chinese martial arts techniques are ideally based on efficiency and effectiveness. Application includes non-compliant drills, such as Pushing Hands in many internal martial arts, and sparring, which occurs within a variety of contact levels and rule sets. When and how applications are taught varies from style to style. Today, many styles begin to teach new students by focusing on exercises in which each student knows a prescribed range of combat and technique to drill on. These drills are often semi-compliant, meaning one student does not offer active resistance to a technique, in order to allow its demonstrative, clean execution. In more resisting drills, fewer rules apply, and students practice how to react and respond. 'Sparring' refers to a more advanced format, which simulates a combat situation while including rules that reduce the chance of serious injury. Competitive sparring disciplines include Chinese kickboxing Sǎnshǒu (散手) and Chinese folk wrestling Shuāijiāo (摔跤), which were traditionally contested on a raised platform arena, or Lèitái (擂台). Lèitái were used in public challenge matches first appeared in the Song Dynasty. The objective for those contests was to knock the opponent from a raised platform by any means necessary. San Shou represents the modern development of Lei Tai contests, but with rules in place to reduce the chance of serious injury. Many Chinese martial art schools teach or work within the rule sets of Sanshou, working to incorporate the movements, characteristics, and theory of their style. Chinese martial artists also compete in non-Chinese or mixed Combat sport, including boxing, kickboxing and Mixed martial arts. Forms (taolu) Forms or taolu (Chinese: 套路; pinyin: tàolù) in Chinese are series of predetermined movements combined so they can be practiced as a continuous set of movements. Forms were originally intended to preserve the lineage of a particular style branch, and were often taught to advanced students selected for that purpose. Forms contained both literal, representative and exercise-oriented forms of applicable techniques that students could extract, test, and train in through sparring sessions.Today, many consider taolu to be one of the most important practices in Chinese martial arts. Traditionally, they played a smaller role in training for combat application and took a back seat to sparring, drilling, and conditioning. Forms gradually build up a practitioner's flexibility, internal and external strength, speed and stamina, and they teach balance and coordination. Many styles contain forms that use weapons of various lengths and types, using one or two hands. Some styles focus on a certain type of weapon. Forms are meant to be both practical, usable, and applicable as well as to promote fluid motion, meditation, flexibility, balance, and coordination. Students are encouraged to visualize an attacker while training the form. There are two general types of taolu in Chinese martial arts. Most common are solo forms performed by a single student. There are also sparring forms — choreographed fighting sets performed by two or more people. Sparring forms were designed both to acquaint beginning fighters with basic measures and concepts of combat and to serve as performance pieces for the school. Weapons-based sparring forms are especially useful for teaching students the extension, range, and technique required to manage a weapon. Forms in Traditional Chinese Martial Arts The term taolu (套路) is a shortened version of Tao Lu Yun Dong (套路運動), an expression introduced only recently with the popularity of modern wushu. This expression refers to "exercise sets" and used in the context of athletics or sport. In contrast, in traditional Chinese martial arts alternative terminologies for the training (練) of 'sets or forms are: lian quan tao (練拳套) – practicing a sequence of fists. lian quan jiao (練拳腳) – practicing fists and feet. lian bing qi (練兵器) – practicing weapons. dui da (對打) and dui lian (對練) – fighting sets.Traditional "sparring" sets, called dui da (對打) or dui lian (對練), were an essential part of Chinese martial arts for centuries. Dui lian means, to train by a pair of combatants opposing each other—the character lian (練), refers to practice; to train; to perfect one's skill; to drill. As well, often one of these terms are also included in the name of fighting sets (雙演; shuang yan), "paired practice" (掙勝; zheng sheng), "to struggle with strength for victory" (敵; di), match – the character suggests to strike an enemy; and "to break" (破; po). Generally, there are 21, 18, 12, 9 or 5 drills or 'exchanges/groupings' of attacks and counterattacks, in each dui lian set. These drills were considered only generic patterns and never meant to be considered inflexible 'tricks'. Students practiced smaller parts/exchanges, individually with opponents switching sides in a continuous flow. Dui lian were not only sophisticated and effective methods of passing on the fighting knowledge of the older generation, but they were also essential and effective training methods. The relationship between single sets and contact sets is complicated, in that some skills cannot be developed with solo 'sets', and, conversely, with dui lian. Unfortunately, it appears that most traditional combat oriented dui lian and their training methodology have disappeared, especially those concerning weapons. There are several reasons for this. In modern Chinese martial arts, most of the dui lian are recent inventions designed for light props resembling weapons, with safety and drama in mind. The role of this kind of training has degenerated to the point of being useless in a practical sense, and, at best, is just performance. By the early Song period, sets were not so much "individual isolated technique strung together" but rather were composed of techniques and counter technique groupings. It is quite clear that "sets" and "fighting (two-person) sets" have been instrumental in traditional Chinese martial arts for many hundreds of years—even before the Song Dynasty. There are images of two-person weapon training in Chinese stone painting going back at least to the Eastern Han Dynasty. According to what has been passed on by the older generations, the approximate ratio of contact sets to single sets was approximately 1:3. In other words, about 30% of the 'sets' practiced at Shaolin were contact sets, dui lian, and two-person drill training. This ratio is, in part, evidenced by the Qing Dynasty mural at Shaolin. For most of its history, Shaolin martial arts was mostly weapon-focused: staves were used to defend the monastery, not bare hands. Even the more recent military exploits of Shaolin during the Ming and Qing Dynasties involved weapons. According to some traditions, monks first studied basics for one year and were then taught staff fighting so that they could protect the monastery. Although wrestling has been as sport in China for centuries, weapons have been an essential part of Chinese wushu since ancient times. If one wants to talk about recent or 'modern' developments in Chinese martial arts (including Shaolin for that matter), it is the over-emphasis on bare hand fighting. During the Northern Song Dynasty (976- 997 A.D) when platform fighting is known as Da Laitai (Title Fights Challenge on Platform) first appeared, these fights were with only swords and staves. Although later, when bare hand fights appeared as well, it was the weapons events that became the most famous. These open-ring competitions had regulations and were organized by government organizations; the public also organized some. The government competitions, held in the capital and prefectures, resulted in appointments for winners, to military posts. Practice forms vs. kung fu in combat Even though forms in Chinese martial arts are intended to depict realistic martial techniques, the movements are not always identical to how techniques would be applied in combat. Many forms have been elaborated upon, on the one hand, to provide better combat preparedness, and on the other hand to look more aesthetically pleasing. One manifestation of this tendency toward elaboration beyond combat application is the use of lower stances and higher, stretching kicks. These two maneuvers are unrealistic in combat and are used in forms for exercise purposes. Many modern schools have replaced practical defense or offense movements with acrobatic feats that are more spectacular to watch, thereby gaining favor during exhibitions and competitions. This has led to criticisms by traditionalists of the endorsement of the more acrobatic, show-oriented Wushu competition. Historically forms were often performed for entertainment purposes long before the advent of modern Wushu as practitioners have looked for supplementary income by performing on the streets or in theaters. Documentation in ancient literature during the Tang Dynasty (618–907) and the Northern Song Dynasty (960–1279) suggests some sets, (including two + person sets: dui da also called dui lian) became very elaborate and 'flowery', many mainly concerned with aesthetics. During this time, some martial arts systems devolved to the point that they became popular forms of martial art storytelling entertainment shows. This created an entire category of martial arts known as Hua Fa Wuyi. During the Northern Song period, it was noted by historians this type of training had a negative influence on training in the military. Many traditional Chinese martial artists, as well as practitioners of modern sport combat, have become critical of the perception that forms work is more relevant to the art than sparring and drill application, while most continue to see traditional forms practice within the traditional context—as vital to both proper combat execution, the Shaolin aesthetic as an art form, as well as upholding the meditative function of the physical art form.Another reason why techniques often appear different in forms when contrasted with sparring application is thought by some to come from the concealment of the actual functions of the techniques from outsiders.Forms practice is mostly known for teaching combat techniques yet when practicing forms, the practitioner focuses on posture, breathing, and performing the techniques of both right and left sides of the body. Wushu The word wu (武; wǔ) means "martial". Its Chinese character is made of two parts; the first meaning "walk" or "stop" (止; zhǐ) and the second meaning "lance" (戈; gē). This implies that "wu 武" is a defensive use of combat. The term "wushu 武術" meaning "martial arts" goes back as far as the Liang Dynasty (502–557) in an anthology compiled by Xiao Tong (蕭通), (Prince Zhaoming; 昭明太子 d. 531), called Selected Literature (文選; Wénxuǎn). The term is found in the second verse of a poem by Yan Yanzhi titled: 皇太子釋奠會作詩 "Huang Taizi Shidian Hui Zuoshi". "The great man grows the many myriad things . . . Breaking away from the military arts, He promotes fully the cultural mandates." (Translation from: Echoes of the Past by Yan Yanzhi (384–456))The term wushu is also found in a poem by Cheng Shao (1626–1644) from the Ming Dynasty. The earliest term for 'martial arts' can be found in the Han History (206BC-23AD) was "military fighting techniques" (兵技巧; bīng jìqiǎo). During the Song period (c.960) the name changed to "martial arts" (武藝; wǔyì). In 1928 the name was changed to "national arts" (國術; guóshù) when the National Martial Arts Academy was established in Nanjing. The term reverted to wǔshù under the People's Republic of China during the early 1950s. As forms have grown in complexity and quantity over the years, and many forms alone could be practiced for a lifetime, modern styles of Chinese martial arts have developed that concentrate solely on forms, and do not practice application at all. These styles are primarily aimed at exhibition and competition, and often include more acrobatic jumps and movements added for enhanced visual effect compared to the traditional styles. Those who generally prefer to practice traditional styles, focused less on exhibition, are often referred to as traditionalists. Some traditionalists consider the competition forms of today's Chinese martial arts as too commercialized and losing much of their original values. "Martial morality" Traditional Chinese schools of martial arts, such as the famed Shaolin monks, often dealt with the study of martial arts not just as a means of self-defense or mental training, but as a system of ethics. Wude (武德) can be translated as "martial morality" and is constructed from the words wu (武), which means martial, and de (德), which means morality. Wude deals with two aspects; "Virtue of deed" and "Virtue of mind". Virtue of deed concerns social relations; morality of mind is meant to cultivate the inner harmony between the emotional mind (心; Xin) and the wisdom mind (慧; Hui). The ultimate goal is reaching "no extremity" (無極; Wuji) – closely related to the Taoist concept of wu wei – where both wisdom and emotions are in harmony with each other. Virtues: Notable practitioners Examples of well-known practitioners (武術名師) throughout history: Yue Fei (1103–1142 CE) was a famous Chinese general and patriot of the Song Dynasty. Styles such as Eagle Claw and Xingyiquan attribute their creation to Yue. However, there is no historical evidence to support the claim he created these styles. Ng Mui (late 17th century) was the legendary female founder of many Southern martial arts such as Wing Chun, and Fujian White Crane. She is often considered one of the legendary Five Elders who survived the destruction of the Shaolin Temple during the Qing Dynasty. Yang Luchan (1799–1872) was an important teacher of the internal martial art known as tai chi in Beijing during the second half of the 19th century. Yang is known as the founder of Yang-style tai chi, as well as transmitting the art to the Wu/Hao, Wu and Sun tai chi families. Ten Tigers of Canton (late 19th century) was a group of ten of the top Chinese martial arts masters in Guangdong (Canton) towards the end of the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912). Wong Kei-Ying, Wong Fei Hung's father, was a member of this group. Wong Fei Hung (1847–1924) was considered a Chinese folk hero during the Republican period. More than one hundred Hong Kong movies were made about his life. Sammo Hung, Jackie Chan, and Jet Li have all portrayed his character in blockbuster pictures. Huo Yuanjia (1867–1910) was the founder of Chin Woo Athletic Association who was known for his highly publicized matches with foreigners. His biography was recently portrayed in the movie Fearless (2006). Ip Man (1893–1972) was a master of the Wing Chun and the first to teach this style openly. Yip Man was the teacher of Bruce Lee. Most major branches of Wing Chun taught in the West today were developed and promoted by students of Yip Man. Gu Ruzhang (1894–1952) was a Chinese martial artist who disseminated the Bak Siu Lum (Northern Shaolin) martial arts system across southern China in the early 20th century. Gu was known for his expertise in Iron Palm hand conditioning among other Chinese martial art training exercises. Bruce Lee (1940–1973) was a Chinese-American martial artist and actor who was considered an important icon in the 20th century. He practiced Wing Chun and made it famous. Using Wing Chun as his base and learning from the influences of other martial arts his experience exposed him to, he later developed his own martial arts philosophy that evolved into what is now called Jeet Kune Do. Jackie Chan (b. 1954) is the famous Hong Kong martial artist, film actor, stuntman, action choreographer, director and producer, and a global pop culture icon, widely known for injecting physical comedy into his martial arts performances, and for performing complex stunts in many of his films. Jet Li (b. 1963) is the five-time sport wushu champion of China, later demonstrating his skills in cinema. Donnie Yen (b. 1963) is a Hong Kong actor, martial artist, film director and producer, action choreographer, and world wushu tournament medalist. Wu Jing (b. 1974) is a Chinese actor, director, and martial artist. He was a member of the Beijing wushu team. He started his career as action choreographer and later as an actor. In popular culture to the concepts and use of Chinese martial arts can be found in popular culture. Historically, the influence of Chinese martial arts can be found in books and in the performance arts specific to Asia. Recently, those influences have extended to the movies and television that targets a much wider audience. As a result, Chinese martial arts have spread beyond its ethnic roots and have a global appeal.Martial arts play a prominent role in the literature genre known as wuxia (武俠小說). This type of fiction is based on Chinese concepts of chivalry, a separate martial arts society (武林; Wulin) and a central theme involving martial arts. Wuxia stories can be traced as far back as 2nd and 3rd century BCE, becoming popular by the Tang Dynasty and evolving into novel form by the Ming Dynasty. This genre is still extremely popular in much of Asia and provides a major influence for the public perception of the martial arts. Martial arts influences can also be found in dance, theater and especially Chinese opera, of which Beijing opera is one of the best-known examples. This popular form of drama dates back to the Tang Dynasty and continues to be an example of Chinese culture. Some martial arts movements can be found in Chinese opera and some martial artists can be found as performers in Chinese operas.In modern times, Chinese martial arts have spawned the genre of cinema known as the Kung fu film. The films of Bruce Lee were instrumental in the initial burst of Chinese martial arts' popularity in the West in the 1970s. Bruce Lee was the iconic international superstar that popularized Chinese martial arts in the West with his own variation of Chinese martial arts called Jeet Kune Do. It is a hybrid style of martial art that Bruce Lee practiced and mastered. Jeet Kune Do is his very own unique style of martial art that uses little to minimum movement but maximizes the effect to his opponents. The influence of Chinese martial art have been widely recognized and have a global appeal in Western cinemas starting off with Bruce Lee. Martial artists and actors such as Jet Li and Jackie Chan have continued the appeal of movies of this genre. Jackie Chan successfully brought in a sense of humour in his fighting style in his movies. Martial arts films from China are often referred to as "kung fu movies" (功夫片), or "wire-fu" if extensive wire work is performed for special effects, and are still best known as part of the tradition of kung fu theater. (see also: wuxia, Hong Kong action cinema). The talent of these individuals have broadened Hong Kong's cinematography production and rose to popularity overseas, influencing Western cinemas. In the west, kung fu has become a regular action staple, and makes appearances in many films that would not generally be considered "Martial Arts" films. These films include but are not limited to The Matrix franchise, Kill Bill, and The Transporter. Martial arts themes can also be found on television networks. A U.S. network TV western series of the early 1970s called Kung Fu also served to popularize the Chinese martial arts on television. With 60 episodes over a three-year span, it was one of the first North American TV shows that tried to convey the philosophy and practice in Chinese martial arts. The use of Chinese martial arts techniques can now be found in most TV action series, although the philosophy of Chinese martial arts is seldom portrayed in depth. In the 2006 music video of Knights of Cydonia by Muse, the protagonist can be seen training Chinese martial arts in the opening. In 2022, martial arts and action sequences inspired by Hong Kong cinema can be found in Everything Everywhere All at Once.The Kung Fu Diaries: The Life and Times of a Dragon Master (1920-2001) is a work of fiction, combining aspects of biography, historical fiction, and guide to instruction purportedly from a collection of diaries or papers left by a Kung-Fu Dragon Master. Influence on hip hop In the 1970s, Bruce Lee was beginning to gain popularity in Hollywood for his martial arts movies. The fact that he was a non-white male who portrayed self-reliance and righteous self-discipline resonated with black audiences and made him an important figure in this community. Around 1973, Kung Fu movies became a hit in America across all backgrounds; however, black audiences maintained the films’ popularity well after the general public lost interest. Black youth in New York City were still going from every borough to Times Square every night to watch the latest movies. Amongst these individuals were those coming from the Bronx where, during this time, hip-hop was beginning to take form. One of the pioneers responsible for the development of the foundational aspects of hip-hop was DJ Kool Herc, who began creating this new form of music by taking rhythmic breakdowns of songs and looping them. From the new music came a new form of dance known as b-boying or breakdancing, a style of street dance consisting of improvised acrobatic moves. The pioneers of this dance credit kung fu as one of its influences. Moves such as the crouching low leg sweep and “up rocking” (standing combat moves) are influenced by choreographed kung-fu fights. The dancers’ ability to improvise these moves led way to battles, which were dance competitions between two dancers or crews judged on their creativity, skills, and musicality. In a documentary, Crazy Legs, a member of breakdancing group Rock Steady Crew, described the breakdancing battle being like an old kung fu movie, “where the one kung fu master says something along the lines of ‘hun your kung fu is good, but mine is better,’ then a fight erupts.” See also Eighteen Arms of Wushu Hard and soft (martial arts) Kung fu (disambiguation) List of Chinese martial arts Wushu (sport) Kwoon Weapons and armor in Chinese mythology
Roh Moo-hyun (Korean: 노무현; Hanja: 盧武鉉; RR: No Muhyeon; Korean pronunciation: [no muçʌn]; 1 September 1946 – 23 May 2009) was a South Korean politician and lawyer who served as the ninth president of South Korea between 2003 and 2008. Roh's pre-presidential political career was focused on human rights advocacy for student activists in South Korea. His electoral career later expanded to a focus on overcoming regionalism in South Korean politics, culminating in his election to the presidency. He achieved a large following among younger internet users, which aided his success in the presidential election.Roh's election was notable for the arrival in power of a new generation of Korean politicians, the so-called 386 Generation (people in their thirties, when the term was coined, who had attended university in the 1980s and who were born in the 1960s). This generation had been veterans of student protests against authoritarian rule and advocated a conciliatory approach towards North Korea, even at the expense of good relations with the United States. Roh himself was the first South Korean president to be born after the end of Japanese rule in Korea. South Korea received the highest marks on the Reporters Without Borders Press Freedom Index under his administration. The value of the South Korean won against the US dollar was the strongest during his administration since 1997. Due to the strong currency, for the first time in history, South Korea became the world's 10th largest economy and exceeded the $20,000 milestone in nominal GDP per capita during his administration. Despite high expectations at the beginning of his presidency, Roh encountered strong opposition from both the opposition conservative Grand National Party and media, and he was frequently accused of incompetence. As a result, many of Roh's policies, such as a plan to move the capital of South Korea and a plan to form a coalition with the opposition, made little progress. Because of his poor performance in economy and diplomacy, Roh was not a popular president, having the worst approval rating on average ever recorded in South Korean political history. His economic policy was often criticized for persisting with certain obsolete economic views and failing certain livelihood issues.After leaving office, Roh returned to his hometown of Bongha Maeul. He ran a duck farm and lived an ordinary life, sharing it through his blog. He also ran a website called "Democracy 2.0" to promote healthy online discussions. Fourteen months later, Roh was suspected of bribery by prosecutors, and the subsequent investigations attracted public attention. Roh died by suicide on 23 May 2009 when he jumped from a mountain cliff behind his home, after saying that "there are too many people suffering because of me" on a suicide note on his computer. About 4 million people visited Roh's hometown Bongha Village in the week following his death. His suicide was confirmed by police. Public opinion on Roh has improved considerably since his death, which has taken into account his human rights background and national economic progress during his presidency. In a 2019 Gallup Korea poll, Roh was cited as the most popular president in South Korean history amongst the general public. Personal background Roh was born into a poor farming family on 1 September 1946, in Bongha Village near Gimhae and Pusan, in what is now southeastern South Korea. His ancestor was in Dongyang, Zhejiang. His parents had three boys and two girls, and Roh was the youngest of his family. In 1953, he entered Dae Chang Elementary School. He received high grades, but was quite often absent from school to assist his parents. While in sixth grade, with the encouragement of his school teacher, he became the president of the school. As he entered Jin-yeong middle school, a writing contest was held to commemorate Syngman Rhee's birthday. Roh tried to start a student movement against it, but was caught and suspended from the school.Roh Moo-Hyun decided to become a lawyer due to the influence of his elder brother who had studied law but had died in a car accident. Roh studied on his own to pass the bar exam in 1975 (South Korea does not currently require bar examinees to have graduated from college, university, or law school). In 1977, he became a regional judge in Daejeon, but quit in 1978, and became a lawyer. In 1981, he defended students who had been tortured for suspicion of possession of contraband literature. Following this he decided to become a human rights lawyer. In early 2003, he was quoted as saying, "After that defense, my life was totally changed. At first, even I couldn't believe that they had been tortured that harshly. However, when I saw their horrified eyes and their missing toenails, my comfortable life as a lawyer came to an end. I became a man that wanted to make a difference in the world." With fellow human rights lawyers, he pointed out that this case was forged, then claimed that the National Security Act (South Korea) itself should be judged. In 1985 he started to participate in civic movements by assuming permanent power of attorney on behalf of the Busan council of citizen democracy. He opposed the autocratic regime in place at the time in South Korea, and participated in the pro-democracy June Democracy Movement in 1987 against Chun Doo-hwan. The same year he was jailed while investigating the cause of death of the Daewoo Shipbuilding & Marine Engineering factory worker Lee Seok-Kyu, who had been killed by a stray police tear gas bullet while on strike. Roh was accused of 'unapproved interference in the case' and 'hindering the funeral'. Although he was released in twenty days because of public opinion against the arrest, his lawyer's license was revoked after the incident in political retribution. His lawyer's license was reinstated and he, along with Chun Jung Bae and Im Jong In, founded Haemaru Law firm.Roh was baptized as a Catholic (baptismal name: Justin) in 1986 but then lapsed while continuing to identify as a Catholic, though later years he was non-religious while practicing a form of Mahayana Buddhism. Early political career Roh entered politics in 1988 when he was invited by Kim Young-sam to join the Reunification Democratic Party (Korean: 통일민주당). That same year, he was elected as a member of the National Assembly, representing Dong-gu, Busan. He came to wider public attention with his cross-examination of the government over political corruption allegations in a parliamentary hearing.In 1990, Kim Young-sam merged his party with the Democratic Justice Party to form the Democratic Liberal Party, a forerunner of the Grand National Party. Roh did not participate in the party and he criticized it as "betrayal against the democracy movement".In 1991, before the election of the national assembly, the Weekly Chosun posted an article that alleging that Roh was a politician with hidden wealth. Roh sued the company for defamation and won, but lost the election for his seat.Having lost his seat in the 1992 Assembly elections, he later ran for the mayorship of Busan in 1995, where he lost again. Shortly after the election, Kim Dae-jung founded the National Congress for New Politics, but Roh did not join. In 1996, he ran for the Assembly seat for Jung-gu in Seoul, losing to another future president, Lee Myung-bak.Roh founded the new party with Lee Bu-Yeong, Lee Chul, Kim Won-Gi, and Kim Jeong-Gil, but before the presidential election, after the New Korea Party merged with the United Democratic Party, he decided to reconcile with Kim Dae-jung to 'bring the military government and their political heir into justice'.Subsequently, Roh reconciled with Kim when he endorsed his candidacy in the 1997 Presidential election. At the meeting, Kim Dae-jung welcomed Roh and his party saying "Today is a very pleasant day. That pleasure is not only because we now work together, but also because I could relieve a burden in my mind that I have been carrying (since we separated)." Roh returned to office in 1998, when Lee Myung-bak resigned his seat because of a violation of election law, winning a seat in the ensuing by-election.In 2000, Roh ran for the National Assembly representing Buk-gu and Gangseo-gu in Busan as part of a campaign to overcome regionalism in Korean politics, but was defeated. His defeat in the election, however, proved fortuitous when his supporters formed Nosamo, the first political fan club in Korea. His supporters were inspired by his commitment to overcoming regionalism.In 2000, Roh was appointed Minister of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries under Kim Dae-jung, and this position would constitute his major government experience prior to the presidency.Roh got public attention when he participated in candidate election of his party. The candidate election itself also got high public attention because it allowed the vote not only from the party members, but also the local citizens. At first, his approval rate was 10%, allowing much gap with leading candidate Lee In-Jae, but Roh constantly earned much supporters by his notable speeches, especially in Ulsan, and the result of poll that Roh's approval rate was 41.7%, 1.1% higher than the Lee Hoi-chang, candidate of the opponent party, convinced the voters of his party.Roh won the presidency on 19 December 2002, by defeating Lee Hoi-chang with a narrow 2% margin of victory. At 2003, right before his inauguration, he described his plan as "I will root the method of discussion inside the government.", and added, "discussion should be familiarized until we are called 'Republic of discussion'." Presidency (2003–2008) First year Roh dubbed his administration the "Participatory Government," and entered office intent on introducing an ambitious new agenda. Policy goals for the Roh administration included the continuance of the Sunshine Policy of engagement towards North Korea, the establishment of Korea as a business hub in Northeast Asia, the expansion of social welfare, the pursuit of "balanced national development" to help underdeveloped areas, the eradication of corruption, reform of education and tax systems, reform of labor-management relations, reform of mass media, and a recasting of the relationship with the United States and Japan.As his policy for eradicating corruption inside the government had included many administrative reforms, he had to face high opposition. During the reformation of the prosecution, to resolve the opposition, he suggested a TV forum. The prosecutors insisted that Roh appointed the major positions of the prosecutor's office without consulting the personnel committee, and Roh answered that "The current members of the personnel committee themselves represent the old prosecution which has to be changed, if we do not change now, it would sustain the old prosecution at least few months." Three months into his presidency, he commented about the opposition problem, stating "I'm worrying the opposition that maybe I cannot continue the presidency while I get that much of it." That comment was quoted partly by conservative media, ('I cannot continue the presidency') and Roh was beset by skepticism about his ability and experience. Roh set the tone of his administration with a number of adventurous policies, and measures to uncover and reveal the names of the descendants of Japanese collaborators. The investigations, criticized by opposition parties as a covert means of attacking them, and coming too late to provide substantive redress, mostly resulted in damage to his own party members.Also in his first year in office, Roh announced S Korea's Free Trade Agreement Policy Roadmap. Roh successfully pushed for free trade agreements in spite of domestic opposition from his traditional leftist constituency (who denounced it as "neoliberal") and various groups (particularly farmers) opposed to market opening. Uri Party and impeachment Roh and his supporters left the Millennium Democratic Party in 2003 to form a new party, the Uri Party (열린우리당; lit. "Our Open Party"). Directly ahead of the National Assembly elections, Roh voiced support for the Uri Party, which constituted a technical violation of Constitutional provisions mandating presidential impartiality. After Roh refused to apologize, led by the opposition parties holding the majority, the Assembly voted to impeach him for illegal electioneering on 12 March 2004. The vote was 193–2 (Uri Party members abstained from the vote). Roh's supporters physically blocked the motion for three days in open combat, and had to be hauled out by security guards. Roh's executive power was suspended pending a final decision by the Constitutional Court, and Prime Minister Goh Kun ran the country as the Acting President. The National Assembly's attempt to impeach Roh was largely opposed by the public. From 12 March 2004, to 27 March, protest against the impeachment motion was led by 'citizen's movement for eradicating corruption'. According to the police, 50,000 people gathered to protest on 13 March alone.Although Roh's popularity had hovered around 30%, the impeachment was taken as a power struggle against the political reform and the choice of the citizen, and Roh's popularity went up soon after the assembly's vote to impeach Roh. The results of the April 2004 parliamentary election showed public support for him, with the Uri Party winning a majority of seats.On 14 May 2004, the Constitutional Court overturned the impeachment decision, restoring Roh as president. After the incident, Roh joined the Uri party as a member, officially making the Uri party as the ruling party. It was the first time that a liberal party achieved a majority in the National Assembly. After the reinstatement As a part of his balanced national development campaign to reverse the concentration of wealth in Seoul, Roh also pursued a plan to relocate the capital 100 miles away to South Chungcheong Province, ostensibly to relieve congestion. Roh had made this promise during his campaign, and pursued its fulfillment, despite convincing few voters outside the Chungcheong region of the benefits of the move. After much controversy, the Constitutional Court obviated Roh's plans by ruling that the relocation of the capital was unconstitutional because it 'opposes the custom that has to be considered as the constitution', thus inflicting a huge blow to Roh's political standing. Roh's plan was then amended to the creation of an "administrative capital," though this plan has also not yet seen completion. The issue of the proposed "administrative capital" remains controversial as of 2010 in plans for Sejong City, the exact nature of which continues to be a politically divisive issue even within the ruling Grand National Party.With the controversies concerning the capital, perceptions of neglect and mismanagement of the economy had grown. Although exports performed at record levels and the economy grew, growth still lagged behind both the previous administration and the rest of the world, while the domestic economy stagnated. At the same time regulations proliferated, investment capital exited the country, unemployment (especially among the young) increased, wealthy students flocked overseas as the education system stagnated, and housing prices in Seoul soared far beyond the reach of the average citizen. Roh responded by dismissing criticism as "shameless mudslinging," and touted the achievements of his government in increasing national competitiveness, strengthening the economy. This somewhat cavalier attitude led to his Uri Party suffering consecutive defeats in the Assembly, before eventually collapsing. Roh's unpopularity had become a liability for his party, and a new party was needed to disassociate from him. The Uri Party would thus be revamped and renamed as the Democratic Party, and is currently the main opposition party in the National Assembly. Roh's ambitious initial promises to establish Korea as an international business hub in Asia faded soon after his election. Instead, Korea under Roh suffered negative publicity in the foreign business community due to prosecutorial investigations on the purchase and sale of Korea Exchange Bank by the Lone Star Fund, spurring foreign investors to join their domestic counterparts in leaving the country. When housing prices soared, to prevent speculative bubble like Japanese asset price bubble crisis, Roh introduced additional 1~3% of property tax on real estate exceeding 600 million won (about 600,000US$). This efficiently slowed down the bubble, but this policy met high opposition from the richest who had to pay higher tax. At the same time, Roh also increased welfare spending by 18% a year, and drastically increased spending by increasing the size of the civil service by more than 95,700 new hires, or approximately 60 people a day. Criticism of lax discipline among the civil service and police force was high during his government. The remainder of Roh's term was characterized by a number of campaigns pursued to varying degrees of success and completion. One of the more successful campaigns (at least during his term) was Roh's pursuit of an FTA with the United States, concluded in April 2007 after many months of negotiations by Kim Hyun-jong, the deputy minister for trade. Grand coalition plan As a result of the controversy concerning the capital, and public dissatisfaction of economic development, Uri party lost much of its popularity. When the Uri party was defeated in by-elections held on 30 April 2005, losing every one of the 23 electoral districts, Uri Party lost its majority in the National Assembly. Facing the outcome of his unpopularity, Roh took a rather strange measure to manage the government when he proposed a grand coalition with the opposition Grand National Party. Roh's rationale was that since it was impossible to continue his presidency with an approval rate of around 20 percent, a grand coalition comprising the Uri party and the Grand National Party was desirable, and that the difference between both parties in terms of political agendas was actually minute. Roh promised he would yield much of his power and might even resign from office if a grand coalition was successfully launched. Roh's proposal for the grand coalition stirred yet another national controversy. Many called his plan "reckless and completely ignorant" of the sentiments of people still ailing from repeated political controversies and economic hardships. Many of the Uri party's supporters who identify as liberals were enraged at Roh holding that his party was not really different from the conservative opposition. The Grand National Party, enjoying relatively strong approval rate but still bent on revenge for the party's defeat in major elections, repeatedly declined to initiate a negotiation for the coalition. While the Uri Party grudgingly supported the President's proposal, a lawmaker defected from the party in protest of Roh's plan, and the loss of popularity was felt when the party suffered yet another complete defeat in the by-election on 26 October 2005, this time including one of the party's stronghold electoral districts. Roh's plan was scrapped, having failed to garner support from either political faction. Foreign relations United States Roh was perceived as an anti-American before the presidential race, which was not a handicap during the presidential campaign. Public antipathy to the United States was prevalent in 2002, particularly evoked by the Yangju highway incident, where two South Korean middle school girls were crushed to death by a U.S. Army armored bridge-laying vehicle. The American soldiers involved were tried by a U.S. Army court martial, but the Roh administration continued to demand a South Korean trial, although the incident occurred 'on duty' (as part of a convoy) and thus was an American responsibility under the Status of Forces Agreement between the United States and South Korea. However, except for the policy toward the North Korea, Roh was supportive toward the United States. Roh endeavored to improve relations with North Korea, becoming the first president to cross the border by foot and meeting Kim Jong-il. He dispatched the Zaytun Division to support the US in the Iraq War by carrying out peacekeeping and other reconstruction-related tasks. Roh explained the deployment as only a peacekeeping mission and claimed that such commitment was required to bring favor from the United States in resolving the North Korean nuclear crisis. He also pursued the KORUS FTA. In 2004, the Roh administration reached an agreement with the US to move out all US forces in the capital to Camp Humphreys, a rural area far away from the capital or major cities, as he deemed the USFK's presence in the capital unnecessary and harming its reputation and development.In February 2006, Roh announced that South Korea would initiate negotiations with the United States for a free trade agreement.In April 2007, Roh presided over an emergency meeting of his aides to discuss the diplomatic fallout from the massacre at Virginia Polytechnic Institute in the United States by a South Korean student, Cho Seung-hui, concerning its negative impact on South Korea-U.S. relations. They were discussing comprehensive measures to cope with the unprecedented incident, including issuance of presidential messages of apology and plans to prevent possible harassment of South Koreans living in the United States. Roh issued two messages of condolence already on 17 April 2007.Former Secretary of Defense Robert Gates described Roh as "anti-American and probably a little crazy" in his book titled Duty, and professed astonishment at Roh telling him at the meeting in November 2007 that "the two biggest security threats in Asia were the United States and Japan". Japan South Korea's relationship with Japan was in a healthy condition when Roh entered office. However, his first visit to the neighboring country in 2003 was scheduled on a date that coincided with Korean Memorial Day.During the visit, Roh proclaimed he would not seek any more apologies from Japan over its colonial occupation, in the hope of maintaining a friendly relationship between the two countries. Although Roh's proclamation was made in good faith, some expressed concern that Japan may have interpreted this as the termination of its responsibility for the colonial past, and use it as an excuse to deny any claims for compensation that may arise in the future.Despite Roh's hope, relations with Japan deteriorated henceforth, in several areas of conflict such as compensation issues for comfort women, denial of the colonial past in Japanese history textbooks, and disputes over the Liancourt Rocks. Another sensitive issue, former Prime Minister of Japan Junichiro Koizumi's repeated visits to Yasukuni Shrine were harshly criticized in South Korea, and Roh declared no further meetings with Koizumi would take place unless he stopped visiting the shrine.According to Rep. Chung Mong-joon, former leader of the ruling Saenuri Party, "The Roh Moo-hyun administration proposed that the U.S. define Japan as a hypothetical enemy," at the Korea-U.S. Security Consultative Meeting in Seoul in October 2005. "President Roh proposed it because the general public had bad feelings against Japan and Korea had a territorial dispute over the Dokdo islets with Japan, Washington was very embarrassed since it had hoped Korea and Japan would go hand-in-hand as free and democratic countries. A hypothetical enemy in English implies a main enemy."In an address to the nation on 25 April 2006 regarding disputes over the Liancourt Rocks, Roh reaffirmed that he didn't seek another apology from Japan, but demanded that Japan take action in compliance with its past apologies. The then-Prime Minister of Japan Junichiro Koizumi characterized the speech as intended for domestic audiences. Retirement and post-presidency (2008–2009) After leaving office, Roh retired to Bongha Maeul, a small village in his hometown. This marked a break with previous custom, where former presidents retired to heavily guarded houses in Seoul. Bongha – a village of 121 people – became a major tourist attraction due to Roh's presence. Bribery allegations On 4 December 2008, Roh Moo-hyun's elder brother, Roh Gun-Pyeong, was indicted on charges of illegally taking 3 million won ($3,000) from former Daewoo Engineering & Construction and imprisoned. On 7 April 2009, Chung Sang-Moon, the former secretary of Roh Moo-hyun, was arrested on charges. In early 2009, allegations of corruption had begun to surface regarding the former President's family and aides, eventually leading to the indictment of Roh's elder brother Roh Gun-Pyeong on suspicion of influence peddling. The investigation soon expanded to encompass Roh Moo-Hyun's aides, as well as other members of his family. As the investigation closed in on Roh's former secretary, Chung Sang-Moon, Roh announced on his website that "The accusation should be directed at our household, not Chung. Our household made the request, received money and used it." At the same time, Roh claimed that he himself had not known of the money transfer before his retirement. By May 2009, prosecutors had summoned Roh's wife, son, and eventually the former president himself on suspicion of receiving 1 million dollars in bribes from Park Yeon-Cha, a businessman close to the ex-President. Roh was subject to initial written questioning by prosecutors, before direct questioning, prior to which he apologized again to the public and stated that "he was overwhelmed by shame."Kang Kum-won was another Roh's long time supporter whose business was under thorough investigation by The Supreme Prosecutors' Office (SPO). Even if Kang was Roh's closest long time supporter, he did not expand his business during Roh's presidency to avoid unnecessary suspicion of special benefits. However, his parole was denied during the investigation despite his terminal illness of brain cancer until Roh's death.Roh's investigation for corruption came after he had campaigned on pledges to "clean up the presidency," and root out corruption, while condemning his opponents as hopelessly corrupt.In one speech to commemorate the 20th anniversary of Korea's "June Struggle" for democracy, Roh vehemently attacked critics who described him as incompetent, stating, "They even deal out the absurd rhetoric that they would rather have a corrupt administration than an inept one while openly revealing their true colors as forces of corruption and the security-driven dictatorships of the past. What's more, they label the democratic forces as being inept, plotting to rise to power on the back of the nostalgia for the development-oriented dictatorships of the past."Roh's characteristically self-righteous stance resulted in harsh condemnation of the ex-President for hypocrisy. In response to the pervasive criticism upon Roh's bribery charges, he stated on his website, "I have lost my moral cause just with the facts I have so far admitted. The only thing left is the legal procedure". Roh further added, "What I have to do now is bow to the nation and apologize. From now on, the name Roh cannot be a symbol of the values you pursue. I'm no longer qualified to speak about democracy and justice.... You should abandon me." Despite these appeals, Roh continued to deny all knowledge of the receipt of money by his family from Park Yeon-Cha, in contradiction to Park's testimony. Roh refused cross-examination with Park.In contrast to scandals involving previous presidents, who reportedly used illicit funds close to $500 million to finance political campaigns and their family activities, Roh's family had to use borrowed funds close to $1.5 million from a friend for personal use, such as the payment of living expenses for study in the United States. Death Roh Moo-Hyun was found seriously injured on the morning of 23 May 2009 after apparently jumping from a 45-meter (150 ft) cliff known as Bueong'i Bawi (lit. Owl's Rock) behind his rural home in his home village of Bongha. He sustained serious head injuries and was sent by car to Seyoung hospital nearby at 7:20 am and moved to Busan University Hospital at around 8:15 am (and pronounced dead at around 9:30 am (00:30 GMT). Police investigators ruled out conspiracy theories surrounding the death of Roh. According to police, Roh switched on his computer and typed a hastily worded suicide note. The police report stated that the suicide note apologized for making "too many people suffer" and requested that his body be cremated. I am in debt to so many people. I have caused too great a burden to be placed upon them. I can't begin to fathom the countless agonies down the road. The rest of my life would only be a burden for others. I am unable to do anything because of poor health. I can't read, I can't write. Do not be too sad. Isn't life and death all a part of nature? Do not be sorry. Do not feel resentment toward anyone. It is fate. Cremate me. And leave only a small tombstone near home. I've thought on this for a long time. The 8th president, Kim Dae-jung, stated that "President Roh Moo-hyun loved Koreans more than any other presidents [...] During the unfair investigation, he suffered from all sorts of humiliation, chagrin, deception, and defamation, which left him no option but to commit suicide before his countryman to show his innocence." The 10th president, Lee Myung-bak, stated that "the news was truly unbelievable and deeply saddening." Justice Minister Kim Kyung-han said the corruption case against him would be formally closed. However, he did not say whether the former president's family would continue to be investigated.A State Funeral was held from May 23, 2009, to May 29, 2009, and it was attended by President Lee Myung-bak, First Lady Kim Yoon-ok, former First Lady Lee Hee-ho, former presidents Kim Dae-jung, Kim Young-sam and members of National Assembly of the Republic of Korea. However, former Presidents Chun Doo-hwan and Roh Tae-woo were absent. The funeral started from his hometown, Bong-Ha village, with his body transported to Seoul via a hearse, with a convoy with his family moving together. Then, he was cremated in Suwon, Gyeonggi-do and his ashes were buried in his hometown in accordance with his will, which was recorded on the suicide note. Roh's suicide followed the suicides of a number of high-profile figures under corruption investigations in Korea in recent years, including the former secretary of Prime Minister Kim Young-chul, former Busan mayor Ahn Sang-Young (who died by suicide while in prison), Park Tae-young, former governor of Jeolla province, and Chung Mong-hun, a former Hyundai executive. Roh himself had been sued by the widow of former Daewoo E&C head Nam Sang-Guk for allegedly making defamatory comments that drove her husband to throw himself off of a bridge. Roh's suicide was followed later in the year by the suicide of another politician, the Mayor of Yangsan, who was being subject to a corruption investigation. Roh's public funeral involved Buddhist and Catholic rites. Hundreds of thousands of supporters turned out to pay their respects in memorial shrines erected around the country, as did President Lee Myung-bak and numerous other prominent politicians. Sporadic violent demonstrations in Seoul immediately after the funeral resulted in the detention of 72 people.Roh's suicide resulted in a sudden positive shift in domestic perception towards the late President, leading Kim Dong-gil, one of the conservative figures to comment, "How could he become an instant saint upon his suicide?" Perceptions of an excessive investigation on Roh's alleged improprieties boosted support for the opposition Party (itself formed when Roh's then unpopularity made it a liability to be associated with him), giving them enough leverage to demand that President Lee Myung-bak apologize for the "politically motivated" investigation they claimed caused Roh's death, and discipline those responsible. Support for the opposition party increased to 28.3%, outpolling the ruling GNP at 23.5%. The Democratic Party also decided to block the scheduled opening of the National Assembly until the Lee Myung-bak government accepted responsibility for Roh's suicide. The chief prosecutor in Roh's bribery case also resigned. A year after Roh died, his autobiography was published by his personal and political fellows. Based on Roh's previous books, unpublished draft, notes, letters and interviews, it follows Roh's life from birth to death.He died about 3 months before former President Kim Dae-jung died on 18 August 2009 of multiple organ dysfunction syndrome. Former Prime Minister Han Myung-suk and others claimed that the investigation of Roh's corruption case leading to his death was President Lee's political revenge and murder. Legacy In January 2010, dissatisfaction with the poor electoral showing of the minority Democratic Party, and a posthumous reappraisal of Roh Moo-hyun's presidency spurred the creation of a new party, the "Participation Party." This party was created to "revive the spirit of former President Roh Moo-hyun."One of Roh's biggest accomplishments was revising regulations for political fundraising, which even one of his harshest critics praises. Before the revision, previous presidential candidates received more than $300 million hush money from leaving president to run the presidential campaign. During Roh's initial campaign for the presidency, civilians donated their piggy banks raising close to $1.2 million, but not enough to match about $12 million his opponent raised.The Institute for Future Korea (한국미래발전연구원) is established for researching and promoting Roh Moo-hyun's social ideas.A WikiLeaks American diplomatic cable to South Korea revealed that Roh Moo-hyun expressed concerns how the US government mistreated North Korea.Lee In-gyu (이인규), the former head of the SPO released his book on the involvements of the political corruptions surrounding the investigation against Roh that led to his suicide. In his book, Lee acknowledged that the South Korean National Intelligence Service had intentionally released overly sensational stories about President Roh's bribery charges. In 2010, a year after his death, the politicians who were Roh's aides won the local elections and became the provincial government heads. In January 2012, Han Myung-Sook who had been one of the prime ministers in Roh's tenure was elected party leader of the biggest opposition party, Democratic United Party. She officially made clear "succession of Roh's policy". Although his policy was regarded as failure when he was in the position, it has been reevaluated as liberal and nationalistic, compared to Lee Myung-Bak's authoritarian and pro-US policy. Even a conservative professor, Lee Sang-don, who had severely criticized Roh's policy, said that "Roh became a myth (of our age)."On the 10th anniversary of his passing, former US President George W. Bush paid respects at the annual memorial ceremony for Roh Moo-hyun.He was ranked first in the 2019 Gallup South Korea survey asking for the greatest president. Awards and honours National honours South Korea: Recipient of the Grand Order of Mugunghwa Foreign honours Algeria: Recipient of the National Order of Merit Denmark: Recipient of Order of the Elephant Poland: Recipient of Order of the White Eagle Qatar: Recipient of the Order of Independence Spain: Collar of the Order of Civil Merit United Kingdom: Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath In popular culture The 2013 film The Attorney starring Song Kang-ho is a dramatic adaptation of Roh's early human rights law career. It became the eighth highest-grossing film in South Korean history at the time of its release, and was the second-highest grossing South Korean film of 2013 behind Miracle in Cell No. 7. Authored books Roh Moo-hyun (1 September 1994). 여보, 나 좀 도와줘 [Honey, Please help me] (in Korean) (1st ed.). Seoul: Sae-teo. ISBN 978-89-87175-19-5. ———————— (30 November 2001). 노무현이 만난 링컨 [Lincoln that Roh Moo-hyun met] (in Korean). Seoul: Hakgojae Books. ISBN 978-89-85846-89-9. ———————— (15 October 2002). 노무현의 리더십 이야기 [Roh Moo-hyun's Leadership Story] (in Korean) (1st ed.). Seoul: Happy Reading. ISBN 978-89-89571-07-0. ———————— (22 September 2009). 성공과 좌절 [Success and Frustration] (in Korean) (1st ed.). Seoul: Hakgojae Books. ISBN 978-89-5625-096-0. ———————— (27 November 2009). 진보의 미래 [The future of progress] (in Korean) (1st ed.). Paju: Dongnyok. ISBN 978-89-7297-608-0. ———————— (26 April 2010). Rhyu Si-min; Roh Moo-hyun Foundation (eds.). 운명이다 [The fate of the Roh Moo-hyun] (in Korean) (1st ed.). Paju: Dolbegae. ISBN 978-89-7199-386-6. ———————— (3 May 2019). Roh Moo-hyun Foundation (ed.). 그리하여 노무현이라는 사람은 [So the person called Roh Moo-hyun]. Roh Moo-hyun's Complete Works (in Korean). Vol. 6. Paju: Dolbegae. ISBN 978-89-7199-947-9. See also 2002 South Korean presidential election Roh's involvement in Hwang Woo-suk scandal Social liberalism U.S.-Korea Free Trade Agreement Official English page of Roh Moo-hyun The Opened We Party (in Korean) Nosamo: Roh Moo-hyun's fan club (in Korean) Archived 4 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine "Roh Defiant on Korea-US Tension", The Chosun Ilbo, 25 January 2006. "Profile: Roh Moo-hyun", BBC News, 14 May 2004. "President Roh Moo-hyun and the New Politics of South Korea", The Asia Society, February 2003. "Roh Moo-hyun, South's Man of the People", The Age, 26 February 2003. "Profile: President-elect Roh Moo-hyun", CNN, 31 December 2002. Cheong Wa Dae Office of the President (English) Biography from Roh's Cheong Wa Dae archives Archived 29 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine (English)
99 may refer to: 99 (number), the natural number following 98 and preceding 100 one of the years 99 BC, AD 99, 1999, 2099, etc. Art, entertainment, and media The 99, a comic series based on Islamic culture Film, television and radio 99 (1918 film), a Hungarian film 99 (2009 film), an Indian Hindi film 99 (2019 film), an Indian Kannada film The 99 (TV series), a 2011–2012 animated series WNNX (99X), classic "Rock 100.5" FM, in Atlanta, Georgia 99 (Brooklyn Nine-Nine episode) 99, a character from Star Wars: The Clone Wars Games '99: The Last War, a renamed version of the arcade game Repulse Ninety-nine (addition card game), a simple card game where players drop out if forced to bring the total above 99 Ninety-nine (trick-taking card game), a card game where players bid by discarding three cards Music 99 Records, a record label Performers Ninety-nine (owarai), a Japanese comedic duo known for their show Mecha-Mecha Iketeru! ninetynine, an Australian indie band 9nine, a Japanese idol J-Pop group Albums 99 (Epik High album), 2012 99 (No-Big-Silence album), 1997 Songs "99" (song), 1979, by Toto "99" (Fightstar song), 2007 "99" (Ruth Lorenzo song), 2015 "99", 2004, by The Haunted from the album rEVOLVEr "Ninety-Nine" (song), 1959 by Bill Anderson Commercial brands 99, a line of schnapps fruit brandy produced by Barton Brands 99 (app), a brand of mobile transport software 99 Flake, also known as "99", a type of ice cream served with a chocolate flake Other uses .99, a common price ending in psychological pricing Ninety-Nines, an organization for female pilots founded by Amelia Earhart and others See also 99% (disambiguation) 99ers, U.S. Citizens who have exhausted all their unemployment benefits 99ers, the 1999 U.S. Women's soccer team 99X (disambiguation) A99 (disambiguation) List of highways numbered 99 Atomic number 99: einsteinium
100 or one hundred (Roman numeral: C) is the natural number following 99 and preceding 101. In medieval contexts, it may be described as the short hundred or five score in order to differentiate the English and Germanic use of "hundred" to describe the long hundred of six score or 120. In mathematics 100 is the square of 10 (in scientific notation it is written as 102). The standard SI prefix for a hundred is "hecto-". 100 is the basis of percentages (per cent meaning "per hundred" in Latin), with 100% being a full amount. 100 is a Harshad number in decimal, and also in base-four, a base in-which it is also a self-descriptive number.100 is the sum of the first nine prime numbers, from 2 through 23. It is also divisible by the number of primes below it, 25. 100 cannot be expressed as the difference between any integer and the total of coprimes below it, making it a noncototient.100 has a reduced totient of 20, and an Euler totient of 40. A totient value of 100 is obtained from four numbers: 101, 125, 202, and 250. 100 can be expressed as a sum of some of its divisors, making it a semiperfect number. The geometric mean of its nine divisors is 10. 100 is the sum of the cubes of the first four positive integers (100 = 13 + 23 + 33 + 43). This is related by Nicomachus's theorem to the fact that 100 also equals the square of the sum of the first four positive integers: 100 = 102 = (1 + 2 + 3 + 4)2.100 = 26 + 62, thus 100 is the seventh Leyland number. 100 is also the seventeenth Erdős–Woods number, and the fourth 18-gonal number.The 100th prime number is 541, which returns 0 {\displaystyle 0} for the Mertens function. It is the 10th star number (whose digit sum also adds to 10 in decimal). There are exactly 100 prime numbers in base-ten whose digits are in strictly ascending order (e.g. 239, 2357 etc.). The last such prime number is 23456789, which contains eight consecutive integers as digits. In science One hundred is the atomic number of fermium, an actinide and the last of the heavy metals that can be created through neutron bombardment. On the Celsius scale, 100 degrees is the boiling temperature of pure water at sea level. The Kármán line lies at an altitude of 100 kilometres above the Earth's sea level and is commonly used to define the boundary between Earth's atmosphere and outer space. In religion There are 100 blasts of the Shofar heard in the service of Rosh Hashana, the Jewish New Year. A religious Jew is expected to utter at least 100 blessings daily. In the Hindu epic of the Mahabharata, the king Dhritarashtra had 100 sons known as the Kauravas. In politics The Hundred (county division) is a largely historical division of a county or similar larger administrative unit. The United States Senate has 100 Senators. In money Most of the world's currencies are divided into 100 subunits; for example, one euro is one hundred cents and one pound sterling is one hundred pence. By specification, 100 euro notes feature a picture of a Rococo gateway on the obverse and a Baroque bridge on the reverse. The U.S. hundred-dollar bill has Benjamin Franklin's portrait; the "Benjamin" is the largest U.S. bill in print. American savings bonds of $100 have Thomas Jefferson's portrait, while American $100 treasury bonds have Andrew Jackson's portrait. In other fields One hundred is also: The number of years in a century. The number of centimeters in a meter. The number of pounds in an American short hundredweight. In Greece, India, Israel and Nepal, 100 is the police telephone number. In Belgium, 100 is the ambulance and firefighter telephone number. In United Kingdom, 100 is the operator telephone number. The HTTP status code indicating that the client should continue with its request. The age at which a person becomes a centenarian. In sports The number of yards in an American football field (not including the end zones). The number of points required for a snooker player to score a century break, a significant milestone. The record number of points scored in one NBA game by a single player, set by Wilt Chamberlain of the Philadelphia Warriors on March 2, 1962. The 100-yard dash and the 100-metre dash are sprint track events. The 100-kilometre walk is a racewalking event. The Hundred (cricket), a 100-ball cricket competition. See also 1 vs. 100 AFI's 100 Years... Hundred (division) Hundred (word) Hundred Days Hundred Years' War List of highways numbered 100 Top 100 Greatest 100 Wells, D. The Penguin Dictionary of Curious and Interesting Numbers London: Penguin Group. (1987): 133 Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Hundred" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. "On the Number 100". WisdomPortal.com.
101 may refer to: 101 (number), the number AD 101, a year in the 2nd century AD 101 BC, a year in the 2nd century BCIt may also refer to: Entertainment 101 (album), a live album and documentary by Depeche Mode "101" (song), a 1988 song and single by Sheena Easton "101", a song on the Girl on Fire album by Alicia Keys The 101 Network, former name of Audience, an American pay television channel Transportation List of highways numbered 101, several roads, including: U.S. Route 101, often called "The 101" 101 series, a commuter multiple unit train introduced in 1958 by Japan National Railways TMK 101, a tramcar type which was used in Zagreb, Croatia, from 1951 until December 2008 McDonnell F-101 Voodoo fighter aircraft McDonnell CF-101 Voodoo Canadian variant of the F-101 Fisher FP-101 kit aircraft Other uses 101 (slang), a term used to indicate an introduction to a body of knowledge 101st Airborne Division Bell 101 modem a late 1950s communications modem Bill 101 or Law 101, the Charter of the French Language in Québec Police 101, the single non-emergency number used by all UK territorial police authorities Romance 101, a South Korean manhwa series Taipei 101, the tallest skyscraper in the world from 2004 to 2010 Mendelevium, chemical element with atomic number 101 101 Dalmatians (disambiguation) See also All pages with titles beginning with 101 All pages with titles containing 101 IOI (disambiguation) Room 101 (disambiguation)
102 may refer to: 102 (number), the number AD 102, a year in the 2nd century AD 102 BC, a year in the 2nd century BC 102 (ambulance service), an emergency medical transport service in Uttar Pradesh, India 102 (Clyde) Field Squadron, Royal Engineers10/2 may refer to: 10//2, a Nike clothing line inspired by Lance Armstrong October 2 (month-day date notation) February 10 (day-month date notation) 10 shillings and 2 pence in UK predecimal currency See also 1/2 (disambiguation), for uses of "1/02" Nobelium, chemical element with atomic number 102
105 may refer to: 105 (number), the number AD 105, a year in the 2nd century AD 105 BC, a year in the 2nd century BC 105 (telephone number) 105 (MBTA bus) 105 (Northumberland) Construction Regiment, Royal Engineers, an English military unit 105th Regiment Royal Artillery "105", a song by Kim Petras "105", a 2003 song by Smash Mouth from the album Get the Picture? See also 10/5 (disambiguation) Dubnium, chemical element with atomic number 105
106 may refer to: 106 (number), the number AD 106, a year in the 2nd century AD 106 BC, a year in the 2nd century BC 106 (emergency telephone number), an Australian emergency number 106 (MBTA bus), a route of the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority10/6 may refer to: October 6 (month-day date notation) June 10 (day-month date notation) 10 shillings and 6 pence in UK predecimal currency the value of the half guinea in predecimal shillings and pence 10/6, the price tag on the hat of the Hatter in Alice's Adventures in Wonderland See also 1/6 (disambiguation), for uses of "1/06" Seaborgium, chemical element with atomic number 106
108 may refer to: 108 (number) AD 108, a year 108 BC, a year 108 (artist) (born 1978), Italian street artist 108 (band), an American hardcore band 108 (emergency telephone number), an emergency telephone number in several states in India 108 (Lost) 108 (MBTA bus), a bus route in Boston, Massachusetts, US 108 (New Jersey bus), a bus route in Newark, New Jersey, US Peugeot 108, a city car. 108 Heroes, the famous set of outlaws from Water Margin See also 10/8 (disambiguation) Hassium, a chemical element with atomic number 108
109 may refer to: 109 (number), the integer following 108 and preceding 110 AD 109, a year of the Julian calendar, in the second century AD 109 BC, a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar 109 (department store), a department store in Shibuya, Tokyo, Japan 109 (MBTA bus), a bus route in Boston, Massachusetts, USA Messerschmitt Bf 109, a German World War II fighter plane 109, an anti-semitic dogwhistle referring to the number of countries the Jews have been expelled from. See also 10/9 (disambiguation) Meitnerium, synthetic chemical element with atomic number 109
112 may refer to: 112 (number), the natural number following 111 and preceding 113 112 (band), an American R&B quartet from Atlanta, Georgia 112 (album), album from the band of the same name 112 (emergency telephone number), the standard emergency phone number in the European Union and on GSM cellphones 112 BC, a year AD 112, a year of the Julian calendar Copernicium, an element with atomic number 112 112 (MBTA bus) 112 (New Jersey bus) KFM 112M aircraft engine Thai Criminal Code section 112, see Lèse majesté in Thailand See also 1/12 (disambiguation) 11/2 (disambiguation) I12 (disambiguation) Copernicium, synthetic chemical element with atomic number 112
113 may refer to: 113 (number), a natural number AD 113, a year 113 BC, a year 113 (band), a French hip hop group 113 (MBTA bus), Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority bus route 113 (New Jersey bus), Ironbound Garage in Newark and run to and from the Port Authority bus route See also 11/3 (disambiguation) Nihonium, synthetic chemical element with atomic number 113
119 may refer to: 119 (number), a natural number 119 (emergency telephone number) AD 119, a year in the 2nd century AD 119 BC, a year in the 2nd century BC 119 (album), 2012 119 (NCT song) 119 (Show Me the Money song) 119 (film), a Japanese film, see Naoto Takenaka 119 (MBTA bus) List of highways numbered 119 11/9 (disambiguation) 911 (disambiguation) Ununennium, a hypothetical chemical element with atomic number 119 All pages with titles beginning with 119 All pages with titles containing 119
The Chinese alligator (Alligator sinensis; simplified Chinese: 鼍; traditional Chinese: 鼉; pinyin: tuó), also known as the Yangtze alligator (simplified Chinese: 扬子鳄; traditional Chinese: 揚子鱷; pinyin: yángzǐ'è), China alligator, or historically the muddy dragon, is a crocodilian endemic to China. It and the American alligator (A. mississippiensis) are the only living species in the genus Alligator of the family Alligatoridae. Dark gray or black in color with a fully armored body, the Chinese alligator grows to 1.5–2.1 metres (5–7 ft) in length and weighs 36–45 kilograms (80–100 lb) as an adult. It brumates in burrows in winter and is nocturnal in summer. Mating occurs in early summer, with females most commonly producing 20–30 eggs, which are smaller than those of any other crocodilian. The species is an opportunistic feeder, primarily eating fish and invertebrates. A vocal species, adults bellow during the mating season and young vocalize to communicate with their parents and other juveniles. Captive specimens have reached age 70, and wild specimens can live past 50. Living in bodies of fresh water, the Chinese alligator's range is restricted to six regions in the province of Anhui, as well as possibly the provinces of Jiangsu and Zhejiang. Originally living as far away from its current range as Japan, the species previously had a wide range and population, but beginning in 5000 BC, multiple threats, such as habitat destruction, caused the species' population and range to decline. The population in the wild was about 1,000 in the 1970s, decreased to below 130 in 2001, and grew after 2003, with its population being about 300 as of 2017. Listed as critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, multiple conservation actions have been taking place for this species. The Chinese alligator has been a part of Chinese literature since the third century. In the late 1200s, Marco Polo became the first person outside of China to write about it. In some writings, the Chinese alligator has been associated with the Chinese dragon. Many pieces of evidence suggest that the Chinese alligator was an inspiration for the Chinese dragon. History and taxonomy Chinese alligators were mentioned in Chinese literature very early; for example, in the Classic of Poetry, whose poems were composed between the 11th and 7th centuries BCE. Marco Polo was the first person outside of China to write about the alligator, when he came to China and saw it in the late 1200s. He said that the alligator lived in "caverns" in the day and hunted at night, and that humans targeted its meat and skin, with its gall bladder having multiple medical purposes. He stated that it was found in lakes, rivers, and springs in the province "Karazan". In 1656, Martino Martini, a priest, wrote that the Chinese alligator lived in the river Yangtze and was "much feared by the local residents". Unlike Polo, Martini wrote his description using information from Chinese literature. Chinese alligators were later thought to give Buddhist priests merit if the priests were to buy alligators held in captivity and release them. In 1869, Robert Swinhoe saw a Chinese alligator in an exhibit in Shanghai and wrote the following year: In February, 1869, some Chinese were exhibiting in the native city of Shanghai what they called a dragon, which they declared had been dug out of a hole in the province of Shense. It was a young crocodile about four feet long, which they kept in tepid water. They made so much money by showing it that they refused to sell it. I can not, of course, guess its species; but I nevertheless think the fact worth recording, as evidence that a species of this group does occur in China. The Chinese alligator was described by French naturalist Albert-Auguste Fauvel in 1879 as Alligator sinensis; though Fauvel only noticed mentions of them in Chinese literature since about 222–227 CE. The genus Alligator had previously contained only the American alligator since its creation in 1807. Fauvel wrote a detailed description of the species in a book titled Alligators in China: Their History, Description & Identification, including information about its historical account. In 1947, it was suggested to group the Chinese alligator in a separate genus from its American relative, due to the Chinese alligator's bony plate on its upper eyelid. This bony plate is present in caimans, but is rarely present in the American alligator. At the time, the plate was thought to not appear in the American alligator at all. This produced the belief that the Chinese alligator's relationship with other crocodilians was between caimans and American alligators. Paulus Edward Pieris Deraniyagala described the genus Caigator the same year, which only contained the Chinese alligator, making its scientific name Caigator sinensis. However, paleontology has shown that the Chinese alligator has evolved from other now-extinct members of the genus Alligator. This and the fact that the American alligator does infrequently have a bony plate on its eyelid have caused Caigator sinensis to now be classified as a synonym of Alligator sinensis. There is still not a consensus among biologists that the American and Chinese alligators belong to the same genus, despite multiple studies comparing the biochemistry, histology, and various other aspects of the two crocodilians.The genus, Alligator, is based on the Spanish word el lagarto. The specific name, sinensis, is from the Latin plural possessive sinaensis, meaning "belonging to China".The oldest definitive record of the Chinese alligator is from the late Pliocene of Japan, around 3 million years old. Pleistocene fossils show that its range was once much more extensive, extending northwards to Shandong and southwards to the Taiwan Strait. Description One of the smallest species of crocodilians, the Chinese alligator attains a length of 1.5–2.1 metres (5–7 ft) and weight of 36–45 kilograms (80–100 lb) as an adult. Females are roughly three-quarters the length of males. It is less than half the size of the American alligator, which typically grows to a length of 3.4 metres (11.2 ft) for males and 2.5 metres (8.2 ft) for females. Reports are known of alligators in China reaching 3 metres (10 ft) in past centuries, but these are no longer thought to be accurate. The largest reported female measured 2.07 metres (6 ft 9 in) and weighed 50 kilograms (110 lb), while the largest reported male measured 2.46 metres (8 ft 1 in) and weighed 84 kilograms (185 lb).The Chinese alligator is almost completely black or dark gray in color as an adult. It has a short and broad snout, which points slightly upwards and narrows at the end. Its head is robust, more so than that of the American alligator, with a bony septum dividing its nostrils. It has 72–76 teeth, of which 13–14 are maxillary, five premaxillary, and 18–19 mandibular. Four specimens measuring 1.4 to 1.55 m (4 ft 7 in – 5 ft 1 in) in length and weighing 12–15 kg (26–33 lb) had a bite force of 894–1,357 N (201–305 lbf). Unlike the American alligator, the Chinese alligator is fully armored, including its belly. It contains up to 17 rows of scales across its body, which are soft on its belly and side and rougher on its back. Its upper eyelids have bony plates on them, a feature usually not present in the American alligator. Its tail is wider than that of the American alligator. It does not have webbed feet, in contrast to the American alligator, which has extensive webbing on its toes. Ecology The Chinese alligator brumates in burrows during winter. After this period of dormancy, it frequently spends time in the sun before summer begins. It is nocturnal throughout summer, feeding at night and sheltering in the daytime, to avoid both humans and the summer heat. This behavior gives it the ability to live in areas where humans are common. A docile species, it generally does not intentionally hurt humans. Burrowing This alligator brumates from late October to mid-April, emerging in early May. It constructs its burrows next to ponds and other small bodies of water, using its head and front legs to dig into the ground. They can be large and complex, containing multiple rooms, water pools, and entrances. Most of them are 10–25 metres (33–82 ft) long, with each room having enough space for alligators to turn around after entering. Outside of winter, the burrows serve as retreat sites for the alligators and in summer are where they take shelter in the daytime. The temperature inside them is never colder than 10 °C (50 °F). The burrows can be problematic for farmers, as they cause destruction of farm dykes. Life cycle The breeding season of the Chinese alligator is early summer, with the rate of mating being highest in mid-June. The alligator breeds earlier in the year if temperatures are higher. During the time of mating, males commonly search around ponds to find a mate and both male and female specimens are often aggressive to each other. The species exhibits polygamy, with single males mating with multiple females and/or a single female mating with several males. A study of 50 clutches showed multiple paternity in 60% of them, with up to three males contributing. Nests are typically built about 2–3 weeks after mating, from July to late August. Constructed by the females, they are composed of rotting plants, such as leaves, and are 40–70 centimetres (16–28 in) high. Females prefer to assemble them in areas that have a thick canopy and are far from human disturbance. Because islands frequently satisfy both of these conditions, they are often used as nesting sites. Nests are always near water sources. Individuals often return to the same nesting site yearly, although intraspecific competition and environmental changes can force them to change nesting sites.Generally laid at night, mating typically produces 20–30 eggs, although according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), clutch size ranges between 10 and 40 eggs. After the eggs are laid, the females sometimes leave the nest, but other times stay to protect the eggs. The eggs are about 6 centimetres (2.4 in) in length, 3.5 centimetres (1.38 in) in diameter, and 45 grams (1.59 oz) in weight, making them smaller than the eggs of any other crocodilian. They are typically incubated for about 70 days. On average, the temperature of incubation is 25–26 °C (77–79 °F), including the day and night. This temperature controls whether a young alligator will be male or female (temperature-dependent sex determination), a feature present in many other reptiles. A higher incubation temperature also increases the hatching rate. Young hatch in September, assisted by their mothers.Newborn alligators, like their eggs, are the smallest of any crocodilian, with a length of 20–22 centimetres (7.87–8.66 in) and weight of 25–30 grams (0.88–1.06 oz). Unlike adults, they have light speckles on their bodies and heads. Mothers help them leave the nest and bring them to the water after hatching. They grow very little in their first year, due to being able to feed for only about 2 months after hatching before the winter. A 2002 study showed that the Chinese alligator is two-thirds the length of the American alligator and one-half its weight at birth, but is one-half its length and one-tenth its weight after one year. Young depend on their mothers to protect them during their first winter, as their small size makes them an easy prey target.The alligator grows quickly in its first few years, with its growth rate slowing at age five. According to the National Zoological Park, females reach maturity roughly four to five years after birth, although other sources estimate that they mature at age six to seven. It can live to over 50 years, and has been known to reach age 70 in captivity. It cannot breed past its 50s. Feeding The Chinese alligator is an opportunistic feeder, meaning that it can prey on a variety of different animals depending on what is available. It is a carnivore, mostly eating fish and invertebrates, such as crustaceans, insects, mussels, clams, and snails. When possible, it eats rodents, other small mammals, and aquatic birds as well. It has dull teeth, which allow it to eat prey with shells more easily. There is some speculation that they may prey on turtles as well. A study of the alligator in 1985 showed that snails were the most common animal in its diet at 63%, with 65% of that being river snails and 35% spiral-shelled snails. According to the survey, its diet also contained 16% rabbits, 8.3% mollusks, and 4.1% shrimp, with the remaining 6.8% being frogs, fish, and insects. Vocalization The Chinese alligator is a vocal species, making many different sounds in multiple situations. When communicating with nearby alligators, it produces sounds such as head slapping, hissing, and whining, which have a low sound pressure level (SPL). To communicate long-distance, it produces bellows, which have a high SPL. All of these sounds have a low frequency of less than 500 hertz, due to the alligator's densely vegetated habitat, which allow the sounds to spread across a greater area.Both sexes participate in bellowing choruses during the mating season as adults. Lasting an average of 10 minutes, the alligators remain still for the entirety of the chorus, with both sexes responding equally in rough unison. The main purpose of these bellows is to call out to alligator specimens to collect at a specific pond, where individuals choose mates and engage in copulation. Alligators may also bellow to publicize their size, a behavior which occurs in multiple other vertebrates. The size of a specimen is a significant factor for mating; females only mate with males larger than themselves. Bellowing is most common at 6:00–7:00 am and 11:00–12:00 am CST. Although these bellows occur most frequently during the mating season, adults also bellow throughout the rest of the year.Young Chinese alligators often communicate with each other and their parents using vocal signals to "maintain group cohesion". Young also make sounds when in danger, which alert adults to help and caution nearby young of the threat. Embryos produce distinctive sounds inside their eggs, which alert the adult female that the nest is ready to be opened. These vocalizations are high-pitched, while their danger calls are louder. Distribution and population The range of the Chinese alligator is extremely restricted; as of 2015, the only places it is confirmed to live in the wild are Xuancheng, Nanling County, Jing County, Wuhu, Langxi County, and Guangde County – six counties and cities in the province of Anhui, occupying a total area of about 5 square kilometres (1.9 sq mi). It has been reported to rarely occur in the provinces of Jiangsu and Zhejiang, but it is unknown whether it still lives there. It is the only species in the family Alligatoridae that lives on a continent other than North or South America. Habitat The habitat of the Chinese alligator is bodies of fresh water, particularly wetlands and ponds, in areas transitioning between subtropical and temperate climates. It lives at the base of mountains, in areas where grass and shrubs are common. Habitat loss has also forced it to live at higher elevations than it prefers, where the weather is colder and the soil is unfit for burrow digging. Crocodilian conservationist John Thorbjarnarson observed a female who had to build her nest of pine needles rather than the usual plants; the eggs died due to the pine needles not being able to warm them properly. Population and range trend The oldest record of the Chinese alligator is a skeleton fragment found in western Japan. The fossil is estimated to be from the late Pliocene period, 3 million years ago (Mya). The skeleton showed that the species was larger at the time than it is currently, with a total length of at least 2 metres (6.6 ft). Alligators are believed to have moved into various parts of Japan either before 25 Mya or after 10 Mya and were extirpated from there during the Plio-Pleistocene period, due to Japan's increased isolation from the continent and harsh climate conditions.The population of the Chinese alligator began to decline in 5000 BC, when human civilization started to grow in China, after having been very abundant in the lower Yangtze area. This area was one of the first places in the world to farm rice, causing much of the alligator's habitat to be destroyed in favor of rice farms. In the 1700s, much of the Chinese alligator's habitat was replaced with farming fields after a large number of people had moved into the area. By the 20th century, its range was reduced to a few small areas around the Yangtze. In the 1950s, the alligator was in three distinct areas: the southern area of the Yangtze (Chang Jiang) from Pengze to the western shore of Lake Tai (Tai Hu), the mountainous regions of southern Anhui, and the provinces of Jiangsu and Zhejiang, primarily in lakes, streams, and marshes. By the 1970s, it was restricted to small parts of southern Anhui and Zhejiang, at which time the population was about 1,000.In 1998, the population of the Chinese alligator was the lowest it had ever been; the largest area it lived in was a small pond along the Yangtze surrounded by farmland, which held 11 alligators. In 1999, the Wildlife Conservation Society estimated that 130–150 individuals were left in the wild. According to The New York Times, the population was less than 130 in 2001; at this time, alligators sometimes wandered around to look for a suitable habitat, but were unsuccessful due to their habitat having been turned into rice fields. In 2003, the population began to gradually increase after having been roughly stable between 1998 and 2003. A survey of the population by the Anhui National Nature Reserve for Chinese Alligator (ANNRCA) in 2005 deduced that between 92 and 114 adults and 66 young remained in the wild. The survey reasoned that the species' population was growing in four sites, but stable in the rest of the alligator's range. A 2012 journal article estimated the population at the time to be 120–150. A 2015 survey observed 64 individuals, of which 32 were adults, estimating that the total number of adults was 68–86 and the total population 136–173. Wang Renping, the head of the ANNRCA, stated in 2017 that about 300 specimens existed in the wild, some of which had been born captive and reintroduced to the wild. As of 2018 the population is not considered to be further declining. Due to the low wild population of the Chinese alligator, high inbreeding is a major concern threatening their chances for long-term survival. Reasons for population decline Considered to be one of the most endangered crocodilians in the world, the Chinese alligator's biggest threats in the late 20th century were human killing and habitat loss. A majority of the species' wetland habitats were destroyed to construct rice paddies and dams. During the 1970s and 1980s, humans sometimes killed the alligators, because they believed they were pests, out of fear, or for their meat. Their meat was thought to have the ability to cure colds and prevent cancer and their organs were sold for medicinal purposes. In several restaurants and food centers in China's more prosperous areas, young alligators were allowed to roam free with their mouths taped shut, and were subsequently killed for human consumption, served as a dish of rice, vegetables, and chopped up alligator flesh. In the late 20th century, people living in the range of the Chinese alligator ate its meat due to believing that it was dragon meat.The Yangtze was flooded in the winter of 1957, which is believed to have caused many Chinese alligators to drown. Rats, which this species eat, have been poisoned by farmers, so were also a cause for the diminishing of the species. The organochlorine compound sodium pentachlorophenate was used to kill snails in agricultural fields starting in 1958, which incidentally poisoned the alligators as well. Other factors that led to the endangerment of the alligator include natural disasters and geographic separation. Status and conservation In its native country, the Chinese alligator has been listed as a Class I endangered species since 1972, which gives it the highest possible degree of legal protection and makes killing or capturing the species in the wild forbidden. It is listed as a CITES Appendix I species and an endangered species by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. Following six assessments as endangered from 1982 to 1994, it is classified as critically endangered on the IUCN Red List as of 2017. In 1982, the Anhui National Nature Reserve for Chinese Alligator (ANNRCA) was created, a reserve spanning across the entire range of the Chinese alligator, now covering an area of 18,565 hectares (45,880 acres). In captivity As of 2016, at least 20,000 Chinese alligators are living in captivity due to captive-breeding programs, the first initiated in the 1970s. Captive-born Chinese alligators have been reintroduced into their native range, boosting the wild population. Six specimens were released from captivity in 2007, followed by six more in June 2015. As of June 2016, the largest group of Chinese alligators to have been released in the wild was when 18 specimens were reintroduced to Langxi County, part of the species' native habitat, on May 22, 2016. These releases have proven successful, with individuals adapting well to a life in the wild and breeding. A year after the 2007 release, 16 young alligators were found living in the wild. 60 alligator eggs were observed in 2016, distributed in three nests at a wetland park. Although a typhoon in September the same year flooded and eliminated two of the nests, three hatchlings were found in the same area several days after. China The two largest breeding centers for the Chinese alligator are in, or near, the areas where Chinese alligators are still found in the wild. The Anhui Research Center for Chinese Alligator Reproduction (ARCCAR) is the largest of them, housing roughly 15,000 Chinese alligators as of 2016. The center is 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) from the city of Xuancheng, where it makes use of a series of ponds in a small valley. Founded in 1979, the ARCCAR was stocked with 212 alligators collected from the wild over the first decade after its establishment, and received alligator eggs collected by the area's residents and the ARCCAR's own staff from the nests of wild alligators as well. In 1988, the first eggs by human-bred alligators were laid. The reserve decided to reintroduce some of its alligators in the wild in 2001, which was carried out in 2003 when three alligators were released. The alligator breeding was so successful that the ARCCAR began to use the alligators for local meat consumption and live animals for the European pet market, with the profits from these activities continuing to fund the breeding centers.The other major breeding center for the species is the Changxing Chinese Alligator Nature Reserve (CCANR) or Changxing Nature Reserve and Breeding Center for Chinese Alligators (CNRBRCCA), in Changxing County, Zhejiang, about 92 kilometres (57 mi) east of the ARCCAR. Originally known as the Yinjiabian Alligator Conservation Area (尹家边扬子鳄保护区), the breeding center was established in 1982. Unlike the ARCCAR, where alligator eggs are collected by the center's staff for incubation in controlled condition, the CCANR allows eggs to hatch naturally. According to a 2013 official report, the CCANR housed almost 4,000 alligators, including 2,089 young (1–3 years old), 1,598 juveniles (4–12 years old), and 248 adults (13+ years old). By 2016, 5,500 specimens were housed at the center.In 2003, the ARCCAR received a donation of $1.2 million from the State Forestry and Grassland Administration of China (SFGA) and $740,000 from the government of Anhui. This allowed the organization to create two new breeding areas to hold the alligators, 1.6 hectares (4.0 acres) each, as well as heighten the existing fence. The same year, the CCANR received a donation of $600,000 from the SFGA and $800,000 from the government of Changxing, enabling it to reinstate wetlands for the alligators and enhance its facilities. Both the ARCCAR and the CCANR position themselves as tourist attractions, where paying visitors can view alligators and learn about them.Multiple other breeding facilities that house the Chinese alligator exist in various provinces of China, as well as private breeding farms and museums. Foreign countries The Chinese alligator is also kept and bred at many zoos and aquariums in North America and Europe. Some individuals bred there have been returned to China for reintroduction to the wild. The first time the alligators were ever transported internationally is believed to have been when several were taken from China to the United States in the 1950s. In November 2017, four Chinese alligators were transported from their natural habitat in China to Shizuoka, Japan.Among the North American zoos and aquariums keeping this species are the Bronx Zoo, Cincinnati Zoo, Great Plains Zoo, Sedgwick County Zoo, Philadelphia Zoo, San Diego Zoo, Santa Barbara Zoo, Smithsonian National Zoological Park, and St. Louis Zoo. In Europe, about 25 zoos and aquariums keep the species, such as the Barcelona Zoo (Spain), Parque de las Ciencias (Granada) (Spain), Bioparco di Roma (Italy), Crocodile Zoo (Denmark), Moscow Zoo (Russia), Pairi Daiza (Belgium), Paradise Wildlife Park (England), Parken Zoo (Sweden), Prague Zoo (Czech Republic), Tallinn Zoo (Estonia) and Tierpark Berlin (Germany). Chinese dragon association Some writers have suggested that the Chinese alligator was the inspiration for the Chinese dragon. This theory was widespread in the early 1900s, and the idea was later revisited by John Thorbjarnarson and Xiaoming Wang. According to The New York Times, the association with the "beneficent" mythological creature is an advantage for the species.Unlike dragons in myths of the Western Hemisphere, the Chinese dragon is portrayed as a symbol of "royal power and good fortune", frequently helping and saving people. It is able to swim in water or air. The relatively harmless nature of the Chinese alligator is believed to have been an influence for the helpful nature of the dragon. The fact that the alligator ends its brumation when the rainy season begins and returns to its burrows when the rainwater in rivers recedes, as well as the fact that it lives in bodies of water, may be the reason for the dragon's portrayal as a water-related mythological creature. Alligator drums may have been used to simulate the species' vocalizations during the mating season, which humans associated with the dragon's "power of summoning rainclouds". See also Wildlife of China Animal communication Book sources Thorbjarnarson, John; Wang, Xiaoming (May 17, 2010). The Chinese Alligator: Ecology, Behavior, Conservation, and Culture. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-9348-3. Reading, Richard P.; Miller, Brian (2000). Endangered Animals: A Reference Guide to Conflicting Issues (illustrated ed.). Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0313308161. Retrieved December 9, 2018. Neill, Wilfred T. (1971). The Last of the Ruling Reptiles: Alligators, Crocodiles, and Their Kin (illustrated ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0231032247. Retrieved December 11, 2018. International Union for Conservation of Nature (1982). The IUCN Amphibia-reptilia Red Data Book. ISBN 978-2880326012. Retrieved February 17, 2019. Grigg, Gordon (January 15, 2015). Biology and Evolution of Crocodylians. CSIRO Publishing. ISBN 978-1486300679. Retrieved December 16, 2018. Courtney, Chris (February 15, 2018). The Nature of Disaster in China: The 1931 Yangzi River Flood. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1108284936. Retrieved January 2, 2019. Fauvel, Albert-Auguste (1879). Alligators in China: Their History, Description & Identification. Celestial Empire office. Retrieved February 16, 2019. Ross, J. P., ed. (1998). Crocodiles. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan (PDF) (2 ed.). IUCN/SSC Crocodile Specialist Group. ISBN 2-8317-0441-3. Retrieved March 13, 2019. Media related to Alligator sinensis at Wikimedia Commons Data related to Alligator sinensis at Wikispecies
The Heian period (平安時代, Heian jidai) is the last division of classical Japanese history, running from 794 to 1185. It followed the Nara period, beginning when the 50th emperor, Emperor Kammu, moved the capital of Japan to Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto). Heian (平安) means "peace" in Japanese. It is a period in Japanese history when the Chinese influences were in decline and the national culture matured. The Heian period is also considered the peak of the Japanese imperial court, noted for its art, especially poetry and literature. Two types of Japanese script emerged, including katakana, a phonetic script which was abbreviated into hiragana, both unique alphabets distinctive to Japan. This gave rise to Japan's famous vernacular literature, with many of its texts written by court women who were not as educated in Chinese compared to their male counterparts. Although the Imperial House of Japan had power on the surface, the real power was in the hands of the Fujiwara clan, a powerful aristocratic family who had intermarried with the imperial family. Many emperors had mothers from the Fujiwara family. The economy mostly existed through barter and trade, while the shōen system enabled the accumulation of wealth by an aristocratic elite. Even though the Heian period was one of national peace, the government failed to effectively police the territory, leading to frequent robberies of travellers. History The Heian period was preceded by the Nara period and began in 794 AD after the movement of the capital of Japan to Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto), by the 50th emperor, Emperor Kammu. Kammu first tried to move the capital to Nagaoka-kyō, but a series of disasters befell the city, prompting the emperor to relocate the capital a second time, to Heian. A rebellion occurred in China in the last years of the 9th century, making the political situation unstable. The Japanese missions to Tang China were suspended and the influx of Chinese exports halted, a fact which facilitated the independent growth of Japanese culture called kokufu bunka. Therefore, the Heian Period is considered a high point in Japanese culture that later generations have always admired. The period is also noted for the rise of the samurai class, which would eventually take power and start the feudal period of Japan. Nominally, sovereignty lay in the emperor but in fact, power was wielded by the Fujiwara nobility. However, to protect their interests in the provinces, the Fujiwara, and other noble families required guards, police and soldiers. The warrior class made steady political gains throughout the Heian period. As early as 939 AD, Taira no Masakado threatened the authority of the central government, leading an uprising in the eastern province of Hitachi, and almost simultaneously, Fujiwara no Sumitomo rebelled in the west. Still, a true military takeover of the Japanese government was centuries away, when much of the strength of the government would lie within the private armies of the shogunate. The entry of the warrior class into court influence was a result of the Hōgen Rebellion. At this time Taira no Kiyomori revived the Fujiwara practices by placing his grandson on the throne to rule Japan by regency. Their clan, the Taira, would not be overthrown until after the Genpei War, which marked the start of the Kamakura shogunate. The Kamakura period began in 1185 when Minamoto no Yoritomo seized power from the emperors and established the shogunate in Kamakura. Fujiwara regency When Emperor Kammu moved the capital to Heian-kyō (Kyoto), which remained the imperial capital for the next 1,000 years, he did so not only to strengthen imperial authority but also to improve his seat of government geopolitically. Nara was abandoned after only 70 years in part due to the ascendancy of Dōkyō and the encroaching secular power of the Buddhist institutions there. Kyoto had good river access to the sea and could be reached by land routes from the eastern provinces. The early Heian period (784–967) continued Nara culture; the Heian capital was patterned on the Chinese Tang capital at Chang'an, as was Nara, but on a larger scale than Nara. Kammu endeavored to improve the Tang-style administrative system which was in use. Known as the Ritsuryō Code, this system attempted to recreate the Tang legal system in Japan, despite the "tremendous differences in the levels of development between the two countries". Despite the decline of the Taika–Taihō reforms, imperial government was vigorous during the early Heian period. Kammu's avoidance of drastic reform decreased the intensity of political struggles, and he became recognized as one of Japan's most forceful emperors. Although Kammu had abandoned universal conscription in 792, he still waged major military offensives to subjugate the Emishi, possible descendants of the displaced Jōmon, living in northern and eastern Japan. After making temporary gains in 794, in 797, Kammu appointed a new commander, Sakanoue no Tamuramaro, under the title Seii Taishōgun ("Barbarian-subduing generalissimo"). By 801, the shōgun had defeated the Emishi and had extended the imperial domains to the eastern end of Honshū. Imperial control over the provinces was tenuous at best, however. In the ninth and tenth centuries, much authority was lost to the great families, who disregarded the Chinese-style land and tax systems imposed by the government in Kyoto. Stability came to Japan, but, even though succession was ensured for the imperial family through heredity, power again concentrated in the hands of one noble family, the Fujiwara which also helped Japan develop more. Following Kammu's death in 806 and a succession struggle among his sons, two new offices were established in an effort to adjust the Taika–Taihō administrative structure. Through the new Emperor's Private Office, the emperor could issue administrative edicts more directly and with more self-assurance than before. The new Metropolitan Police Board replaced the largely ceremonial imperial guard units. While these two offices strengthened the emperor's position temporarily, soon they and other Chinese-style structures were bypassed in the developing state. In 838 the end of the imperial-sanctioned missions to Tang China, which had begun in 630, marked the effective end of Chinese influence. Tang China was in a state of decline, and Chinese Buddhists were severely persecuted, undermining Japanese respect for Chinese institutions. Japan began to turn inward. As the Soga clan had taken control of the throne in the sixth century, the Fujiwara by the ninth century had intermarried with the imperial family, and one of their members was the first head of the Emperor's Private Office. Another Fujiwara became regent, Sesshō for his grandson, then a minor emperor and yet another was appointed Kampaku. Toward the end of the 9th century, several emperors tried but failed, to check the Fujiwara. For a time, however, during the reign of Emperor Daigo (897–930), the Fujiwara regency was suspended as he ruled directly. Nevertheless, the Fujiwara were not demoted by Daigo but actually became stronger during his reign. Central control of Japan had continued to decline, and the Fujiwara, along with other great families and religious foundations, acquired ever larger shōen and greater wealth during the early tenth century. By the early Heian period, the shōen had obtained legal status, and the large religious establishments sought clear titles in perpetuity, waiver of taxes, and immunity from government inspection of the shōen they held. Those people who worked the land found it advantageous to transfer title to shōen holders in return for a share of the harvest. People and lands were increasingly beyond central control and taxation, a de facto return to conditions before the Taika Reform. Within decades of Daigo's death, the Fujiwara had absolute control over the court. By the year 1000, Fujiwara no Michinaga was able to enthrone and dethrone emperors at will. Little authority was left for traditional institutions, and government affairs were handled through the Fujiwara clan's private administration. The Fujiwara had become what historian George B. Sansom has called "hereditary dictators". Despite their usurpation of imperial authority, the Fujiwara presided over a period of cultural and artistic flowering at the imperial court and among the aristocracy. There was great interest in graceful poetry and vernacular literature. Two types of phonetic Japanese script: katakana, a simplified script that was developed by using parts of Chinese characters, was abbreviated to hiragana, a cursive syllabary with a distinct writing method that was uniquely Japanese. Hiragana gave written expression to the spoken word and, with it, to the rise in Japan's famous vernacular literature, much of it written by court women who had not been trained in Chinese as had their male counterparts. Three late-tenth-century and early-11th-century women presented their views of life and romance at the Heian court in Kagerō Nikki by "the mother of Fujiwara Michitsuna", The Pillow Book by Sei Shōnagon and The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu. Indigenous art also flourished under the Fujiwara after centuries of imitating Chinese forms. Vividly colored yamato-e, Japanese style paintings of court life and stories about temples and shrines became common in the mid-to-late Heian period, setting patterns for Japanese art to this day. As culture flourished, so did decentralization. Whereas the first phase of shōen development in the early Heian period had seen the opening of new lands and the granting of the use of lands to aristocrats and religious institutions, the second phase saw the growth of patrimonial "house governments", as in the old clan system. In fact, the form of the old clan system had remained largely intact within the great old centralized government. New institutions were now needed in the face of social, economic, and political changes. The Taihō Code lapsed, its institutions relegated to ceremonial functions. Family administrations now became public institutions. As the most powerful family, the Fujiwara governed Japan and determined the general affairs of state, such as succession to the throne. Family and state affairs were thoroughly intermixed, a pattern followed among other families, monasteries, and even the imperial family. Land management became the primary occupation of the aristocracy, not so much because direct control by the imperial family or central government had declined but more from strong family solidarity and a lack of a sense of Japan as a single nation. Rise of the military class Under the early courts, when military conscription had been centrally controlled, military affairs had been taken out of the hands of the provincial aristocracy. But as the system broke down after 792, local power holders again became the primary source of military strength. The re-establishment of an efficient military system was made gradually through a process of trial-and-error. At that time the imperial court did not possess an army but rather relied on an organization of professional warriors composed mainly of oryoshi, which were appointed to an individual province and tsuibushi, which were appointed over imperial circuits or for specific tasks. This gave rise to the Japanese military class. Nonetheless, final authority rested with the imperial court.Shōen holders had access to manpower and, as they obtained improved military technology (such as new training methods, more powerful bows, armor, horses, and superior swords) and faced worsening local conditions in the ninth century, military service became part of shōen life. Not only the shōen but also civil and religious institutions formed private guard units to protect themselves. Gradually, the provincial upper class was transformed into a new military elite of samurai. Bushi interests were diverse, cutting across old power structures to form new associations in the tenth century. Mutual interests, family connections, and kinship were consolidated in military groups that became part of family administration. In time, large regional military families formed around members of the court aristocracy who had become prominent provincial figures. These military families gained prestige from connections to the imperial court and court-granted military titles and access to manpower. The Fujiwara family, Taira clan, and Minamoto clan were among the most prominent families supported by the new military class. A decline in food production, the growth of the population, and competition for resources among the great families all led to the gradual decline of Fujiwara power and gave rise to military disturbances in the mid-tenth and eleventh centuries. Members of the Fujiwara, Taira, and Minamoto families—all of whom had descended from the imperial family—attacked one another, claimed control over vast tracts of conquered land, set up rival regimes, and generally upset the peace. The Fujiwara controlled the throne until the reign of Emperor Go-Sanjō (1068–1073), the first emperor not born of a Fujiwara mother since the ninth century. Go-Sanjo, determined to restore imperial control through strong personal rule, implemented reforms to curb Fujiwara influence. He also established an office to compile and validate estate records with the aim of reasserting central control. Many shōen were not properly certified, and large landholders, like the Fujiwara, felt threatened with the loss of their lands. Go-Sanjo also established the In-no-chō (院庁 "Office of the Cloistered Emperor"), which was held by a succession of emperors who abdicated to devote themselves to behind-the-scenes governance, or insei. The In-no-chō filled the void left by the decline of Fujiwara power. Rather than being banished, the Fujiwara were mostly retained in their old positions of civil dictator and minister of the center while being bypassed in decision making. In time, many of the Fujiwara were replaced, mostly by members of the rising Minamoto clan. While the Fujiwara fell into disputes among themselves and formed northern and southern factions, the insei system allowed the paternal line of the imperial family to gain influence over the throne. The period from 1086 to 1156 was the age of supremacy of the In-no-chō and of the rise of the military class throughout the country. Military might rather than civil authority dominated the government. A struggle for succession in the mid-twelfth century gave the Fujiwara an opportunity to regain their former power. Fujiwara no Yorinaga sided with the retired emperor in a violent battle in 1156 against the heir apparent, who was supported by the Taira and Minamoto (Hōgen Rebellion). In the end, the Fujiwara were destroyed, the old system of government supplanted, and the insei system left powerless as bushi took control of court affairs, marking a turning point in Japanese history. In 1159, the Taira and Minamoto clashed (Heiji Rebellion), and a twenty-year period of Taira ascendancy began. Taira no Kiyomori emerged as the real power in Japan following the Fujiwara's destruction, and he would remain in command for the next 20 years. He gave his daughter Tokuko in marriage to the young emperor Takakura, who died at only 19, leaving their infant son Antoku to succeed to the throne. Kiyomori filled no less than 50 government posts with his relatives, rebuilt the Inland Sea, and encouraged trade with Song China. He also took aggressive actions to safeguard his power when necessary, including the removal and exile of 45 court officials and the razing of two troublesome temples, Todai-ji and Kofuku-ji. The Taira were seduced by court life and ignored problems in the provinces, where the Minamoto clan were rebuilding their strength. In 1183, two years after Kiyomori's death, Yoritomo Minamoto dispatched his brothers Yoshitsune and Noriyori to attack Kyoto. The Taira were routed and forced to flee, and the Empress Dowager tried to drown herself and the 7-year old Emperor. He perished, but his mother survived. Takakura's other son succeeded as Emperor Go-Toba. With Yoritomo firmly established, the bakufu system that governed Japan for the next seven centuries was in place. He appointed military governors, or shugo, to rule over the provinces, and stewards, or jito to supervise public and private estates. Yoritomo then turned his attention to the elimination of the powerful Fujiwara family, which sheltered his rebellious brother Yoshitsune. Three years later, he was appointed shōgun in Kyoto. One year before his death in 1199, Yoritomo expelled the teenaged emperor Go-Toba from the throne. Two of Go-Toba's sons succeeded him, but they would also be removed by Yoritomo's successors to the shogunate. Culture Developments in Buddhism The Heian period saw the rise of two esoteric Buddhist sects, Tendai and Shingon. Tendai is the Japanese version of the Tiantai school from China, which is based on the Lotus Sutra, one of the most important sutras in Mahayana Buddhism. It was brought to Japan by the monk Saichō. An important element of Tendai doctrine was the suggestion that enlightenment was accessible to "every creature". Saichō also sought independent ordination for Tendai monks. A close relationship developed between the Tendai monastery complex on Mount Hiei and the imperial court in its new capital at the foot of the mountain. As a result, Tendai emphasized great reverence for the emperor and the nation. Emperor Kammu himself was a notable patron of the otherworldly Tendai sect, which rose to great power over the ensuing centuries. Shingon is the Japanese version of the Zhenyen school from China, which is based on Vajrayana Buddhism. It was brought to Japan by the monk Kūkai. Shingon Buddhism emphasizes the use of symbols, rituals, incantations and mandalas, which gave it a wide appeal. Kūkai greatly impressed the emperors who succeeded Emperor Kammu, and also generations of Japanese, not only with his holiness but also with his poetry, calligraphy, painting, and sculpture. Both Kūkai and Saichō aimed to connect state and religion and establish support from the aristocracy, leading to the notion of "aristocratic Buddhism". Literature Although written Chinese (kanbun) remained the official language of the Heian period imperial court, the introduction and widespread use of kana saw a boom in Japanese literature. Despite the establishment of several new literary genres such as the novel and narrative monogatari (物語) and essays, literacy was only common among the court and Buddhist clergy. Poetry, in particular, was a staple of court life. Nobles and ladies-in-waiting were expected to be well versed in the art of writing poetry as a mark of their status. Every occasion could call for the writing of a verse, from the birth of a child to the coronation of an emperor, or even a pretty scene of nature. A well-written poem could easily make or break one's reputation, and often was a key part of social interaction. Almost as important was the choice of calligraphy, or handwriting, used. The Japanese of this period believed handwriting could reflect the condition of a person's soul: therefore, poor or hasty writing could be considered a sign of poor breeding. Whether the script was Chinese or Japanese, good writing and artistic skill were paramount to social reputation when it came to poetry. Sei Shōnagon mentions in her Pillow Book that when a certain courtier tried to ask her advice about how to write a poem to the Empress Sadako, she had to politely rebuke him because his writing was so poor.The lyrics of the modern Japanese national anthem, Kimigayo, were written in the Heian period, as was The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu, which was extremely important to the Heian court, and one of the first novels ever written. Murasaki Shikibu's contemporary and rival Sei Shōnagon's revealing observations and musings as an attendant in the Empress' court were recorded collectively as The Pillow Book in the 990s, which revealed the quotidian capital lifestyle. The Heian period produced a flowering of poetry including works of Ariwara no Narihira, Ono no Komachi, Izumi Shikibu, Murasaki Shikibu, Saigyō and Fujiwara no Teika. The famous Japanese poem known as the Iroha (いろは), of uncertain authorship, was also written during the Heian period. Beauty During the Heian period, beauty was widely considered an important part of what made one a "good" person. In cosmetic terms, aristocratic men and women powdered their faces and blackened their teeth, the latter termed ohaguro. The male courtly ideal included a faint mustache and thin goatee, while women's mouths were painted small and red, and their eyebrows were plucked or shaved and redrawn higher on the forehead (hikimayu). Women cultivated shiny, black flowing hair and a courtly woman's formal dress included a complex "twelve-layered robe" called jūnihitoe, though the actual number of layers varied. Costumes were determined by office and season, with a woman's robes, in particular, following a system of color combinations representing flowers, plants, and animals specific to a season or month, (see the Japanese Wikipedia entries irome and kasane-no-irome). Economics While the Heian period was an unusually long period of peace, it can also be argued that the period weakened Japan economically and led to poverty for all but a tiny few of its inhabitants. The control of rice fields provided a key source of income for families such as the Fujiwara and was a fundamental base of their power. The aristocratic beneficiaries of Heian culture, the Ryōmin (良民 "Good People") numbered about 5,000 in a land of perhaps five million. One reason the samurai were able to take power was that the ruling nobility proved incompetent at managing Japan and its provinces. By the year 1000, the government no longer knew how to issue currency and money was gradually disappearing. Instead of a fully realized system of money circulation, rice was the primary unit of exchange. The lack of a solid medium of economic exchange is implicitly illustrated in novels of the time. For instance, messengers were rewarded with useful objects such as an old silk kimono, rather than being paid a monetary fee. The Fujiwara rulers failed to maintain adequate police forces, which left robbers free to prey on travelers. This is implicitly illustrated in novels by the terror that night travel inspired in the main characters. The shōen system enabled the accumulation of wealth by an aristocratic elite; the economic surplus can be linked to the cultural developments of the Heian period and the "pursuit of arts". The major Buddhist temples in Heian-kyō and Nara also made use of the shōen. The establishment of branches rurally and integration of some Shinto shrines within these temple networks reflects a greater "organizational dynamism". Events 784: Emperor Kammu moves the capital to Nagaoka-kyō (Kyōto) 794: Emperor Kammu moves the capital to Heian-kyō (Kyōto) 804: The Buddhist monk Saichō (Dengyo Daishi) introduces the Tendai school 806: The monk Kūkai (Kōbō-Daishi) introduces the Shingon (Tantric) school 819: Kūkai founds the monastery of Mount Kōya, in the northeast portion of modern-day Wakayama Prefecture 858: Emperor Seiwa begins the rule of the Fujiwara clan 895: Sugawara no Michizane halted the imperial embassies to China 990: Sei Shōnagon writes the Pillow Book essays 1000–1008: Murasaki Shikibu writes The Tale of Genji novel 1050: Rise of the military class (samurai) 1052: The Byōdō-in temple (near Kyōto) is built by Fujiwara no Yorimichi 1068: Emperor Go-Sanjō overthrows the Fujiwara clan 1087: Emperor Shirakawa abdicates and becomes a Buddhist monk, the first of the "cloistered emperors" (insei) 1156: Taira no Kiyomori defeats the Minamoto clan and seizes power, thereby ending the "insei" era 1180 (June): The capital is moved to Fukuhara-kyō (Kobe) 1180 (November): The capital is moved back to Heian-kyō (Kyōto) 1185: Taira is defeated (Genpei War) and Minamoto no Yoritomo with the support (backing) of the Hōjō clan seizes power, becoming the first shōgun of Japan, while the emperor (or "mikado") becomes a figurehead Modern depictions The iconography of the Heian period is widely known in Japan, and depicted in various media, from traditional festivals to anime. Various festivals feature Heian dress – most notably Hinamatsuri (doll festival), where the dolls wear Heian dress, but also numerous other festivals, such as Aoi Matsuri in Kyoto (May) and Saiō Matsuri in Meiwa, Mie (June), both of which feature the jūnihitoe 12-layer dress. Traditional horseback archery (yabusame) festivals, which date from the beginning of the Kamakura period (immediately following the Heian period) feature similar dress. Video games Cosmology of Kyoto is a 1993 Japanese video game set in 10th–11th-century Japan. It is a point-and-click adventure game depicting Heian-kyō, including the religious beliefs, folklore, and ghost tales of the time. Kuon is a 2004 survival horror game for the PS2 set in the Heian period. The 2011 video game Total War: Shogun 2 has the Rise of the Samurai expansion pack as a downloadable campaign. It allows the player to make their own version of the Genpei War which happened during the Heian period. The player is able to choose one of the most powerful families of Japan at the time, the Taira, Minamoto or Fujiwara. Nioh 2, a 2020 video game, released three DLC expansions that had its main protagonist time travel to key moments in the Heian period to aid Minamoto no Yoshitsune and Minamoto no Yorimitsu. Bibliography Ancient Japan. US: Captivating History. 2019. ISBN 978-1799090069. Collins, R., "An Asian Route to Capitalism: Religious Economy and the Origins of Self-Transforming Growth in Japan", in American Sociological Review, Vol. 62, No. 6 (1997) Fallingstar, Cerridwen. White as Bone, Red as Blood: The Fox Sorceress. Cauldron Publications, 2009. Fallingstar, Cerridwen. White as Bone, Red as Blood: The Storm God. Cauldron Publications, 2011. Friday, Karl (Summer 1988). "Teeth and Claws. Provincial Warriors and the Heian Court". Monumenta Nipponica. 43 (2): 153–185. doi:10.2307/2384742. ISSN 0027-0741. JSTOR 2384742. "Fujiwara no Yorimichi" in Britannica Kokusai Dai-Hyakkajiten. "Heian period". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2007-04-24. Hurst III, G. C, "The Heian Period" in W. M. Tsutsui, (ed.), A Companion to Japanese History (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007) Kitagawa, J., Religion in Japanese History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1966) Meyer, Milton W., Japan: A Concise History Morris, I., The World of the Shining Prince; Court Life in Ancient Japan (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1964) Ponsonby-Fane, Richard. (1962). Sovereign and Subject Seal, F. W. Heian Period Court and Clan Archived 2019-12-28 at the Wayback Machine Shively, D. H. and McCullough W. H., "Introduction" in D. H. Shively and W. H. McCullough, (eds.),The Cambridge History of Modern Japan; Volume 2, Heian Japan, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999) Takei, Jiro; Keane, Marc P. (2001). Sakuteiki. Boston: Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8048-3294-6. Toby, Slade (2009). Japanese fashion : a cultural history (English ed.). Oxford: Berg. ISBN 9780857851451. OCLC 719377495. Weinstein, S., "Aristocratic Buddhism" in D. H. Shively and W. H. McCullough, (eds.),The Cambridge History of Modern Japan; Volume 2, Heian Japan, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999) Heian art at the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art Heian art and calligraphy at the Tokyo National Museum Heian art at the British Museum
TTC may refer to: In arts and entertainment Tao Te Ching, the collection of sayings attributed to Lao Tzu Tom Tom Club, an American new wave band The Travel Channel, a cable channel devoted to travel The Tennis Channel, a digital channel devoted to tennis TTC (band), a French hip-hop trio Businesses and organizations Toronto Transit Commission, a public transit operator in Toronto, Ontario, Canada The Teaching Company, an American company that produces recordings of lectures by university professors, the distributor of The Great Courses The Tetris Company, owner of the trademark and copyright for Tetris Telecommunication Technology Committee, a telecommunications standards body in Japan Trade and Technology Council, a diplomatic forum for EU-US trade and tech Transmission Technologies Corporation, former name of automobile transmissions manufacturer TREMEC Corporation Schools Tatung Institute of Commerce and Technology, a college in Chiayi City, Taiwan Tendring Technology College, a secondary school in Essex, England Trident Technical College, a two-year public college in greater Charleston, South Carolina Tulsa Technology Center, a public college in Tulsa, Oklahoma TTC Yangon (Teacher's Training College), a combined primary & secondary school in Yangon, Myanmar, under Practising School Yangon Institute of Education Texas Technological College, former name of Texas Tech University Tsung Tsin College, a middle school in Tuen Mun, Hong Kong Places Transbay Transit Center, an intermodal transit station in San Francisco Trenton Transit Center, a train station in Trenton, New Jersey Transportation and Ticket Center, a transport hub at the Walt Disney World Resort Trans-Texas Corridor, an American transportation network of expressways, rails, and utility lines being constructed in Texas Trans Thane Creek, a creek running between Thane and Navi Mumbai, India Telford Town Centre, an area of central Telford, England, officially known Telford Shopping Centre Transportation Technology Center, a federal rail testing facility in Pueblo, Colorado In science and technology Tetrazolium chloride, a redox indicator commonly used in biochemical experiments especially to indicate cellular respiration TrueType Collection, a file type that packs several TrueType fonts into a single file Top trading cycle, an algorithm for trading or optimal matching indivisible items without using money General time- and transfer constant analysis in electronic circuits Toyota TTC (Toyota Total Clean system), an emission control technology used by Toyota during the 1970s Tracking, telemetry, and control, a subsystem of spacecraft and ground segments which handles communications Threshold of Toxicological Concern, in toxicology TTC, a codon for the amino acid Phenylalanine Cugir Tokarov, a Romanian variant of the Soviet TT-33 pistol
123 may refer to: The first three positive Arabic numerals 123 (number), the natural number following 122 and preceding 124 AD 123, a year of the Julian calendar, in the second century AD 123 BC, a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar Entertainment 123 (film), a 2002 Indian romantic comedy 123, 2016 Philippines film by Carlo Obispo at 12th Cinemalaya Independent Film Festival "123" (Nikki Laoye song), 2012 "123", a song by Jess Glynne from the 2018 album Always in Between "123", a song by Smokepurpp and Murda Beatz from the 2018 album Bless Yo Trap Other 123 (file format), used by the Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheet program IRT Seventh Avenue Line, served by the 1, 2, 3 New York Subway services 123 (interbank network), a shared cash network in Egypt Japan Airlines Flight 123, which crashed in 1985 near Tokyo See also 1-2-3 (disambiguation) 12/3 (disambiguation) A123 (disambiguation) The Taking of Pelham One Two Three (disambiguation) Unbitrium, a hypothetical chemical element with atomic number 123
125 may refer to: 125 (number), a natural number AD 125, a year in the 2nd century AD 125 BC, a year in the 2nd century BC 125 (dinghy) 125 (New Jersey bus) See also 12/5 (disambiguation) Unbipentium, a hypothetical chemical element with atomic number 125
128 may refer to 128 (number), a natural number AD 128, a year in the 2nd century AD 128 BC, a year in the 2nd century BC 128 (New Jersey bus) See also List of highways numbered 128 All pages with titles containing 128 12/8 (disambiguation)
Anders Ljungstedt (traditional Chinese: 龍思泰; simplified Chinese: 龙思泰; pinyin: Lóng Sītài; Jyutping: lung4 si1 taai3; 23 March 1759 – 10 November 1835) was a Swedish merchant and historian. Early career Ljungstedt was born to a poor family in Linköping and attended Uppsala University for a time, but was forced to withdraw for lack of funds. In 1784, he went to Russia, where he worked as a teacher for ten years. Following his return to Sweden, he obtained employment in the Swedish government and served as Russian interpreter for king Gustav IV Adolf during his journey to Russia. Career in Macau Ljungstedt was later hired by the Swedish East India Company, but after it folded, he moved to Macau, where he resided for the rest of his life working as a merchant. The King of Sweden later made him a Knight of the Order of Vasa, and in 1820 he was also appointed Sweden's first consul general in China. Ljungstedt took great interest in the history of Macau and he is famous for being the first Westerner to refute the Portuguese claim that the Ming dynasty had formally ceded sovereignty over Macau. Ljungstedt never returned to his native country and was buried in the Protestant cemetery in Macau. Today, a high school in Linköping bears his name and an avenue in Macau (Avenida Sir Anders Ljungstedt, 倫斯泰特大馬路, pinyin Lúnsītàitè dàmǎlù) was named in his honor in 1997 by the local Portuguese government. This article contains content from the Owl Edition of Nordisk familjebok, a Swedish encyclopedia published between 1904 and 1926, now in the public domain. Short biographic sketch from Projekt Runeberg Work Ljungstedt, Anders. An Historical Sketch of the Portuguese Settlements in China, and of the Roman Catholic Church and Mission in China; a Supplementary Chapter, Description of the City of Canton. Boston: James Munroe & Co., 1836. Reprint, Hong Kong: Viking Hong Kong Publications, 1992.
ICQ New is a cross-platform instant messaging (IM) and VoIP client. The name ICQ derives from the English phrase "I Seek You". Originally developed by the Israeli company Mirabilis in 1996, the client was bought by AOL in 1998, and then by Mail.Ru Group (now VK) in 2010.The ICQ client application and service were initially released in November 1996, freely available to download. The business did not have traditional marketing and relied mostly on word-of-mouth advertising instead, with consumers telling their friends about it, who then informed their friends, and so on. ICQ was among the first stand-alone instant messenger (IM) applications—while real-time chat was not in itself new (Internet Relay Chat (IRC) being the most common platform at the time), the concept of a fully centralized service with individual user accounts focused on one-on-one conversations set the blueprint for later instant messaging services like AIM, and its influence is seen in modern social media applications. ICQ became the first widely adopted IM platform.At its peak around 2001, ICQ had more than 100 million accounts registered. At the time of the Mail.Ru acquisition in 2010, there were around 42 million daily users. In 2020, the Mail.Ru Group, which owns ICQ, decided to launch new software, "ICQ New", based on its messenger. The updated messenger was presented to the general public on April 6, 2020. In 2022, ICQ had about 11 million monthly users.During the second week of January 2021, ICQ saw a renewed increase in popularity in Hong Kong, spurred on by the controversy over WhatsApp's privacy policy update. The number of downloads for the application increased 35-fold in the region. In 2023, an investigation by Brazilian news outlet Núcleo Jornalismo found that ICQ was used to freely share child pornography due to lax moderation policies. Features Private chats are a conversation between two users. When logging into an account, the chat can be accessed from any device thanks to cloud synchronization. A user can delete a sent message at any time either in their own chat or in their conversation partner's, and a notification will be received instead indicating that the message has been deleted. Any important messages from group or private chats, as well as an unlimited number and size of media content, can be sent to the conversation with oneself. Essentially, this chat acts as a free cloud storage. These are special chats where chats can take place of up to 25 thousand participants at the same time. Any user can create a group. A user can hide their phone number from other participants; there is an advanced polling feature; there is the possibility to see which group members have read a message, and notifications can be switched off for messages from specific group members. An alternative to blogs. Channel authors can publish posts as text messages and also attach media files. Once the post is published, subscribers receive a notification as they would from regular and group chats. The channel author can remain anonymous and does not have to show any information in the channel description. A special API-bot is available and can be used by anyone to create a bot, i.e. a small program which performs specific actions and interacts with the user. Bots can be used in a variety of ways ranging from entertainment to business services. Stickers (small images or photos expressing some form of emotion) are available to make communication via the application more emotive and personalized. Users can use the sticker library already available or upload their own. In addition, thanks to machine learning the software will recommend a sticker during communication by itself. Masks are images that are superimposed onto the camera in real-time. They can be used during video calls, superimposed onto photos and sent to other users. A nickname is a name made up by a user. It can replace a phone number when searching for and adding user contact. By using a nickname, users can share their contact details without providing a phone number. Smart answers are short phrases that appear above the message box which can be used to answer messages. ICQ New analyzes the contents of a conversation and suggests a few pre-set answers. ICQ New makes it possible to send audio messages. However, for people who do not want to or cannot listen to the audio, the audio can be automatically transcribed into text. All the user needs to do is click the relevant button and they will see the message in text form. Aside from text messaging, users can call each other as well as arrange audio or video calls for up to five people. During the video call, AR-masks can be used. UIN ICQ users are identified and distinguished from one another by UIN, or User Identification Numbers, distributed in sequential order. The UIN was invented by Mirabilis, as the user name assigned to each user upon registration. Issued UINs started at '10,000' (5 digits) and every user receives a UIN when first registering with ICQ. As of ICQ6 users are also able to log in using the specific e-mail address they associated with their UIN during the initial registration process. Unlike other instant messaging software or web applications, on ICQ the only permanent user info is the UIN, although it is possible to search for other users using their associated e-mail address or any other detail they have made public by updating it in their account's public profile. In addition the user can change all of his or her personal information, including screen name and e-mail address, without having to re-register. Since 2000 ICQ and AIM users were able to add each other to their contact list without the need for any external clients. (The AIM service has since been discontinued.) As a response to UIN theft or sale of attractive UINs, ICQ started to store email addresses previously associated with a UIN. As such UINs that are stolen can sometimes be reclaimed. This applies only if (since 1999 onwards) a valid primary email address was entered into the user profile. History The founding company of ICQ, Mirabilis, was established in June 1996 by five Israeli developers: Yair Goldfinger, Sefi Vigiser, Amnon Amir, Arik Vardi, and Arik's father Yossi Vardi. ICQ was one of the first text-based messengers to reach a wide range of users.The technology Mirabilis developed for ICQ was distributed free of charge. The technology's success encouraged AOL to acquire Mirabilis on June 8, 1998, for $287 million up front and $120 million in additional payments over three years based on performance levels. In 2002 AOL successfully patented the technology.After the purchase the product was initially managed by Ariel Yarnitsky and Avi Shechter. ICQ's management changed at the end of 2003. Under the leadership of the new CEO, Orey Gilliam, who also assumed the responsibility for all of AOL's messaging business in 2007, ICQ resumed its growth; it was not only a highly profitable company, but one of AOL's most successful businesses. Eliav Moshe replaced Gilliam in 2009 and became ICQ's managing director.In April 2010, AOL sold ICQ to Digital Sky Technologies, headed by Alisher Usmanov, for $187.5 million. While ICQ was displaced by AOL Instant Messenger, Google Talk, and other competitors in the U.S. and many other countries over the 2000s, it remained the most popular instant messaging network in Russian-speaking countries, and an important part of online culture. Popular UINs demanded over 11,000₽ in 2010.In September of that year, Digital Sky Technologies changed its name to Mail.Ru Group. Since the acquisition, Mail.ru has invested in turning ICQ from a desktop client to a mobile messaging system. As of 2013, around half of ICQ's users were using its mobile apps, and in 2014, the number of users began growing for the first time since the purchase.In March 2016, the source code of the client was released under the Apache license on github.com. Development history ICQ 99a/b the first releases that were widely available. ICQ 2000 incorporated into and Reminder features. ICQ 2001 included server-side storage of the contact list. This provided synchronization between multiple computers and enforced obtaining consent before adding UINs to the contact list by preventing clients from modifying the local contact list directly. In 2002, AOL Time Warner announced that ICQ had been issued a United States patent for instant messaging. ICQ 2002 was the last completely advertising-free ICQ version. ICQ Pro 2003b was the first ICQ version to use the ICQ protocol version 10. However, ICQ 5 and 5.1 use version 9 of the protocol. ICQ 2002 and 2003a used version 8 of the ICQ protocol. Earlier versions (ICQ 2001b and all ICQ clients before it) used ICQ protocol version 7. ICQ 4 and later ICQ 5 (released on Monday, February 7, 2005), were upgrades on ICQ Lite. One addition was Xtraz, which offers games and features intended to appeal to younger users of the Internet. ICQ Lite was originally an idea to offer the lighter users of instant messaging an alternative client which was a smaller download and less resource-hungry for relatively slow computers. ICQ 5 introduced skins support. There are few official skins available for the current ICQ 5.1 at the official website; however, a number of user-generated skins have been made available for download. ICQ 6, released on April 17, 2007, was the first major update since ICQ 4. The user interface has been redesigned using Boxely, the same rendering engine used in AIM Triton. This change adds new features such as the ability to send IMs directly from the client's contact list. ICQ has recently started forcing users of v5.1 to upgrade to version 6 (and XP). Those who do not upgrade will find their older version of ICQ does not start up. Although the upgrade to version 6 should be seen as a positive thing, some users may find that useful features such as sending multiple files at one time is no longer supported in the new version. At the beginning of July 2008, a network upgrade forced users to stop using ICQ 5.1 - applications that identified themselves as ICQ 5, such as Pidgin, were forced to identify themselves as ICQ 6. There seems to be no alternative for users other than using a different IM program or patching ICQ 5.1 with a special application. ICQ 7.0, released on January 18, 2010. This update includes integration with Facebook and other websites. It also allows custom personal status similar to Windows Live Messenger (MSN Messenger). ICQ 7.0 does not support traditional Chinese on standard installation or with the addition of an official language pack. This has made its adoption difficult with the established user base from Hong Kong and Taiwan where traditional Chinese is the official language. ICQ 8, released on February 5, 2012 - "Meet the new generation of ICQ, Enjoy free video calls, messages and SMS, social networks support and more." ICQ 10.0, released January 18, 2016. Newest update is 10.0 Build 46867, released on May 27, 2022. Criticism Policy against unofficial clients AOL pursued an aggressive policy regarding alternative ("unauthorized") ICQ clients. In July 2008, changes were implemented on ICQ servers causing many unofficial clients to stop working. These users received an official notification from "ICQ System". On December 9, 2008, another change to the ICQ servers occurred: clients sending Client IDs not matching ICQ 5.1 or higher stopped working. On December 29, 2008, the ICQ press service distributed a statement characterizing alternative clients as dangerous. On January 21, 2009, ICQ servers started blocking all unofficial clients in Russia and Commonwealth of Independent States countries. Users in Russia and Ukraine received a message from UIN 1: "Системное сообщение ICQ не поддерживает используемую вами версию. Скачайте бесплатную авторизованную версию ICQ с официального web-сайта ICQ.System Message The version you are using is not supported by ICQ. Download a free authorized ICQ version from ICQ's official website." On icq.com there was an "important message" for Russian-speaking ICQ users: "ICQ осуществляет поддержку только авторизированных версий программ: ICQ Lite и ICQ 6.5." ("ICQ supports only authorized versions of programs: ICQ Lite and ICQ 6.5.") On February 3, 2009, the events of January 21 were repeated. On December 27, 2018, ICQ announced it was to stop supporting unofficial clients, affecting many users who prefer a compact size using Miranda NG and other clients. On December 28, 2018, ICQ stopped working on some unofficial clients. In late March, 2019, ICQ stopped working on the Pidgin client, as initiated in December 2018. Cooperation with Russian intelligence services According to a Novaya Gazeta article published in May 2018, Russian intelligence agencies had access to online reading of ICQ users' correspondence during crime investigations. The article examined 34 sentences of Russian courts, during the investigation of which the evidence of the defendants' guilt was obtained by reading correspondence on a PC or mobile devices. Of the fourteen cases in which ICQ was involved, in six cases the capturing of information occurred before the seizure of the device. Because the rival service Telegram blocks all access for the agencies, the Advisor of the Russian President, Herman Klimenko, recommended to use ICQ instead. Clients AOL's OSCAR network protocol used by ICQ is proprietary and using a third party client is a violation of ICQ Terms of Service. Nevertheless, a number of third-party clients have been created by using reverse-engineering and protocol descriptions. These clients include: Adium: supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, MSN, Google Talk, XMPP, and others, for macOS Ayttm: supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, MSN, IRC, and XMPP bitlbee: IRC gateway, supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, MSN, Google Talk, and XMPP centericq: supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, MSN, IRC and XMPP, text-based climm (formerly mICQ): text-based Fire: supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, MSN, IRC, and XMPP, for macOS Jimm: supports ICQ, for Java ME mobile devices Kopete: supports AIM, ICQ, MSN, Yahoo, XMPP, Google Talk, IRC, Gadu-Gadu, Novell GroupWise Messenger and others, for Unix-like Meetro: IM and social networking combined with location; supports AIM, ICQ, MSN, Yahoo! Miranda NG: supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, MSN, IRC, Google Talk, XMPP, Gadu-Gadu, BNet and others, for Windows Naim: ncurses-based Pidgin (formerly Gaim): supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, Gtalk, MSN, IRC, XMPP, Gadu-Gadu, SILC, Meanwhile, (IBM Lotus Sametime) and others QIP: supports ICQ, AIM, XMPP and XIMSS stICQ: supports ICQ, for Symbian OS Trillian: supports ICQ, IRC, Google Talk, XMPP and othersAOL supported clients include: AOL Instant Messenger (discontinued in 2017) Messages/iChat: uses ICQ's UIN as an AIM screenname, for macOS See also Comparison of instant messaging clients Comparison of instant messaging protocols LAN messenger Online chat Windows Live Messenger Tencent QQ Official ICQ Website
Hong Kong International Airport (IATA: HKG, ICAO: VHHH) is located on the island of Chek Lap Kok in western Hong Kong. The airport is also referred to as Chek Lap Kok International Airport or Chek Lap Kok Airport, to distinguish it from its predecessor, the former Kai Tak Airport. Opened in 1998, the airport is the world's busiest cargo gateway and one of the world's busiest passenger airports. It is also home to one of the world's largest passenger terminal buildings, which was the largest when the airport opened. The airport is operated by Airport Authority Hong Kong (AAHK), a statutory body of the Hong Kong government established on 1 December 1995. It runs 24 hours a day and is the primary hub for Cathay Pacific, Greater Bay Airlines, Hong Kong Airlines, HK Express and Air Hong Kong (cargo carrier). The airport is one of the hubs of Oneworld, and is also one of the Asia-Pacific cargo hubs for UPS Airlines. It is a focus city for China Airlines and China Eastern Airlines. Ethiopian Airlines utilise Hong Kong as a stopover point for their flights.HKIA, an important contributor to Hong Kong's economy, employs approximately 65,000 people. More than 100 airlines operate flights from the airport to over 180 cities across the globe. In 2015, HKIA handled 68.5 million passengers, making it the 8th busiest airport worldwide by passenger traffic and the 4th busiest airport worldwide by international passenger traffic. Since 2010, it has also surpassed Memphis International Airport to become the world's busiest airport by cargo traffic – except in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.To facilitate the increased traffic due to the third runway, Terminal 2 has been undergoing redevelopment since 2019 and will not reopen until the mid-2020s. The Centre Runway has also been closed for upgrades and also will not reopen until the mid-2020s. History Chek Lap Kok Airport was designed as a replacement for the former Hong Kong International Airport (commonly known as Kai Tak Airport) built in 1925. Located in the densely built-up Kowloon City District with a single runway extending into Kowloon Bay, Hong Kong airport had turned on the runway lights for expansion to cope with steadily increasing air traffic. By the 1990s, Kai Tak had become one of the world's busiest airports – it far exceeded its annual passenger and cargo design capacities, and one out of every three flights experienced delays, largely due to lack of space for aircraft, gates, and a second runway. In addition, noise mitigation measures restricted nighttime flights, as severe noise pollution (exceeding 105 dB(A) in Kowloon City) adversely affected an estimated total of at least 340,000 people.A 1974 planning study by the Civil Aviation and Public Works departments identified the small island of Chek Lap Kok, off Lantau Island, as a possible future airport replacement site. Far away from the congested city centre, flight paths would be routed over the South China Sea rather than populous urban areas, enabling efficient round-the-clock operation of multiple runways. The Chek Lap Kok (CLK) airport master plan and civil engineering studies were completed towards the end of 1982 and 1983 respectively. In February 1983, however, the government shelved the project for financial and economic reasons. In 1988, the Port & Airport Development Strategy (PADS) Study was undertaken by consultants, headed by Mott MacDonald Hong Kong Limited, reporting in December 1989. This study looked at forecasts for both airport and port traffic to the year 2011 and came up with three recommended strategies for overall strategic development in Hong Kong. One of the three assumed maintaining the existing airport at Kai Tak; a second assumed a possible airport in the Western Harbour between Lantau Island and Hong Kong Island, and the third assumed a new airport at Chek Lap Kok. The consultants produced detailed analyses for each scenario, enabling Government to consider these appraisals for each of the three "Recommended Strategies". In October 1989, the Governor of Hong Kong announced to the Legislative Council that a decision had been made on the long-term port and airport development strategy for the territory. The strategy to be adopted was that which included a replacement airport at Chek Lap Kok and incorporating new container terminals 8 and 9 at Stonecutters Island and east of the island of Tsing Yi respectively.In the PADS study, the consultants advised that the earliest the airport could be opened was January 1998. However, in reaching the government's decision, this date was modified to January 1997, six months prior to the handover of Hong Kong to China. Construction of the new airport began in 1991. As construction progressed, an agreement was reached with China that as much as possible of the airport would be completed before the handover to China in July 1997. In the event, British Prime Minister John Major opened the Tsing Ma Bridge, the main access to Lantau Island and the airport and its supporting community in May 1997, prior to the transfer of sovereignty to China. The airport itself was opened in July 1998. The construction period was very rushed; specialists considered that only a 10–20-year period was sufficient for this massive project. Another cause for this rush was due to the uncertain future of the airport construction after the transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong to the People's Republic of China. Shortly after the then-British colonial government of Hong Kong announced plans to construct the new airport, the Chinese government in Beijing began voicing objections to various aspects of the massive project, which prompted financial institutions to delay extending project finance. Without access to this financing, many of the companies who had secured contracts to build various portions of the project halted construction, resulting in delays that pushed the actual opening of the airport, originally planned to take place before the transition in sovereignty until one year after. As agreements were reached with the government in China, Beijing removed most of its objections and work then continued, albeit behind schedule.Hong Kong International Airport was built on a large artificial island formed by flattening and levelling the former Chek Lap Kok and Lam Chau islands (3.02 square kilometres (1.17 sq mi) and 0.08 km2 (0.031 sq mi) respectively) and reclaiming 9.38 km2 (3.62 sq mi) of the adjacent seabed. The 12.48-square-kilometre (4.82 sq mi) airport site, with its reclamation, added nearly 1% to Hong Kong's total surface area, connecting to the north side of Lantau Island near Tung Chung new town.Construction of the new airport was only part of the Airport Core Programme, which also involved the construction of new roads and rail links to the airport, with associated bridges and tunnels, and major land reclamation projects on both Hong Kong Island and in Kowloon. The project holds the record for the most expensive airport project ever, according to Guinness World Records. Construction of the new airport was also voted as one of the Top 10 Construction Achievements of the 20th Century at the ConExpo conference in 1999.The detailed design for the airport terminal was awarded to a consortium led by Mott Connell (the Hong Kong office of UK consultant Mott MacDonald) with British Airports Authority as specialist designers for airport related aspects, Foster and Partners as architects and Ove Arup as specialist structural designers for the roof. Mott Connell were the designers for foundations, all other structural components and the mechanical and electrical work. The sides of the terminals, predominantly glass, were designed to break during high-speed winds, relieving pressure and allowing the terminal to withstand an intense typhoon.The airport was officially opened in an opening ceremony by the President of the People's Republic of China and General Secretary of the Communist Party Jiang Zemin at noon Hong Kong Time on 2 July 1998. Hours later, Air Force One, carrying the President of the United States Bill Clinton, landed at the new airport and became the first foreign visitor to arrive at the new airport. The actual operation of the airport commenced on 6 July 1998, concluding the six-year construction that cost US$20 billion. On that day at 06:25 Hong Kong Time, Cathay Pacific Flight CX 889 from New York JFK Airport became the first commercial flight to land at the airport, pipping the original CX 292 from Rome which was the scheduled first arrival. However, the airport had already started to experience some technical difficulties on the first day of opening. The flight information display system (FIDS) had suddenly shut down which caused long delays. Shortly afterwards, the cargo-communication link with Kai Tak, where all the necessary data was stored (some still stored there then), went down. During the same period of time, someone had accidentally deleted an important database for cargo services. This meant that cargo had to be manually stored. At one point, the airport had to turn away all air cargo and freight headed for and exported from Hong Kong (except food and medical supplies) while it sorted out the huge mess. HKIA simply could not keep up without an automated assistant-computer system. For three to five months after its opening, it suffered various severe organisational, mechanical and technical problems that almost crippled the airport and its operations. Computer glitches were mostly to blame for the major crisis. Lau Kong-wah, a Hong Kong politician, was quoted saying "This was meant to be a first-class project, but it has turned into a ninth-class airport and a disgrace. Our airport has become the laughing stock of the world." At one time, the government reopened the cargo terminal at Kai Tak Airport to handle freight traffic because of a breakdown at the new cargo terminal, named Super Terminal One (ST1). However, after six months the airport started to operate normally. On 31 July 2000, Todd Salimuchai, a regularised illegal immigrant in Hong Kong with no provable nationality, forced his way through a security checkpoint using a fake pistol, took a woman hostage, and boarded a Cathay Pacific aircraft. He demanded to be flown to Burma, which he claimed was his native country but had refused to admit him due to his lack of documents. He surrendered to police two and a half hours later.Officially opened in June 2007, the second airport terminal, called T2, (check-in facility only) is linked with the MTR Airport Express on a new platform. The terminal also features a new shopping mall, SkyPlaza, providing a large variety of shops and restaurants, together with a few entertainment facilities. T2 also houses a 36-bay coach-station for buses to and from mainland China and 56 airline check-in counters, as well as customs and immigration facilities. Besides T2, the SkyCity Nine Eagles Golf Course has been opened in 2007 whereas the second airport hotel, the Hong Kong SkyCity Marriott Hotel; and a permanent cross-boundary ferry terminal, the Skypier, began operations in 2008 and 2009 respectively. Development around T2 also includes the AsiaWorld-Expo which has started operation in late 2005. A second passenger concourse, the North Satellite Concourse (NSC), opened in 2010, followed by the Midfield Concourse in December 2015.During August 2019, the airport was shut down multiple times as demonstrations were held inside the airport during the 2019–20 Hong Kong protests, over 160 flights were cancelled as both the arrivals and departures sections of the airport were occupied.The third runway, known as the North Runway, opened in 2021, was the first part of the Hong Kong International Airport Master Plan 2030 to open. The Center runway was then closed to facilitate construction works and upgrades. Composition Hong Kong International Airport covers an area of 4,707 acres or 1,905 hectares (7.36 sq mi). The airport has a total of 90 boarding gates, with 77 jet bridge gates (1–21, 23–36, 40–50, 60–71, 201–219) and 12 virtual gates (228–230, 511–513, 520–525) which are used as assembly points for passengers, who are then ferried to the aircraft by apron buses. Of the 66 jet bridges, five (Gates 5, 23, 60, 62, 64) are capable of handling the Airbus A380, the current users of which are Asiana Airlines, British Airways, Emirates, Qantas and Singapore Airlines. Korean Air and China Southern Airlines previously operated a route to HKIA from Seoul and Beijing respectively using the Airbus A380, but these airlines decided to not use them due to unprofitable nature of the aircraft type. Air France, Lufthansa and Thai Airways International previously operated services to Hong Kong from Paris, Frankfurt and Bangkok using the Airbus A380, though they retired the aircraft types early due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition to Chek Lap Kok, the airport occupies what was Lam Chau. Terminal 1 Terminal 1 of the HKIA, with an area measuring 570,000 square metres (6,100,000 sq ft), is one of the largest passenger airport terminal buildings in the world, after the likes of Dubai International Airport Terminal 3 and Beijing Capital International Airport Terminal 3.Opened on 6 July 1998, Terminal 1 was the largest airport passenger terminal building, with a total gross floor area of 531,000 square metres (5,720,000 sq ft). It briefly conceded the status to Bangkok's Suvarnabhumi Airport (563,000 m2 (6,060,000 sq ft)) when the latter opened on 15 September 2006, but reclaimed the title when the East Hall was expanded, bringing the total area to its current size of 570,000 square metres (6,100,000 sq ft). Terminal 1's title as the world's largest was surrendered to Beijing Capital International Airport Terminal 3 on 29 February 2008. Starting from late 2021, the air side of Hong Kong airport Terminal 1 start segregating Mainland Chinese flights and other international flights into two separate zones, "Green zone" and "Orange zone", for the purpose of reducing the risk of cross infection of novel coronavirus between travellers and airport workers serving different destinations.1 November 2022, the Sky Bridge opened as part of a wider HK$9 billion airport upgrade, connecting Terminal 1 to the T1 Satellite Concourse (T1S). Lined with glass floor panels at the edges, the 200 metre long, 28 metre high bridge, the largest of its kind, is high enough for an Airbus A380 to pass underneath. T1 Satellite Concourse In 2007, HKIA began the construction of a two-storey T1 Satellite Concourse (T1S), previously known as the North Satellite Concourse (NSC), which opened in December 2009. This concourse was designed for narrow-body aircraft and is equipped with 10 jet bridges. The concourse has a floor area of 20,000 square metres (220,000 sq ft) and will be able to serve more than five million passengers annually. T1S was built so the airport could accommodate at least 90 percent of its passengers by aerobridges. It has two levels (one for departures and one for arrivals). A new Sky Bridge connecting Terminal 1 and T1S opened in November 2022, allowing passengers to walk above taxiing planes, saving time from taking the airport shuttle bus. T1 Midfield Concourse On 25 January 2011, Airport Authority Hong Kong (AA) unveiled phase 1 of its midfield development project which was targeted for completion by the end of 2015. The midfield area is located to the west of Terminal 1 between the two existing runways. It was the then last piece of land on the airport island available for large-scale development. This includes 20 aircraft parking stands, three of these are wide enough to serve the Airbus A380 and cater for an additional 10 million passengers annually. Passengers reach the concourse through an extension of the underground automated people mover. A joint venture of Mott MacDonald and Arup led the design of the project. Gammon Construction undertook the construction work. The Concourse began operations on 28 December 2015, and the first flight that used it was the HX658 operated by the Hong Kong Airlines flying from Hong Kong to Okinawa. On 31 March 2016, the Concourse was officially inaugurated in a ceremony marking its full commissioning. Former Terminal 2 Former Terminal 2 with an area measuring 140,000 m2 (1,500,000 sq ft), together with the SkyPlaza, opened on 28 February 2007 along with the opening of the Airport station's Platform 3. It was only a check-in and processing facility for departing passengers with no gates or arrival facilities (passengers were transported underground to gates at Terminal 1). The SkyPlaza was situated within. Former Terminal 2 was temporarily closed in 28 November 2019 at 11pm for expansion to provide departure and arrival facilities for the new satellite terminal from the three-runway system. Before its temporary closure most low-cost carriers and some full-service carriers had relocated their check-in operations to former Terminal 2. Other buildings Cathay Pacific City, the head office of Cathay Pacific and Air Hong Kong, is located on the airport island. CNAC House, the office for Air China is also located in the airport complex, together with the Civil Aviation Department headquarters. HAECO also has its head office on the airport property. HK Express has its head office on the airport property, in what was previously the Dragonair House, head office of Cathay Dragon.The Government Flying Service (GFS) has its head office building in the airport. Additionally the head office of the Air Accident Investigation Authority (AAIA) is in the Facility Building on the airport property. Airport expansion projects In June 2010, the Airport Authority unveiled plans to develop in stages the vast midfield site of the airport island. Stage 1 will involve the construction of a new 20-gate passenger concourse to be built in 2 phases (completion 2015 and 2020) with 11 gates in phase 1 growing to 20 gates in phase 2. The configuration of the new concourse is similar to those at Atlanta, Bangkok–Suvarnabhumi, Berlin (Terminal 1), Chicago–O'Hare (Global Terminal), Denver, Detroit (McNamara Terminal), London–Heathrow (Terminals 2 and 5), Los Angeles (TBIT), Munich (Terminal 2), Salt Lake City, Seoul–Incheon, Washington–Dulles and Felipe Ángeles International Airport (Zumpango). After stage 1 of midfield development is completed in 2020, there will be sufficient lands remaining for further new concourses to be built as and when demand for them materialises. Master Plan 2030 One year after, on 2 June 2011, the Airport Authority announced and released their latest version of a 20-year blueprint for the airport's development, the Hong Kong International Airport Master Plan 2030. The study took three years and according to the authority, nine consulting organisations have been hired for the research, observation, planning and advice. The main focus is to improve the overall capacity and aircraft handling ability of the airport. Based on this, two options have been developed. Option 1: Two-runway system To maintain the current two-runway system, there will be enhancements to the terminal and apron facilities to increase the airport's capacity. This option will enable the airport to handle a maximum of 420,000 flight movements per year, with annual passenger and cargo throughput increased to 74 million and six million tonnes respectively. The approximate cost of this plan is $23.4 billion Hong Kong dollars in 2010 prices, or HK$42.5 billion in money-of-the-day prices. The Airport Authority estimates that the airport will reach its maximum runway capacity sometime around 2020 if no extra runway is added. Option 2: Three-runway system This plan will focus on adding a third runway to the north of the Chek Lap Kok, the existing island the airport is built on, by land reclamation, using deep cement mixing, of about 650 hectares (1,600 acres). Associated facilities, additional terminals, airfield and apron facilities, will be built as well, and, combined with the new runway, it is estimated that the airport would be able to handle a maximum of 620,000 flights per year (102 per hour, or about one flight every 36 seconds), and meet forecast annual passenger and cargo throughput of about 97 million and 8.9 million tonnes by 2030 respectively.There are possible drawbacks. Development costs are a concern: although the proposal would increase the number of direct jobs associated with HKIA to 150,000 by 2030 and generate an ENPV of HK$912 billion (in 2009 dollars), the estimated cost is approximately $86.2 billion (2010) Hong Kong Dollars, or HK$141.5 billion (at money-of-the-day prices). There are also environmental and local noise pollution concerns. On 20 March 2012, the Hong Kong Government adopted this option as the official expansion plan.The third runway, with its own dedicated passenger concourse (T2 Concourse), was built parallel to the current two runways on reclaimed land directly north of the existing airport island. The third runway (referred as the North runway) began operations in July 2022, while the original North runway (re-designated as the Centre runway) was closed for reconfiguration and is expected to be completed by 2024, alongside other facilities of the Three-runway system project including the T2 expansion, new T2 Concourse, automatic people mover, and baggage handling system. Airlines and destinations Passenger Cargo Statistics Operations The airport is operated by the Airport Authority Hong Kong, a statutory body wholly owned by the Government of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.The airport has three parallel runways, all of which are 3,800 metres (12,500 ft) in length and 60 metres (200 ft) wide. The south runway has a Category II Precision Approach, while the centre runway has the higher Category IIIA rating, which allows pilots to land in only 200-metre (660 ft) visibility. The two runways have a capacity of over 60 aircraft movements an hour. The airport is upgrading ATC and runways so that they can handle 68 movements per hour. Normally, the centre runway (07C/25C; until 1 December 2021 the north runway 07L/25R) is used for landing passenger planes. The south runway (07R/25L) is used for passenger planes taking off and cargo flights due to its proximity to the cargo terminal. A third runway (designated 07L/25R) to their north has opened in mid-2022, while the Centre runway has been closed for upgrades. When all 3 runways are opened, it is estimated that the airport will be able to handle a maximum of 620,000 flights per year (102 per hour, or about one flight every 36 seconds). There are 49 frontal stands at the main passenger concourse, 28 remote stands and 25 cargo stands. There are also five parking bays at the Northwest Concourse. A satellite concourse with 10 frontal stands for narrow body aircraft has been commissioned to the north of the main concourse at the end of 2009, bringing the total number of frontal stands at the airport to 59. The airport was the busiest for passenger traffic in Asia in 2010, and the world's busiest airport for cargo traffic in 2010. In terms of international traffic, the airport is the third busiest for passenger traffic and the busiest for cargo since its operation in 1998. There are over 95 international airlines providing about 900 scheduled passenger and all-cargo flights each day between Hong Kong and some 160 destinations worldwide. About 76 percent of these flights are operated with wide-body jets. There is also an average of approximately 31 non-scheduled passenger and cargo flights each week.The operation of scheduled air services to and from Hong Kong is facilitated by air services agreements between Hong Kong and other countries. Since the opening of HKIA, the Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region has implemented a policy of progressive liberalisation of air services. Many low-cost airlines have started various regional routes to compete head-on with full-service carriers on trunk routes.The airport's long term expansion opportunities are subject to variables. The airport opened its third runway in July 2022 as part of a HK$141.5 billion expansion project that would increase its land footprint by 50%. On the other hand, there exists only one airway between Hong Kong and mainland China, and this single route is often and easily backed up causing delays on both sides. In addition, China requires that aircraft flying the single air route between Hong Kong and the mainland must be at an altitude of at least 15,000 feet. Talks are underway to persuade the Chinese military to relax its airspace restriction in view of worsening air traffic congestion at the airport. Other than that, Hong Kong Airport Authority is co-operating with other airports in the area to relieve air traffic and in the future, Shenzhen may act as a regional airport while Hong Kong receives all the international flights. Air traffic The Government Flying Service provides short and long range search and rescue services, police support, medical evacuation and general purpose flights for the Government. Passenger facilities Despite its size, the passenger terminal was designed for convenience. The layout and signage, moving walkways and the automated people mover help passengers move through the building. The HKIA Automated People Mover, a driverless people mover system with 3 stations transports passengers between the check-in area and the gates. The trains travel at 62 kilometres per hour (39 mph). The airport also contains an IMAX theatre that has the largest screen in Hong Kong. The theatre is located in Terminal 2, level 6 and can seat 350 persons at a time. Hong Kong Business Aviation Centre The Hong Kong Business Aviation Centre (HKBAC) is located within the airport and has its own terminal and facilities separate from the public terminal. It provides services for executive aircraft and passengers, including a passenger lounge, private rooms and showers, business centre facilities, ground handling, baggage handling, fuelling, security, customs and flight planning. Designated spaces and hangars are also provided at the HKBAC for private aircraft. HKBAC has broken ground on a HK$400 million ($51 million) expansion. The project, which will double the airport's handling capacity for business jet movements, is expected to be completed in 2025. Intermodal transportation hub To sustain the growth of passengers, the Airport Authority formulated a "push and pull through" strategy to expand its connections to new sources of passengers and cargo. This means adapting the network to the rapidly growing markets in China and in particular to the Pearl River Delta region (PRD). In 2003, a new Airport-Mainland Coach Station opened. The coach station has a 230-square-metre (2,500 sq ft) waiting lounge and sheltered bays for ten coaches. Many buses operate each day to transport passengers between HKIA and major cities in the Mainland.The Coach Station was relocated to the ground floor (level 3) of Terminal 2 in 2007. The 36 bays at the new Coach Station allow cross-border coaches to make 320 trips a day carrying passengers between the airport and 90 cities and towns in the PRD. Local tour and hotel coaches also operate from T2. The coach station at T2 has shops and waiting lounges as well as a mainland coach service centre which gathers all operators together.In late September 2003, the SkyPier high-speed ferry terminal opened. Passengers arriving at the SkyPier board buses to the terminal and arriving air passengers board ferries at the pier for their ride back to the PRD. Passengers travelling both directions can bypass custom and immigration formalities, which reduces transit time. Four ports – Shekou, Shenzhen, Macau and Humen (Dongguan) – were initially served. As of August 2007, SkyPier serves Shenzhen's Shekou and Fuyong, Dongguan's Humen, Macau, Zhongshan and Zhuhai. Passengers travelling from Shekou and Macau can complete airline check-in procedures with participating airlines before boarding the ferries and go straight to the boarding gate for the flight at HKIA. In 2009, the permanent SkyPier Terminal opened. The permanent ferry terminal is equipped with four berths, but the terminal is designed to accommodate eight berths. Transfer desks and baggage handling facilities are included, and the terminal is directly connected to the airport automatic people mover system. Baggage and cargo facilities Ramp handling services are provided by Hong Kong Airport Services Limited (HAS), Jardine Air Terminal Services Limited and SATS HK Limited. Their services include the handling of mail and passenger baggage, transportation of cargo, aerobridge operations and the operation of passenger stairways. The airport has an advanced baggage handling system (BHS), the main section of which is located in the basement level of the passenger terminal, and a separate remote transfer facility at the western end of the main concourse for the handling of tight connection transfer bags. HKIA handles over five million tonnes of cargo annually. Hong Kong Air Cargo Terminals Limited operates one of the two air cargo terminals at the airport. Its headquarters, the 328,000-square-metre (3,530,000 sq ft) SuperTerminal 1, is the world's second largest stand-alone air cargo handling facility, after the opening of the West Cargo Handling Area of the Shanghai Pudong International Airport on 26 March 2008. The designed capacity is 2.6 million tonnes of freight a year. The second air cargo terminal is operated by Asia Airfreight Terminal Company Limited, and has a capacity of 1.5 million tonnes a year. DHL operates the DHL Central Asia Hub cargo facility which handles 35,000 parcels and 40,000 packages per hour. Hongkong Post operates the Air Mail Centre (AMC) and processes 700,000 packages per day. It is envisaged that HKIA's total air cargo capacity per annum will reach nine million tonnes ultimately. Aircraft maintenance services Both line and base maintenance services are undertaken by Hong Kong Aircraft Engineering Company (HAECO), while China Aircraft Services Limited (CASL) and Pan Asia Pacific Aviation Services Limited carry out line maintenance. Line maintenance services include routine servicing of aircraft performed during normal turnaround periods and regularly scheduled layover periods. Base maintenance covers all airframe maintenance services and for this HAECO has a three-bay hangar, which can accommodate up to three Boeing 747-400 aircraft and two Airbus A320 aircraft, and an adjoining support workshop. HAECO also has the world's largest mobile hangar, weighing over 400 tons. It can be used to enclose half of a wide-body aeroplane so that the whole facility can fully enclose four 747s when the mobile hangar is used. On 29 May 2009, CASL opened its first aircraft maintenance hangar in the maintenance area of the airport. The new hangar occupies an area of about 10,000 square metres (110,000 sq ft) and can accommodate one wide-body and one narrow-body aircraft at the same time; the hangar also has an about 10,000-square-metre (110,000 sq ft) area in its annexe building. CASL specialises in Airbus A320 family and Boeing 737 Next Generation series heavy maintenance. Airport based ground services The Air Traffic Control Complex (ATCX), located at the centre of the airfield, is the nerve centre of the entire air traffic control system. Some 370 air traffic controllers and supporting staff work around the clock to provide air traffic control services for the Hong Kong Flight Information Region (FIR). At the Air Traffic Control Tower, controllers provide 24-hour aerodrome control services to aircraft operating at the airport. A backup Air Traffic Control Centre/Tower constructed to the north of the ATCX is available for operational use in the event normal services provided in the ATCX are disrupted by unforeseen circumstances. Apart from serving as an operational backup, the facilities are also used for air traffic control training. The Airport Meteorological Office (AMO) of the Hong Kong Observatory (HKO) provides weather services for the aviation community. The AMO issues alerts of low-level windshear and turbulence. Windshear detection is made using traditional doppler weather radars as well as the more effective doppler LIDAR, of which Hong Kong International Airport was the first to introduce. Doppler LIDAR systems use lasers to detect windshear and wind direction even when atmospheric conditions are too dry for Doppler radar to work. Fire and rescue services Rescue and fire fighting services within the airport are covered by the Airport Fire Contingent of the Hong Kong Fire Services Department. The contingent has 282 members, operating three fire stations and two rescue berths for 24-hour emergency calls. It is equipped with 14 fire appliances which can respond to incidents within two minutes in optimum conditions of visibility and surface conditions, satisfying the relevant recommendation of the International Civil Aviation Organization. Two high capacity rescue boats, supported by eight speed boats, form the core of sea rescue operations. One ambulance is assigned at each of the airport fire stations. Ground transport The Airport is connected to inner Hong Kong by the Route 8 in Hong Kong North Lantau Highway on Lantau Island. There is an automated people mover, operated by the Airport Authority and maintained by MTR Corporation, connecting the East Hall to the Midfield Concourse via West Hall and Terminal 2. It was extended to SkyPier in late 2009 and extended to Midfield Concourse in 2015. Bus Citybus (CityFlyer for Airport services), New Lantau Bus, Long Win Bus and Discovery Bay Transit Services (Permits required) operate more than 40 bus routes to the airport from various parts of Hong Kong, available at the Airport Ground Transportation Centre and Cheong Tat Road. The bus companies also offer more than 20 overnight "N" and "NA" Bus lines (a.k.a. Night services).Passengers can also take bus route number S1 to the Tung Chung MTR station. From there they can board the MTR Tung Chung line which follows the same route as the MTR Airport Express Line to Central Station with cheaper fare but longer journey time. There is bus service to Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macau Bridge Control Point. Which services between Chek Lap Kok, Hong Kong to Zhuhai, China and Macau. Coach services are also available to major cities and towns in Guangdong Province, China. such as Dongguan, Guangzhou and Shenzhen. And Also for HZMBus to Macau Ferry Direct ferry services are available from the airport to various destinations throughout the Pearl River Delta in China and Macau via Skypier. Passengers using these services are treated as transit passengers and are not considered to have entered Hong Kong for immigration purposes. For this reason, access to the ferry terminal is before immigration in the airport for arriving passengers. Check-in services are available at these piers. Four ports – Shekou, Shenzhen Airport (Fuyong) and Humen (Dongguan) in China, and Outer Harbour Ferry Terminal in Macau– were initially served, extending to Guangzhou and Zhongshan at the end of 2003. The Zhuhai service began on 10 July 2007 while a Nansha service started on 14 July 2009. Rail The fastest service from the city to the airport is the Airport Express, which was a part of the Hong Kong Rail Network in Hong Kong. A dedicated rapid-speed rail link as part of the MTR rapid transit network. The line serves between Asia-World-Expo and Hong Kong (Central) Station makes intermediate stops at the following stations: Tsing Yi Station (Located in the northeastern Part of Tsing Yi Island, Kwai Tsing District, Tsing Yi [which is one of three Communes which form the Tsuen Wan New Town {the other two are Tsuen Wan and Kwai Chung}], this station mostly served passengers from the western part of the New Territories. Transfers are available for the Tung Chung Line. Connections are also available for taxis and public/private buses at the local Maritime Square) Kowloon Station (Located in the Yau Tsim Mong District on the western part of the Kowloon Peninsula, this station is the major transfer hub in the Kowloon Peninsula, with stunning landmarks such as West Kowloon Cultural District, the M+ Art Museum, Hong Kong Palace Museum, Avenue of Stars and many more. Transfers are available for the Tung Chung Line [and Tuen Ma Line (Formerly called the West Rail Line) in Austin Station] for passengers for the East Kowloon and the New Territories. Since Autumn 2018, the High Speed Rail Network Line operates in West Kowloon Station which connects to the National Rail Network of China. Connections are also available for taxis, MTR Shuttle Buses and public/private buses at Elements. Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic and currently suspended under further notice as of April 2023, in-town check-in services for major airlines were provided. Hong Kong Station, the terminus, is located at the northern coast of Central and Western District on Hong Kong Island. It takes approximately 24 minutes to reach the airport from Hong Kong Station. Transfers are available for the Tung Chung Line (and Island Line and Tsuen Wan Line at Central Station, where travellators link the two stations.) Connections are also available such as free MTR shuttle bus services between Airport Express stations and hotels in the area, and free transfers to and from other MTR lines with a valid Octopus card (which is not available to Single Ride Ticket users). Hong Kong Station also provides in-town check-in services for major airlines. (Passengers can ride one stop of the Island Line or Tsuen Wan Line to Admiralty Station, where transfers are available for the South Island Line [Opened on December 28, 2016, located on Platforms 5 and 6 {towards South Horizons}] and the East Rail Line [Opened on May 15, 2022, located on Platforms 7 {towards Lo Wu and Lok Ma Chau Border Crossing Stations} and 8 {terminating platform}.]) The Airport Express line originally terminated at Airport station, where trains open doors on both sides, allowing direct access to either Terminal 1 or Terminal 2. It was later extended to AsiaWorld–Expo station on 20 December 2005 to facilitate the opening of the nearby AsiaWorld–Expo. During events at the station some Tung Chung line trains, which largely share the same tracks as the Airport Express, serve this station instead of Tung Chung, but these trains do not stop by Airport station. Taxi The airport is served by all three different types of taxis, distinguished by their colour: Urban Taxis connect the Airport with Hong Kong Island, Kowloon Peninsula and parts of the new towns of Metropolitan Hong Kong such as Tsuen Wan, Sha Tin and Tseung Kwan O.(urban taxis can go anywhere in Hong Kong except southern parts of Lantau Island). Initial fare HK$27.00 (~US$3.44) New Territories Taxis connect the airport with the New Territories, except those parts in the Metropolitan Hong Kong Area such as Tsuen Wan, Sha Tin and Tseung Kwan O (except parts of Hang Hau) were served by urban taxis. Initial fare HK$23.50 (~US$2.99) Lantau Taxis connect the airport with the rest of Lantau Island. Initial fare HK$22.00 (~US$2.80) Accidents and incidents The following are aviation accidents or incidents at the current HKIA (see accidents and incidents at the former HKIA at Kai Tak): On 22 August 1999, China Airlines Flight 642 (an MD-11 operated by subsidiary Mandarin Airlines), which was landing at Hong Kong International Airport during Typhoon Sam after a flight from Bangkok International Airport (now Bangkok Don Mueang International Airport), rolled over and caught fire, coming to rest upside down beside the runway. Of the 315 passengers and crew on board, 3 people were killed and 219 were injured. On 13 April 2010, Cathay Pacific Flight 780 from Surabaya Juanda International Airport to Hong Kong landed safely after both engines failed due to contaminated fuel. 57 passengers were injured. Its two pilots received the Polaris Award from the International Federation of Air Line Pilots' Associations for their heroism and airmanship. In 2015, a French traveler died by suicide through jumping. On 4 October 2017, some cargo caught fire as it was being loaded onto an American Airlines plane. The authorities were able to contain the fire. The plane and an airport vehicle was damaged and one person was injured. In April 2021, three cargo pallets waiting to be transferred onto a Hong Kong Air Cargo flight caught fire. Each pallet included Vivo smartphones destined for Bangkok. The airline banned shipments of Vivo phones and all shipments from two freight forwarding companies as a result. On 21 July 2021, UPS Airlines Flight 5X003 suffered from an engine fire in the #1 engine shortly after take-off. The flight subsequently made a successful emergency landing on Runway 07L and was met by airport fire crews from the Hong Kong Fire Services Department Main Airport Station which extinguished the flames. Hong Kong Civil Aviation Department and the NTSB are currently investigating the incident. On 20 December 2022, United Airlines Flight 2831 suffered a bird strike on takeoff which triggered a fire. The plane was ordered back and landed on Runway 07L and was met by airport fire crews who extinguished the flames. Hong Kong Civil Aviation Department and the NTSB are currently investigating the incident. Accolades Skytrax World's Best Airport for Dining (2017) See also Airport Freight Forwarding Centre Airport Security Unit Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macau Bridge List of busiest airports by cargo traffic List of busiest airports by passenger traffic List of places in Hong Kong Megaprojects and Risk Shek Kong Airfield – a military airbase in Hong Kong Transport in Hong Kong Tuen Mun–Chek Lap Kok Link Hong Kong International Airport travel guide from Wikivoyage Media related to Hong Kong International Airport at Wikimedia Commons Official website "Aeronautical Information Publication (All Parts)" (PDF). Civil Aviation Department. 2020. "HONG KONG INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT INSTRUMENT APPROACH CHART Revision2" (PDF). Air Traffic Management Division, Civil Aviation Department. 2009. Geographic data related to Hong Kong International Airport at OpenStreetMap
Wan Tsai (Chinese: 灣仔; Sidney Lau: Waan1 Jai2) is a peninsula at the northern extremity of the north-western Sai Kung Peninsula, Hong Kong, with Hoi Ha Wan to its west and Long Harbour on its east. Grass Island lies east of the peninsula. Geography Joined to the mainland by an isthmus at Lan Lo Au, Wan Tsai consists of the two hills Tai Leng Tun and Nam Fung Shan. Its northern tip is Ocean Point (棺材角; Goon1 Choi4 Gok3). Facilities Facilities are available at Wan Tsai for camping. Scouts The Scout Association of Hong Kong organised a Jamboree for all Hong Kong and international Scouts on the peninsula for a week between 1999 and 2000 to celebrate the millennium. Another Jamboree was held there in 2001 to celebrate 90 years of Hong Kong Scouting. Conservation The peninsula had been a restricted area before being opened to the public in late 1999. Since 1996, the peninsula has been designated the Wan Tsai Extension of Sai Kung West Country Park. Access Wan Tsai is reachable by ferry from Wong Shek Pier in Wong Shek, situated on the south-western shore of Long Harbour.
UST or Ust may refer to: Organizations UST (company), American digital technology company Equatorial Guinea Workers' Union Union of Trade Unions of Chad (Union des Syndicats du Tchad) United States Television Manufacturing Corp. UST Growling Tigers, men's varsity team UST Inc., tobacco company Universities University of Science and Technology (disambiguation) Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST) University of Science and Technology (South Korea) University of Santo Tomas in Manila, Philippines University of St. Thomas (Minnesota) University of St. Thomas (Texas) in Houston, US Places Northeast Florida Regional Airport, St. Augustine, US, IATA Code Oskemen, Kazakhstan: Ust-Kamenogorsk in Russian Qala Wust or Ūst, Badakhshan Province, Afghanistan Other uses Universal System Tubeless, a tubeless tire rim patented by Mavic Underground storage tank United States Treasury security, a bond issued by the federal government Unsepttrium, an unsynthesized chemical element .ust, file extension for Utau project files Ultimate Success Today, 2020 Protomartyr album TerraUSD (by ticker symbol), a stablecoin cryptocurrency developed by Do Kwon
The guqin ([kùtɕʰǐn] ; Chinese: 古琴) is a plucked seven-string Chinese musical instrument. It has been played since ancient times, and has traditionally been favoured by scholars and literati as an instrument of great subtlety and refinement, as highlighted by the quote "a gentleman does not part with his qin or se without good reason," as well as being associated with the ancient Chinese philosopher Confucius. It is sometimes referred to by the Chinese as "the father of Chinese music" or "the instrument of the sages". The guqin is not to be confused with the guzheng, another Chinese long stringed instrument also without frets, but with moveable bridges under each string. Traditionally, the instrument was simply referred to as the "qin" (琴) but by the twentieth century the term had come to be applied to many other musical instruments as well: the yangqin hammered dulcimer, the huqin family of bowed string instruments, and the Western piano (gangqin (钢琴)) and violin (xiaotiqin (小提琴)) are examples of this usage. The prefix "gu-" (古; meaning "ancient") was later added for clarification. Thus, the instrument is called "guqin" today. It can also be called qixian-qin (七絃琴; lit. "seven-stringed qin"). Because Robert Hans van Gulik's book about the qin is called The Lore of the Chinese Lute, the guqin is sometimes inaccurately called a lute. Other incorrect classifications, mainly from music compact discs, include "harp" or "table-harp". The guqin is a very quiet instrument, with a range of about four octaves, and its open strings are tuned in the bass register. Its lowest pitch is about two octaves below middle C, or the lowest note on the cello. Sounds are produced by plucking open strings, stopped strings, and harmonics. The use of glissando—sliding tones—gives it a sound reminiscent of a pizzicato cello, fretless double bass or a slide guitar. The qin has 13 "hui", which represent the different position in one string. Pressing different "hui" produces different sound keys. The qin is also capable of many harmonics, of which 91 are most commonly used and indicated by the dotted positions. By tradition, the qin originally had five strings, which represent gong, shang, jue, zhi, yu in the ancient Chinese music system, but ancient qin-like instruments with only one string or more strings have been found. The modern form has been stabilized to seven strings. There are more than 3,360 known surviving pieces of guqin music from ancient and imperial periods. On 7 November 2003, UNESCO announced that the Chinese guqin was selected as an Intangible World Cultural Heritage. In 2006, guqin was listed in the List of National Non-material Cultural Heritage in China. In 2010, a Song period guqin was sold for $22 million, making it the most expensive musical instrument ever sold. History Legend has it that the qin, the most revered of all Chinese musical instruments, has a history of about 5,000 years, and that the legendary figures of China's pre-history – Fuxi, Shennong and Huang Di, the "Yellow Emperor" – were involved in its creation. Nearly all qin books and tablature collections published prior to the twentieth century state this as the actual origins of the qin, although this is now viewed as mythology. It is mentioned in Chinese writings dating back nearly 3,000 years, and examples have been found in tombs from about 2,500 years ago. The exact origins of the qin is still a very much continuing subject of debate over the past few decades. In 1977, a recording of "Flowing Water" (Liu Shui, as performed by Guan Pinghu, one of the best qin players of the 20th century) was chosen to be included in the Voyager Golden Record, a gold-plated LP recording containing music from around the world, which was sent into outer space by NASA on the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft. It is the second-longest excerpt included on the disc. The reason to select a work played on this specific instrument is because the tonal structure of the instrument, its musical scale, is derived from fundamental physical laws related to vibration and overtones, representing the intellectual capacity of human beings on this subject. In 2003, guqin music was proclaimed as one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO. Schools, societies and players As with any other musical tradition, there are differences in ideals and interaction between different people. Therefore, there exist different schools and societies which transmit these different ideas and artistic traditions. Historical schools Many qin schools known as qin pai developed over the centuries. Such schools generally formed around areas where qin activity was greatest. Some schools have come and gone, and some have offshoots (such as the Mei'an school, a Zhucheng school offshoot). Often, the school is originated from a single person, such as the Wu school which is named after the late Wu Zhaoji. The style can vary considerably between schools; some are very similar, yet others are very distinct. The differences are often in the interpretation of the music. Northern schools tend to be more vigorous in technique than Southern schools. But in modern terms, the distinction between schools and styles is often blurred because a single player may learn from many different players from different schools and absorb each of their styles. This is especially so for conservatory trained players. People from the same school trained under the same master may have different individual styles (such as Zhang Ziqian and Liu Shaochun of the Guangling school). Guqin societies There is a difference between qin schools and qin societies. The former concerns itself with transmission of a style, the latter concerns itself with performance. The qin society will encourage meetings with fellow qin players in order to play music and maybe discuss the nature of the qin. A gathering like this is called a yaji (雅集, literally "elegant gathering"), and takes place once every month or two. Sometimes, societies may go on excursions to places of natural beauty to play qin, or attend conferences. They may also participate in competitions or research. Of course, societies do not have to have a strict structure to adhere to; it could mostly be on a leisurely basis. The main purpose of qin societies is to promote and play qin music. It is often a good opportunity to network and learn to play the instrument, to ask questions and to receive answers. Players Many artists down through the ages have played the instrument, and the instrument was a favourite of scholars. Certain melodies are also associated with famous figures, such as Confucius and Qu Yuan. Some emperors of China also had a liking to the qin, including the Song dynasty emperor, Huizong, as clearly seen in his own painting of himself playing the qin in "Ting Qin Tu". Historical Confucius: Philosopher, 551-479 BCE, associated with the piece Kongzi Duyi, Weibian Sanjue and Youlan. Bo Ya: Qin player of the Spring and Autumn period, associated with the piece Gao Shan. and Liu Shui Zhuang Zi: Daoist philosopher of the Warring States period, associated with the piece Zhuang Zhou Mengdie and Shenhua Yin. Qu Yuan (340-278 BCE): Poet of the Warring States period, associated with the piece Li Sao. Cai Yong: Han musician, author of Qin Cao. Cai Wenji: Cai Yong's daughter, associated with the piece Hujia Shiba-pai, etc. Sima Xiangru: Han poet, 179-117 BCE. Zhuge Liang (181–234): Chinese military leader in the Three Kingdoms, one legend has him playing guqin calmly outside his fort while scaring off the enemy attackers. Ji Kang: One of the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, musician and poet, writer of Qin Fu. Li Bai: Tang poet, 701–762. Bai Juyi: Tang poet, 772–846. Song Huizong: Song emperor famous for his patronage of the arts, had a Wanqin Tang ("10,000 Qin Hall") in his palace. Guo Chuwang: Patriot at the end of the Song dynasty, composer of the piece Xiaoxiang Shuiyun.The classical collections such as Qin Shi, Qinshi Bu and Qinshi Xu include biographies of hundreds more players. Contemporary Contemporary qin players extend from the early twentieth century to the present. More so than in the past, such players tend to have many different pursuits and occupations other than qin playing. There are only a few players who are paid to exclusively play and research the guqin professionally and nothing else. Qin players can also be well-versed in other cultural pursuits, such as the arts. Or they can do independent research on music subjects. Often, players may play other instruments (not necessary Chinese) and give recitals or talks. Performance During the performance of qin, musicians may use a variety of techniques to reach the full expressing potential of the instrument. There are many special tablatures that had developed over the centuries specifically dedicated to qin for their reference and a repertoire of popular and ancient tunes for their choice. Playing technique The tones of qin can be categorized as three characteristic "sounds". The first type is san yin (散音), which literally means "unfettered sound". It's the fundamental frequency produced by plucking a free string with the fingers of the right hand. The second type, made by plucking a string with the right hand and gently tapping specific note positions on the string with the left hand, will create a crisp sound named fan yin (泛音, lit. "floating sound") or overtone harmonics (the equivalent technique in Western music is the string harmonic or flageolet). Important scale notes, called hui (徽), are marked by 13 glossy white dots made of mica or seashell inset in the front surface of the qin, occur at integer divisions of the string length. The "crystal concordant" (perfectly harmonic) overtones can only be evoked by tapping the strings precisely at these hui. The third type is an yin (按音/案音, lit. "pressed sound"), which is sometimes also called shi yin (實音, lit. "full sound") or zou yin (走音, lit. "changing sound"). These comprise the major cadences of most qin pieces. To play an yin, the musician stops a string at a specific pitch on the board surface with the left thumb, middle or ring finger, strikes the string with the right hand, then they may slide the left hand up and down to vary the note. This technique is similar to playing a slide guitar across the player's lap. However, the manipulation of qin is much more multifarious than that of a guitar, which has only around 3 or 4 main techniques. (). According to the book Cunjian Guqin Zhifa Puzi Jilan, there are around 1,070 different finger techniques used for the qin. Thus the qin is possibly the instrument with the most playing techniques in both the Chinese and Western instrument families. Most of the qin's techniques are obsolete, but around 50 of them still appear in modern performance. Sometimes, guqin can be played with a violin bow. It has a tone similar to that of a cello, but raspier. The above four figures are from an old handbook. Tablature and notation Written qin music did not directly tell what notes were played; instead, it was written in a tablature detailing tuning, finger positions, and stroke technique, thus comprising a step by step method and description of how to play a piece. Some tablatures do indicate notes using the gongche system, or indicate rhythm using dots. The earliest example of the modern shorthand tablature survives from around the twelfth century CE. An earlier form of music notation from the Tang era survives in just one manuscript, dated to the seventh century CE, called Jieshi Diao Youlan (Solitary Orchid in Stone Tablet Mode). It is written in a longhand form called wenzi pu (文字譜) (literally "written notation"), said to have been created by Yong Menzhou during the Warring States period, which gives all the details using ordinary written Chinese characters. Later in the Tang dynasty, Cao Rou and others simplified the notation, using only the important elements of the characters (like string number, plucking technique, hui number and which finger to stop the string) and combined them into one character notation. This meant that instead of having two lines of written text to describe a few notes, a single character could represent one note, or sometimes as many as nine. This notation form was called jianzi pu (減字譜) (literally "reduced notation") and it was a major advance in qin notation. It was so successful that from the Ming dynasty onwards, a great many qinpu (琴譜) (qin tablature collections) appeared, the most famous and useful being "Shenqi Mipu" (The Mysterious and Marvellous Tablature) compiled by Zhu Quan, the 17th son of the founder of the Ming dynasty. In the 1960s, Zha Fuxi discovered more than 130 qinpu that contain well over 3360 pieces of written music. However, many qinpu compiled before the Ming dynasty are now lost, and many pieces have remained unplayed for hundreds of years. Repertoire Qin pieces are usually around three to eight minutes in length, with the longest being "Guangling San", which is 22 minutes long. Other famous pieces include "Liu Shui" (Flowing Water), "Yangguan San Die" (Three Refrains on the Yang Pass Theme), "Meihua San Nong" (Three Variations on the Plum Blossom Theme), "Xiao Xiang Shui Yun" (Mist and Clouds over the Xiao and Xiang Rivers), and "Pingsha Luo Yan" (Wild Geese Descending on the Sandbank). The average player will generally have a repertoire of around ten pieces which they will aim to play very well, learning new pieces as and when they feel like it or if the opportunity arises. Players mainly learn popular well-transcribed versions, often using a recording as a reference. In addition to learning to play established or ancient pieces very well, highly skilled qin players may also compose or improvise, although the player must be very good and extremely familiar with the instrument to do this successfully. A number of qin melodies are program music depicting the natural world. Transcription Dapu (打譜) is the transcribing of old tablature into a playable form. Since qin tablature does not indicate note value, tempo or rhythm, the player must work it out for themselves. Normally, qin players will learn the rhythm of a piece through a teacher or master. They sit facing one another, with the student copying the master. The tablature will only be consulted if the teacher is not sure of how to play a certain part. Because of this, traditional qinpu do not indicate them (though near the end of the Qing dynasty, a handful of qinpu had started to employ various rhythm indicating devices, such as dots). If one did not have a teacher, then one had to work out the rhythm by themselves. But it would be a mistake to assume that qin music is devoid of rhythm and melody. By the 20th century, there had been attempts to try to replace the "jianzi pu" notation, but so far, it has been unsuccessful; since the 20th century, qin music is generally printed with staff notation above the qin tablature. Because qin tablature is so useful, logical, easy, and the fastest way (once the performer knows how to read the notation) of learning a piece, it is invaluable to the qin player and cannot totally be replaced (just as staff notation cannot be replaced for Western instruments, because they developed a notation system that suited the instruments well). There is a saying that goes "a short piece requires three months [of dapu to complete], and a long piece requires three years". In actual practice, it needn't be that long to dapu a piece, but suggests that the player will have not only memorised the piece off by heart, but also have their fingering, rhythm and timing corrected. And afterwards, the emotion must be put into the piece. Therefore, it could be said that it really does require three months or years to finish dapu of a piece in order for them to play it to a very high standard. Rhythm in qin music It has already been discussed that qin music has a rhythm and that it is only vaguely indicated in the tablature. Though there is an amount of guesswork involved, the tablature has clues to indicate rhythm, such as repeating motifs, an indication of phrases or how the notation is arranged. Throughout the history of the qinpu, we see many attempts to indicate this rhythm more explicitly, involving devices like dots to make beats. Probably, one of the major projects to regulate the rhythm to a large scale was the compilers of the Qinxue Congshu tablature collection of the 1910s to 1930s. The construction of the written tablature was divided into two columns. The first was further divided into about three lines of a grid, each line indicating a varied combination of lyrics, gongche tablature, se tablature, pitch, and/or beats depending on the score used. The second column was devoted to qin tablature. Western composers have noticed that the rhythm in a piece of qin music can change; once they seem to have got a beat, the beats change. This is due to the fact that qin players may use some free rhythm in their playing. Whatever beat they use will depend on the emotion or the feeling of the player, and how they interpret the piece. However, some melodies have sections of fixed rhythm which are played the same way generally. The main theme of Meihua Sannong, for example, uses this. Some sections of certain melodies require the player to play faster with force to express the emotion of the piece. Examples include the middle sections of Guangling San and Xiaoxiang Shuiyun. Other pieces, such as Jiu Kuang has a fixed rhythm throughout the entire piece. Organology While acoustics dictated the general form and construction of the guqin, its external form could and did take on a huge amount of variation, whether it be from the embellishments or even the basic structure of the instrument. Qin tablatures from the Song era onwards have catalogued a plethora of qin forms. All, however, obey very basic rules of acoustics and symbolism of form. The qin uses strings of silk or metal-nylon and is tuned in accordance to traditional principles. Ancient guqins were made of little more than wood and strings of twisted silk. Ornaments included inlaid dots of mother-of-pearl or other similar materials. Traditionally, the sound board was made of Chinese parasol wood firmiana simplex, its rounded shape symbolising the heavens. The bottom was made of Chinese Catalpa, Catalpa ovata, its flat shape symbolising earth. Modern instruments are most frequently made of Cunninghamia or other similar timbers. The traditional finish is of raw lacquer mixed with powdered deer horn, and the finishing process could take months of curing to complete. The finish develops cracks over time, and these cracks are believed to improve the instrument's sound as the wood and lacquer release tension. An antique guqin's age can be determined by this snake like crack pattern called "duanwen" (斷紋). Construction According to tradition, the qin originally had five strings, representing the five elements of metal, wood, water, fire and earth. Later, in the Zhou dynasty, Zhou Wen Wang added a sixth string to mourn his son, Boyikao. His successor, Zhou Wu Wang, added a seventh string to motivate his troops into battle with the Shang. The thirteen hui on the surface represent the 13 months of the year (the extra 13th is the 'leap month' in the lunar calendar). The surface board is round to represent Heaven and the bottom board flat to represent the earth. The entire length of the qin (in Chinese measurements) is 3 chi, 6 cun and 5 fen; representing the 365 days of the year (though this is just a standard since qins can be shorter or longer depending on the period's measurement standard or the maker's preference). Each part of the qin has meaning, some more obvious, like "dragon pool" and "phoenix pond". Strings Until recently, the guqin's strings were always made of various thicknesses of twisted silk, but since then most players use modern nylon-flatwound steel strings. This was partly due to the scarcity of high-quality silk strings and partly due to the newer strings' greater durability and louder tone. Silk strings are made by gathering a prescribed number of strands of silk thread, then twisting them tightly together. The twisted cord of strings is then wrapped around a frame and immersed in a vat of liquid composed of a special mixture of natural glue that binds the strands together. The strings are taken out and left to dry, before being cut into the appropriate length. The top thicker strings (i.e. strings one to four) are further wrapped in a thin silk thread, coiled around the core to make it smoother. According to ancient manuals, there are three distinctive gauges of thickness that one can make the strings. The first is taigu [Great Antiquity] which is the standard gauge, the zhongqing [Middle Clarity] is thinner, whilst the jiazhong [Added Thickness] is thicker. According to the Yugu Zhai Qinpu, zhongqing is the best. The currently used silk string gauge standard was defined by Suzhou silk string maker Pan Guohui (潘國輝). Although most contemporary players use nylon-wrapped metal strings, some argue that nylon-wrapped metal strings cannot replace silk strings for their refinement of tone. Additionally, nylon-wrapped metal strings can cause damage to the wood of old qins. Many traditionalists feel that the sound of the fingers of the left hand sliding on the strings to be a distinctive feature of qin music. The modern nylon-wrapped metal strings were very smooth in the past, but are now slightly modified in order to capture these sliding sounds. Around 2007, a new type of strings were produced made of mostly a nylon core coiled with nylon like the metal-nylon strings, possibly in imitation of Western catgut strings. The sound is similar to the metal-nylon strings but without the metallic tone to them (one of the main reasons why traditionalists do not like the metal-nylon strings). The nylon strings can be tuned to standard pitch without breaking and can sustain their tuning whatever the climate, unlike silk. The strings have various names in China, but they are advertised as sounding like silk strings prior to the 1950s, when silk string production stopped. Traditionally, the strings were wrapped around the goose feet, but a device has been invented, which is a block of wood attached to the goose feet, with pins similar to those used to tune the guzheng protruding out at the sides, so one can string and tune the qin using a tuning wrench. This is good for those who lack the physical strength to pull and add tension to the strings when wrapping the ends around the goose feet. However, the tuning device looks rather unsightly and thus many qin players prefer the traditional manner of tuning; many also feel that the strings should be firmly wrapped around the goose feet in order that the sound may be "grounded" into the qin; and some feel that the device which covers the phoenix pond sound hole has a negative effect on the sound volume and quality. Tuning To string a guqin, one traditionally had to tie a fly's head knot (yingtou jie) at one end of the string, and slip the string through the twisted cord (rongkou) which goes into holes at the head of the qin and then out the bottom through the tuning pegs (zhen). The string is dragged over the bridge (yueshan 『岳山』), across the surface board, over the nut (longyin dragon gums) to the back of the qin, where the end is wrapped around one of two legs (fengzu "phoenix feet" or yanzu "geese feet"). Afterwards, the strings are fine-tuned using the tuning pegs (sometimes, rosin is used on the part of the tuning peg that touches the qin body to stop it from slipping, especially if the qin is tuned to higher pitches). The most common tuning, "zheng diao" 〈正調〉, is pentatonic: 5 6 1 2 3 5 6 (which can be also played as 1 2 4 5 6 1 2) in the traditional Chinese number system or jianpu (i.e. 1=do, 2=re, etc.). Today this is generally interpreted to mean C D F G A c d, but this should be considered sol la do re mi sol la, since historically the qin was not tuned to absolute pitch. Other tunings are achieved by adjusting the tension of the strings using the tuning pegs at the head end. Thus manjiao diao ("slackened third string") gives 1 2 3 5 6 1 2 and ruibin diao ("raised fifth string") gives 1 2 4 5 7 1 2, which is transposed to 2 3 5 6 1 2 3. Playing context The guqin is nearly always played as a solo instrument since its quietness of tone means that it cannot compete with the sounds of most other instruments or an ensemble. It can, however, be played together with a xiao (end-blown bamboo flute), with other qin, or played while singing. In old times, the se (a long zither with movable bridges and 25 strings) was frequently used in duets with the qin. However, the se has not survived, though duet tablature scores for the instruments are preserved in a few qinpu, and the master qin player Wu Jinglüe was one of only a few in the twentieth century who knew how to play it together with qin in duet. Lately there has been a trend to use other instruments to accompany the qin, such as the xun (ceramic ocarina), pipa (four-stringed pear-shaped lute), dizi (transverse bamboo flute), and others for more experimental purposes. In order for an instrument to accompany the qin, its sound must be mellow and not overwhelm the qin. Thus, the xiao generally used for this purpose is one pitched in the key of F, known as qin xiao 「琴簫」, which is narrower than an ordinary xiao. If one sings to qin songs (which is rare nowadays) then one should not sing in an operatic or folk style as is common in China, but rather in a very low pitched and deep way; and the range in which one should sing should not exceed one and a half octaves. The style of singing is similar to that used to recite Tang poetry. In order fully to appreciate qin songs, one needs to become accustomed to the eccentric singing style adopted by certain players of the instrument, such as Zha Fuxi. Traditionally, the qin was played in a quiet studio or room by oneself, or with a few friends; or played outdoors in places of outstanding natural beauty. Nowadays, many qin players perform at concerts in large concert halls, almost always, out of necessity, using electronic pickups or microphones to amplify the sound. Many qin players attend yajis, at which a number of qin players, music lovers, or anyone with an interest in Chinese culture can come along to discuss and play the qin. In fact, the yaji originated as a multi-media gathering involving the four arts: qin, Go, calligraphy, and painting. Ritual use of the qin Being an instrument associated with scholars, the guqin was also played in a ritual context, especially in yayue in China, and aak in Korea. The National Center for Korean Traditional Performing Arts continues to perform Munmyo jeryeak (Confucian ritual music), using the last two surviving aak melodies from the importation of yayue from the Song dynasty emperor Huizong in 1116, including in the ensemble the seul (se) and geum (금; qin). The Korean geum used in this context has evolved to be slightly different when compared to the normal qin in that there are 14 instead of 13 hui and that they are not placed correctly according to the harmonic positions besides other different construction features. The finger techniques are more closer to gayageum technique than it is to the complex ones of the qin. As the qin never gained a following in Korean society, the ritual geum became the fossilised form of it and to all intents and purposes unplayable for a qin player. The Korean scholars never adopted the qin but instead created their own instrument, the geomungo (玄琴), which adopted much of the qin's lore and aesthetics and essentially taking the qin's place as the scholars' instrument. In China, the qin was still in use in ritual ceremonies of the imperial court, such can be seen in the court paintings of imperial sacrifices of the Qing court (e.g. The Yongzheng Emperor Offering Sacrifices at the Altar of the God of Agriculture, 1723–35). The qin also have many variations with a different number of strings, such as during Song Taizong's reign, but these variations never survived the changes of dynasty and so today the normal qin is used. In Japan, the qin was never adopted into ritual music, but for a time in the late Edo period the qin was adopted by some scholars and Buddhist monks. The guqin was later adjusted and adopted into general Japanese folk music as the Koto (琴). The guqin was also used in the ritual music of Vietnam, where it was called cầm. Qin aesthetics When the qin is played, a number of aesthetic elements are involved. The first is musicality. In the second section of "Pingsha Luoyan", for example, the initial few bars contain a nao vibrato followed by a phase of sliding up and down the string, even when the sound has already become inaudible (). The average person trained in music may question whether this is really "music". Normally, some players would pluck the string very lightly to create a very quiet sound. For some players, this plucking isn't necessary. Instead of trying to force a sound out of the strings one should allow the strings to emit the sounds to which they are naturally predisposed. Some players say that the sliding on the string even when the sound has disappeared is a distinctive feature in qin music. It creates a "space" or "void" in a piece, playing without playing, sound without sound. In fact, when the viewer looks at the player sliding on the string without sounds, the viewer automatically "fills in the notes" with their minds. This creates a connection between player, instrument and listener. This, of course, cannot happen when listening to a recording, as one cannot see the performer. It can also be seen as impractical in recording, as the player would want to convey sound as much as possible towards a third audience. But in fact, there is sound, the sound coming from the fingers sliding on the string. With a really good qin, silk strings, and a perfectly quiet environment, all the tones can be sounded. Since the music is more player-oriented than listener oriented, and the player knows the music, he/she can hear it even if the sound is not there. With silk strings, the sliding sound might be called the qi or "life force" of the music. The really empty sounds are the pauses between notes. However, if one cannot create a sound that can be heard when sliding on a string, it is generally acceptable to lightly pluck the string to create a very quiet sound. In popular culture As a symbol of high culture, the qin continually appears in many forms of Chinese popular culture to varying degrees of accuracy. are made to the qin in a variety of media including TV episodes and films. Actors often possess limited knowledge on how to play the instrument and instead, they mime it to a pre-recorded piece by a Qin player. Sometimes the music is erroneously mimed to guzheng music, rather than qin music. A more faithful representation of the qin is in the Zhang Yimou film Hero, in which Xu Kuanghua plays an ancient version of the qin in the courtyard scene while Nameless and Long Sky fight at a Xiangqi parlour. It mimed the music played by Liu Li, formerly a professor at the Central Conservatory of Music in Beijing. It is suggested that Xu made the qin himself.The qin was also featured in the 2008 Summer Olympics Opening Ceremony in Beijing, played by Chen Leiji (陳雷激). The qin is also used in many classical Chinese novels, such as Cao Xueqin's Dream of the Red Chamber and various others. The qin is also used in many contemporary Chinese novels, notably the 2016 novel Mo Dao Zu Shi, as well as the 2019 live-action series adaptation, The Untamed, in which the qin is used as a spiritual tool of protagonist Lan Wangji. Behind-the-scenes footage of the production of the series revealed that several actors were given qin lessons prior to filming to prepare them for their roles as characters that played the instrument. Electric guqin The electric guqin was first developed in the late 20th century by adding electric guitar–style magnetic pickups to a regular acoustic guqin, allowing the instrument to be amplified through an instrument amplifier or PA system. Related instruments The Japanese ichigenkin, a monochord zither, is believed to be derived from the qin. The qin handbook Lixing Yuanya (1618) includes some melodies for a one-string qin, and the Wuzhi Zhai Qinpu contains a picture and description of such an instrument. The modern ichigenkin apparently first appeared in Japan just after that time. However, the honkyoku (standard repertoire) of the ichigenkin today most closely resembles that of the shamisen. The Korean geomungo may also be related, albeit distantly. Korean literati wanted to play an instrument the way their Chinese counterparts played the qin. The repertoire was largely the geomungo parts for melodies played by the court orchestra. See also Contemporary guqin players Guqin aesthetics Guqin construction Guqin playing technique Guqin schools Guqin tunings List of Chinese musical instruments Qinpu Se Yayue Koto Footnotes Chinese books on qin Zha, Fuxi (1958). Cunjian Guqin Qupu Jilan 【存見古琴曲譜輯覽】. Beijing: The People's Music Press. ISBN 7-103-02379-4. Xu, Jian (1982). Qinshi Chubian 【琴史初編】. Beijing: The People's Music Press. ISBN 7-103-02304-2. Gong, Yi (1999). Guqin Yanzoufa 【古琴演奏法】; 2nd ed., rev. inc. 2 CDs. Shanghai: Shanghai Educational Press. ISBN 7-5320-6621-5 Li, Mingzhong (2000). Zhongguo Qinxue 【中國琴學】卷壹. Volume one. Shanxi: Shanxi Society Science Magazine Association. Yin, Wei (2001). Zhongguo Qinshi Yanyi 【中國琴史演義】. Yunnan: People's Press of Yunnan. ISBN 7-222-03206-1/I‧866 Zhang, Huaying (2005). Gu Qin 【古琴】. Guizhou: Zhejiang People's Press. ISBN 7-213-02955-XPart of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity Collection 【人類口頭與非物質文化遺產叢書】.Guo, Ping (2006). Guqin Congtan 【古琴叢談】. Jinan: Shandong Book Press. ISBN 7-80713-209-4Qinpu Zhu, Quan (1425, 2001). Shenqi Mipu 【神奇秘譜】. Beijing: Cathay Bookshop. ISBN 7-80568-973-3/J‧284 Xu, Shangying (1673, 2005). Dahuan Ge Qinpu 【大還閣琴譜】. Beijing: Cathay Bookshop. ISBN 7-80663-288-3/J‧322 Zhou, Zi'an (1722, 2000). Wuzhi Zhai Qinpu 【五知齋琴譜】. Beijing: Cathay Bookshop. ISBN 7-80568-864-8/J‧237 Chu, Fengjie (1855). Yugu Zhai Qinpu 【與古齋琴譜】. Fujian: Private publication. Zhang, He (1864, 1998). Qinxue Rumen 【琴學入門】. Beijing: Cathay Bookshop. ISBN 7-80568-865-6/J‧236 Yang, Zongji (1910–1931, 1996). Qinxue Congshu 【琴學叢書】. Beijing: Cathay Bookshop. ISBN 7-80568-552-5/I‧139 Wang, Binglu (1931, 2005). Mei'an Qinpu 【楳盦珡諩】. Beijing: China Bookstore. ISBN 7-80663-297-2/J‧331 Wu, Jinglüe and Wenguang (2001). Yushan Wushi Qinpu 【虞山吳氏琴譜】 The Qin Music Repertoire of the Wu Family. Beijing: Eastern Press. ISBN 7-5060-1454-8/I‧78 Gu, Meigeng (2004). Qinxue Beiyao (shougao ben) 【琴學備要】. Shanghai: Shanghai Music Press. ISBN 7-80667-453-5Journals, newsletters and periodicals Zhongguo Huabao 【中國畫報】. July 1986. Beijing Guqin Research Association. Beijing Qin-xun 【北京琴訊】. March 2001 (volume 71). Parabola, Vol XXIII, No. 2, Summer 1998, pp 56–62: J.L. Walker "No Need to Listen! A Conversation Between Sun Yu-ch'in and J.L. Walker"English books on qin Gulik, Robert Hans van (1940, 1969). The Lore of the Chinese Lute. 2nd ed., rev. Rutland, Vt., and Tokyo: Charles Tuttle and Sophia University; Monumenta Nipponica. ISBN 0-8048-0869-4 Gulik, Robert Hans van (1941). Hsi K'ang and his Poetical Essay on the Chinese Lute. Tokyo: Monumenta Nipponica. ISBN 0-8048-0868-6 Lieberman, Fredric (1983). A Chinese Zither Tutor: The Mei-an Ch'in-p'u. Trans. and commentary. Washington and Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 0-295-95941-X Yung, Bell (2008). The Last of China's Literati: The Music, Poetry and Life of Tsar The-yun. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 978-962-209-916-6 Gulik, Robert Hans van (2011). The Lore of the Chinese Lute. 3rd ed. Bangkok: Orchid Press.Spanish books on qin Lieberman, Fredric (2008). Un Manual de Cítara China: el Meian qinpu. (J.M. Vigo, Trans.). Barcelona: www.citarachina.org. (1983).French books on qin Goormaghtigh, Georges (1990). L'art du Qin. Deux textes d'esthétique musicale chinoise. Bruxelles : Institut belge des Hautes études chinoises. ISSN 0775-4612 Goormaghtigh, Georges (2010). Le chant du pêcheur ivre: Ecrits sur la musique des lettrés chinois. Gollion: Infolio éditions. ISBN 978-2-88474-197-2 Goormaghtigh Georges (2018). Le grain des choses: Petit musée du qin [cd-book], Geneva : (self-publishing) https://legraindeschoses.com/Non-qin books (or books with a section on the qin) DeWoskin, Kenneth J. (1982) A Song for One or Two: Music and the Concept of Art in Early China. University of Michigan Press, 1982. Paper: ISBN 978-0-89264-042-3 Dr. L. Wieger, S. J. (1915, 1927, 1965). Chinese Characters: Their origin, etymology, history, classification and signification. A thorough study from Chinese documents. L. Davrout, S. J. (trans.). New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-21321-8 Zhang Yushu et al. (1921). Kangxi Zidian 【康熙字典】. Shanghai: Shanghai Old Books Distribution Place. Herdan, Innes (trans.) (1973, 2000). 300 Tang Poems 【英譯唐詩三百首】, Yee Chiang (illus.). Taipei: The Far East Book Co., Ltd. ISBN 957-612-471-9 Rawski, E. Evelyn & Rawson, Jessica (ed.) (2005). CHINA: The Three Emperors 1662—1795. London: Royal Academy of Arts. ISBN 1-903973-69-4Video resourcesThe Heart of Qin in Hong Kong (2010), Director: Maryam Goormathtigh, 52 min, documentary, Hong Kong China (Language: Cantonese, Subtitle: Chinese and English)DiscographySou Si-tai (2007), Le pêcheur et le bûcheron. Le qin, cithare des lettrés, AIMP LXXXII VDE-GALLO, CD-1214 Tsar Teh-Yun (1905-2007) maitre du qin (2014), [2 cd-set+54 pages booklet in English/French], AIMP-VDE Gallo, VDE CD 1432/1433 John Thompson's on the Guqin Silk String Zither A host of information on the qin and silk strings for qins in English, including extensive study of Shenqi Mipu and analysis of playing style, plus useful section on qin sources The Qin on the Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, The Metropolitan Museum of Art Silk on Wood A Feature Radio Documentary by Robert Iolini about the Silk String Qin and Madame Tsar Teh-Yun. The website includes online video performances by the Deyin Qin Society of Hong Kong. Chinese Guqin and Notation Judy (Pei-You) Chang's very detailed and well illustrated site explaining fingering techniques, including sections on structure, forms and various information A Complete Study of the Chinese Zither from 1670 Chinese Guqin cliques and where they originated A specific analysis of most Guqin cliques and play styles, also have some analysis about their originations Period table of Chinese dynasties A timetable of different Chinese dynasty to help people understand the period of Guqin History Guqin Store page A Guqin store website page in LA
Mahjong or mah-jongg (English pronunciation: mah-JONG) is a tile-based game that was developed in the 19th century in China and has spread throughout the world since the early 20th century. It is played by four players (with some three-player variations found in parts of China, Japan, South Korea and Southeast Asia). The game and its regional variants are widely played throughout East and Southeast Asia and have also become popular in Western countries. The game has also been adapted into a widespread online entertainment. Similar to the Western card game rummy, mahjong is a game of skill, strategy, and luck. To distinguish it from mahjong solitaire, it is sometimes referred to as mahjong rummy. The game is played with a set of 144 tiles based on Chinese characters and symbols, although many regional variations may omit some tiles or add unique ones. In most variations, each player begins by receiving 13 tiles. In turn, players draw and discard tiles until they complete a legal hand using the 14th drawn tile to form four melds (or sets) and a pair (eye). A player can also win with a small class of special hands. While many variations of mahjong exist, most variations have some basic rules in common including how a piece is drawn and discarded, the use of suits (numbered tiles) and honors (winds and dragons), the basic kinds of melds allowed, how to deal the tiles and the order of play. Beyond these basic common rules, numerous regional variations exist which may have notably different criteria for legal melds and winning hands, radically different scoring systems and even elaborate extra rules. A group of players may introduce their own house rules which can notably change the feel of play. Etymology The game was originally called 麻雀 (pinyin: máquè; Jyutping: maa4 zoek3-2)—meaning sparrow—which is still used in several Chinese languages, mostly in the south, such as Cantonese and Hokkien. It is said that the clacking of tiles during shuffling resembles the chattering of sparrows. It has also been suggested that the name came from an evolution of an earlier card game called Madiao from which mahjong tiles were adapted. Other languages, such as Sichuanese, Shanghainese and Standard Mandarin, now call the game 麻將 (májiàng), which is a nasal erhua form of the original name. Its name is similar in other languages, except in Thai, where it is called (phai nok krachok), a calque meaning "sparrow cards". Old Hong Kong mahjong rules There are many highly varied versions of mahjong both in rules and tiles used. "Old Hong Kong mahjong" uses the same basic features and rules as the majority of the different variations of the game. This form of mahjong uses all of the tiles of the most commonly available sets, includes no exotic complex rules, and has a relatively small set of scoring sets/hands with a simple scoring system. For these reasons Hong Kong mahjong is a suitable variation for the introduction of game rules and play and is the focus of this article. Game equipment Old Hong Kong mahjong is played with a standard set of 144 mahjong tiles (though cards may be used). Sets often include counters (to keep score), dice (to decide how to deal), and a marker to show who the dealer is and which round is being played. Some sets include racks to hold the tiles, especially if they are larger or smaller than standard tiles or have an odd shape. Mahjong sets originating from the United States, Japan or Southeast Asia will likely have extra tiles or specialized markings. The tiles are split into three categories: suited, honors, and bonus tiles. Suited tiles Suited tiles are divided into three suits and each are numbered from 1 to 9. The suits are bamboos, dots, and characters. There are four identical copies of each suited tile totaling 108 tiles. The bamboo suit is also known as "sticks", "strings" or "bams" suit; the first tile usually has a bird (traditionally, a peacock or sparrow) instead of a single bamboo. The dots suit is also known as the "wheels", "circles", "coins", "stones", "marbles" or "balls" suit. The characters suit is also known as the "myriads", "cracks" or "numbers" suit since the top characters are numbers in the Chinese orthography, and the bottom characters (in traditional Chinese characters) are the Chinese orthography of "ten thousand". Honors tiles There are two different sets of honors tiles: winds and dragons. The winds are east, south, west, and north, beginning with east. The dragons are red, green, and white. The white dragon has a blue or black frame on the face of the piece or in some sets is entirely blank. These tiles have no numerical sequence like the suited tiles (for example the bamboo pieces number 1 to 9). Like the suited tiles, there are four identical copies of each honors tile, for a total of 28 honors tiles. Bonus tiles There are two sets of bonus tiles: flowers and seasons. The flower and season tiles play a unique role in the mechanics of the game. When drawn, the bonus tile is not added into a player's hand but are instead set aside and kept near the player's other tiles for scoring purposes should they win the hand, and an extra tile is drawn in replacement of the bonus tile. In addition, unlike the suited and honours tiles, there is only a single tile of each bonus tile, so there are a total of four flower and four season tiles in the set. The tiles have a different artistic rendering of a specific type of flower or season. It is not necessary to know the names or the Chinese characters of each bonus tile, only the number, as this is associated with a specific direction, and the player receives bonus points when the bonus tile matches the seat direction. There is no relation between the bonus tile "bamboo" flower and the bamboo suit of suited tiles (e.g. 4 bamboo). In traditional Chinese culture, the Four Gentlemen are the plum (winter), orchid (spring), bamboo (summer), and chrysanthemum (autumn) which are regarded as the representative plants of those seasons, but people regard it as plum blossom (spring), orchid (summer), chrysanthemum (autumn) and bamboo (winter) now. Choosing table positions and first dealer The dealer is chosen by various means. For example, each player throws dice with the highest count taking the dealer position, second-highest taking south etc. Or one player may place one tile of each wind face down and shuffle them. Each player randomly select one of these tiles and these tiles dictate their wind position. Each player sits down at their respective position (called the wind position) at the table in positions of an inverted compass: East is dealer, the right of the dealer is South, across is West, and the left is North. The order of play is traditionally counter-clockwise. Hands, rounds, and matches A match consists of four rounds, each representing a "prevailing wind", starting with East. Once the first round is completed, a second round begins with South as the prevailing wind, and so on. Wind position is significant in that it affects the scoring of the game. A mahjong set with winds in play will usually include a separate prevailing wind marker (typically a die marked with the wind characters in a holder). In each round at least four hands are played, with each player taking the position of dealer. In the first hand of each round, Player 1 (winner of the dice toss) is East and therefore dealer. In the second hand, Player 2 takes the East position, shifting the seat winds amongst the players counterclockwise (though players do not physically move their chairs). This continues until all four players have been East (dealer). A marker is used to mark which player is East and often the round number. (In sets with racks, a rack may be marked differently to denote the dealer.) Whenever a player in the East position (dealer) wins a hand, or if there is no winner (a draw or "goulash hand"), an extra hand is played with the same seating positions and prevailing wind as in the previous hand. This means that a match may potentially have no limit to the number of hands played (though some players will set a limit of three consecutive hands allowed with the same seat positions and prevailing wind). Example of games: Dealing tiles Shuffling tiles All tiles are placed face down on the table and are shuffled. By convention all players should participate in shuffling using both hands moving the pieces around the table rigorously and loudly for a lengthy period. Tiles may get flipped up during this process and players should flip them facing down as soon as possible to avoid identifying the location of the revealed tiles. Stacking tiles Each player then stacks a row of 18 tiles, two tiles high in front of them (for a total of 36 tiles). Players then push each side of their stack together to form a square wall. Regular players usually place their stacks in a slightly diagonal position (about 20 to 30 degrees anti-clockwise); the right end of their stack is pushed slightly further in to the centre of the table to meet almost the middle of the stack of the player on the right. This creates a smaller square wall the length of about half of each stack, with walls extended away from each corner of the square. The diagonally positioned stacks and a smaller square creates a bigger space for players' tiles and also makes an ergonomic position for drawing tiles from the stack. Drawing tiles The dealer throws three dice in the square wall and sums up the total. Counting anti-clockwise so that the dealer is 1 (or 5, 9, 13, 17), so that south (player to the right) is 2 (or 6, 10, 14, 18), etc., a player's quarter of the wall is chosen. Some house rules may use only two dice but have double throws to increase randomness. In the case of double throws, the player of the chosen wall makes the second throw. Using the same total on the dice (or the total of the two throws), the player whose wall is chosen then counts the stacks of tiles from right to left. (For double throws, the count may extend to the left side player's stack.) This determines the location where the 'deck' of tiles is cut. Starting from the left of the stacks counted, the dealer draws four tiles for himself, and players in anti-clockwise order draw blocks of four tiles until all players have 12 tiles, so that the stacks decrease clockwise. Each player then draws one last tile to make a 13-tile hand. The tile to be drawn is always the topmost tile left of the cut. Dealing does not have to be strictly this way and may be done quite differently based on house rules. Tiles may flip over when being dealt and players should agree in advance on how to deal with the problem. Solutions include having the dealer penalised points, shuffling the turned over piece back into the wall somehow, allowing the player to whom the tiles were dealt to take the piece or not (meaning the dealer must take it as his/her 14th piece), or other house rules. Each player now sets aside any flowers or seasons they may have drawn and takes turns to draw replacement tiles from the wall in the anti-clockwise direction from the dealer. If a player gets any flowers or seasons tiles in the replacement draw, the players must wait for the next turn to draw replacement tiles. Game play starts The dealer draws a piece from the wall in clockwise direction, adding it to their hand. Typically, this draw is performed during the initial deal to speed up play. If this does not complete a legal hand, the dealer then discards a piece (throwing it into the middle of the wall with no particular order in mind). Rules Each player in turn, in counterclockwise direction, draws a tile from the wall; as long as the tile drawn is not one of the bonus tiles, the player proceeds to discard a tile (either the tile just drawn, or a tile in the hand) to maintain a hand of 13. The discarded tile is thrown into the centre and, if desired, the player announces out loud what the piece is. The other players have an opportunity to seize the discarded tile; if no one takes it, the turn continues to the next player. Play continues this way until one player has a legal winning hand and calls out the win (each region does this call differently--no Asian version uses the word "mahjong" to signal a win) while revealing their hand. There are four different ways that regular order of play can be interrupted: A bonus tile (flower or season) is drawn A meld (pong, kong, or chow) is made from a discard Going mahjong (declaring a winning hand) Robbing a kongDuring play, each player's hand should always be 13 tiles (meaning in each turn a tile must be picked up and another discarded). The count of 13 tiles do not include any bonus tiles (flowers and seasons), which are set to the side, nor does it include the fourth added piece of a kong. If a player is seen to have fewer or more than 13 tiles in their hand outside of their turn they are penalised. Legal hand A winning hand consists of 14 tiles. Since players always have 13 tiles in their hand during play, they must win by either drawing a piece from the wall that completes a 14-tile hand ("winning from the wall") or claiming a discard from another player which completes a 14-tile hand ("winning by discard"). The winning hand is made of four melds (a specific pattern of three pieces) and the eyes (a pair of identical pieces). The exceptions to this rule are the special hands listed below. Most players play with a table minimum, meaning a winning hand must score a minimum number of points (which can be seen in the scoring section). In Hong Kong mahjong the most common point set is three, but can be higher or lower depending on house rules. Melds Melds are groups of tiles within the player's hand, consisting of either a pong (three identical tiles), a kong (four identical tiles), a chow (three suited tiles all of the same suit, in numerical sequence), or eyes (two identical tiles needed in a winning hand). Melds may be formed by drawing a tile from the wall, or by seizing another player's discard. There are rules governing which player has priority for a discard, and whether the meld should be exposed (displayed to all players) or remain concealed, depending on the manner in which the meld is formed. Interruption of play The regular anti-clockwise order of turns may be interrupted for four events: 1. Flower or season Whenever a player draws a flower or season, it is announced and then placed to the side (it is not considered a part of the 13-tile hand, but in the event that player wins, they may earn bonus points for them) and the last tile of the wall is drawn as a replacement tile so that the player has the 14 pieces needed before their discard. This may happen successively in a player's turn. 2. Melding another player's discard When a player discards a tile, other players may steal the tile to complete a meld. Stealing tiles has both advantages (quickly forming a winning hand and scoring extra points) and disadvantages (being forced to reveal part of one's hand to other players and not being able to change the meld once declared). When a meld (pong, kong, or chow) is declared through a discard, the player must state the type of meld to be declared and expose the meld by placing the three (or four) tiles face up. The player must then discard a tile, and play continues to the right. If the player who melds a discard is not directly after the discarder (in order of play), one or two players will essentially miss their turn as play continues anti-clockwise from the player who declared the meld. If multiple players call for a discarded tile, priority for the discard depends on the declared action of the player stealing the discard. Highest priority goes to the player who needs the discarded tile to win the hand. A player may take the tile to win the hand from any other player. Next priority goes to the player who declares a pong or kong using the discard. A player who calls for a pong or kong may take the discard from any other player. Only one player can be in this position because there are only four of any tile in a mahjong set. Last priority goes to the player who declares a chow using the discard. Players may only call for a chow from the discard of the player immediately prior to them unless the tile is the final one required to win the hand. 3. Winning a hand The act of winning a hand interrupts play to assess the validity of the hand won. Upon confirmation, the player is awarded the hand's value per the specific game's rule. From a discard If at any point in the game a player can use another player's discard to complete a legal hand (and with the agreed minimum points), they declare a win and reveal their winning hand. This ends the hand, and scoring commences. If more than one player can use a discard to win the hand, multiple ways can handle the situation based on agreed table rules: The players might count the points they would win with the discard and the winner is the one with the higher score, the winner might simply be the player closest to the discarder in order of turn, or multiple players may be granted the win simultaneously. From the wall Alternatively, a player may also win by drawing a tile that completes a legal hand. This is called "winning from the wall". In Hong Kong mahjong, winning from the wall doubles the number of base points each loser must pay. False Win Technically, the declaration for winning a hand may be done at any time. However, the player must have a complete and legal hand. Otherwise, the player is penalized. The penalty depends on table rules. The player may forfeit points to the other players. Another potential penalty is the player who called out the false win must play the rest of the hand with their tiles face up on the table so other players can see them (open hand). Some methods apply the penalty at the end of the entire game. Again, the table rules dictate the enforcement of the penalty. 4. Robbing a kong A rarely occurring and high-scoring feature of Hong Kong mahjong is a move called robbing the kong. If a player declares a kong by adding a fourth piece to a melded pong but another player can use that piece to complete a hand, the completing player takes priority to win the hand and may steal that piece from the player who intended to declare the kong. Examples of winning hands Below are two examples of winning hands. A winning hand must consist of four melds (pongs, kongs, or chows) and a pair (eyes) and must also score the agreed table minimum. Most players include table variations in their games, of which some non-standard are included. The hands of seven different pairs and 13 orphans are examples which do not have four melds and the eyes. They are described in more detail below. Repeated hands If the dealer wins the hand, they will remain the dealer and an extra hand is played in addition to the minimum 16 hands in a match. An extra hand is also played if there is no winner by the time all the tiles in the wall have been drawn. When there is no winner it is known as a "goulash hand". Depending on table rules, the winner of the next game may take an agreed number of points from each player, carrying over the points from the non-winning hand to the winning one. If there are two or three goulash hands in a row then the winner would collect a considerable number of points from each player on top of their scoring hand. Because extra hands may be played every time a dealer wins or if there is a goulash hand, a match of 16 hands can easily become a match of 20 or even much more. As table rules add a large amount of flexibility for players, they can choose to disregard the rule of extra hands and pass on the dealership regardless of who wins or if it results in a goulash hand. This puts a maximum estimated limit on the game duration and provides some amount of predictability. Rhythm of play Players may agree on table rules if the pace of the game is brisk or leisurely. For brisk games players may agree that a couple seconds after a discard are allowed for a "window of opportunity" before the next player picks up from the wall. Usually it is agreed once the next player has waited the duration of the "window of opportunity" and draws a tile from the wall, the previous discard is lost and cannot be claimed. Scoring Old Hong Kong scoring is relatively simple. There is only one winner (or if there is a draw the hand is replayed). The winner must have a legal hand that meets the minimum faan points agreed to in advance (not including any bonus points). Only the winner scores, the other players pay the winner various sums. After each hand ends, the winner counts all of his or her faan points. Faan points depend on: The composition of the entire hand How the hand was won Bonus tiles Special patterns A few other special criteria. In order to win, a player needs to have at least the minimum faan value agreed in advance (often 3). Bonus tiles and a few other elements are not included in the minimum faan value a player needs to form a legal winning hand. For example, in a three faan minimum game, if a player has two faan points and one bonus point, the player has not met the proper requirements to win and will need to gain another faan point before calling a win. Though the bonus points cannot be included in the minimum points needed to win, they are included in the overall score after a player wins. The other players do not score their hand. Once the winner has added his or her points (faan points plus bonus points) they must be converted into base points (the chart is below). These base points represent how much the opponents pay to the winner Players then pay the winner (in money or when not gambling with "chips or points") based on three factors: The base points (faan points and bonus points converted into a payment unit) If the player won from the wall (doubles the points) If the player was the dealer (doubles the points). Concealed vs. revealed meld and hand A concealed meld is one that contains no tiles stolen from another player's discard. A concealed hand is one made up of only concealed melds. Many variations distinguish between a concealed hand (winning from the wall) and a semi concealed hand (the last tile is a stolen discard). In most mahjong variations having a concealed hand can be valuable in scoring. Hong Kong mahjong does not award concealed melds/hands as generously as others. Concealed hands only the case with a few limit hands or half-limit hands (thirteen orphans, heavenly gates, four concealed pongs) as well as a complete hand (seven pairs) and over several melds (three concealed pongs). Faan value Basic faan value A winning hand must include an agreed minimum amount of faan value (often 3). Some examples of scoring include: Bonus faan A player only scores a bonus faan for flowers or seasons if it is their own flower or season (East=1, South=2, West=3 and North=4) or if the player has all four flowers or all four seasons (scoring 5 faan in total). Payment The losers pay the winning player points based on several criteria and depending on whether the game is for fun or for money. How points are reckoned is agreed by players beforehand. For example, they can keep a tally, exchange chips, or pay one another with money. The faan value of a hand is converted into base points which are then used to calculate the points the losers pay the winner. The table is progressive, doubling the number of base points when reaching a certain faan point target. The following is the Old Hong Kong simplified table; for other tables, see Hong Kong mahjong scoring rules. This table is based on play where 3 faan is the minimum needed in order to win with a legal hand. If a player has 3 faan, then their hand is worth one base point. A winning hand with 9 faan is worth four base points. Losing players must give the winning player the value of these base points. The following special cases result in doubled base points: If the winner wins from the wall, their base points are doubled. If the hand was won by discard, the discarder doubles the amount they owe the winner. If the winner is east, all losers double the base points. If the east player is a losing player, they pay double the points to the winner.If two of these criteria apply to any player, they must double and then redouble the points owed to the winner. Examples Hong Kong mahjong is essentially a payment system of doubling and redoubling, where winning from the wall adds great value to the final payment and where the dealer is highly rewarded or penalised if they win or lose. Limit hands In Hong Kong mahjong there are a series of "limit hands". These are exceptional hands, difficult to obtain and are very valuable in point scoring. As many table rules put a limit on the number of points a winner's hand can score, full limit hands score that maximum. Table rules dictate if these rare and special hands are allowed, which ones, and the limit for scoring. A common scoring limit is 64 points, which is the highest base points doubled twice. A winner receives the scoring limit from each player without any doubling. Some limit hands by necessity must be completely concealed (not discards used) or semi-concealed (the only discard used is the one needed to win). This includes the 13 orphans, 4 concealed pongs, heavenly hand and earthly hand. It is usually expected that the heavenly gates hand be concealed or semi-concealed. As for the dragon limit hands and the great winds, table rules dictate whether the hand must be concealed or not. Some table rules claim that a semi-concealed hand (winning from a discard) scores a half-limit. Some groups also play with the "great flowers" rule. If a player picks up all four flowers and all four seasons during their hand, they instantly win the hand and receive the maximum points from all of the players. This is exceptionally rare. In all the hands that require pongs, each pong can be replaced by the corresponding kong. Other examples of high-scoring hands Variations Variations may have far more complicated scoring systems, add or remove tiles, and include far more scoring elements and limit hands. In many places, players often observe one version and are either unaware of other variations or claim that different versions are incorrect. In mainland China alone, there are over thirty variants. Many variations today differ only by scoring. Chinese variants Changsha mahjong is widely played in Hunan Province. Like Wuhan mahjong, players need to obtain special Jong consisting of only tiles of two, five or eight. Changsha mahjong forbids using winds and some special tiles, those tiles are first drawn out from the table when playing. Winners each round get a special drawing session for bonuses, usually doubling the score. Chinese classical mahjong is the oldest surviving variety of mahjong and was the version introduced to America in the 1920s under various names. It has a small, loyal following in the West, although few play it in Asia. All players score and it is possible to score higher than the winner. Competition mahjong is an international standard founded by All-China Sports Federation in July 1998 that some mahjong societies have adopted for competition play and in some cases for all play. It includes a large variety of different scoring rules in a way that emphasizes strategy and calculation ability. Fujian mahjong, thirteen tile hands. Certain tiles can be wild. No dragons. Winds are treated as bonuses. Harbin mahjong, popular in northeastern China, using only 108 suit and 4 red dragon tiles. The player's hand must meet a set of few conditions (e.g. at least one chow / pong, at least one terminal or red dragon, etc.) and be declared "ready" in order to win, with points earned by discard or self-draw and a bonus tile revealed when the player wins. Hong Kong mahjong or Cantonese mahjong is a more common form of mahjong, differing in minor scoring details from the Chinese Classical variety. It does not allow multiple players to win from a single discard. Shenyang mahjong using 13 hands in a game, and Shenyang mahjong has a very fast speed on playing. Also in Shenyang mahjong, the player must have bamboos, characters, circles and number 1 or 9 in their hand. In addition, the players have to pong before they chow, so there is no chance to win even if some players win at the first time they have their hands in hand. Sichuan mahjong is a growing variety, particularly in southern China, disallowing chi melds, and using only the suited tiles. Play continues until a loser is decided or a draw. It can be played very quickly. Taiyuan Lisi mahjong, or Lisi (lit. 'Raise Four'): the players must win with the first four blocks drawn which are placed separately in front of the others. These four blocks cannot be touched until the player has a ready hand. Tianjin mahjong using normally seven jokers, with special scoring such as joker-free, joker-waiting-pair, catch-5, dragon, joker-suited-dragon. Wuhan mahjong is growing rapidly and become popular in southern China. It is different from other parts of China such that it has a tile that can be used as everything called Laizi, and the player has to have a set of special two tiles, namely two, five, eight, as prerequisite for winning. Another variation has become the new trend. Special tiles need to be discarded. Xiangyang mahjong is played with three players, and without winds, seasons, flowers and one suit of dots, bamboo and characters. It places special emphasis on the 5 tile giving extra points for any hand made using a 5 tile. Other variants American mahjong is a form of mahjong standardized by the National Mah Jongg League and the American Mah-Jongg Association. It uses joker tiles, the Charleston, plus melds of five or more tiles, treats bonus tiles as honors, and eschews the chow and the notion of a standard hand. Legal hands are changed annually. Purists claim that this makes American mahjong a separate game. In addition, the NMJL and AMJA variations, which have minor scoring differences, are commonly referred to as mahjongg or mah-jongg (with 2 Gs, often hyphenated). Filipino mahjong, sixteen tile hands. Certain tiles can be wild. Honors are treated as bonuses. Taiwanese mahjong is the variety prevalent in Taiwan and involves hands of sixteen tiles (as opposed to the thirteen-tile hands in other versions), features bonuses for dealers and recurring dealerships, and allows multiple players to win from a single discard. Japanese classical mahjong is still used in tournaments. It is closer to the Chinese classical scoring system but only the winner scores. Japanese Mahjong is a standardized form of mahjong in Japan and South Korea, and is also found prevalently in video games. In addition to scoring changes, the rules of rīchi (ready hand) and dora (bonus tiles) are unique highlights of this variant. In addition, tile discards are specifically arranged in front of each player by discard order, to take discarded tiles into account during play. Some rules replace some number 5 tiles with red tiles so that they can eventually get more value. Korean mahjong is unique in many ways and is an excellent version for three players. One suit is omitted completely (usually the bamboo set or 2–8 of bamboo) as well as the seasons. The scoring is simpler and the play is faster. No melded chows are allowed and concealed hands are common. Riichi (much like its Japanese cousin) is an integral part of the game as well. Pussers bones is a fast-moving variant developed by sailors in the Royal Australian Navy. It uses an alternative vocabulary, such as Eddie, Sammy, Wally, and Normie, instead of East, South, West, and North respectively. Singaporean mahjong are two similar variants with much in common with Hong Kong mahjong. Unique elements of Singaporean mahjong are the use of four animal bonus tiles (cat, mouse, cockerel, and centipede) as well as certain alternatives in the scoring rules, which allow payouts midway through the game if certain conditions (such as a kong) are met. Melds may also be presented in a form different from most other variations. South African mahjong is a variant of Cantonese mahjong. It is very similar in terms of game play and follows most of the rules and regulations of Cantonese mahjong. However, there are some minor differences in scoring, e.g. the limit on the maximum points a hand can be rewarded is three or four faan depending on the house rules. A chicken hand (gai wu) is normally considered a value hand. Depending on the house rules flowers may also be used to boost scoring. Thai mahjong has eight specialized jokers with eight extra flowers and eight animals for a total of 168 tiles. Vietnamese mahjong has the same eight specialized jokers but with only eight different extra flowers for a total of 160 tiles. A modern variant triplicates or quadruplicates the jokers for a total of 176 or 184 tiles. Western classical mahjong is a descendant of the version of mahjong introduced by Babcock to America in the 1920s. Today, this term largely refers to the "Wright-Patterson" rules, used in the U.S. military, and other similar American-made variants that are closer to the Babcock rules. Three player mahjong (or 3-ka) is a simplified three-person mahjong that involves hands of 13 tiles (with a total of 84 tiles on the table) and may use jokers depending on the variation. Any rule set can be adapted for three players; however, this is far more common and accepted in Japan, Korea, Malaysia and the Philippines. It usually eliminates one suit entirely, or tiles 2–8 in one suit leaving only the terminals. It needs fewer people to start a game and the turnaround time of a game is short—hence, it is considered a fast game. In some versions there is a jackpot for winning in which whoever accumulates a point of 10 is considered to hit the jackpot or whoever scores three hidden hands first. The Malaysian and Korean versions drop one wind and may include a seat dragon. Equipment Tables Mahjong playing surfaces are typically square and small enough to be within arm's length of all equipment. The edges are raised to prevent tiles from sliding off and the surface is covered in felt to limit wear on the tiles. Automatic dealing tables, often used for high stakes playing and tournaments, are able to shuffle tiles, build walls, and randomize dice. It is an elaborate device built into a table which uses two alternating sets of tiles . It shuffles one set of tiles while the players play on the other set. After the round is finished the tiles are dropped into the table and the standby wall raises upwards. Tiles The following chart shows the most generic set of tiles There are variations that feature specific use of tiles. Some three-player versions remove the North wind and one Chinese provincial version has no honors. Korean mahjong removes the bamboo suit or at least its numbers 2–8 so that terminals can be used. Japanese mahjong rarely uses flowers or seasons. The seasons are removed in Korean mahjong, while many Southeast Asian sets have more flower series. Wild cards and jokers Some mahjong variants accept wildcard tiles. The wildcard tiles are decided at the beginning of the game by choosing one random tile. The wild card could be the immediately following tile on the wall, after distributing tiles to all players, or it could also be separately decided by a dice throw. Wildcard tiles cannot be discarded and can only replace tiles in chows. Wildcard tiles cannot replace tiles in pongs and kongs. For example, if a character 4 is chosen, then character 4 and the next sequential tile, character 5, can be used as wild cards in this round. (When the wildcard indicator is chosen and exposed, only 3 tiles remain of the same denomination, so the next tile in the suit will also be used as a wildcard, adding to 7 wildcard tiles for 4 players.) Also, if a tile numbered 9 is the indicator, the suits circle back to 1, after 9. Thus, the number 9 and 1 are wild cards. Also, if the chosen tile is not in the suited tiles, the wild cards are decided in rules: The bonus tiles are not available for wild cards. A feature of several variations of mahjong, most notably in American mahjong, is the notion of some number of Joker tiles. They may be used as a wild card: a substitute for any tile in a hand, or, in some variations, only tiles in melds. Another variation is that the Joker tile may not be used for melding. Depending on the variation, a player may replace a Joker tile that is part of an exposed meld belonging to any player with the tile it represents. Rules governing discarding Joker tiles also exist; some variations permit the Joker tile to take on the identity of any tile, and others only permit the Joker tile to take on the identity of the previously discarded tile (or the absence of a tile, if it is the first discard). Joker tiles may or may not affect scoring, depending on the variation. Some special hands may require the use of Joker tiles (for example, to represent a "fifth tile" of a certain suited or honor tile). In American mahjong, it is illegal to pass Jokers during the Charleston. Flowers Japanese rule sets discourage the use of flowers and seasons. Korean rules and three-player mahjong in the Korean/Japanese tradition use only flowers. In Singapore and Malaysia an extra set of bonus tiles of four animals are used. The rule set includes a unique function in that players who get two specific animals get a one-time immediate payout from all players. In Taiwanese mahjong, getting all eight flowers and seasons constitutes an automatic win of the hand and specific payout from all players. Four of the flower tiles represent the four noble plants of Confucian reckoning: 🀢 plum, 🀣 orchid, 🀥 chrysanthemum, and 🀤 bamboo. The other 4 flower tiles (or season tiles) represent seasons: 🀦 spring, 🀧 summer, 🀨 autumn, and 🀩 winter. These animal tiles are used in Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore and local variations. They represent the cat, mouse, rooster and centipede. Like flower tiles, they also function as bonus tiles. However, as they have no corresponding seat position, any player who draws one of these gets a bonus point. Walls All tiles are placed face down and shuffled. Each player then stacks a row of tiles two tiles high in front of them, the length of the row depending on the number of tiles in use: 136 tiles: 17 stacks for each player Suits of circles, bamboos, and characters + winds + dragons 144 tiles: 18 stacks for each player 148 tiles: 19 stacks for dealer and player opposite, 18 for rest 152 tiles: 19 stacks for each player Dice, markers, and counting pieces Depending on the variation, two or three dice are usually used to decide what part of the wall to start dealing from. They are six-sided dice, traditionally but not necessarily Chinese dice with red one and four pips. The dealer marker is a round or square object that the dealer places to the side to remind players who the dealer is. The wind marker may be used which indicates the current prevailing wind. In some cases the dealer marker and the wind marker are represented by one large marker, usually a small wheel where one can swivel the outer circle to indicate the prevailing wind (which the dealer holds onto), a cube with the four winds placed onto four of the sides which can be placed in a hollow square (the dealer holds onto it), or a cylinder locked into frame which can be rolled to expose the wind on the top. Japanese mahjong, especially in a gambling environment, may optionally use four yakitori markers to indicate which players have not won a hand yet and has to pay a penalty. There are a variety of counting pieces used in different countries. They range from Chinese or Japanese counting sticks (thin sticks with various dots on them to represent various points), jetons, play money, paper and pencil, or various apps on touchscreen devices used to calculate and keep scores. Rules Japanese and Korean mahjong have some special rules. A player cannot win by a discard if that player had already discarded that piece, where players' discards are kept in neat rows in front of them. Players may declare ready, meaning that they need one tile to win, cannot change their hand and win extra points if they win. Some rules may replace some of the number 5 tiles with red tiles, as they can earn more points. Korean mahjong does not allow melded (stolen) chows. Taiwanese mahjong adds three tiles to a hand requiring a 5th set to be formed, making a clean hand or all-pong hand very difficult to procure. American mahjong has distinctive game mechanics and the article on American mahjong details these. Some differences include many special patterns, a different scoring system and the use of jokers and five-of-a-kind. Charleston In the American variations it is required that, before each hand begins, a Charleston be enacted. In the first exchange, three tiles are passed to the player on one's right; in the next exchange, the tiles are passed to the player opposite, followed by three tiles passed to the left. If all players are in agreement, a second Charleston is performed; however, any player may decide to stop passing after the first Charleston is complete. The Charleston is followed by an optional pass to the player across of one, two, or three tiles. The Charleston, a distinctive feature of American mahjong, may have been borrowed from card games such as Hearts. Hands Many variations have specific hands, some of which are common while some are optional depending on regions and players. One example is the Pure Green hand made of chows or pongs using 2, 3, 4, 6, 8 of bamboo and green dragon. Ready hands When a hand is one tile short of winning (for example: , waiting for: , , or , as can be the eyes), the hand is said to be a ready hand, or more figuratively, "on the pot". The player holding a ready hand is said to be waiting for certain tiles. It is common to be waiting for two or three tiles, and some variations award points for a hand that is waiting for one tile. In 13-tile mahjong, the largest number of tiles for which a player can wait is 13 (the thirteen wonders, or 13 orphans, a nonstandard special hand). Ready hands must be declared in some variations of mahjong, while other variations prohibit the same. Some variations of mahjong, most notably Japanese and Korean ones, allow a player to declare rīchi (立直, sometimes known as reach, as it is phonetically similar). A declaration of rīchi is a promise that any tile drawn by the player is immediately discarded unless it constitutes a win. Standard requirements for rīchi are that the hand be closed or have no melds declared (other than a concealed kong) and that players already have points for declaration of rīchi. A player who declares rīchi and wins usually receives a point bonus for their hand directly, and a player who won with rīchi also has the advantage to open the inner dora which leads to higher possibilities to match such a card, thus has more chance to grant additional bonus. However, a player who declares rīchi and loses is usually penalised in some fashion. Declaring a nonexistent rīchi is also penalised in some way. In some variations, a situation in which all four players declare a rīchi is an automatic drawn game, as it reduces the game down to pure luck, i.e., who gets their needed tile first. Draws If only the dead wall remains (or if no dead wall exists and the wall is depleted) and no one has won, the hand is drawn or "goulashed". A new hand begins, and depending on the variant, the Game Wind may change. For example, in most playing circles in Singapore, if there is at least one kong when the hand is a draw, the following player of the dealer becomes the next dealer; otherwise, the dealer remains dealer. Japanese mahjong has a special rule called sanchahō, which is, if three players claim the same discard in order to win, the hand is drawn. One reason for this is that there are cases in which bars of 1,000 points for declaring rīchi cannot be divided by three. The rule is treated the same as "abortive draws". Abortive draws In Japanese mahjong, rules allow abortive draws to be declared while tiles are still available. They can be declared under the following conditions: On a player's first turn when no meld has been declared yet, if a player has nine different terminal (also known as major) or honor tiles, the player may declare the hand to be drawn (for example, , but could also go for the nonstandard thirteen wonders hand as well). Four winds' barrier: On the first turn without any meld declarations, if all 4 players discard the same Wind tile, the hand is drawn. Yonin rīchi: If all four players declare rīchi, the hand is drawn. Four kongs' abort: The hand is drawn when the fourth kong is declared, unless all four kongs were declared by a single player. Still, the hand is drawn when another player declares a fifth kong. Scoring Scoring in mahjong involves points, with a monetary value for points agreed upon by players. Although in many variations scoreless hands are possible, many require that hands be of some point value in order to win the hand. While the basic rules are more or less the same throughout mahjong, the greatest divergence between variations lies in the scoring systems. Like the rules, there is a generalized system of scoring, based on the method of winning and the winning hand, from which Chinese and Japanese base their roots. American mahjong generally has greatly divergent scoring rules, as well as greatly divergent general rules. Because of the large differences between the various systems of scoring (especially for Chinese variants), groups of players will often agree on particular scoring rules before a game. Points Points (terminology of which differs from variation to variation) are obtained by matching the winning hand with different criteria scoring different values. The points obtained may be modified into scores for each player using some (typically exponential) functions. Some criteria may be also in terms of both points and score. In many variations the dealer receives no scoring bonus and does not maintain their turn by winning or a dead hand. In classical mahjong all players score points. Points are given for sets and hand composition and winning bonuses, doubled and redoubled for basic patterns. Sometimes a loser may score more points than a winner. Japanese mahjong has a complex scoring system with several stages of scoring, rules and exceptions, evening out scores and bonus points at the end of a match. Korean mahjong has a simple scoring system where only winner scores without any form of doubling. Some variations give points for concealed hands, in which case no melds are made except by winning on a discard. In Old Hong Kong mahjong: Only the winner scores points. Winning hands are scored by totaling the point value of each element in the hand. Points are distinct from the actual payment received from each player. The winner receives points (also known as faan among some players) for: Individual melds, The composition of the entire hand, How the hand was won, Bonus tiles, Special patterns, A few other special criteria. In order to win, a player needs to have at least the minimum points agreed in advance (often 3). Bonus points are separate from the minimum points a player needs to win. If a player goes mahjong with a legal and minimum hand, their hand is scored by adding their points and bonus points together. The payment received from each player depends on three factors: The point value of the hand, If the player won from a discard or from the wall, and If the player was the dealer or not. Comparison Mahjong solitaire A single player game employs the tiles of mahjong, usually played on computers or devices. Gameplay is entirely unrelated to mahjong or its variations and is a recent invention. A two-player version was published by Nintendo. The game involves stacking tiles face up in various elaborate patterns and removing uncovered matching tiles at the end of rows. Competition In 1998, in the interest of dissociating illegal gambling from Mahjong, the China State Sports Commission published a new set of rules, now generally referred to as Chinese Official rules or International Tournament rules (see Guobiao Majiang). The principles of the new, wholesome Mahjong are no gambling, no drinking, and no smoking. In international tournaments, players are often grouped in teams to emphasize that Mahjong from now on is considered a sport. The new rules are highly pattern-based. The rulebook contains 81 combinations, based on patterns and scoring elements popular in classic and modern regional Chinese variants; some table practices of Japan have also been adopted. Points for flower tiles (each flower is worth one point) may not be added until the player has scored eight points. The winner of a game receives the score from the player who discards the winning tile, plus eight basic points from each player; in the case of zimo (self-drawn win), they receive the value of this round plus eight points from all players. The new rules were first used in an international tournament in Tokyo, where, in 2002, the first global tournament in mahjong was organized by the Mahjong Museum, the Japan Mahjong Organizing Committee, and the city council of Ningbo, China. One hundred players participated, mainly from Japan and China, but also from Europe and the United States. Mai Hatsune, from Japan, became the first world champion. The following year saw the first annual China Mahjong Championship, held in Hainan; the next two annual tournaments were held in Hong Kong and Beijing. Most players were Chinese; players from other nations attended as well. In 2005, the first Open European Mahjong Championship was held in the Netherlands, with 108 players. The competition was won by Masato Chiba from Japan. The second European championship in Copenhagen (2007) was attended by 136 players and won by Danish player Martin Wedel Jacobsen. The first Online European Mahjong Championship was held on the Mahjong Time server in 2007, with 64 players, and the winner was Juliani Leo, from the U.S., and the Best European Player was Gerda van Oorschot, from the Netherlands. The Third Open European Mahjong Championship 2009 at Baden/Vienna, Austria, was won by Japanese player Koji Idota, while runner-up Bo Lang from Switzerland became European Champion. There were 152 participants. In 2006, the World Mahjong Organization (WMO) was founded in Beijing, China, with the cooperation of, amongst others, the Japan Mahjong Organizing Committee (JMOC) and the European Mahjong Association (EMA). This organization held its first World Mahjong Championship in November 2007 in the Chinese town of Chengdu, attended by 144 participants from all over the world. It was won by Li Li, a Chinese student at Tsinghua University. The next World Championship took place in Utrecht, the Netherlands, 27 to 29 August 2010. Other major international tournaments include the Mahjong International League's World Mahjong Sports Games and the privately sponsored World Series Of Mahjong. American mahjong tournaments are held in virtually every state—the largest is in Las Vegas, Nevada, twice a year, and in Atlantic City, New Jersey, by Mah Jongg Madness (MJM), and an annual cruise is hosted by the National Mah Jongg League and MJM. MJM tournaments host between 150 and 500 participants at these larger events; there are several smaller-scale, but equally successful, tournaments held annually by other hosts. Prize pools are based on the number participating. Rules are based on the National Mah Jongg League standard rules. History Mahjong is based on draw-and-discard card games that were popular in 18th and 19th century China, some of which are still popular today. They were played with a stripped deck of money-suited cards. Each deck is divided into three suits of Cash or coins, Strings of cash, and Myriads of strings. There are nine ranks in each suit. In addition, there are three wild cards: Red flower, White flower, and Old thousand. Depending on the game, there are multiple copies of each card. Games scholar David Parlett has written that the Western card games Conquian and Rummy share a common origin with Mahjong. All these games involve players drawing and discarding tiles or cards to make melds. Khanhoo is an early example of such a game. The most likely ancestor to Mahjong was pènghú which was played with 120 or 150 cards. During the late 19th century, pènghú was used interchangeably with máquè in both card and tile form. It is not known when the conversion from cards to tiles took place precisely but it most likely occurred in the middle of the 19th century. The earliest surviving tile sets date to around 1870 and were acquired in Fuzhou, Shanghai, and Ningbo. These sets differ from modern ones in several ways. In the Glover sets, there were no "flower" and fā ("green dragon") tiles. In their place were "king" tiles for heaven, earth, man, and harmony and also for each of the 4 "winds" which may have acted as bonus tiles. In the contemporaneous Himly set, there were no zhōng ("red dragon") tiles either. Instead there were the wild cards known as Cash Flower, String Flower, and Myriad Flower plus an additional tile, the king of everything. These early jokers are still found in the Vietnamese and Thai sets. They may have been removed as the tiles share the same titles as the leaders of the Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864). For example, Hong Xiuquan was the self-styled "Heavenly King of Great Peace" and his top subordinates were called east king, south king, west king, and north king. The ban on gambling after the founding of the People's Republic in 1949 led to a decline in playing. The game itself was banned during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976). Today, it is a favorite pastime in China and other Chinese-speaking communities. Mahjong in the West The first Western records about mahjong seem to correspond to the papers of British Consul General F.E.B. Harvey, around the time when he served as consul in Ningbo, during the 1860s. He mentions in his papers making the acquaintance of an English-fluent, rank-three official under the Daoguang Emperor, Chen Yumen, who taught him the game. In the same writings he details the rules he was taught by Chen. In 1895, British sinologist William Henry Wilkinson wrote a paper which mentioned a set of cards known in central China by the name of ma chioh, literally, hemp sparrow, which he maintained was the origin of the term Mahjong. He did not explain the dialect of the originator or region specific etymology of this information. By 1910, there were written accounts in many languages, including French and Japanese.The game was imported to the United States in the 1920s. The first Mahjong sets sold in the U.S. were sold by Abercrombie & Fitch starting in 1920. It became a success in Washington, D.C., and the co-owner of the company, Ezra Fitch, sent emissaries to Chinese villages to buy every Mahjong set they could find. Abercrombie & Fitch sold a total of 12,000 Mahjong sets. Mahjong became a central part of cultural bonding for Chinese Americans in the 1920s and '30s in Chinatown, Manhattan and was part of community building for suburban American Jewish women in the 1940s and 50s.Also in 1920, Joseph Park Babcock published his book Rules of Mah-Jongg, also known as the "red book". This was the earliest version of Mahjong known in America. Babcock had learned Mahjong while living in China. His rules simplified the game to make it easier for Americans to take up, and his version was common through the Mahjong fad of the 1920s. Later, when the 1920s fad died out, many of Babcock's simplifications were abandoned.The game has taken on a number of trademarked names, such as "Pung Chow" and the "Game of Thousand Intelligences". Mahjong nights in America often involved dressing and decorating rooms in Chinese style. Several hit songs were recorded during the Mahjong fad, most notably "Since Ma Is Playing Mah Jong" by Eddie Cantor.Many variants of Mahjong developed during this period. By the 1930s, many revisions of the rules developed that were substantially different from Babcock's classical version (including some that were considered fundamentals in other variants, such as the notion of a standard hand). Standardization came with the formation of the National Mah Jongg League (NMJL) in 1937, along with the first American Mahjong rulebook, Maajh: The American Version of the Ancient Chinese Game, written by NMJL's first president and co-founder, Viola L. Cecil. In 1999, a second organization was formed, the American Mah Jongg Association. In the United Kingdom, British author Alan D. Millington revived the Chinese classical game of the 1920s with his book The Complete Book of Mah-jongg (1977). This handbook includes a formal rules set for the game. Current development There are many governing bodies which often host exhibition games and tournaments for modern and traditional Mahjong gaming. Mahjong, as of 2010, is the most popular table game in Japan. As of 2008, there were approximately 7.6 million Mahjong players in Japan and an estimated 8,900 Mahjong parlors did ¥300 billion (converting to US$2.8 billion according to exchange rates for 30 April 2020) in sales. There are several manga and anime (e.g. Saki and Akagi) devoted to dramatic and comic situations involving Mahjong. Since the 1980s, hundreds of different Mahjong arcade machines in Japanese video arcades have been created, including strip versions. Newer units can connect with other arcade machines across the Internet. Mahjong culture is still deeply ingrained in the Chinese community. Sam Hui wrote Cantopop songs using Mahjong as their themes, and Hong Kong movies have often included scenes of Mahjong games. Many gambling movies have been filmed in Hong Kong, and a recent subgenre is the Mahjong movie. Although the popularity of the game in China is still broad, since 1949, mahjong was frowned upon by the government because it is seen as a means of gambling addiction, an issue that the government always sought to tackle.Prolonged playing of Mahjong may trigger epileptic seizures according to a 2007 study. To date there are 23 reported cases of Mahjong-induced seizures in the English medical literature. Some doctors speculate that this may be due to stress and complex manual movement correlated with intense brain function similar to playing chess or card games such as poker.Studies by doctors have also shown in Hong Kong that the game is beneficial for individuals suffering from dementia or cognitive memory difficulties, leading to the development of Mahjong therapy.Researchers have also used artificial intelligence techniques to develop Mahjong-playing agents using neural networks and reinforcement learning. They have shown that a self-learning machine can be trained to compete with some of the best Richi Mahjong players.Mahjong was also adapted into several puzzle video games such as Mahjong Trails, listed as one of the top-grossing games on Facebook. Superstitions Even though both skill and chance play a fundamental role in the game, there is no shortage of superstitions in which players believe where they sit, how they hold their pieces or objects they have on their person will somehow affect the outcome. For example, players will try to find seats with the best feng shui or wear their lucky clothing or trinkets. Some believe that specific pieces (one dot, for example) bode bad luck if received in their opening hand.More elaborate superstitions in mahjong range from those found in the game poker, such as not counting one's wins and losses, to the comical, such as changing one's undergarments after a loss. As with all superstitions in gaming, none of them have been properly demonstrated as effective, though, for some, the rituals have become an integral part of the game experience and its aesthetics. Glossary Heavenly Hand (天糊) Big Four Winds (大四喜) Big Three Dragons (大三元) All Kongs (十八羅漢) All Honor Tiles (字一色) Thirteen Orphans (十三幺) Nine Gates (九蓮宝燈) Four Concealed Triplets (四暗刻) All Triplets (對對糊) Mixed one suit (混一色) All one suit (清一色) Pinfu (平糊) Little Three Dragons (小三元) Little Four Winds (小四喜) Unicode Mahjong tiles were added to the Unicode Standard in April, 2008 with the release of version 5.1. The Unicode block for Mahjong tiles is U+1F000–U+1F02F: In popular culture In the Korean drama series My Love from the Star, main character Do Min Joon (played by Kim Soo-Hyun) regularly plays Mah-jong. He is the best player in Seoul. In Wong Kar-Wai's film In the Mood for Love, which takes place in 1962 in Hong Kong, the families and owners who live in the boarding house play there for entire nights. The manga and anime Saki revolves around a high school Mahjong club. Miyanaga Saki is forced to join the club as she hates Mahjong. Akagi also deals with Mah-jong. This is the story of a college student who quickly becomes a prodigy of the game, evolving within the Yakuza. Many other manga are dedicated to it, like Ten, which is a sequel to Akagi, but also Furiten-kun, The Legend of the Gambler: Tetsuya and The Legend of Koizumi. In Thomas Harris's novel Red Dragon, a serial killer, who calls himself the "Red Dragon", carves the Mahjong symbol corresponding to his nickname on a tree (chap. 10), which is identified as such later (at the end of chap. 12). The two film adaptations of this novel also take up this key element of the screenplay. Mahjong serves as a minor plot point in the 2016 Arrival where General Shang uses the game to interact with the aliens. In the videogame Yakuza: Like a Dragon, the player can take part in Mah-jong games in the form of mini-games. In Final Fantasy XIV, it is possible to play Doman Mahjong, a version strongly inspired by Mah-jong Riichi, at the Gold Saucer (casino inspired by Final Fantasy VII). The player can choose to compete against the computer or play against other people. The MMORPG offers two game rules: with or without kuitan. The option with kuitan authorizes the formation of the yaku Tanyao after the announcement of chi, pon or kan. See also Mahjong tiles Mahjong video game Singaporean Mahjong scoring rules Khanhoo Madiao Chinese playing cards Mah-Jongg (lemur), a pet owned by the Courtaulds Further reading Historical research Chinese classic Chinese official Mahjong at Curlie Mahjong at BoardGameGeek
SM or sm may refer to: Business and economics Service mark symbol (℠) Spesmilo ₷, a former international currency Senior management Organizations SM Entertainment, South Korean music label SM Prime, a Philippine retail operator SM Supermalls, Philippine chain of shopping malls SM-liiga, top Finnish men's ice hockey league SM-sarja, Finnish former top men's ice hockey league Syndicat de la Magistrature, a French union St. Mark's School, New England private high school St. Mark's School of Texas, a private school in Dallas Places SM postcode area, Greater London, England San Marino, ISO country code Satu Mare, Romania, vehicle registration Science Biology and medicine "Sm.", author abbreviation for "Smith", see List of taxonomic authorities named Smith S.M. (patient), a patient with brain damage James Edward Smith (botanist) (1759–1828), botanist cited as "Sm." Computing .sm, San Marino top-level Internet domain SM EVM, Soviet computers, e.g. SM-4 Streaming Multiprocessor Physics and chemistry Samarium, symbol Sm, a chemical element Standard Model, a descriptive theory of particle physics Other sciences Magellanic spiral, a galaxy class Selective mutism, an anxiety disorder Titles, ranks, and awards Military Sacrifice Medal, Canada Sena Medal, India Service member, a member of a branch of the military Southern Cross Medal (1952), South Africa Southern Cross Medal (1975), South Africa Other titles, ranks, and awards Medal of Service of the Order of Canada, post-nominal letters Scientiæ Magister or Master of Science Studio manager, in media professions Suomen mestaruus (Finnish Champion), sports award Swedish Championship (disambiguation) (Swedish Champion), sports award Transportation and other moving vehicles Citroën SM, an automobile model Prefix of some Savoia-Marchetti aircraft, e.g. SM.83 Shanghai Metro SM (motorcycle), defunct Polish motorcycle manufacturer SM-class minesweeper, a ship class of the Finnish Navy Spec Miata, a class of racing car Spirit of Manila Airlines, IATA airline code St. Mary's Railroad, reporting mark Standard Missile, a family of US missiles, e.g. SM-3 Swedline Express, former IATA airline code. Other uses Sadomasochism (SM, S/M or S&M) Samoan language (ISO 639-1 code sm) Stephen Malkmus (born 1966), singer of Pavement Supplementary Member in a democratic voting system Society of Mary (Marianists), Roman Catholic congregation Silvano Melea Otieno, the controversy around his burial was called "Burying SM" SM radar, an American made fighter-direction radar used during World War II S&M (disambiguation) All pages with titles beginning with SM All pages with titles beginning with Sm All pages with titles containing sm
Radical 1 or radical one (一部) meaning "one" is one of the 6 Kangxi radicals (214 radicals in total) composed of 1 stroke. In the Kangxi Dictionary, there are 60 characters (out of 47,043) to be found under this radical.一 is also the 1st indexing component in the Table of Indexing Chinese Character Components predominantly adopted by Simplified Chinese dictionaries published in mainland China. Evolution Derived characters In calligraphy The only stroke in radical one, known as 橫/横 héng "horizontal", is called 策 cè in the eight principles of the character 永 (永字八法 Yǒngzì Bāfǎ) which are the basis of Chinese calligraphy. Sinogram As an isolated character it is one of the Kyōiku kanji or Kanji taught in elementary school in Japan. It is a first grade kanji. "Dictionary -> Characters containing component "一"". Chinese Text Project. Retrieved 2022-02-10. Literature Fazzioli, Edoardo (1987). Chinese calligraphy : from pictograph to ideogram : the history of 214 essential Chinese/Japanese characters. calligraphy by Rebecca Hon Ko. New York: Abbeville Press. ISBN 0-89659-774-1. Li, Leyi (1993). Tracing the Roots of Chinese Characters: 500 Cases. Beijing. ISBN 978-7-5619-0204-2.: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) Chinese numerals
Guotai or Guo Tai is the atonal pinyin romanization of various Chinese words and names, usually in reference to a traditional expression about a peaceful and prosperous era in a country's history. It may refer to: Business Guotai Junan Securities, a Chinese listed company, a securities broker and an investment bank, that formed by a merger Guotai Junan Futures, a subsidiary of Guotai Junan Securities Guotai Junan International Holdings, a listed company based in Hong Kong and a subsidiary of Guotai Junan Securities Guotai Securities, a predecessor of Guotai Junan Securities Cathay Pacific Airways, known as just Cathay Pacific, is a Hong Kong-based airline, also known as its pinyin transliteration of its Chinese name as Guotai hangkong Cathay Bank, a United States bank that was specialized for Chinese communities, also known as its pinyin transliteration of its Chinese name as Guotai Yinhang Cathay General Bancorp, parent company of Cathay Bank, a listed company in NASDAQ Cathay United Bank, a Taiwanese financial services company, also known as its pinyin transliteration of its Chinese name as Guotai Shihua Yinhang Cathay Life Insurance, a Taiwanese insurance company, also known as its pinyin transliteration of its Chinese name as Guotai Renshou Cathay Organisation, a Singapore film company, also known as its pinyin transliteration of its Chinese name as Guotai Jigou Cathay Organisation (Hong Kong), formerly known as Motion Picture & General Investment, a Hong Kong-based film company and a subsidiary of Cathay Organisation Buildings Cathay Theatre, a historical landmark movie theatre in Shanghai, also known as its pinyin transliteration of its Chinese name as Guotai Dianyingyuan The Cathay, a historical landmark movie theatre in Singapore that was owned by Cathay Organisation Cathay City, headquarters of Cathay Pacific Airways Names Guotai (given name), also in the form of Kowk Tai, Kok Thay Guo Tai (Chinese: 郭泰, aka 郭太), a Chinese scholar-official of Eastern Han dynasty Shen Zujian Qing dynasty Chinese people, also known as his alternative name Guotai (Chinese: 果臺; pinyin: Guǒtái) Lady Wu (Chinese: 吳國太), a fictional character in the Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Guotai (國太) was her nickname See also Cathay (disambiguation) Kuo Tai-yuan Terry Gou Tai-ming Thailand (Chinese: 泰國)
Cathay ( ka-THAY) is a historical name for China that was used in Europe. During the early modern period, the term Cathay initially evolved as a term referring to what is now Northern China, completely separate and distinct from China, which was a reference to southern China. As knowledge of East Asia increased, Cathay came to be seen as the same polity as China as a whole. The term Cathay became a poetic name for China. The name Cathay originates from the word Khitan Chinese: 契丹; pinyin: Qìdān; Jyutping: Kit3 daan1), a name of a para-Mongolic nomadic people who ruled the Liao dynasty in northern China from 916 to 1125, and who later migrated west after they were overthrown by the Jin dynasty to form the Qara Khitai (Western Liao dynasty) for another century thereafter. Originally, this name was the name applied by Central and Western Asians and Europeans to northern China; the name was also used in Marco Polo's book on his travels in Yuan dynasty China (he referred to southern China as Mangi). Odoric of Pordenone (d. 1331) also writes about Cathay and the Khan in his travelbooks from his journey before 1331, perhaps 1321–1330. History The term Cathay came from the name for the Khitans. A form of the name Cathai is attested in a Uyghur Manichaean document describing the external people circa 1000. The Khitans refer to themselves as Qidan (Khitan small script: ; Chinese: 契丹), but in the language of the ancient Uyghurs the final -n or -ń became -y, and this form may have been the source of the name Khitai for later Muslim writers. This version of the name was then introduced to medieval and early modern Europe via Muslim and Russian sources.The Khitans were known to Muslim Central Asia: in 1026, the Ghaznavid court (in Ghazna, in today's Afghanistan) was visited by envoys from the Liao ruler, he was described as a "Qatā Khan", i.e. the ruler of Qatā; Qatā or Qitā appears in writings of al-Biruni and Abu Said Gardezi in the following decades. The Persian scholar and administrator Nizam al-Mulk (1018–1092) mentions Khita and China in his Book on the Administration of the State, apparently as two separate countries (presumably, referring to the Liao and Song Empires, respectively). The name's currency in the Muslim world survived the replacement of the Khitan Liao dynasty with the Jurchen Jin dynasty in the early 12th century. When describing the fall of the Jin Empire to the Mongols (1234), Persian history described the conquered country as Khitāy or Djerdaj Khitāy (i.e., "Jurchen Cathay"). The Mongols themselves, in their Secret History (13th century) talk of both Khitans and Kara-Khitans.In about 1340 Francesco Balducci Pegolotti, a merchant from Florence, compiled the Pratica della mercatura, a guide about trade in China, a country he called Cathay, noting the size of Khanbaliq (modern Beijing) and how merchants could exchange silver for Chinese paper money that could be used to buy luxury items such as silk.Words related to Khitay are still used in many Turkic and Slavic languages to refer to China. The ethnonym derived from Khitay in the Uyghur language for Han Chinese is considered pejorative by both its users and its referents, and the PRC authorities have attempted to ban its use. The term also strongly connotes Uyghur nationalism. Cathay and Mangi As European and Arab travelers started reaching the Mongol Empire, they described the Mongol-controlled Northern China as Cathay in a number of spelling variants. The name occurs in the writings of Giovanni da Pian del Carpine (c. 1180–1252) (as Kitaia), and William of Rubruck (c. 1220–c. 1293) (as Cataya or Cathaia). Travels in the Land of Kublai Khan by Marco Polo has a story called "The Road to Cathay". Rashid-al-Din Hamadani, ibn Battuta, and Marco Polo all referred to Northern China as Cathay, while Southern China, ruled by the Song dynasty, was Mangi, Manzi, Chin, or Sin. The word Manzi (蠻子) or Mangi is a derogatory term in Chinese meaning "barbarians of the south" (Man was used to describe unsinicised Southern China in its earlier periods), and would therefore not have been used by the Chinese to describe themselves or their own country, but it was adopted by the Mongols to describe the people and country of Southern China. The name for South China commonly used on Western medieval maps was Mangi, a term still used in maps in the 16th century. Identifying China as Cathay The division of China into northern and southern parts ruled by, in succession, the Liao, Jin and Yuan dynasties in the north, and the Song dynasty in the south, ended in the late 13th century with the conquest of southern China by the Yuan dynasty. While Central Asia had long known China under names similar to Cathay, that country was known to the peoples of South-East Asia and India under names similar to China (cf. e.g. Cina in modern Malay). Meanwhile, in China itself, people usually referred to the realm in which they lived on the name of the ruling dynasty, e.g. Da Ming Guo ("the kingdom of the Great Ming"), or as the Middle Kingdom or Central Kingdom (Zhongguo 中國); see also Names of China for details. When the Portuguese reached South-East Asia (Afonso de Albuquerque conquering Malacca in 1511) and the southern coast of China (Jorge Álvares reaching the Pearl River estuary in 1513), they started calling the country by the name used in South and South-East Asia. It was not immediately clear to the Europeans whether this China is the same country as Cathay known from Marco Polo. Therefore, it would not be uncommon for 16th-century maps to apply the label China just to the coastal region already well known to the Europeans (e.g., just Guangdong on Abraham Ortelius' 1570 map), and to place the mysterious Cathay somewhere inland. It was a small group of Jesuits, led by Matteo Ricci who, being able both to travel throughout China and to read, learned about the country from Chinese books and from conversation with people of all walks of life. During his first fifteen years in China (1583–1598) Matteo Ricci formed a strong suspicion that Marco Polo's Cathay is simply the Tatar (i.e., Mongol) name for the country he was in, i.e. China. Ricci supported his arguments by numerous correspondences between Marco Polo's accounts and his own observations: The River "Yangtze" divides the empire into two halves, with nine provinces ("kingdoms") south of the river and six to the north; Marco Polo's "Cathay" was just south of "Tartary", and Ricci learned that there was no other country between the Ming Empire and "Tartary" (i.e., the lands of Mongols and Manchus). People in China had not heard of any place called "Cathay".Most importantly, when the Jesuits first arrived to Beijing 1598, they also met a number of "Mohammedans" or "Arabian Turks" – visitors or immigrants from the Muslim countries to the west of China, who told Ricci that now they were living in the Great Cathay. This all made them quite convinced that Cathay was indeed China.China-based Jesuits promptly informed their colleagues in Goa (Portuguese India) and Europe about their discovery of the Cathay–China identity. This was stated e.g. in a 1602 letter of Ricci's comrade Diego de Pantoja, which was published in Europe along with other Jesuits' letters in 1605. The Jesuits in India, however, were not convinced, because, according to their informants (merchants who visited the Mughal capitals Agra and Lahore), Cathay – a country that could be reached via Kashgar – had a large Christian population, while the Jesuits in China had not found any Christians there. In retrospect, the Central Asian Muslim informants' idea of the Ming China being a heavily Christian country may be explained by numerous similarities between Christian and Buddhist ecclesiastical rituals – from having sumptuous statuary and ecclesiastical robes to Gregorian chant – which would make the two religions appear externally similar to a Muslim merchant. This may also have been the genesis of the Prester John myth. To resolve the China–Cathay controversy, the India Jesuits sent a Portuguese lay brother, Bento de Góis, on an overland expedition north and east, with the goal of reaching Cathay and finding out once and for all whether it is China or some other country. Góis spent almost three years (1603–1605) crossing Afghanistan, Badakhshan, Kashgaria, and Kingdom of Cialis with Muslim trade caravans. In 1605, in Cialis, he, too, became convinced that his destination is China, as he met the members of a caravan returning from Beijing to Kashgar, who told them about staying in the same Beijing inn with Portuguese Jesuits. (In fact, those were the same very "Saracens" who had, a few months earlier, confirmed it to Ricci that they were in "Cathay"). De Góis died in Suzhou, Gansu – the first Ming China city he reached – while waiting for an entry permit to proceed toward Beijing; but, in the words of Henry Yule, it was his expedition that made "Cathay... finally disappear from view, leaving China only in the mouths and minds of men". Ricci's and de Gois' conclusion was not, however, completely convincing for everybody in Europe yet. Samuel Purchas, who in 1625 published an English translation of Pantoja's letter and Ricci's account, thought that perhaps Cathay still can be found somewhere north of China. In this period, many cartographers were placing Cathay on the Pacific coast, north of Beijing (Pekin) which was already well known to Europeans. The borders drawn on some of these maps would first make Cathay the northeastern section of China (e.g. 1595 map by Gerardus Mercator), or, later, a region separated by China by the Great Wall and possibly some mountains and/or wilderness (as in a 1610 map by Jodocus Hondius, or a 1626 map by John Speed). J. J. L. Duyvendak hypothesized that it was the ignorance of the fact that "China" is the mighty "Cathay" of Marco Polo that allowed the Dutch governor of East Indies Jan Pieterszoon Coen to embark on an "unfortunate" (for the Dutch) policy of treating the Ming Empire as "merely another 'oriental' kingdom". The last nail into the coffin of the idea of there being a Cathay as a country separate from China was, perhaps, driven in 1654, when the Dutch Orientalist Jacobus Golius met with the China-based Jesuit Martino Martini, who was passing through Leyden. Golius knew no Chinese, but he was familiar with Zij-i Ilkhani, a work by the Persian astronomer Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, completed in 1272, in which he described the Chinese ("Cathayan") calendar. Upon meeting Martini, Golius started reciting the names of the 12 divisions into which, according to Nasir al-Din, the "Cathayans" were dividing the day – and Martini, who of course knew no Persian, was able to continue the list. The names of the 24 solar terms matched as well. The story, soon published by Martini in the "Additamentum" to his Atlas of China, seemed to have finally convinced most European scholars that China and Cathay were the same.Even then, some people still viewed Cathay as distinct from China, as did John Milton in the 11th Book of his Paradise Lost (1667).In 1939, Hisao Migo (Japanese: 御江久夫, a Japanese botanist) published a paper describing Iris cathayensis (meaning "Chinese iris") in the Journal of the Shanghai Science Institute. Etymological progression Below is the etymological progression from Khitan to Cathay as the word travelled westward: Mongolian/Classical Mongolian: ᠬᠢᠲᠠᠳQitad, Хятад (Khyatad) Uyghur: خىتاي (Xitay) Persian: ختای (khatāy) Kyrgyz: Кытай (Kytai) Kazakh: قىتاي, Қытай, Qıtay Kazan Tatar: Кытай (Qıtay) Russian: Китай (Kitay) Ukrainian: Китай (Kytaj) Belarusian: Кітай (Kitaj) Bulgarian: Китай (Kitay) Georgian: ხატაეთი (Khataeti (archaic or obsolete)) Uzbek: Хитой (Xitoy) Polish: Kitaj Serbian: Kitaj (Китаj) Croatian: Kitaj Medieval Latin: Cataya, Kitai Italian: Catai Spanish: Catay Portuguese: Cataio or Catai French, English, German, Dutch, Scandinavian: CathayIn many Turkic and Slavic languages a form of "Cathay" (e.g., Russian: Китай, Kitay) remains the usual modern name for China. In Javanese, the word ꦏꦠꦻ (Katai, Katé) exists, and it refers to 'East Asian', literally meaning 'dwarf' or 'short-legged' in today's language. Use in English In the English language, the word Cathay was sometimes used for China, although increasingly only in a poetic sense, until the 19th century, when it was completely replaced by China. Demonyms for the people of Cathay (i.e., Chinese people) were Cathayan and Cataian. However the terms China and Cathay have histories of approximately equal length in English. Cathay is still used poetically. The Hong Kong flag-bearing airline is named Cathay Pacific. One of the largest commercial banks of Taiwan is named Cathay United Bank. The novel Creation by Gore Vidal uses the name in reference to "those states between the Yangtze and the Yellow Rivers" as the novel is set in the fifth and sixth centuries B.C. Ezra Pound's Cathay (1915) is a collection of classical Chinese poems translated freely into English verse. In Robert E. Howard's Hyborian Age stories (including the tales of Conan the Barbarian), the analog of China is called Khitai. In Warhammer Fantasy, a fantastical reimagination of the world used as a setting for various novels and games produced by Games Workshop, Grand Cathay is the largest human empire, situated in the far east of the setting and based on medieval China. In the names of organized entities Cathay is more prevalent in proper terms, such as in Cathay Pacific Airways or Cathay Hotel. Cathay Bank is a bank with multiple branches throughout the United States and other countries. Cathay Cineplex is a cinema operator in Singapore operated by the Cathay Organisation. Cathay United Bank and Cathay Life Insurance are, respectively, a financial services company and an insurance company, both located in Taiwan. ==
LC or Lc may refer to: Arts and entertainment Library of Congress Classification, a system of library classification Gaming and play Lego Chess, a Lego-based chess video game Lego Creator, a theme of Lego Lego Creator (video game), a Lego video game Liberty City (Grand Theft Auto), a fictional city in the Grand Theft Auto computer and video game series Music LC (album), 1981 album by The Durutti Column Lacuna Coil, an Italian gothic metal band Living Colour, an American hard rock band formed in New York Los Campesinos!, a British indie-rock band formed in Cardiff In other media Licensed Companion, from the In Death novels of J.D. Robb (Nora Roberts) Shop LC, a 24/7 American shopping television channel Businesses, organisations, and government agencies Government agencies Irish Land Commission (or simply Land Commission), a rent fixing commission by the Land Law (Ireland) Act 1881 Library of Congress, the de facto United States national library Liquor Control, including the Liquor Control Board of Ontario and the Manitoba Liquor Control Commission Local Council (Uganda), a form of local elected government within the districts of Uganda Technical Department of the Ministry of Aviation (Nazi Germany) in charge of research and development (LC, but more often referred to as C-amt) Lucknow-Kanpur Suburban Railway, a state-operated commuter rail service in the Kanpur-Lucknow region of India Religious organizations Latin Catholic Church, or Roman Catholic Church Legion of Christ, a Roman Catholic religious order of priests Liberty Counsel, a legal organization dedicated to advancing specific religious freedoms Schools Lafayette College, a private college in Easton, Pennsylvania, US Laguna College, a non-sectarian, private school in San Pablo City, Laguna Launceston College (Tasmania), a public senior-secondary school in Launceston, Tasmania, Australia Letran College in Manila, Philippines Lewis and Clark Community College, a community college in Godfrey, Illinois, US Lomagundi College, an independent, boarding school in Mashonaland West, Zimbabwe Loomis Chaffee, a coeducational boarding school in Windsor, Connecticut, US Lynchburg College, a private liberal arts college in Lynchburg, Virginia, US Lynden Christian Schools, a private school in Lynden, Washington, US Other businesses and organizations Latvian Way, a political party of Latvia LC Perú, a Peruvian airline Lean Cuisine, a brand of microwaveable meals LendingClub, NYSE ticker symbol LC Lotta Continua, a former far-left extra-parliamentary organization in Italy Varig Logística (IATA airline designator LC) Economics and finance Letter of credit, a document issued to provide a payment undertaking Local currency, also referred to as Local Currency Unit or LCU People Lorne Cardinal, stage and television actor Leonora Carrington, Mexican painter/surrealist Liz Claiborne, fashion designer Les Claypool, bassist best known for his work with Primus Leonard Cohen, Canadian singer, songwriter, musician, poet, and novelist Laveranues Coles, New York Jets wide receiver Lauren Conrad, fashion designer and former reality TV star on The Hills and Laguna Beach Le Corbusier, architect, and a series of furniture designed by same Places Las Cruces, New Mexico, US LC, Swansea, a Leisure Centre in Wales Leicester, a city in the United Kingdom Lewis Center, Ohio, United States Little Compton, Rhode Island, US Lučenec, a town in Slovakia Saint Lucia, ISO 3166-1 country code Science and technology Biology and medicine × Laeliocattleya, a genus of orchids Langerhans cell, a tissue-resident macrophage Lethal concentration, a means to quantitatively indicate a gas or aerosol hazard Lignocellulose Locus coeruleus, a noradrenergic nucleus in the brain stem Long COVID, a term for aftereffects occurring after recovering from and presumed to be caused by COVID-19 Ecology Least Concern, a World Conservation Union "Red List of Threatened Species" category Electronics and computing .lc, the country code top level domain (ccTLD) for Saint Lucia Macintosh LC family, a range of personal computers manufactured by Apple in the early 1990s Macintosh LC, the first computer in the Macintosh LC family LC-type optical fiber connector LC circuit, in electronics, a circuit with an inductor and a capacitor Linear cryptanalysis, a form of cryptanalysis Lines of code Logic cell, in Field-programmable gate arrays Libera Chat, an IRC network Vehicles Toyota Land Cruiser, an SUV built by Toyota Motor Corporation Lexus LC, a grand tourer built by Toyota Motor Corporation Geely LC, a hatchback car Landing craft, used to convey infantry and vehicles to shore in an amphibious assault Other uses in science and technology Launch Complex, a rocket launch site Leading coefficient, in mathematics Leeuwin Current, a warm ocean current Liquid chromatography, an analytical chemistry technique Liquid crystal, a phase of matter with properties between a solid and a liquid state, commonly used in displays Other uses Law corporation, a special type of limited liability corporation available for single attorneys in California Leaving Certificate, the final course in the Irish secondary school system Letter case, used in orthography and typography to denote the difference between capital and non-capital letters Lower case lettering Level crossing, on some maps, an intersection of a railway line and road at the same level Loc. cit. (loco citato), in citations, used to repeat a citation, including the page to which the citation refers Long course, an Olympic-size swimming pool Lord Chancellor, a senior functionary in the government of the United Kingdom LCLC (disambiguation) LCC (disambiguation) LCS (disambiguation) LLC (disambiguation) All pages with titles beginning with LC All pages with titles containing LC
Kim Jong Il (; Korean: 김정일; Korean pronunciation: [kim.dzɔŋ.il]; also transcribed as Kim Jong-il and born Yuri Irsenovich Kim; 16 February 1941 or 1942 – 17 December 2011) was a North Korean politician who was the second supreme leader of North Korea from 1994 to 2011. He led North Korea from the 1994 death of his father Kim Il Sung, the first Supreme Leader, until his own death in 2011, when he was succeeded by his son, Kim Jong Un. In the early 1980s, Kim had become the heir apparent for the leadership of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK) and assumed important posts in the party and army organs. Kim succeeded his father and DPRK founder Kim Il Sung, following the elder Kim's death in 1994. Kim was the General Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea (WPK), WPK Presidium, Chairman of the National Defence Commission (NDC) of North Korea and the Supreme Commander of the Korean People's Army (KPA), the fourth-largest standing army in the world. Kim ruled North Korea as a repressive and totalitarian dictatorship. Kim assumed leadership during a period of catastrophic economic crisis amidst the dissolution of the Soviet Union, on which it was heavily dependent for trade in food and other supplies, which brought a famine. While the famine had ended by the late 1990s, food scarcity continued to be a problem throughout his tenure. Kim strengthened the role of the military by his Songun ("military-first") policies, making the army the central organizer of civil society. Kim's rule also saw tentative economic reforms, including the opening of the Kaesong Industrial Park in 2003. In April 2009, North Korea's constitution was amended to refer to him and his successors as the "supreme leader of the DPRK". The most common colloquial title given to Kim during his lifetime was "Dear Leader" to distinguish him from his father Kim Il Sung, the "Great Leader". Following Kim's failure to appear at important public events in 2008, foreign observers assumed that Kim had either fallen seriously ill or died. On 19 December 2011, the North Korean government announced that he had died two days earlier, whereupon his third son, Kim Jong Un, was promoted to a senior position in the ruling WPK and succeeded him. After his death, Kim was designated the "Eternal General Secretary" of the WPK and the "Eternal Chairman of the National Defence Commission", in keeping with the tradition of establishing eternal posts for the dead members of the Kim family. North Korean media also began referring to Kim as "the General", similar to his father's posthumous designation as "the [eternal] President". Early life Birth Soviet records show that Kim Jong Il was born Yuri Irsenovich Kim (Russian: Юрий Ирсенович Ким). In literature, it is assumed that he was born in 1941 in either the camp of Vyatskoye, near Khabarovsk, or camp Voroshilov near Nikolsk. According to Lim Jae-cheon, Kim cannot have been born in Vyatskoye as Kim Il Sung's war records show that he arrived at Vyatskoye only in July 1942 and had been living in Voroshilov before, thus Kim Jong Il is generally agreed to have been born in Voroshilov. Kim's mother, Kim Jong-suk, was Kim Il Sung's first wife. Inside his family, he was nicknamed "Yura", while his younger brother Kim Man-il (born Alexander Irsenovich Kim) was nicknamed "Shura".Kim's official biography states he was born in a secret military camp on Paektu Mountain (Korean: 백두산밀영고향집; Baekdusan Miryeong Gohyang jip) in Chōsen on 16 February 1942. According to one comrade of Kim's mother, Lee Min, word of Kim's birth first reached an army camp in Vyatskoye via radio and that both Kim and his mother did not return there until the following year. Kim Jong-suk died in 1949 from an ectopic pregnancy.In 1945, Kim was four years old when World War II ended and Korea regained independence from Japan. His father returned to Pyongyang that September, and in late November Kim returned to Korea via a Soviet ship, landing at Sonbong. The family moved into a former Japanese officer's mansion in Pyongyang, with a garden and pool. Kim's brother drowned there in 1948. Education According to his official biography, Kim completed the course of general education between September 1950 and August 1960. He attended Primary School No. 4 and Middle School No. 1 (Namsan Higher Middle School) in Pyongyang. This is contested by foreign academics, who believe he is more likely to have received his early education in the People's Republic of China as a precaution to ensure his safety during the Korean War.Throughout his schooling, Kim was involved in politics. He was active in the Korean Children's Union and the Democratic Youth League of North Korea (DYL), taking part in study groups of Marxist political theory and other literature. In September 1957, he became vice-chairman of his middle school's DYL branch (the chairman had to be a teacher). He pursued a programme of anti-factionalism and attempted to encourage greater ideological education among his classmates.Kim is also said to have received English language education in Malta in the early 1970s on his infrequent holidays there as a guest of Prime Minister Dom Mintoff.The elder Kim had meanwhile remarried and had another son, Kim Pyong-il. Since 1988, Kim Pyong-il has served in a series of North Korean embassies in Europe and was the North Korean ambassador to Poland. Foreign commentators suspect that Kim Pyong-il was sent to these distant posts by his father in order to avoid a power struggle between his two sons. Ascension to power Initial career Kim Jong Il officially joined the Workers' Party of Korea in July 1961. He rose up the ranks during the 1960s, and benefited greatly from the Kapsan Faction Incident in early 1967, which was the last credible challenge to Kim Il Sung's rule. This incident marked the first time Kim Jong Il was – at age 26 – given official duties by his father, when the younger Kim took part in the investigation and purges that followed the incident.In addition, Kim Jong Il gave a speech at the plenum; it was his first as a figure of authority. Kim Jong Il's name was also mentioned in public documents, possibly for the first time, indicating that Kim Il Sung might have already planned for the younger to succeed him as leader.Only six months after, in an unscheduled meeting of the party, Kim Il Sung called for loyalty in the film industry that had betrayed him with An Act of Sincerity. Kim Jong Il himself announced that he was up to the task and thus begun his influential career in North Korean film-making, during which he made significant efforts to further intensify the personality cult of his father and attach himself to it.Kim Jong Il was elected to the Central Committee in 1972 and became its secretary the following year. However, during the early 1970s, Kim's uncle, Kim Yong Ju, was still widely believed to be Kim Il Sung's eventual successor. At the time, he held top positions in the Central Committee and the SPA Presidium. But as Kim Jong Il's power grew, a power struggle erupted.The WPK was then heavily focusing ideologically on Kim Il Sung's Juche; while Kim Jong Il actively stood for this process, Kim Yong Ju, having studied in the Soviet Union, supported a more classical view of Marxism and was not fond of the extensive personality cult built around his brother.This played to Kim Jong Il's advantage: Kim Yong Ju was increasingly marginalized, his key allies Kim To-man (director of propaganda) and Pak Yong-guk (director of international liaison) were removed, and he himself was finally attacked by Kim Il Sung. After a Central Committee plenum in February 1974, Kim Yong-ju was demoted to vice-premier. And according to Kim Jong Il's official biography, the Central Committee already appointed him successor to Kim Il Sung. Heir apparent By the time of the Sixth Party Congress in October 1980, Kim's control of the Party operation was complete. He was given senior posts in the Presidium, the Military Commission and the party Secretariat. When he was made a member of the Seventh Supreme People's Assembly in February 1982, international observers deemed him the heir apparent of North Korea. Prior to 1980, he had no public profile and was referred to only as the "Party Centre". At this time Kim assumed the title "Dear Leader" (Korean: 친애하는 지도자; MR: ch'inaehanŭn jidoja), and the government began building a personality cult around him patterned after that of his father, the "Great Leader". Kim was regularly hailed by the media as the "fearless leader" and "the great successor to the revolutionary cause". He emerged as the most powerful figure behind his father in North Korea. By the 1980s, North Korea began to experience severe economic stagnation. Kim Il Sung's policy of Juche (self-reliance) cut the country off from almost all external trade, even with its traditional partners, the Soviet Union and China. South Korea accused Kim of ordering the 1983 bombing in Rangoon, Burma which killed 17 visiting South Korean officials, including four cabinet members, and another in 1987 which killed all 115 onboard Korean Air Flight 858. A North Korean agent, Kim Hyon-hui, confessed to planting a bomb in the case of the second, saying the operation was ordered by Kim personally.On 24 December 1991, Kim was also named Supreme Commander of the Korean People's Army. Defence Minister Oh Jin-wu, one of Kim Il Sung's most loyal subordinates, engineered Kim's acceptance by the Army as the next leader of North Korea, despite his lack of military service. In 1992, Kim Il Sung publicly stated that his son was in charge of all internal affairs in the Democratic People's Republic. In 1992, radio broadcasts started referring to him as the "Dear Father", instead of the "Dear Leader", suggesting a promotion. His 50th birthday in February was the occasion for massive celebrations, exceeded only by those for the 80th birthday of Kim Il-sung himself on 15 April that same year. In 1992, Kim made his first public speech during a military parade for the KPA's 60th anniversary and said: "Glory to the officers and soldiers of the heroic Korean People's Army!". These words were followed by a loud applause by the crowd at Pyongyang's Kim Il Sung Square where the parade was held. Kim was named Chairman of the National Defence Commission on 9 April 1993, making him day-to-day commander of the armed forces.According to defector Hwang Jang-yop, the North Korean government system became even more centralized and autocratic during the 1980s and 1990s under Kim than it had been under his father. In one example explained by Hwang, although Kim Il Sung required his ministers to be loyal to him, he nonetheless and frequently sought their advice during decision-making. In contrast, Kim Jong Il demanded absolute obedience and agreement from his ministers and party officials with no advice or compromise, and he viewed any slight deviation from his thinking as a sign of disloyalty. According to Hwang, Kim Jong Il personally directed even minor details of state affairs, such as the size of houses for party secretaries and the delivery of gifts to his subordinates. Leader of North Korea On 8 July 1994, Kim Il-sung died at the age of 82 from a heart attack. Kim Jong Il had been his father's designated successor as early as 1974, named commander-in-chief in 1991, and became Supreme Leader upon his father's death.He officially took over his father's old post as General Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea on 8 October 1997. In 1998, he was re-elected as chairman of the National Defence Commission, and a constitutional amendment declared that post to be "the highest post of the state." Also in 1998, the Supreme People's Assembly wrote the president's post out of the constitution and designated Kim Il Sung as the country's "Eternal President" in order to honor his memory forever.Officially, Kim was part of a triumvirate heading the executive branch of the North Korean government along with Premier Choe Yong-rim and parliament chairman Kim Yong-nam (no relation). Kim commanded the armed forces, Choe Yong-rim headed the government and handled domestic affairs and Kim Yong-nam handled foreign relations. However, in practice, Kim, like his father before him, exercised absolute control over the government and the country. Although not required to stand for popular election to his key offices, he was unanimously elected to the Supreme People's Assembly every five years, representing a military constituency, due to his concurrent capacities as supreme commander of the KPA and chairman of the NDC. Economic policies Kim had a "reputation for being almost comically incompetent in matters of economic management". The economy of North Korea struggled throughout the 1990s, primarily due to mismanagement. In addition, North Korea experienced severe floods in the mid-1990s, exacerbated by poor land management. This, compounded with the fact that only 18% of North Korea is arable land and the country's inability to import the goods necessary to sustain industry, led to a severe famine and left North Korea economically devastated. Faced with a country in decay, Kim adopted a "Military-First" policy to strengthen the country and reinforce the regime. On the national scale, the Japanese Foreign Ministry acknowledges that this has resulted in a positive growth rate for the country since 1996, with the implementation of "landmark socialist-type market economic practices" in 2002, keeping the North afloat despite a continued dependency on foreign aid for food.In the wake of the devastation of the 1990s, the government began formally approving some activity of small-scale bartering and trade. As observed by Daniel Sneider, associate director for research at the Stanford University Asia–Pacific Research Center, this flirtation with capitalism was "fairly limited, but – especially compared to the past – there are now remarkable markets that create the semblance of a free market system".In 2002, Kim declared that "money should be capable of measuring the worth of all commodities." These gestures toward economic reform mirror similar actions taken by China's Deng Xiaoping in the late 1980s and early 90s. During a rare visit in 2006, Kim expressed admiration for China's rapid economic progress.An unsuccessful devaluation of the North Korean won in 2009, initiated or approved by Kim personally, caused brief economic chaos and uncovered the vulnerability of the country's societal fabric in the face of crisis. Foreign relations Kim was known as a skilled and manipulative diplomat. In 1998, South Korean President Kim Dae-jung implemented the "Sunshine Policy" to improve North-South relations and to allow South Korean companies to start projects in the North. Kim announced plans to import and develop new technologies to develop North Korea's fledgling software industry. As a result of the new policy, the Kaesong Industrial Park was constructed in 2003 just north of the de-militarized zone. In 1994, North Korea and the United States signed an Agreed Framework which was designed to freeze and eventually dismantle the North's nuclear weapons program in exchange for aid in producing two power-generating nuclear reactors and the assurance that it would not be invaded again. In 2000, after a meeting with Madeleine Albright, he agreed to a moratorium on missile construction. In 2002, Kim's government admitted to having produced nuclear weapons since the 1994 agreement. Kim's regime argued the secret production was necessary for security purposes – citing the presence of United States-owned nuclear weapons in South Korea and the new tensions with the United States under President George W. Bush. On 9 October 2006, North Korea's Korean Central News Agency announced that it had successfully conducted an underground nuclear test. Cult of personality Kim was the focus of an elaborate personality cult inherited from his father and founder of the DPRK, Kim Il Sung. Kim Jong Il was often the centre of attention throughout ordinary life in the DPRK. On his 60th birthday (based on his official date of birth), mass celebrations occurred throughout the country on the occasion of his Hwangap. In 2010, the North Korean media reported that Kim's distinctive clothing had set worldwide fashion trends.The prevailing point of view is that the people's adherence to Kim's cult of personality was solely out of respect for Kim Il Sung or out of fear of punishment for failure to pay homage. Media and government sources from outside North Korea generally support this view, while North Korean government sources aver that it was genuine hero worship. The song "No Motherland Without You", sung by the KPA State Merited Choir, was created especially for Kim in 1992 and is frequently broadcast on the radio and from loudspeakers on the streets of Pyongyang. Human rights record According to a 2004 Human Rights Watch report, the North Korean government under Kim was "among the world's most repressive governments", having up to 200,000 political prisoners according to U.S. and South Korean officials, with no freedom of the press or religion, political opposition or equal education: "Virtually every aspect of political, social, and economic life is controlled by the government."Kim's government was accused of "crimes against humanity" for its alleged culpability in creating and prolonging the 1990s famine. Human Rights Watch characterized him as a dictator and accused him of human rights violations. Amnesty International condemned him for leaving 'millions of North Koreans mired in poverty' and detaining hundreds of thousands of people in prison camps.Kim Jong Il claimed that the barometer for distinguishing whether a person can be deemed a member of North Korean society and hence entitled to rights 'lies not on the grounds of his social class but on the grounds of his ideology'. Health and rumors of waning power 2008 reports In an August 2008 issue of the Japanese newsweekly Shūkan Gendai, Waseda University professor Toshimitsu Shigemura, an authority on the Korean Peninsula, claimed that Kim died of diabetes in late 2003 and had been replaced in public appearances by one or more stand-ins previously employed to protect him from assassination attempts. In a subsequent best-selling book, The True Character of Kim Jong Il, Shigemura cited apparently unnamed people close to Kim's family along with Japanese and South Korean intelligence sources, claiming they confirmed Kim's diabetes took a turn for the worse early in 2000 and from then until his supposed death three-and-a-half years later he was using a wheelchair. Shigemura moreover claimed a voiceprint analysis of Kim speaking in 2004 did not match a known earlier recording. It was also noted that Kim did not appear in public for the Olympic torch relay in Pyongyang on 28 April 2008. The question had reportedly "baffled foreign intelligence agencies for years".On 9 September 2008, various sources reported that after he did not show up that day for a military parade celebrating North Korea's 60th anniversary, United States intelligence agencies believed Kim might be "gravely ill" after having suffered a stroke. He had last been seen in public a month earlier.A former CIA official said earlier reports of a health crisis were likely accurate. North Korean media remained silent on the issue. An Associated Press report said analysts believed Kim had been supporting moderates in the foreign ministry, while North Korea's powerful military was against so-called "Six-Party" negotiations with China, Japan, Russia, South Korea, and the United States aimed towards ridding North Korea of nuclear weapons. Some United States officials noted that soon after rumours about Kim's health were publicized a month before, North Korea had taken a "tougher line in nuclear negotiations". In late August North Korea's official news agency reported the government would "consider soon a step to restore the nuclear facilities in Nyongbyon to their original state as strongly requested by its relevant institutions". Analysts said this meant "the military may have taken the upper hand and that Kim might no longer be wielding absolute authority". By 10 September, there were conflicting reports. Unidentified South Korean government officials said Kim had undergone surgery after suffering a minor stroke and had apparently "intended to attend 9 September event in the afternoon but decided not to because of the aftermath of the surgery". High-ranking North Korean official Kim Yong-nam said, "While we wanted to celebrate the 60th anniversary of the country with general secretary Kim Jong Il, we celebrated on our own". Song Il-Ho, North Korea's ambassador said, "We see such reports as not only worthless, but rather as a conspiracy plot". Seoul's Chosun Ilbo newspaper reported that "the South Korean embassy in Beijing had received an intelligence report that Kim collapsed on 22 August". The New York Times reported on 9 September that Kim was "very ill and most likely suffered a stroke a few weeks ago, but United States intelligence authorities do not think his death is imminent". The BBC noted that the North Korean government denied these reports, stating that Kim's health problems were "not serious enough to threaten his life", although they did confirm that he had suffered a stroke on 15 August. Japan's Kyodo News agency reported on 14 September, that "Kim collapsed on 14 August due to stroke or a cerebral hemorrhage, and that Beijing dispatched five military doctors at the request of Pyongyang. Kim will require a long period of rest and rehabilitation before he fully recovers and has complete command of his limbs again, as with typical stroke victims". Japan's Mainichi Shimbun claimed Kim had occasionally lost consciousness since April. Japan's Tokyo Shimbun on 15 September, added that Kim was staying at the Bongwha State Guest House. He was apparently conscious "but he needs some time to recuperate from the recent stroke, with some parts of his hands and feet paralyzed". It cited Chinese sources which claimed that one cause for the stroke could have been stress brought about by the United States delay to remove North Korea from its list of state sponsors of terrorism.On 19 October, North Korea reportedly ordered its diplomats to stay near their embassies to await "an important message", according to Japan's Yomiuri Shimbun, setting off renewed speculation about the health of the ailing leader.By 29 October 2008, reports stated Kim suffered a serious setback and had been taken back to the hospital. The New York Times reported that Japanese Prime Minister Taro Aso, on 28 October 2008, stated in a parliamentary session that Kim had been hospitalized: "His condition is not so good. However, I don't think he is totally incapable of making decisions". Aso further said a French neurosurgeon was aboard a plane for Beijing, en route to North Korea. Further, Kim Sung-ho, director of South Korea's National Intelligence Service, told lawmakers in a closed parliamentary session in Seoul that "Kim appeared to be recovering quickly enough to start performing his daily duties". The Dong-a Ilbo newspaper reported "a serious problem" with Kim's health. Japan's Fuji Television network reported that Kim's eldest son, Kim Jong-nam, traveled to Paris to hire a neurosurgeon for his father, and showed footage where the surgeon boarded flight CA121 bound for Pyongyang from Beijing on 24 October. The French weekly Le Point identified him as Francois-Xavier Roux, neurosurgery director of Paris' Sainte-Anne Hospital, but Roux himself stated he was in Beijing for several days and not North Korea. On 19 December 2011, Roux confirmed that Kim suffered a debilitating stroke in 2008 and was treated by himself and other French doctors at Pyongyang's Red Cross Hospital. Roux said Kim suffered few lasting effects.On 5 November 2008, the North's Korean Central News Agency published 2 photos showing Kim posing with dozens of Korean People's Army (KPA) soldiers on a visit to military Unit 2200 and sub-unit of Unit 534. Shown with his usual bouffant hairstyle, with his trademark sunglasses and a white winter parka, Kim stood in front of trees with autumn foliage and a red-and-white banner. The Times questioned the authenticity of at least one of these photos.In November 2008, Japan's TBS TV network reported that Kim had suffered a second stroke in October, which "affected the movement of his left arm and leg and also his ability to speak". However, South Korea's intelligence agency rejected this report.In response to the rumors regarding Kim's health and supposed loss of power, in April 2009, North Korea released a video showing Kim visiting factories and other places around the country between November and December 2008. In 2010, documents released by WikiLeaks purportedly attested that Kim suffered from epilepsy.According to The Daily Telegraph, Kim was a chain-smoker. Successor Kim's three sons and his brother-in-law, along with O Kuk-ryol, an army general, had been noted as possible successors, but the North Korean government had for a time been wholly silent on this matter.Kim Yong Hyun, a political expert at the Institute for North Korean Studies at Seoul's Dongguk University, said in 2007: "Even the North Korean establishment would not advocate a continuation of the family dynasty at this point". Kim's eldest son Kim Jong-nam was earlier believed to be the designated heir but he appeared to have fallen out of favor after being arrested at Narita International Airport near Tokyo in 2001 where he was caught attempting to enter Japan on a fake passport to visit Tokyo Disneyland.On 2 June 2009, it was reported that Kim's youngest son, Kim Jong Un, was to be North Korea's next leader. Like his father and grandfather, he has also been given an official sobriquet, The Brilliant Comrade. Prior to his death, it had been reported that Kim was expected to officially designate the son as his successor in 2012. Re-election as leader On 9 April 2009, Kim was re-elected as chairman of the National Defence Commission and made an appearance at the Supreme People's Assembly. This was the first time Kim was seen in public since August 2008. He was unanimously re-elected and given a standing ovation.On 28 September 2010, Kim was re-elected as General Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea. 2010 and 2011 foreign visits Kim reportedly visited the People's Republic of China in May 2010. He entered the country via his personal train on 3 May and stayed in a hotel in Dalian. In May 2010, Assistant U.S. Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs Kurt Campbell told South Korean officials that Kim had only three years to live, according to medical information that had been compiled. Kim travelled to China again in August 2010, this time with his son, fueling speculation at the time that he was ready to hand over power to his son, Kim Jong Un.He returned to China again in May 2011, marking the 50th anniversary of the signing of the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance between China and the DPRK. In late August 2011, he traveled by train to the Russian Far East to meet with President Dmitry Medvedev for unspecified talks. Late 2011 There were speculations that the visits of Kim abroad in 2010 and 2011 were a sign of his improving health and a possible slowdown in succession might follow. After the visit to Russia, Kim appeared in a military parade in Pyongyang on 9 September, accompanied by Kim Jong Un. Death It was reported that Kim had died of a suspected heart attack on 17 December 2011 at 8:30 am while travelling by train to an area outside Pyongyang. He was succeeded by his youngest son Kim Jong Un, who was hailed by the Korean Central News Agency as the "Great Successor". According to the Korean Central News Agency (KCNA), during his death a fierce snowstorm "paused" and "the sky glowed red above the sacred Mount Paektu" and the ice on a famous lake also cracked so loud that it seemed to "shake the Heavens and the Earth".Kim's funeral took place on 28 December in Pyongyang, with a mourning period lasting until the following day. South Korea's military was immediately put on alert after the announcement and its National Security Council convened for an emergency meeting, out of concern that political jockeying in North Korea could destabilise the region. Asian stock markets fell soon after the announcement, due to similar concerns.On 12 January 2012, North Korea called Kim the "eternal leader" and announced that his body would be preserved and displayed at Pyongyang's Kumsusan Memorial Palace. Officials also announced plans to install statues, portraits, and "towers to his immortality" across the country. His birthday of 16 February was declared "the greatest auspicious holiday of the nation" and was named the Day of the Shining Star.In February 2012, on what would have been his 71st birthday, Kim was posthumously made Dae Wonsu (usually translated as Generalissimo, literally Grand Marshal), the nation's top military rank. He had been named Wonsu (Marshal) in 1992 when North Korean founder Kim Il Sung was promoted to Dae Wonsu. Also in February 2012, the North Korean government created the Order of Kim Jong Il in his honor and awarded it to 132 individuals for services in building a "thriving socialist nation" and for increasing defense capabilities. Personal life Family There is no official information available about Kim Jong Il's marital history, but he is believed to have been officially married twice and to have had three mistresses. He had three known sons: Kim Jong-nam, Kim Jong-chul and Kim Jong Un. His two known daughters are Kim Sol-song and Kim Yo-jong.Kim's first wife, Hong Il-chon, was the daughter of a martyr who died during the Korean War. She was handpicked by his father and married to him in 1966. They have a girl called Kim Hye-kyung, who was born in 1968. Soon afterwards, they divorced in 1969. Kim's first mistress, Song Hye-rim, was a star of North Korean films. She was already married to another man and with a child when they met. Kim is reported to have forced her husband to divorce her. This relationship, which started in 1970, was not officially recognized. They had one son, Kim Jong-nam (1971–2017), who was Kim Jong Il's eldest son. Kim kept both the relationship and the child a secret (even from his father) until he ascended to power in 1994. However, after years of estrangement, Song is believed to have died in Moscow in the Central Clinical Hospital in 2002.Kim's official wife, Kim Young-sook, was the daughter of a high-ranking military official. His father Kim Il Sung handpicked her to marry his son. The two were estranged for some years before Kim's death. Kim had a daughter from this marriage, Kim Sol-song (born 1974).His second mistress, Ko Yong-hui, was a Japanese-born ethnic Korean and a dancer. She had taken over the role of First Lady until her death – reportedly of cancer – in 2004. They had two sons, Kim Jong-chul (in 1981) and Kim Jong Un, also "Jong Woon" or "Jong Woong" (in 1983). They also had a daughter, Kim Yo-jong, who was about 23 years old in 2012.After Ko's death, Kim lived with Kim Ok, his third mistress, who had served as his personal secretary since the 1980s. She "virtually act[ed] as North Korea's first lady" and frequently accompanied Kim on his visits to military bases and in meetings with visiting foreign dignitaries. She traveled with Kim on a secretive trip to China in January 2006, where she was received by Chinese officials as Kim's wife.According to Michael Breen, author of the book Kim Jong Il: North Korea's Dear Leader, the women intimately linked to Kim never acquired any power or influence of consequence. As he explains, their roles were limited to that of romance and domesticity.He had a younger sister, Kim Kyong-hui. She was married to Jang Sung-taek, who was executed in December 2013 in Pyongyang, after being falsely charged with treason and corruption. Personality Like his father, Kim had a fear of flying and always travelled by private armored train for state visits to Russia and China. The BBC reported that Konstantin Pulikovsky, a Russian emissary who travelled with Kim across Russia by train, told reporters that Kim had live lobsters air-lifted to the train every day and ate them with silver chopsticks.Kim was said to be a huge film fan, owning a collection of more than 20,000 video tapes and DVDs. His reported favourite movie franchises included James Bond, Friday the 13th, Rambo, Godzilla, Otoko wa Tsurai yo and Hong Kong action cinema, with Sean Connery and Elizabeth Taylor his favourite male and female actors. Kim was also said to have been a fan of Ealing comedies, inspired by their emphasis on team spirit and a mobilised proletariat. He authored On the Art of the Cinema. In 1978, on Kim's orders South Korean film director Shin Sang-ok and his actress wife Choi Eun-hee were kidnapped in order to build a North Korean film industry. In 2006, he was involved in the production of the Juche-based movie The Schoolgirl's Diary, which depicted the life of a young girl whose parents are scientists, with a KCNA news report stating that Kim "improved its script and guided its production".Although Kim enjoyed many foreign forms of entertainment, according to former bodyguard Lee Young Kuk, he refused to consume any food or drink not produced in North Korea, with the exception of wine from France. His former chef Kenji Fujimoto, however, has stated that Kim sometimes sent him around the world to purchase a variety of foreign delicacies.Kim reportedly enjoyed basketball. Former United States Secretary of State Madeleine Albright ended her summit with Kim by presenting him with a basketball signed by NBA legend Michael Jordan. His official biography also claims that Kim composed six operas and enjoyed staging elaborate musicals. United States Special Envoy for the Korean Peace Talks, Charles Kartman, who was involved in the 2000 Madeleine Albright summit with Kim, characterised Kim as a reasonable man in negotiations, to the point, but with a sense of humor and personally attentive to the people he was hosting. However, psychological evaluations conclude that Kim's antisocial features, such as his fearlessness in the face of sanctions and punishment, served to make negotiations extraordinarily difficult.The field of psychology has long been fascinated with the personality assessment of dictators, a notion that resulted in an extensive personality evaluation of Kim. The report, compiled by Frederick L. Coolidge and Daniel L. Segal (with the assistance of a South Korean psychiatrist considered an expert on Kim's behavior), concluded that the "big six" group of personality disorders shared by dictators Adolf Hitler, Joseph Stalin and Saddam Hussein (sadistic, paranoid, antisocial, narcissistic, schizoid and schizotypal) were also shared by Kim – coinciding primarily with the profile of Saddam Hussein.The evaluation found that Kim appeared to pride himself on North Korea's independence, despite the extreme hardships it appears to place on the North Korean people – an attribute appearing to emanate from his antisocial personality pattern.Defectors claimed that Kim had 17 different palaces and residences all over North Korea, including a private resort near Baekdu Mountain, a seaside lodge in the city of Wonsan, and Ryongsong Residence, a palace complex northeast of Pyongyang surrounded with multiple fence lines, bunkers and anti-aircraft batteries. Finances According to a 2010 report in the Sunday Telegraph, Kim had US$4 billion on deposit in European banks in case he ever needed to flee North Korea. The Sunday Telegraph reported that most of the money was in banks in Luxembourg. Official titles Kim received numerous titles during his rule. In April 2009, North Korea's constitution was amended to refer to him and his successors as the "supreme leader of the DPRK".Party Center of the WPK and Member, Central Committee of the WPK (1970s) Dear Leader (Chinaehaneun Jidoja) (late 1970s–1994) Member, Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly of the DPRK Secretary, Central Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea (1974–1997) Presidium member, WPK Central Committee (1980–2011) Supreme Commander, Korean People's Army (25 December 1991 – 17 December 2011) Marshal of the DPRK (1993–2011) Chairman, National Defence Commission (1993–2011) Great Leader (Widehan Ryongdoja) (July 1994 – December 2011) General Secretary, Workers' Party of Korea (October 1997 – December 2011) Chairman, Central Military Commission (DPRK) (October 1997 – December 2011) Eternal Leader (posthumous) (January 2012 – present) Generalissimo of the DPRK (posthumous) (January 2012 – present) Eternal General Secretary, Workers' Party of Korea (posthumous) (11 April 2012 – present) Eternal Chairman of the National Defence Commission (posthumous) (13 April 2012 – present) Eternal leader of the Workers' Party of Korea (posthumous) (7 May 2016 – present) Eternal leader of Juche Korea (posthumous) (29 June 2016 – present) Published works According to North Korean sources, Kim published some 890 works during a period of his career from June 1964 to June 1994. According to KCNA, the number of works from 1964 to 2001 was 550. In 2000, it was reported that the Workers' Party of Korea Publishing House has published at least 120 works by Kim. In 2009, KCNA put the numbers as follows: At least 354,000 copies of [Kim Jong Il's works] were translated into nearly 70 languages and came off the press in about 80 countries in the new century. There were more than 500 activities for studying and distributing the works in at least 120 countries and regions in 2006. The following year witnessed a total of more than 600 events of diverse forms in at least 130 countries and regions. And 2008 saw at least 3,000 functions held in over 150 countries and regions for the same purpose. The Selected Works of Kim Jong Il (Enlarged Edition), whose publishing has continued posthumously, runs into volume 24 in Korean and to volume 15 in English. Volumes three to eight were never published in English.The Complete Collection of Kim Jong Il's Works is currently in volume 13. There is a "Kim Jong Il's Works Exhibition House" dedicated to his works in North Korea, holding 1,100 of his works and manuscripts.In his teens and university years, Kim had written poems. He also wrote song lyrics. His first major literary work was On the Art of the Cinema in 1973. See also Awards and decorations received by Kim Jong Il Politics of North Korea Residences of North Korean leaders Further reading Kim Jong Il collected news and commentary at The New York Times "Born in the USSR". Archived from the original on 2 November 2006. Retrieved 13 September 2004. – Kim Jong Il's childhood. The many family secrets of Kim Jong Il "Hidden Daughter" Visits Kim Jong-il Every Year (also includes photos of Kim during his youth) BBC, North Korea's secretive 'first family' Obituary: Kim Jong-il, BBC News, 19 December 2011. Kim Jong Il at Curlie
Danny Chan Pak-Keung (Chinese: 陳百強; 7 September 1958 – 25 October 1993) was a singer, songwriter and male actor from British Hong Kong. He is widely recognised as the first modern day pop idol in Hong Kong, gaining fame alongside performers Alan Tam, Anita Mui, and Leslie Cheung, who were collectively known as "Three Kings and a Queen" (三王一后) or "Tam Cheung Mui Chan" (譚張梅陳) in the 1980s. He actively engaged in various charity shows and activities. His innate fashion sense was renowned in Hong Kong show business. Chan is best remembered for his Cantopop romance ballads and soul touching music compositions. His most renowned works include "Waiting" (等), "Life Expectation" (一生何求), "Ripples" (漣漪), "Loving You Alone" (偏偏喜歡你) and "Cherish Tonight" (今宵多珍重). Chan died on October 25, 1993, after being in a coma for 17 months. Career Chan was born on 7 September 1958 at Queen Mary Hospital in Pok Fu Lam (薄扶林). His father is Chan Pang-Fee (Chinese: 陳鵬飛; 1923 – 5 April 2019), a businessman in the watch industry, who was fond of Cantonese opera and became one of his son's musical influences.During childhood period Chan has developed a passion for music and has mostly learnt to play organ keyboard and piano by himself. He was an alumnus of St. Paul's Co-educational College and also a fellow classmate of lyricist Andrew Lam Man Chung (林敏驄). Chan won third prize at the TVB "Hong Kong Pop Song Writing Invitation" in 1977 with his self-written english song "The Rocky Road". In 1978, he won first prize at the "Hong Kong Yamaha Electone Festival" by playing the theme music of the movie "Close Encounters of the Third Kind". This has earned him a singer contract with Hong Kong Television Broadcasts (TVB) and has officially launched his entertainment career. In that same year, he made his acting debut with HK TVB through a TV drama called "Sweet Babe" (甜姐兒). Chan's musical talent has attracted the attention of artist manager Tam Kwok-Gei (譚國基). Tam signed Chan under his artist management agency Hollywood Casting Agency (HCA) and subsequently made Chan to sign a records contract with EMI. Chan's first music album "First Love" was released in 1979. His self-composed song from the album, "Tears for You" (眼淚為你流), was an instant hit. Chan subsequently signed music contracts with Hong Kong EMI (1979), WEA (1980), DMI (1986), and finally moved back to WEA (1989). His Cantopop romance ballads have achieved high level of public success and critical acclaim, some of which are still popular nowaday such as "Waiting" (等), "Life Expectation" (一生何求), "Ripples" (漣漪), "Loving You Alone" (偏偏喜歡你), "Cherish Tonight" (今宵多珍重), "Deeply in Love with You" (深愛著你), "Having You" (有了你), "Misty Rain" (煙雨悽迷), "Applause" (喝采), "Minutes’ Date" (幾分鐘的約會), etc. The song, "Remembrance on Parents' Love" (念親恩), is often played on radio stations and frequently chosen for karaoke. Chan's first five albums were produced by Tam Kwok-Gei, and the song concepts were mostly targeted towards youth. Chan composed a large quantity of songs during this period. From the sixth album, "Pouring Out My Heart"(傾訴), onward, Chan started to produce his albums himself. He reached his first peak in his musical career with this album and the next one, "Loving You Alone"(偏偏喜歡你), where the album sales achieved 5-platinum certifications (250,000 copies) in Hong Kong. In 1984, he sang an English duet "Tell Me What Can I Do" with American country music singer Crystal Gayle. It was produced in US and released in US/Japan but was largely unknown due to lack of promotional budget. Meanwhile, he has also covered Jim Capaldi's ballad "Warm" with an improved music arrangement. In the early 1980s, Chan was a host in the TV show "Bang Bang Sound" (Bang Bang咁嘅聲). His co-operation with Leslie Cheung and Paul Chung in the films "Encore" (1980) (喝采) and "On Trial" (1981) (失業生), received positive reception from the public and media. He is the main character in HK TVB TV series "Breakthrough" (1982) (突破) together with his favourite female partner Mary Jean Reimer (翁靜晶). His only comedy film "Merry Christmas" (1984) (聖誕快樂) was a huge box office success. He is also one of the main character in the most famous romantic film in the 1980s, "An Autumn's Tale" (1987) (秋天的童話), as Vincent (Jennifer's ex-boyfriend), with Chow Yun-fat (as Samuel Pang) and Cherie Chung (as Jennifer). During the span of his music career, Chan held many music concerts in Hong Kong, China, Japan, Singapore, Malaysia, Australia, Thailand, Canada and the United States. He held his first major local concerts at the Queen Elizabeth Stadium in July 1982 (2 nights), and another concerts in the newly developed Hong Kong Stadium in September 1983 (2 nights), both were organised by Brainchild Productions (富才制作). From this time onward, all of his major concerts were held in Hong Kong Stadium. His avant-garde concept January 1985 concerts (3 nights) was organised by Capitol Artists Entertainment (華星娛樂), but was met with underwhelming feedback. Warm critical acclaims was received in the Dickson Entertainment (迪生娛樂) organised concerts in December 1986 (2 nights) and April 1988 (4 nights). His 10th anniversary concerts in September/October 1989 (6 nights), and the purple theme concerts in March 1991 (3 nights) were organised by Yiu Wing Entertainment (耀榮娛樂).Chan also participated and represented Hong Kong in various music festivals such as the World Popular Song Festival 1984 in Tokyo, the Nagasaki Asia Music Festival 1988 in Japan, Peace Music Concert 1988 in Singapore, Tokyo Music Festival 1989 and the Shanghai Music Festival 1991 in China. He was also invited to perform at the Seoul Korea Summer Olympic Games 1988 opening ceremony. In 1986, he performed in the presence of The Royal Thai princess in a Thai charity show.In 1991, Chan announced of his decision to leave the Hong Kong music industry. He held his first farewell concert in Shanghai in January and February 1992. He has planned to hold a few more farewell concerts in the US, Canada and Hong Kong but his sudden fall into coma in May 1992 halted the plan. Death and speculation Chan suffered from mild depression, which worsened during the late 1980s.On 18 May 1992, Chan was found unconscious and he was admitted to Queen Mary Hospital in Hong Kong. It was speculated that this was due to an accidental mixing of alcohol with medicine. Chan had suffered from advanced brain damage. He went into a coma for 17 months and died on 25 October 1993 at the age of 35. Commemoration On 22 October 1995, Chan's father, Chan Pang-Fee, has sponsored and built a Danny Commemoration Pavilion (陳百強紀念館) in his ancestors' hometown Sijiu Town, Taishan City, Guangdong Province, China (中國廣東省台山市四九鎮). It is a favourite place for Danny's fans to visit until these days. On 8 November 2005, the Hong Kong Post issued a set of special stamps featuring "Hong Kong Pop Singers". This stamp set focused on Hong Kong's popular singers, saluting five pop stars who have left their marks on Cantopop music history. Chan was featured on the HK$1.80 stamp. Discography Studio Albums Other Danny's Compositions 1978, The Sunrise (english), unreleased 1980, Tears in Tears (淚中淚), a song by Wong Hoi Yan (黃愷欣) 1981, Cherish Me (為我珍重), a song by Blanche Tang Oi Lam (鄧藹霖) 1984, Love Prediction (戀愛預告), a song by Sandy Lamb (林姍姍) 1987, Love Without Reasons (愛不問為何), a song by Roman Tam (罗文) 1988, 12 Hours (十二小時), a song by Samantha Lam (林志美) Filmography Cinematic Films 1980, Encore (喝采) 1981, On Trial / Job Hunter (失業生) 1984, Merry Christmas (聖誕快樂) 1986, My Family (八喜臨門) 1987, An Autumn's Tale (秋天的童話) a.k.a. Chau tin tik tung wa (Hong Kong Cantonese title); a.k.a. Liumang daheng (流氓大亨) (Taiwan Mandarin title) TV Dramas 1977, Sweet Babe (甜姐兒) (produced by HK TVB) 1980, Take Turn (輪流轉) (produced by HK TVB) 1980, Breakthrough (突破) (produced by HK TVB) Concerts Major Concerts Awards Music Awards ▲ In 1999, the song "Ripples" (漣漪) was used by the Hong Kong Government in a commercial clip for Tracker Fund of Hong Kong IPO. Other Awards 1981, "Model Youth" in Wong Tai Sin District, Hong Kong 1987, "Hong Kong Top 10 Best Dressed Personnel" by Hong Kong Fashion Designers Association 1989, "Hong Kong Top 10 Good-Looking Personnel" by Commercial Radio Hong Kong 1990, "Hong Kong Top 10 Best Dressed Personnel" by Hong Kong Fashion Designers Association The website dannyfans.com (离不开，陈百强) was created in January 2000, and welcome for all his loyal fans. The domain name lost in 2008. The actual working site (2015-current) is http://dannychan.cn/danny-library/ The website (离不开，陈百强) domain was switched to dannychan.org temporarily, then switched to dannychan.cn in 2015. "离不开，陈百强" bbs datawas moved to http://dannychan.cn/dannybbs/ dannychan.cn is the current "离不开，陈百强" website. "陈百强资料馆"(http://www.dannychan.cn/danny-library/) was built in 2015 for the upgrade of the old site "离不开". One of the Facebook discussion groups is "離不開陳百強 Danny Chan Nest" Danny Chan in Memoriam Speech by Postmaster General at issue of "Hong Kong Pop Singers" special stamps Danny Chan Group in Youtube – with over 390 videos of Danny
Zhou Shuren (25 September 1881 – 19 October 1936), better known by his pen name Lu Xun (or Lu Hsun; Chinese: 鲁迅; pinyin: Lǔxùn; Wade–Giles: Lu Hsün, LOO-shoon), was a Chinese writer, literary critic, lecturer, and state servant. He was a leading figure of modern Chinese literature. Writing in vernacular Chinese and classical Chinese, he was a short story writer, editor, translator, literary critic, essayist, poet, and designer. In the 1930s, he became the titular head of the League of Left-Wing Writers in Shanghai during republican-era China (1912–1949). Lu Xun was born into a family of landlords and government officials in Shaoxing, Zhejiang; the family's financial resources declined over the course of his youth. Lu aspired to take the imperial examinations, but due to his family's relative poverty he was forced to attend government-funded schools teaching "foreign education". Upon graduation, Lu went to medical school in Japan but later dropped out. He became interested in studying literature but was eventually forced to return to China because of his family's lack of funds. After returning to China, Lu worked for several years teaching at local secondary schools and colleges before finally finding an office at the Republic of China Ministry of Education. After the 1919 May Fourth Movement, Lu Xun's writing began to exert a substantial influence on Chinese literature and popular culture. Like many leaders of the May Fourth Movement, he was primarily a leftist. He was highly acclaimed by the Chinese government after 1949, when the People's Republic of China was founded, and Mao Zedong himself was a life-long admirer of Lu Xun's writing. Though sympathetic to socialist ideals, Lu Xun never joined the Chinese Communist Party. Biography Early life Lu Xun was born in Shaoxing, Zhejiang. As was common in premodern China, Lu Xun had many names. His birth name was "Zhou Zhangshou" (Chinese: 周樟壽; pinyin: Zhōu Zhāngshòu). His courtesy name was "Yushan" (Chinese: 豫山; pinyin: Yùshān), but he later changed that to "Yucai" (Chinese: 豫才; pinyin: Yùcái). In 1898, before he went to the Jiangnan Naval Academy, he took the given name "Shuren" (Chinese: 樹人; pinyin: Shùrén)—which means, figuratively, "to be an educated man". The name by which he is best known internationally, "Lu Xun", was a literary pseudonym that he chose when his story "Diary of a Madman" was first published in 1918.By the time Lu Xun was born, the Zhou family had been prosperous for centuries, and had become wealthy through landowning, pawnbroking, and by having several family members promoted to government positions. His paternal grandfather, Zhou Fuqing, was appointed to the Imperial Hanlin Academy in Beijing: the highest position possible for aspiring civil servants at that time. Zhou's mother was a member of the same landed gentry class as Lu Xun's father, from a slightly smaller town in the countryside (Anqiaotou, Zhejiang; a part of Tongxiang City). Because formal education was not considered socially appropriate for girls, she had not received any education, but she still taught herself how to read and write. The surname "Lu (魯)" in Zhou Shuren's pen name, "Lu Xun", was the same as his mother's surname, "Lu".Lu's early education was based on the Confucian classics, in which he studied poetry, history, and philosophy—subjects which, he later reflected, were neither useful nor interesting to him. Instead, he enjoyed folk stories and traditions: local operas, the mythological creatures and stories in the Classic of Mountains and Seas, and the ghost stories told to him by an illiterate servant who raised him, Ah Chang (whom he called "Mother Chang").By the time Lu was born, his family's prosperity had already been declining. His father, Zhou Boyi, had been successful at passing the lowest, county-level imperial examinations (the route to wealth and social success in imperial China), but was unsuccessful in writing the more competitive provincial-level examinations (the juren exam). In 1893 Zhou Boyi was discovered attempting to bribe an examination official. Lu Xun's grandfather was implicated, and was arrested and sentenced to beheading for his son's crime. The sentence was later commuted, and he was imprisoned in Hangzhou instead. After the affair, Zhou Boyi was stripped of his position in the government and forbidden to ever again write the civil service examinations. The Zhou family only prevented Lu's grandfather from being executed through regular, expensive bribes to authorities, until he was finally released in 1901.After the family's attempt at bribery was discovered, Zhou Boyi engaged in heavy drinking and opium use and his health declined. Local Chinese doctors attempted to cure him through a series of expensive quack prescriptions, including monogamous crickets, sugar cane that had survived frost three times, ink, and the skin from a drum. Despite these expensive treatments, Zhou Boyi died of an asthma attack at age 35 in 1896. He might have suffered from dropsy. Education Lu Xun half-heartedly participated in one civil service examination, in 1899, but then abandoned pursuing a traditional Confucian education or career. He intended to study at a prestigious school, the "Seeking Affirmation Academy", in Hangzhou, but was forced by his family's poverty to study at a tuition-free military school, the "Jiangnan Naval Academy", in Nanjing, instead.As a consequence of Lu's decision to attend a military school specializing in foreign education, his mother wept, he was instructed to change his name (to avoid disgracing his family), and some of his relatives began to look down on him. Lu attended the Jiangnan Naval Academy for half a year, and left after it became clear that he would be assigned to work in an engine room, below deck, which he considered degrading. He later wrote that he was dissatisfied with the quality of teaching at the academy.After leaving the school, Lu sat for the lowest level of the civil service exams, and finished 137th of 500. He intended to sit for the next-highest level, but became upset when one of his younger brothers died, and abandoned his plans.Lu Xun transferred to another government-funded school, the "School of Mines and Railways", and graduated from that school in 1902. The school was Lu's first exposure to foreign literature, philosophy, history, and science, and he studied English and German intensively. Some of the influential authors that he read during that period include T. H. Huxley, John Stuart Mill, Yan Fu, and Liang Qichao. His later social philosophy may have been influenced by several novels about social conflict that he read during the period, including Ivanhoe and Uncle Tom's Cabin.He did very well at the school with relatively little effort, and occasionally experienced racism directed at him from resident Manchu bannermen. The racism he experienced may have influenced his later sense of Han Chinese nationalism. After graduating Lu Xun planned to become a foreign doctor.In 1902, Lu Xun left for Japan on a Qing government scholarship to pursue an education in foreign medicine. After arriving in Japan he attended the "Kobun Institute", a preparatory language school for Chinese students attending Japanese universities. After encouragement from a classmate, he cut off his queue (which all Han Chinese were legally forced to wear in China) and practiced jujutsu in his free time. He had an ambiguous attitude towards Chinese revolutionary politics during the period, and it is not clear whether he joined any of the revolutionary parties (such as the Tongmenghui) that were popular among Chinese expatriates in Japan at that time. He experienced anti-Chinese racism, but was simultaneously disgusted with the behaviour of some Chinese who were living in Japan. His earliest surviving essays, written in Classical Chinese, were published while he was attending this school, and he published his first Chinese translations of famous and influential foreign novels, including Jules Verne's From the Earth to the Moon and Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea.In 1904, Lu began studying at the Sendai Medical Academy, in northern Honshu, but remained there for less than two years. He generally found his studies at the school tedious and difficult, partially due to his imperfect Japanese. While studying in Sendai he befriended one of his professors, Fujino Genkurō, who helped him prepare class notes. Because of their friendship Lu was accused by his classmates of receiving special assistance from Fujino.Lu later recalled his mentor respectfully and affectionately in an essay, "Mr Fujino", published in Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk. This essay, today one of his most publicly renowned works, is in the middle school literature curriculum in China. Fujino later repaid Lu's respect in an obituary essay on his death, in 1937. The Sendai Medical Academy is now the medical school of Tohoku University. While Lu Xun was attending medical school, the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905) broke out. Part of the war was fought on disputed Chinese land. While the war was being fought it became common for lecturers to show slides of pictures from the war to their students after their classes had ended. After one of his biology classes Lu was shown a scene in which a Japanese soldier was about to behead a Chinese man who had allegedly spied for the Russians, surrounded by Chinese who were apathetic to the scene. In his preface to Nahan, the first collection of his short stories, Lu explained how viewing this scene influenced him to quit studying foreign medicine, and to become a literary physician to what he perceived to be China's spiritual problems instead: At the time, I hadn't seen any of my fellow Chinese in a long time, but one day some of them showed up in a slide. One, with his hands tied behind him, was in the middle of the picture; the others were gathered around him. Physically, they were as strong and healthy as anyone could ask, but their expressions revealed all too clearly that spiritually they were calloused and numb. According to the caption, the Chinese whose hands were bound had been spying on the Japanese military for the Russians. He was about to be decapitated as a 'public example.' The other Chinese gathered around him had come to enjoy the spectacle. In March 1906, Lu Xun abruptly and secretly terminated his pursuit of the degree and left college. At the time he told no one. After arriving in Tokyo he made sure that the Chinese embassy would not cancel his scholarship and registered at the local German Institute, but was not required to take classes there. He began to read Nietzsche, and wrote a number of essays in the period that were influenced by his philosophy.In June 1906, Lu's mother heard a rumor that he had married a Japanese girl and had a child with her, and feigned illness as a pretext to ask Lu to return home, where she would then force him to take part in an arranged marriage she had agreed to several years before. The girl, Zhu An, had little in common with Lu, was illiterate, and had bound feet. Lu Xun married her, but they never had a romantic relationship. Despite that fact, Lu took care of her material needs for the rest of his life. Several days after the ceremony Lu sailed back to Japan with his younger brother, Zuoren, and left behind his new wife.After returning to Japan he took informal classes in literature and history, published several essays in student-run journals, and in 1907 he briefly took Russian lessons. He attempted to found a literary journal with his brother, New Life, but before its first publication its other writers and its financial backers all abandoned the project, and it failed. In 1909 Lu and his brother published their translations of Western fiction, including Edgar Allan Poe, as Tales from Abroad, but the book sold only 41 copies of the 1,500 copies that were printed. The publication failed for many reasons: it was sold only in Tokyo (which did not have a large Chinese population) and a single silk shop in Shanghai; Chinese readers may not have been interested in Eastern European culture; and Lu wrote in Classical Chinese, which was very difficult for ordinary people to read. Early career Lu intended to study in Germany in 1909, but did not have sufficient funds, and was forced to return home. Between 1909 and 1911 he held a number of brief teaching positions at local colleges and secondary schools that he felt were unsatisfying, partly to support his brother Zuoren's studies in Japan.Lu spent these years in traditional Chinese literary pursuits: collecting old books, researching pre-modern Chinese fiction, reconstructing ancient tombstone inscriptions, and compiling the history of his native town, Shaoxing. He explained to an old friend that his activities were not "scholarship", but "a substitute for 'wine and women'". In his personal letters he expressed disappointment about his own failure, China's political situation, and his family's continuing impoverishment. In 1911 he returned to Japan to retrieve his brother, Zuoren, so that Zuoren could help with the family finances. Zuoren wanted to remain in Japan to study French, but Lu wrote that "French... does not fill stomachs." He encouraged another brother, Jianren, to become a botanist. He began to drink heavily, a habit he continued for the rest of his life. In 1911 he wrote his first short story, Nostalgia, but he was so disappointed with it that he threw it away. Zuoren saved it, and had it successfully published two years later under his own name.In February 1912, shortly after the Xinhai Revolution that ended the Qing dynasty and nominally founded the Republic of China, Lu gained a position at the national Ministry of Education. He was hired in Nanjing, but then moved with the ministry to Beijing, where he lived from 1912 to 1926. At first, his work consisted almost completely of copying books, but he was later appointed Section Head of the Social Education Division, and eventually to the position of Assistant Secretary. Two of his major accomplishments in office were the renovation and expansion of the Beijing Library, the establishment of the Natural History Museum, and the establishment of the Library of Popular Literature.Together with Qian Daosun and Xu Shoushang he designed the Twelve Symbols national emblem in 1912. Between 1912 and 1917 he was a member of an ineffectual censorship committee, informally studied Buddhist sutras, lectured on fine arts, wrote and self-published a book on the history of Shaoxing, and edited and self-published a collection of folk stories from the Tang and Song dynasties. He collected and self-published an authoritative book on the work of an ancient poet, Ji Kang, and wrote A Brief History of Chinese Fiction, a work which, because traditional scholars had not valued fiction, had little precedent in China. After Yuan Shikai declared himself the Emperor of China in 1915, Lu was briefly forced to participate in rituals honoring Confucius, which he ridiculed in his diaries.In 1917, an old friend of Lu's, Qian Xuantong, invited Lu to write for New Youth, a radical populist literary magazine that had recently been founded by Chen Duxiu, which also inspired a great number of younger writers such as Mao Dun. At first Lu was skeptical that his writing could serve any social purpose, and told Qian: "Imagine an iron house: without windows or doors, utterly indestructible, and full of sound sleepers – all about to suffocate to death. Let them die in their sleep, and they will feel nothing. Is it right to cry out, to rouse the light sleepers among them, causing them inconsolable agony before they die?" Qian replied that it was, because if the sleepers were awoken, "there was still hope – hope that the iron house may one day be destroyed". Shortly afterwards, in 1918 Lu wrote the first short story published in his name, "Diary of a Madman", for the April 2, 1918 magazine issue.After the publication of "Diary of a Madman", the story was praised for its anti-traditionalism, its synthesis of Chinese and foreign conventions and ideas, and its skillful narration, and Lu became recognized as one of the leading writers of the New Culture Movement. Lu continued writing for the magazine, and produced his most famous stories for New Youth between 1917 and 1921. These stories were collected and re-published in Nahan ("Outcry") in 1923.In 1919, Lu moved his family from Shaoxing to a large compound in Beijing, where he lived with his mother, his two brothers, and their Japanese wives. This living arrangement lasted until 1923, when Lu had a falling out with his brother, Zuoren, after which Lu moved with his wife and mother to a separate house. Neither Lu nor Zuoren ever publicly explained the reason for their disagreement, but Zuoren's wife later accused Lu of making sexual advances towards her. Some writers have speculated that their relationship may have worsened as a result of issues related to money, that Lu walked in on Zuoren's wife bathing, or that Lu had an inappropriate "relationship" with Zuoren's wife in Japan that Zuoren later discovered. After the falling out with Zuoren, Lu became depressed.In 1920, Lu began to lecture part-time at several colleges, including Peking University, Beijing Normal University, and Beijing Women's College, where he taught traditional fiction and literary theory. His lecture notes were later collected and published as A Brief History of Chinese Fiction. He was able to work part-time because he only worked at the Education Ministry three days a week for three hours a day. In 1923 he lost his front teeth in a rickshaw accident, and in 1924 he developed the first symptoms of tuberculosis. In 1925 he founded a journal, Wilderness, and established the "Weiming Society" in order to support young writers and encourage the translation of foreign literature into Chinese.In the 20 years after the 1911 revolution there was a flowering of literary activity with dozens of journals. The goal was to reform the Chinese language to make universal education possible. Lu Xun was an active participant. His greatest works, such as "Diary of a Madman" and Ah Q, exemplify this style of "peasant dirt literature" (Chinese: 乡土文学; pinyin: xiāngtǔ wénxué). The language is fresh and direct. The subjects are country peasants. In 1925, Lu began what may have been his first meaningful romantic relationship, with one of his students at the Beijing Women's College, Xu Guangping. In March 1926 there was a mass student protest against the warlord Feng Yuxiang's collaboration with the Japanese. The protests degenerated into a massacre, in which two of Lu's students from Beijing Women's College were killed. Lu's public support for the protesters forced him to flee from the local authorities. Later in 1926, when the warlord troops of Zhang Zuolin and Wu Peifu took over Beijing, Lu left northern China and fled to Xiamen.After arriving in Xiamen, later in 1926, Lu began teaching at Xiamen University, but was disappointed by the petty disagreements and unfriendliness of the university's faculty. During the short time he lived in Xiamen, Lu wrote his last collection of fiction, Old Tales Retold (which was not published until several years later), and most of his autobiography, published as Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk. He also published a collection of prose poetry, Wild Grass.In January 1927, he and Xu moved to Guangzhou, where he was hired as the head of the Zhongshan University Chinese literature department. His first act in his position was to hire Xu as his "personal assistant", and to hire one of his old classmates from Japan, Xu Shoushang, as a lecturer. While in Guangzhou, he edited numerous poems and books for publication, and served as a guest lecturer at Whampoa Academy. He made contacts within the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) through his students. After the Shanghai massacre in April 1927, he attempted to secure the release of several students through the university, but failed. His failure to save his students led him to resign from his position at the university, and he left for the Shanghai International Settlement in September 1927. By the time he left Guangzhou, he was one of the most famous intellectuals in China.In 1927 Lu was considered for the Nobel Prize in Literature, for the short story The True Story of Ah Q, despite a poor English translation and annotations that were nearly double the size of the text. Lu rejected the possibility of accepting the nomination. Later, he renounced writing fiction or poetry in response to China's deteriorating political situation and his own poor emotional state, and restricted himself to writing argumentative essays. Late career In 1929, he visited his dying mother, and reported that she was pleased at the news of Guangping's pregnancy. Xu Guangping gave birth to a son, Haiying, on 27 September 1929. She was in labor with the baby for 27 hours. The child's name meant simply "Shanghai infant". His parents chose the name thinking that he could change it himself later, but he never did so. Haiying was Lu Xun's only child.After moving to Shanghai, Lu rejected all regular teaching positions (though he sometimes gave guest lectures at different campuses), and for the first time was able to make a living solely as a professional writer, with a monthly income of roughly 500 yuan. He was also appointed by the government as a "specially appointed writer" by the national Ministry of Higher Education, which brought him an additional 300 yuan/month. He began to study and identify with Marxist political theory, made contact with local CCP members, and became involved in literary disputes with other leftist writers in the city. In 1930 Lu became one of the co-founders of the League of Left-Wing Writers, but shortly after he moved to Shanghai other leftist writers accused him of being "an evil feudal remnant", the "best spokesman of the bourgeoisie", and "a counterrevolutionary split personality". The League continued in various forms until 1936, when the constant disputes among its members led the CCP to dissolve it.In January 1931, the Kuomintang passed new, stricter censorship laws, allowing for writers producing literature deemed "endangering the public" or "disturbing public order" to be imprisoned for life or executed. Later that month he went into hiding. In early February, less than a month later, the Kuomintang executed twenty-four local writers (including five who belonged to the League) whom they had arrested under this law. After the execution of the "24 Longhua Martyrs" (in addition to other students, friends, and associates), Lu's political views became distinctly anti-Kuomintang. In 1933 Lu met Edgar Snow. Snow asked Lu whether there were any Ah Q's left in China. Lu responded, "It's worse now. Now it's Ah Q's who are running the country."Despite the unfavorable political climate, Lu Xun contributed regularly to a variety of periodicals in the 1930s, including Lin Yutang's humor magazine The Analects Fortnightly, and corresponded with writers in Japan as well as China.Although he had renounced writing fiction years before, in 1934 he published his last collection of short stories, Old Tales Retold. In 1935, he sent a telegram to CCP forces in Shaanxi congratulating them on the recent completion of their Long March. The CCP requested that he write a novel about the communist revolution set in rural China, but he declined, citing his lack of background and understanding of the subject. Lu was a heavy smoker, which may have contributed to the deterioration of his health throughout his last year. By 1936 he had developed chronic tuberculosis, and in March of that year he was stricken with bronchitic asthma and a fever. The treatment for this involved draining 300 grams of fluid in the lungs through a puncture. From June to August, he was again sick, and his weight dropped to only 83 pounds. He recovered somewhat, and wrote two essays in the fall reflecting on mortality. These included "Death", and "This Too Is Life". A month before his death, he wrote: "Hold the funeral quickly... do not stage any memorial services. Forget about me, and care about your own life – you're a fool if you don't." Regarding his son, he wrote: "On no account let him become a good-for-nothing writer or artist." Death At 3:30 am on the morning of 18 October, 1936, the author woke having great difficulty breathing. Dr. Sudo, his physician, was summoned, and Lu Xun was given injections to relieve the pain. His wife was with him throughout that night. Lu Xun died at 5:11 am the next morning, 19 October. Lu's remains were interred in a mausoleum within Lu Xun Park in Shanghai. Mao Zedong later made the calligraphic inscription above his tomb. He was survived by his son, Zhou Haiying. He was posthumously made a member of the CCP for his contributions to the May Fourth Movement. Legacy Lu Xun has been described by Nobel laureate Kenzaburō Ōe as "the greatest writer Asia produced in the 20th century." Shortly after Lu Xun's death, Mao Zedong called him "the saint of modern China", but used his legacy selectively to promote his own political goals. In 1942, he quoted Lu out of context to tell his audience to be "a willing ox" like Lu Xun was, but told writers and artists who believed in freedom of expression that, because CCP areas were already liberated, they did not need to be like Lu Xun. After the People's Republic of China was established in 1949, CCP literary theorists portrayed his work as orthodox examples of communist literature, yet every one of Lu's close disciples from the 1930s was purged. Mao admitted that, had Lu survived until the 1950s, he would "either have gone silent or gone to prison". Party leaders depicted him as "drawing the blueprint of the communist future" and Mao Zedong defined him as the "chief commander of China's Cultural Revolution," although Lu did not join the party. During the 1920s and 1930s Lu Xun and his contemporaries often met informally for free-wheeling intellectual discussions, but after the founding of the People's Republic in 1949 the Party sought more control over intellectual life in China, and this type of intellectual independence was suppressed, often violently. Finally, Lu Xun's satirical and ironic writing style itself was discouraged, ridiculed, then as often as possible destroyed. In 1942, Mao wrote that "the style of the essay should not simply be like Lu Xun's. [In a Communist society] we can shout at the top of our voices and have no need for veiled and round-about expressions, which are hard for the people to understand." In 2007, some of his bleaker works were removed from school textbooks. Julia Lovell, who has translated Lu Xun's writing, speculated that "perhaps also it was an attempt to discourage the youth of today from Lu Xun's inconveniently fault-finding habits."During the Cultural Revolution, the CCP both hailed Lu Xun as one of the fathers of communism in China, yet ironically suppressed the very intellectual culture and style of writing that he represented. Some of his essays and writings are now part of the primary school and middle school compulsory curriculum in China.Lu completed volumes of translations, notably from Russian. He particularly admired Nikolai Gogol and made a translation of Dead Souls. His own first story's title, "Diary of a Madman", was inspired by Gogol's story of the same name. As a left-wing writer, Lu played an important role in the development of modern Chinese literature. His books were and remain highly influential and popular today, both in China and internationally. Lu Xun's works appear in high school textbooks in both China and Japan. He is known to Japanese by the name Rojin (ロジン in Katakana or 魯迅 in Kanji). Because of his leftist political involvement and the role his works played in the subsequent history of the People's Republic of China, Lu Xun's works were banned in Taiwan until the late 1980s. He was among the early supporters of the Esperanto movement in China. Lu Xun's importance to modern Chinese literature lies in the fact that he contributed significantly to nearly every modern literary medium during his lifetime. He wrote in a clear lucid style, which was to influence many generations, in stories, prose poems and essays. Lu Xun's two short story collections, Nahan (Call to Arms) and Panghuang (Wandering), are often acclaimed as classics of modern Chinese literature. Lu Xun's translations were important at a time when foreign literature was seldom read, and his literary criticisms remain acute and persuasively argued. The work of Lu Xun has also received attention outside China. In 1986, Fredric Jameson cited "Diary of a Madman" as the "supreme example" of the "national allegory" form that all Third World literature takes. Gloria Davies compares Lu Xun to Nietzsche, saying that both were "trapped in the construction of a modernity which is fundamentally problematic". According to Leonardo Vittorio Arena, Lu Xun cultivated an ambiguous standpoint towards Nietzsche, a mixture of attraction and repulsion, the latter because of Nietzsche's excesses in style and content. A major literature prize in China, the Lu Xun Literary Prize is named after him. Asteroid (233547) 2007 JR27 was named after him. A crater on Mercury is named after him. The artist Shi Lu chose the second half of his pen name to reflect his admiration for Lu Xun. Style and thought Lu Xun was a versatile writer. He wrote using both traditional Chinese conventions and 19th century European literary forms. His style has been described in equally broad terms, conveying both "sympathetic engagement" and "ironic detachment" at different moments. His essays are often very incisive in his societal commentary, and in his stories his mastery of the vernacular language and tone make some of his literary works (like "The True Story of Ah Q") hard to convey through translation. In them, he frequently treads a fine line between criticizing the follies of his characters and sympathizing with those very follies. Lu Xun was a master of irony and satire (as can be seen in "The True Story of Ah Q") and yet could also write impressively direct prose ("My Old Home", "A Little Incident"). Lu Xun is typically regarded by Mao Zedong as the most influential Chinese writer who was associated with the May Fourth Movement. He produced harsh criticism of social problems in China, particularly in his analysis of the "Chinese national character". He was sometimes called a "champion of common humanity".Lu Xun felt that the Xinhai Revolution of 1911 had been a failure. In 1925 he opined, "I feel the so-called Republic of China has ceased to exist. I feel that, before the revolution, I was a slave, but shortly after the revolution, I have been cheated by slaves and have become their slave." He even recommended that his readers heed the critique of Chinese culture in Chinese Characteristics by the missionary writer Arthur Smith. His disillusionment with politics led him to conclude in 1927 that "revolutionary literature" alone could not bring about radical change. Rather, "revolutionary men" needed to lead a revolution using force. In the end, he experienced profound disappointment with the new Nationalist government, which he viewed as ineffective and even harmful to China. Bibliography Lu Xun's works became known to English readers as early as 1926 with the publication in Shanghai of The True Story of Ah Q, translated by George Kin Leung, and more widely beginning in 1936 with an anthology edited by Edgar Snow and Nym Wales Living China, Modern Chinese Short Stories, in which Part One included seven of Lu Xun's stories and a short biography based on Snow's talks with Lu Xun. However, there was not a complete translation of the fiction until the four-volume set of his writings, which included Selected Stories of Lu Hsun translated by Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang. Another full selection was William A. Lyell's Diary of a Madman and Other Stories (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1990). In 2009, Penguin Classics published a complete translation by Julia Lovell of his fiction, The Real Story of Ah-Q and Other Tales of China: The Complete Fiction of Lu Xun, which the scholar Jeffrey Wasserstrom said "could be considered the most significant Penguin Classic ever published."The Lyrical Lu Xun: a Study of his Classical-style Verse—a book by Jon Eugene von Kowallis (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1996) – includes a complete introduction to Lu Xun's poetry in the classical style, with Chinese characters, literal and verse translations, and a biographical introduction which summarizes his life in relation to his poetry. Capturing Chinese: Short Stories from Lu Xun's Nahan, edited by Kevin Nadolny, includes short summaries to Lu Xun's stories, the Chinese text in simplified characters, pinyin, and definitions for difficult vocabulary.In 2017, Harvard University Press published a book of his essays translated by Eileen J. Cheng, titled Jottings under Lamplight. Short stories Nostalgia (1913)吶喊 (pinyin: Nàhǎn),1923, translated as Call to Arms (Yang and Yang), Cheering from the Sidelines (Lyell) and Outcry (Lovell): Diary of a Madman (Chinese: 狂人日記; pinyin: Kuángrén Rìjì), 1918 Kong Yiji (Chinese: 孔乙己; pinyin: Kǒng Yǐjǐ), 1918 Medicine (Chinese: 藥; pinyin: Yào), 1919 Tomorrow (Chinese: 明天; pinyin: Míngtiān), 1920 An Incident (Chinese: 一件小事; pinyin: Yījiàn Xiǎoshì), 1920 The Story of Hair (Chinese: 頭髮的故事; pinyin: Tóufà de gùshì), 1920 A Storm in a Teacup (Chinese: 風波; pinyin: Fēngbō), 1920 My Old Home, also translated as "Hometown" (Chinese: 故鄉; pinyin: Gùxiāng), 1921 The Dragon Boat Festival, also translated as "The Double Fifth Festival" (Chinese: 端午節; pinyin: Duānwǔjié), 1922 The White Light (Chinese: 白光; pinyin: Báiguāng), 1922 The Rabbits and the Cat (Chinese: 兔和貓; pinyin: Tù hé Māo), 1922 The Comedy of the Ducks (Chinese: 鴨的喜劇; pinyin: Yā de Xǐjù), 1922 Village Opera (Chinese: 社戲; pinyin: Shèxì), 1922 Preface to Call to Arms, 1922徬徨, 1926, translated as Wandering (Yang and Yang), Wondering Where to Turn (Lyell) and Hesitation (Lovell): The New Year's Sacrifice (Chinese: 祝福; pinyin: Zhùfú), 1924 In the Wine Shop, also translated as "In the Drinking House" (Chinese: 在酒楼上; pinyin: Zài Jiǔlóu shàng), 1924 A Happy Family (Chinese: 幸福的家庭; pinyin: Xìngfú de Jiātíng), 1924 Soap (Chinese: 肥皂; pinyin: Féizào), 1924 The Eternal Flame, 1924 Public Exhibition, 1925 Old Mr. Gao, 1925 The Misanthrope, also translated as "The Loner" (Chinese: 孤獨者; pinyin: Gūdú Zhě), 1925 Regret for the Past, also translated as "Sadness", or "Regrets for the Past" (Chinese: 傷逝; Chinese: Shāngshì), 1925 Brothers, 1925 Divorce (Chinese: 離婚; pinyin: Líhūn), 1925故事新編 (1935), translated as Old Tales Retold (Yang and Yang) and Old Stories Retold (Lovell): Mending Heaven, 1935 The Flight to the Moon (Chinese: 奔月; pinyin: Bēn Yuè), 1926 Curbing the Flood, 1935 Gathering Vetch, 1935 Forging the Swords (Chinese: 鑄劍; pinyin: Zhù Jiàn), 1926 Leaving the Pass, 1935 Opposing Aggression, 1934 Resurrect the Dead, 1935 Novella The True Story of Ah Q (Chinese: 阿Q正傳; pinyin: Ā Q Zhèngzhuàn), 1921 Essays "My Views on Chastity", 1918 "What Is Required to Be a Father Today", 1919 "Knowledge Is a Crime", 1919 "What Happens After Nora Walks Out?" Based on a talk given at the Beijing Women's Normal College, 26 December 1923. In Ding Ling and Lu Hsun, The Power of Weakness. The Feminist Press (2007), pp. 84–93. "My Moustache", 1924 "Thoughts Before the Mirror", 1925 "On Deferring Fair Play" (1925) Miscellaneous 中國小說史略 (1925), based on lectures from 1920, translated as A Brief History of Chinese Fiction (Yang and Yang) 野草 (pinyin: Yěcǎo), 1927, prose poems, translated as Wild Grass (Yang and Yang); Weeds (Turner); and Wild Grass (Cheng) 唐宋傳奇集,1927-28, editor of an anthology of Chuanqi, translated as Anthology of Tang and Song Tales: The Tang Song Chuanqi Ji of Lu Xun (World Scientific, 2020) 朝花夕拾, 1932, a collection of essays about his youth, translated as Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk (Yang and Yang) and Morning Blossoms Gathered at Dusk (Cheng) 熱風華蓋集華蓋集続編墳而已集三閑集二心集偽自由書南腔北調集准風月談花邊文學且介亭雑文且介亭雑文二集且介亭雑文末編集外集集外集拾遺集外集拾遺補編 See also Zhou Jianren (brother) Zhou Zuoren (brother) Lu Xun Literary Institute Lu Xun Literary Prize Lu Xun Native Place Portrait Lu Xun. A Portrait by Kong Kai Ming at Hong Kong Baptist University Library Special Issue about Lu Xun (in Japanese) at web.bureau.tohoku.ac.jp Lu Xun bibliography at u.osu.edu/mclc/ Pioneer of Modern Chinese Literature at www.coldbacon.com Lu Xun webpage (in Chinese) Selected works by Lu Xun (in Chinese) A Brief Biography of Lu Xun with Many Pictures Lu Xun and Japan(in Japanese) Kong Yi Ji, Lu Hsun translated by Sparkling English Reference Archive: Lu Xun (Lu Hsun) at www.marxists.org Selected Stories, Lu Hsun (1918–1926) at www.coldbacon.com An Outsider's Chats about Written Language, a long essay by Lu Xun on the difficulties of Chinese characters Works by Xun Lu at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Lu Xun at Internet Archive Works by Lu Xun at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
桂 (pinyin: guì, Japanese: kei or katsura) may refer to: The abbreviation for Guangxi Gui (surname) Cercidiphyllum japonicum, known in Japanese as katsura Guilin province Japanese destroyer Katsura See also Gui (disambiguation) Kei (disambiguation) Katsura (disambiguation)
O, or o, is the fifteenth letter and the fourth vowel letter in the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is o (pronounced ), plural oes. History Its graphic form has remained fairly constant from Phoenician times until today. The name of the Phoenician letter was ʿeyn, meaning "eye", and indeed its shape originates simply as a drawing of a human eye (possibly inspired by the corresponding Egyptian hieroglyph, cf. Proto-Sinaitic script). Its original sound value was that of a consonant, probably [ʕ], the sound represented by the cognate Arabic letter ع ʿayn.The use of this Phoenician letter for a vowel sound is due to the early Greek alphabets, which adopted the letter as O "omicron" to represent the vowel /o/. The letter was adopted with this value in the Old Italic alphabets, including the early Latin alphabet. In Greek, a variation of the form later came to distinguish this long sound (Omega, meaning "large O") from the short o (Omicron, meaning "small o"). Greek omicron gave rise to the corresponding Cyrillic letter O and the early Italic letter to runic ᛟ.Even alphabets that are not derived from Semitic tend to have similar forms to represent this sound; for example, the creators of the Afaka and Ol Chiki scripts, each invented in different parts of the world in the 20th century, both attributed their vowels for 'O' to the shape of the mouth when making this sound. Use in writing systems English The letter ⟨o⟩ is the fourth most common letter in the English alphabet. Like the other English vowel letters, it has associated "long" and "short" pronunciations. The "long" ⟨o⟩ as in boat is actually most often a diphthong (realized dialectically anywhere from [o] to [əʊ]). In English there is also a "short" ⟨o⟩ as in fox, , which sounds slightly different in different dialects. In most dialects of British English, it is either an open-mid back rounded vowel [ɔ] or an open back rounded vowel [ɒ]; in American English, it is most commonly an unrounded back [ɑ] to a central vowel [a].Common digraphs include ⟨oo⟩, which represents either or ; ⟨oi⟩ or ⟨oy⟩, which typically represents the diphthong , and ⟨ao⟩, ⟨oe⟩, and ⟨ou⟩ which represent a variety of pronunciations depending on context and etymology.In other contexts, especially before a letter with a minim, ⟨o⟩ may represent the sound , as in 'son' or 'love'. It can also represent the semivowel as in choir or quinoa.In English, the letter ⟨o⟩ in isolation before a noun, usually capitalized, marks the vocative case, as in the titles to O Canada or O Captain! My Captain! or certain verses of the Bible. Other languages ⟨o⟩ is commonly associated with the open-mid back rounded vowel [ɔ], mid back rounded vowel [o̞] or close-mid back rounded vowel [o] in many languages. Other languages use ⟨o⟩ for various values, usually back vowels which are at least partly open. Derived letters such as ⟨ö⟩ and ⟨ø⟩ have been created for the alphabets of some languages to distinguish values that were not present in Latin and Greek, particularly rounded front vowels. Other systems In the International Phonetic Alphabet, ⟨o⟩ represents the close-mid back rounded vowel. Related characters Descendants and related characters in the Latin alphabet Derived signs, symbols and abbreviations Ꝋ ꝋ : Forms of O were used for medieval scribal abbreviations ∅ : empty set symbol º : Masculine ordinal indicator Calligraphic O (𝒪, 𝓸): Mathematical Alphanumeric Symbols Ancestors and siblings in other alphabets 𐤏 : Semitic letter Ayin, from which the following symbols originally derive Ο ο : Greek letter Omicron Ⲟ ⲟ : Coptic letter O, which derives from Greek omicron О о : Cyrillic letter O, which also derives from Omicron 𐌏 : Old Italic O, which derives from Greek Omicron, and is the ancestor of modern Latin O Օ օ : Armenian letter O Computing codes 1 Also for encodings based on ASCII, including the DOS, Windows, ISO-8859 and Macintosh families of encodings. Other representations See also Oxygen, symbol O, a chemical element O mark Open O (Ɔ ɔ) 0 (zero). The capital letter O may be mistaken or misused for the number 0, as they appear quite identical in some typefaces. Early typewriters did not have a 'zero' key: users were actually expected to use capital O. Media related to O at Wikimedia Commons
Ebetsu (江別市, Ebetsu-shi) is a city in Ishikari Subprefecture, Hokkaido, Japan. History Ebetsu was settled originally by Japanese people in 1871, who came from the Miyagi Prefecture on Honshu. In 1878, tondenhei began moving into the area. When the Meiji Government, in 1878, designated Hokkaido as part of Japan, settlers began to flood the area. Ebetsu earned township status in 1916 and city status in 1954. During the 1960s and 1970s, a burgeoning population in Sapporo caused the population in Ebetsu to concurrently boom. In 1991, the city reached 100,000 people. The name Ebetsu is derived from the Ainu name of the Chitose River which flows into the Ishikari River in the city. According to John Batchelor in his "An Ainu-English Dictionary" (chapter 1, section V: Place Names Considered) the Ainu language name was E-pet or "humour river" based on its murky colour. Demographics As of July 31, 2023, the city had an estimated population of 118,764, with 56,325 households, and a population density of 634 persons per km². The total area is 187.38 km². Geography and transportation The majority of commercial Ebetsu is on or immediately surrounding Route 12 (runs north-south through town). The northern limits of town are delineated by the Ishikari River, the southern sub-city of Oasa by Ebetsu's boundary with Sapporo. It bounds the city limits of Kitahiroshima, Iwamizawa, Nanporo, Tōbetsu, and Shinshinotsu. Ebetsu is about 16 km from downtown Sapporo. It is accessed by the Hokkaido Expressway, by Chūō or JR Hokkaidō bus lines, or by the Asahikawa-Hakodate train line that approximately follows Route 12 through town (at Oasa, Nopporo, Takasago, and Ebetsu stations), joining with the northwest-southeast running main line that extends from Chitose Airport to Sapporo Station in Shinsapporo (New Sapporo, a district of larger metropolitan Sapporo). The extensive Nopporo Forest State Park (the world's largest park of virgin forest on level ground) is behind Ebetsu's Rakunō Gakuen University (the first university in Ebetsu, founded in 1949), encompassing 2015 hectares of preserved forest. Because of Ebetsu's location approximately in the middle of the Ishikari Plain (Sapporo city is the southwestern extent), it is known for having wind year-round. Climate The 10-year average temperature for Ebetsu is 7.1 degrees Celsius. The hottest and coldest temperatures, respectively, ever recorded are 34.7 °C (94.5 °F) and −27.7 °C (−17.9 °F). Sister city and friendship city Sister city Gresham, Oregon, United States (since 1977) Friendship city Tosa, Kōchi, Japan (since 1978) Education Universities Hokkaido Information University Rakunō Gakuen University Sapporo Gakuin University Hokushō University High schools Public Hokkaido Ebetsu High School Hokkaido Nopporo High School Hokkaido Ooasa High School Private Ritsumeikan keisho High School Towanomori San-ai High School Mascot Ebetsu's mascot is Ebechun (えべチュン). He is a yellow flightless bird that resembled a young rooster who loves to be petted. His head is unusually square. Because of this, he is nicknamed Renga tori (レンガ鳥). He may looked sad because of his tears (which is his charm point), he is actually happy. Whenever something wonderful happens (e.g. farmers working hard, witnessing children, falling leaves, etc.), he will shed tears for joy. He is known for carrying a grain ear. He likes locally grown wheat. When he was first revealed back in 2011, he was genderless. He is originally an unofficial mascot until it is chosen by the local tourism association to represent the city. Official Website (in Japanese)
Otaru (小樽市, Otaru-shi) is a city and port in Shiribeshi Subprefecture, Hokkaido, Japan, northwest of Sapporo. The city faces Ishikari Bay and the Sea of Japan, and has long served as the main port of the bay. With its many historical buildings, Otaru is a popular tourist destination. Because it is a 25-minute drive from Sapporo, it has recently grown as a bedroom community. As of July 31, 2019, the city has an estimated population of 115,333 and a population density of 474.37 persons per km2 (1,228.6 persons per sq. mi.). The total area is 243.13 km2 (93.87 sq mi). Although it is the largest city in Shiribeshi Subprefecture, the subprefecture's capital is the more centrally located Kutchan. History The city was an Ainu habitation, and the name "Otaru" is recognised as being of Ainu origin, possibly meaning "River running through the sandy beach". The very small remaining part of the Temiya Cave contains carvings from the Zoku-Jōmon period of Ainu history, around A.D. 400. Mount Akaiwa (Northwest part of Otaru) is memorialized in the Ainu tradition in the story of Sitonai, village chief's teenage daughter who had slain a white snake from the mountain's cave that demanded sacrifices of girls every year. The legend explains the name of a big cave on Mount Akaiwa, Hakuryu Gongen Cave (白竜権現洞窟, lit. White Dragon Gongen Cave) and the reason why a shrine was built on the mountain (to protect the village from being haunted by the snake).Otaru was recognised as a village by the bakufu in 1865, and in 1880 the first railway line in Hokkaido was opened with daily service between Otaru and Sapporo. An Imperial decree in July 1899 established Otaru as an open port for trading with the United States and the United Kingdom.The city flourished well as the financial and business center in Hokkaido as well as the trade port with Japanese ruled southern Sakhalin until the 1920s. Otaru was redesignated as a city on August 1, 1922. On December 26, 1924, a freight train loaded with 600 cases of dynamite exploded in Temiya Station, damaging the warehouse, the harbour facilities, and the surrounding area. Local officials stated that at least 94 were killed and 200 injured in this disaster. During World War II, Otaru housed a prison camp for Aleuts taken there following the Japanese occupation of Attu. During the closing stages of the war, Otaru was bombed by American naval aircraft in July 1945.Since the 1950s, as the coal industry around the city went into a decline, the status of the economic hub shifted from Otaru to Sapporo. Geography Otaru is a port town on the coast of the Sea of Japan in northern Shiribeshi Subprefecture. The southern portion of the city is characterized by the steep slopes of various mountains (notably Tenguyama), where the altitude of the land sharply drops from the mountains to the sea. The land available between the coast and mountains has been almost completely developed, and the developed part of the city on the mountain slopes is called Saka-no-machi, or "Hill town", including hills named Funamizaka (Boat-view Hill) and Jigokuzaka (Hell Hill). Neighboring cities and towns Shiribeshi Yoichi District: Yoichi, Akaigawa Ishikari Sapporo (Teine-ku, Minami-ku), Ishikari Rivers Some of the rivers in Otaru are: Hoshioki, Kiraichi, Zenibako, Hariusu, Asari, Katsunai, Shioya, Myoken, Irifune. Climate In the summer the weather, like all of western Hokkaido, is very warm and balmy, with a maximum temperature of around 25 °C (77 °F) and high humidity – not as hot as southern Japan. In the winter, however, Otaru is very snowy, receiving as much as 6.6 metres (260 in) of snow from November to March, when it snows almost constantly and sunshine levels are extremely low. The average maximum snow cover is 1.22 metres (48 in). Extreme temperatures have ranged from 36.2 °C (97.2 °F) on July 28, 2021, to −18.0 °C (−0.4 °F) on January 24, 1954, in which month the highest snowfall of 3.1 metres (122 in) occurred. Monthly precipitation totals in a record dating back to 1943 have ranged from 379.8 millimetres (15.0 in) in August 1962 to 12.0 millimetres (0.5 in) in June 2007. List of mayors (from 1923 to present) Transportation JR Hokkaido Station Hakodate Main Line : Ranshima – Shioya – Otaru – Minami-Otaru – Otaru-Chikkō – Asari – Zenibako Otaru Port Ferry Terminal(A Shin Nihonkai Ferry operates two ferries daily) Education Universities National Otaru University of Commerce High schools Public Hokkaido Otaru Choryo High School Hokkaido Otaru Ouyou High School Hokkaido Otaru Fisheries High School Hokkaido Otaru Create Futures High School Private Futaba Gakuen High School Hokusho High School Otaru Meihou High School Former Otaru Junior College Hokkaido Otaru Commercial High School Hokkaido Otaru Technical High School Notable attractions A canal adorned with Victorian-style street lamps runs through Otaru. The city attracts a large number of Japanese tourists as well as Chinese, Korean and others. A popular attraction on the west side of the city is Nishin Goten (herring mansion). This large wooden building was built in 1897 and was once the house of Fukumatsu Tanaka, a magnate of the fishing industry. It was originally built in nearby Tomari village and moved in 1958. Visitors can clearly see the difference between the squalid conditions of the first floor sleeping quarters of 120 workers and the ground floor luxury of the magnate's rooms. Another notable building is the Sakaushi residence, constructed by Yoshiya Tanoue, a pupil of Frank Lloyd Wright.The Tomioka Catholic church is also a popular spot. Many of the buildings have been designated as landmark architecture.Otaru is well known for its beer, and Otaru Beer, next to the canal, is a popular restaurant with a medieval theme. Otaru is also known for its fresh sushi. Another food attraction unique to Otaru is the rainbow tower ice cream. The town also has substantial shopping arcades and bazaars, but fewer than nearby Sapporo. Otaru's prominent industries are arts and crafts, such as studio glass and musical boxes. Of the latter, it maintains the Otaru Music Box Museum. Tenguyama Otaru is an important port for Sapporo, and part of this hilly city is on the lower slopes of Tenguyama, a good place for skiing and other winter sports and one that is accessible via Otaru Tenguyama Ropeway. Sister cities Nakhodka, Russia Dunedin, New Zealand Gangseo District, Seoul, South Korea Notable people Seiji Aochi, ski jumper and Olympic medalist (1972 Winter Olympics) Yōko Asagami, Japanese voice actress (Space Battleship Yamato and City Hunter) Gennosuke Fuse, anatomist of the Meiji period Sei Itō, Japanese poet, novelist, and translator Chiaki Kawamata, Japanese science fiction writer and critic (Emblem of Roto) Yukie Kawamura, Japanese gravure idol, tarento, and actress Hinako Kitano, actress and model (ex-Nogizaka46) Masaki Kobayashi, Japanese film director (The Human Condition, Harakiri, Samurai Rebellion and Kwaidan) Takiji Kobayashi, Japanese author of proletarian literature Masaru Konuma, Japanese film director (Roman Porno) Kōtetsuyama Toyoya, sumo wrestler (Real Name: Kōnoshin Suga, Nihongo: 菅孝之進, Suga Kōnoshin) Natsuhiko Kyogoku, Japanese mystery writer, member of the Mystery Writers of Japan and the Honkaku Mystery Writers Club of Japan Motosaburo Masuyama, Japanese statistician Hideharu Miyahira, ski jumper Nobuko Miyamoto, Japanese actress Tetsuya Mizuguchi, video game designer and co-founder of Q Entertainment Takiko Mizunoe, Japanese actress, film producer, radio personality and TV presenter Maki Murakami, Japanese manga artist (Gravitation) Hideo Murota, Japanese actor (Shinde mo ii) Nobuo Nakamura, Japanese actor (Ikiru and Tokyo Story) Tetsuya Okabe, Alpine ski racer Hibiki Ōtsuki, Japanese AV actress and idol singer Sarah Midori Perry, musician (Kero Kero Bonito) Yoshimasa Sugawara, rally driver Yoko Takahashi, Japanese female mixed martial arts fighter, kickboxer and former boxer and professional wrestler Miyoshi Umeki, Academy Award-winning Japanese actress and standards singer Hirokazu Yagi, ski jumper Akiko Yamanaka, Japanese politician Ichiro Yamaguchi, musician (Sakanaction) Sawao Yamanaka, musician (The Pillows) Kazumi Yamashita, manga artist (The Life of Genius Professor Yanagizawa) See also Otaru Station Otaru University of Commerce Rising Sun Rock Festival Official Website (in Japanese)
Anhui (UK: , US: ) (; formerly romanized as Anhwei) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the East China region. Its provincial capital and largest city is Hefei. The province is located across the basins of the Yangtze River and the Huai River, bordering Jiangsu to the east, Zhejiang to the southeast, Jiangxi to the south, Hubei to the southwest, Henan to the northwest, and Shandong for a short section in the north. With a population of 63.65 million, Anhui is the 8th most populous province in China. It is the 22nd largest Chinese province based on area, and the 12th most densely-populated region of all 34 Chinese provincial regions. Anhui's population is mostly composed of Han Chinese. Languages spoken within the province include Jianghuai Mandarin, Wu, Hui, Gan and small portion of Zhongyuan Mandarin Chinese. The name "Anhui" derives from the names of two cities: Anqing and Huizhou (now Huangshan City). The abbreviation for Anhui is "Chinese: 皖; pinyin: wǎn" after the historical State of Wan, Mount Wan, and the Wan river. The administration of Anhui is composed of the provincial administrative system, led by the Governor, Provincial Congress, the People's Political Consultative Conference, and the Provincial Higher People's Court. Anhui is known as a province with political tradition in China's government system. Aside from managing provincial government departments, the provincial government manages 16 cities, 62 counties, 43 county-level districts and 1,522 townships.The total GDP of Anhui Province ranked 11th among China's 31 provincial regions as of 2019. History Anhui Province was established in the sixth year of the reign of the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing dynasty (1667); before that, there was no coherent concept of "Anhui". The province also has another name, "Wan", because, during the Spring and Autumn Period (722–481 B.C.), a small country named "Wan" was here and a mountain called "Wanshan" (aka Mount Tianzhu) is in the province. Before Anhui was established, this land had a long history. 20,000 years ago, human beings inhabited this area, proven by some findings in Fanchang County. Archaeologists have identified the cultural domains of Yangshao and Longshan, dated to the Neolithic Age (between 4,000 and 10,000 years ago). In relation to these cultures, archeologists have discovered through excavation a 4500-year-old city called the Nanchengzi Ruins in Guzhen County, after they discovered a Neolithic city wall and a moat that was part of a much larger and integrated city in the region during their 2013 disinterment. There are many historic sites found in the province from the period of the Xia dynasty (2070 B.C.) to the Warring Kingdoms (475–221 B.C.). After the Qin dynasty unified China, this area belonged to different prefectures such as the Jiujiang, Zhang, Tang and Sishui Prefectures. Anhui became parts of Yang, Yu, and Xu prefectures during Han dynasties. In the period of the Three Kingdoms (222–280 A.D.), Anhui was separately dominated by the Wu State and Wei State. During the Jin dynasty, Northern and Southern dynasties and the Sui dynasty, Anhui was part of Yang, Xu and Yu prefectures, respectively. Later on, the Hui area flourished quickly and the economy and culture of Hui Prefecture created great influence during the Song Dynasty. During the Yuan dynasty, ruled by the Mongolian emperor, Anhui area was a part of Henan province. During the Ming dynasty, the area was directly managed by the administration of the Capital of Nanjing. Shortly after the Qing dynasty was established, this area and Jiangsu province were merged as one province until the sixth year (1666 or 1667) of the Kangxi Emperor's reign in the Qing dynasty. Later during the Qing dynasty, Anhui played an important role in the Self-Strengthening Movement led by Li Hongzhang, an important Prime Minister during the later Qing Dynasty. At this time, many western weapons, factories and modern government concepts were introduced into China. Over the next 50 years, Anhui became one of the most aggressive areas with liberal thought. Within this environment, many ideologists appeared in Anhui. Several of them impacted the future of China including, Hu Shih, a Chinese philosopher, essayist and diplomat, and Chen Duxiu, founder of the Chinese Communist Party and the first General Secretary of the CCP. In 1938, the north and central areas of the province were heavily damaged because Chiang Kai-shek, the then-President of the Republic of China, broke the dam of Yellow River, hoping this strategy could slow down the invasion by the Imperial Japanese Army. Within only ten days of the dam breaking, the water and sands drowned all of north and middle area of this province, 500,000 to 900,000 Chinese people died, along with an unknown number of Japanese soldiers. The flood prevented the Japanese Army from taking Zhengzhou. Following the end of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1945, the capital city of Anhui province moved to what was then a small town, Hefei. At the same time, the provincial government made significant investments to develop this new capital city, which has become a China Top 25 city (of 660 cities over all of China) in the 2010s. After 1949, the government also launched many Water Projects to repair damage from World War II. In addition, many other areas of China supported Anhui's development. Anhui developed significantly through the Third Front campaign to build basic industry and national defense industry in protected locations in case of invasion by the Soviet Union or the United States.: xiii–xv The centerpiece of the Shanghai Small Third Front was the "rear base" in Anhui which served as "a multi-function manufacturing base for anti-aircraft and anti-tank weaponry.: xvi In the later 1990s, Anhui became one of the fastest growing provinces in China. In the 2010s, the province became a part of China Yangtze River Delta Economic Area which is the most developed area of China. And the capital city, Hefei, is set as the sub-central city of this Economic Area, only after Shanghai, Nanjing and Hangzhou. In terms of culture, Northern Anhui was firmly a part of the North China Plain together with modern-day Henan province, northern Jiangsu and southern Shandong provinces. Central Anhui was densely populated and constituted mostly of fertile land from the Huai River watershed. In contrast, the culture of Southern Anhui, bordered mostly along the Yangtze, was closer to Jiangxi and southern Jiangsu provinces. The hills of southeastern Anhui formed a unique and distinct cultural sphere of its own. Geography Anhui is topographically diverse. The north is part of the North China Plain while the north-central areas are part of the Huai River watershed. Both regions are flat, and densely populated. The land becomes more uneven further south, with the Dabie Mountains occupying much of southwestern Anhui and a series of hills and ranges cutting through southeastern Anhui, between which is the Yangtze River. The highest peak in Anhui is Lotus Peak, part of Huangshan in southeastern Anhui. It has an altitude of 1873 m. Major rivers include the Huai River in the north and the Yangtze in the south. The largest lake is Lake Chaohu situated in the center of the province, with an area of about 800 km2 (310 sq mi). The southeastern part of the province near the Yangtze River has many lakes as well. As with topography, the province differs in climate from north to south. The north is more temperate with more distinct seasons. January temperatures average at around −1 to 2 °C north of the Huai River, and 0 to 3 °C south of the Huai River; in July temperatures average 27 °C or above. Plum rains occur in June and July and may cause flooding. Anhui has 16 cities. Economically, top 3 cities are, Hefei, Wuhu and Anqing. Ecology The Anhui elm, Ulmus gaussenii W. C. Cheng, is a medium size deciduous tree whose natural range is restricted to the valleys of the Langya limestone mountains of Chu Xian. The tree was most commonly found on the flood plains, indicating a tolerance of periodic inundation. U. gaussenii is now the world's rarest and most endangered elm species, with only approximately 30 trees known to survive in the wild in 2009.The province is also home to the Chinese alligator (Alligator sinensis, simplified Chinese: 扬子鳄; traditional Chinese: 揚子鱷; pinyin: yángzǐ'è), also known as the Yangtze alligator, China alligator, or historically the muddy dragon, a critically endangered crocodilian. Administrative divisions Anhui is divided into sixteen prefecture-level divisions: all prefecture-level cities: These 16 prefecture-level cities are in turn subdivided into 104 county-level divisions (45 districts, 9 county-level cities, and 50 counties). Those are in turn divided into 1,512 township-level divisions (997 towns, 230 townships, 9 ethnic townships, and 276 subdistricts). Urban areas Government The Politics of Anhui Province is structured in a dual party-government system like all other governing institutions in mainland China. The Governor of Anhui (安徽省省长) is the highest-ranking official in the People's Government of Anhui. However, in the province's dual party-government governing system, the Governor has less power than the Anhui Chinese Communist Party Provincial Committee Secretary (安徽省委书记), colloquially termed the "Anhui Party Chief". Most provincial government departments and the Governor office are located at No.1 Zhongshan Road, moved from old downtown of Hefei since 2016. Provincial government is responsible to manage 16 prefecture-level cities, 105 counties, 1845 townships and different departments in Anhui. The National People's Congress (NPC) is just located near provincial government. The Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (C.P.P.C.C.) is located at No.317, Suzhou Road. The Provincial Higher People's Court is located at no. 472 Changjiang Rd. Typically, annual provincial congress meeting is held in the first quarter of each year shortly before national congress meeting and the annual meeting of C.P.P.C.C. is held in the first quarter or the fourth quarter of each year. Economy Agriculture in Anhui varies according to the climate zones. To the north of the Huai River, wheat and sweet potatoes are grown, while to the south it is rice and wheat instead. Natural resources of Anhui include iron in Ma'anshan, coal in Huainan, and copper in Tongling. There are industries related to these natural resources (e.g. steel industry at Ma'anshan). One of the famous Anhui-based corporations is the automobile company Chery, which is based in Wuhu. Compared to its more prosperous neighbours to the east, Zhejiang and Jiangsu, Anhui has lagged markedly behind in economic development, with a GDP per capita around half of those two provinces in 2017 rapidly improved from 1/3 of those two provinces in 2010. However, the provincial GDP per capita is based on the population registered in the province (that is, with local Hukou), but not necessarily residing there. There is significant regional disparity, where much of the wealth is concentrated in industrial regions close to the Yangtze River, such as Hefei, Wuhu, and Ma'anshan. Anhui's nominal GDP for 2016 was approximately 2.4 trillion yuan (US$365.8 billion) in the year of 2016. It is considered as a mid-size economy in terms of economic output. The province is home to a large cluster of white goods manufacture such as Haier, Hisense, Whirlpool, Gree, Royalstar, and Meling. Major economic and technological development zones Hefei Economic and Technological Development Zone Hefei Economic and Technological Development Zone is located in the southwest of Hefei and was established in 1993. It is located close to Hefei Luogang International Airport. Hefei Hi-Tech Industrial Development Zone Hefei Hi-Tech Industrial Development Zone was founded in October 1990 and approved by the State Council as a state-level Development Zone in March 1991. In 1997, the Development Zone was ratified as an APEC Science and Technology Industrial Park, with special open policies to APEC and EU members. Hefei High Tech Park was also approved as a National High Tech Export Base in 2000 and obtained the award of an Advanced High Tech Zone under the Torch Program in 2003. So far, more than 100 hi-tech enterprises have entered the zone. Industries encouraged in the zone include chemical production and processing, electronics assembly & manufacturing, instruments & industrial equipment, medical Equipment and telecommunications. Wuhu Economic and Technological Development Zone Established in 1993, Wuhu Economic and Technological Development Zone was the first state-level development zone approved by central government in Anhui, utilising the transportation advantage of the Yangtse Delta at Wuhu. Wuhu Export Processing Zone Wuhu Export Processing Zone was approved to be a national level export processing zone, with a total planned area of 2.95 km2 (1.14 sq mi). Transportation Historically, Anhui's transport network was hampered by the lack of bridges across the Yangtze River, which divides the province into northern and southern regions. The first bridge across the Yangtze in Anhui, the Tongling Yangtze River Bridge, was completed in 1995. As of October 2014, Anhui had four bridges across the Yangtze, at Ma'anshan, Wuhu, Tongling, and Anqing. Rail Anhui lacked a developed railway network until this century: most cities are now connected by a high-speed train system. Hefei South railway station is the high-speed train hub. Highway system The province set an ambitious plan from 2015 to 2025 for highways including: G3 Beijing-Taipei Expressway G40 Shanghai-Xi'an Expressway G42 Shanghai-Chengdu Expressway S24 Changshu-Hefei Expressway Subway Hefei and Wuhu have subway systems. The Hefei Metro has 2 completed lines, 3 lines under construction and another 10 lines planned. The Wuhu Metro has 2 subway lines under construction and another 3 lines planned. Aviation The province has 5 major commercial airports and another 4 are under construction. Hefei Xinqiao International Airport and Huangshan International Airport are the 2 international airports. The 5 airports in operation are: Hefei Xinqiao International Airport (IATA: HFE, ICAO: ZSOF) Huangshan Tunxi International Airport (IATA: TXN, ICAO: ZSTX) Fuyang Xiguan Airport (IATA: FUG, ICAO: ZSFY) Anqing Tianzhushan Airport (IATA: AQG, ICAO: ZSAQ) Chizhou Jiuhuashan Airport (IATA: JUH, ICAO: ZSJH) Demographics Han Chinese make up the vast majority of the population. The Hui and She are the two largest minorities. Anhui has a highly unbalanced gender ratio. According to a 2009 study published in the British Medical Journal, in the 1–4 age group, there are 138 boys for every 100 girls, making it among the most unbalanced of provinces in China. Religion The predominant religions in Anhui are Chinese folk religions, Taoist traditions and Chinese Buddhism. According to surveys conducted in 2007 and 2009, 4.64% of the population believes and is involved in ancestor veneration, while 5.30% of the population identifies as Christian. According to a 2010 survey, Muslims constitute 0.58% of the population of Anhui.The reports didn't give figures for other types of religion; 89.48% of the population may be either irreligious or involved in worship of nature deities, Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism and folk religious sects. Culture Anhui spans many geographical and cultural regions. The northern, flatter parts of the province, along the Huai River and further north, are most akin to neighboring provinces like Henan, Shandong and northern Jiangsu. In contrast, the southern, hilly parts of the province are more similar in culture and dialect to other southern, hilly provinces, like Zhejiang and Jiangxi. Mandarin dialects are spoken over the northern and central parts of the province, north of the Yangtze river. Dialects to the north (e.g. Bengbu dialect) are classified as Zhongyuan Mandarin, together with dialects in provinces such as Henan and Shandong; dialects in the central parts (e.g. Hefei dialect) are classified as Jianghuai Mandarin, together with dialects in the central parts of neighboring Jiangsu province. Non-Mandarin dialects are spoken to the south of the Yangzi: dialects of Wu are spoken in Xuancheng prefecture-level city, though these are rapidly being replaced by Jianghuai Mandarin; dialects of Gan are spoken in a few counties in the southwest bordering Jiangxi province; and the Huizhou dialects are spoken in about ten counties in the far south, a small but highly diverse and unique group of Chinese dialects. Huangmeixi, which originated in the environs of Anqing in southwestern Anhui, is a form of traditional Chinese opera popular across China. Huiju, a form of traditional opera originating in the Huizhou-speaking areas of southern Anhui, is one of the major precursors of Beijing Opera; in the 1950s, Huiju (which had disappeared) was revived. Luju is a type of traditional opera found across central Anhui, from east to west. Anhui cuisine is one of the eight great traditions of Chinese cuisine. Combining elements of cooking from northern Anhui, south-central Anhui, and the Huizhou-speaking areas of southern Anhui, Anhui cuisine is known for its use of wild game and herbs, both land and sea, and comparatively simple methods of preparation. Anhui has a high concentration of traditional products related to calligraphy: Xuanzhou (today Xuancheng) and Huizhou (today Huangshan City) are revered for producing Xuan Paper and Hui Ink, respectively, which are traditionally considered the best types of paper and ink for Chinese calligraphy. She County is famous for the She Inkstone, one of the most preferred types of inkstones (a required tool in traditional calligraphy). Education Anhui has some good universities. Most universities in Anhui are located in Hefei, Wuhu, Bengbu, Maanshan, some of them are pretty well known. Specifically, Hefei is one of the most important research central cities in China with leading basic scientific research capability. Public universities University of Science & Technology of China, One of China's top University as well as world renowned research and engineering institution. Hefei University of Technology, China well-known Engineering School Anhui University, China Key University Anhui Agricultural University, in Hefei Anhui Medical University Anhui Normal University, in Wuhu Anhui University of Finance and Economics, in Bengbu Anhui University of Technology, in Ma'anshan Anhui University of Technology and Science, in Wuhu City Anhui University of Traditional Chinese Medicine Anhui University of Science & Technology, in Huainan Anqing Teachers College, in Anqing Fuyang Teachers College, in Fuyang Hefei Normal University, in Hefei Wannan Medical College, in Wuhu City Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences in Hefei Beihang University (BUAA) - Hefei Campus Beijing Foreign Studies University (BFSU) - Hefei Campus Tianjin University (TJU) - Hefei Graduate School Peking University (PKU) - Hefei Graduate School Tsinghua University (THU) - Hefei Institute of Public Safety Research Military universities National University of Defense Technology (NUDT) - Hefei Campus PLA Artillery University PLA Armoured Force University PLA Vehicle University PLA Air Force Flight Academy(13th) Armed Police Command College(Hefei) Tourism Anhui's principal tourism sites include the following: Ancient Villages in Southern Anhui – Xidi and Hongcun (World Heritage Site). Chao Lake Jing Ting Mountain Mount Huangshan (World Heritage Site) Mount Jiuhua Mount Langya Mount Qiyun Mount Tianzhu Old Town of Tunxi Taiji Cave, the longest karst cave in East China. Zhenfeng Pagoda, a Ming Dynasty pagoda in Anqing City. Zuiweng Pavilion, named after the poet Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072 AD). Development In 2008, France helped the Anhui Provincial Tourism Bureau develop a rural tourism demonstration project. Notable people Xia Jun, economist, telecom researcher and university professor Qiu Jianliang, professional kickboxer Fang Bian, sanshou fighter and professional kickboxer See also Major national historical and cultural sites in Anhui Anhui Government website Archived 2015-10-07 at the Wayback Machine Anhui Provincial Tourism Administration Official Site Economic profile for Anhui Province at HKTDC Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Ngan-hui" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
A cap is a flat headgear, usually with a visor. Caps have crowns that fit very close to the head. They made their first appearance as early as 3200 BC. The origin of the word "cap" comes from the Old French word "chapeau" which means "head covering". Over time, the word has evolved and changed its meaning, but it still retains its association with headwear. Caps typically have a visor, or no brim at all. They are popular in casual and informal settings, and are seen in sports and fashion. They are typically designed for warmth, and often incorporate a visor to block sunlight from the eyes. They come in many shapes, sizes, and are of different brands. Baseball caps are one of the most common types of cap. Types Ascot cap Ayam Baggy green Balmoral Beanie (North America) Bearskin Beret Biretta Busby Canterbury cap Cap and bells Cap of maintenance Casquette Caubeen Caul Coif Combination cap (also known as a service cap) Coppola Cricket cap Deerstalker Do-rag Dutch cap Dixie cup, an enlisted sailor's cap, also worn by first-year midshipmen at Annapolis Fez Flat cap (also known as a Kerry cap in Ireland (slang of Paddy cap – see also Caubeen), longshoreman's cap, scally cap, Wigens cap, ivy cap, golf cap, duffer cap, driving cap, bicycle cap, Jeff cap, or in Scotland, bunnet, or in Wales, Dai cap, or in England or New Zealand, cheese-cutter) Forage cap Gandhi cap Garrison cap Glengarry Greek fisherman's cap (also known as a Breton cap or a fiddler's cap) Juliet cap Karakul Kepi Kippah (also known as yarmulke or skull cap) — worn by Jewish males Knit cap (also known as a Tuque, stocking cap, wool cap, watch cap, ski cap, bobble hat) Kufi (also known as a kofia; an African cap worn with a dashiki) Lika cap M43 field cap Mao cap Meyrick Helmet Monmouth cap Newsboy cap Nightcap Nurse cap Ochipok Papakhi Patrol cap Peaked cap Phrygian cap Rastacap Sailor cap Shako Shower cap Sindhi cap Sports visor Square academic cap Stormy Kromer cap Swim cap Tam o' Shanter Taqiyah, worn by Muslim males Toque Tubeteika Ushanka Utility cover Zucchetto Baseball caps Baseball cap Fitted cap Snapback Trucker hat Present day depictions of caps Caps might have started off as a way to keep people shaded from the sun, but now they are much more than that. Caps have been made a staple in both the sports and fashion industries, one leading into the other. Sports As stated earlier, caps are typically designed with a visor which makes it perfect for keeping a person cool from the heat and sheltering a person's eyes from the sun, so it was a matter of time before they made it to the sports industry. The first sport to adopt wearing caps was baseball, the hats was made out of straw and were worn on April 24, 1849, by the New York Knickerbockers. However, within a few years time the team began to wear a cap made of fine merino wool, that featured a crown and an attached visor. This design became the prototype for caps of that time and still the most popular in present day. It's also not the only design for baseball hats but other sports as well, such as cricket, golf and tennis. Fashion Sportswear found its way to fashion in the nineteenth century and on the contrary to what many believe it began to actually cater to the wants and needs of women. Sports cap however made an impact on the fashion industry around the 1980s when the company New Era, who had been designing hats for sports teams, began designing and selling hats to the general public. Baseball caps, fitted caps, snapback caps and truckers hats would then be seen in music videos, films, runways and even on Princess Diana's head, which helped nurture her appearance as the "people's princess." Along with hats, sports jerseys also became available in the 1980s as well, and now licensed apparel is a multi-billion dollar industry. See also Bonnet, until about 1700, the usual word for brimless male headgear Cap (sport), metaphorical term List of headgear
Mukawa (むかわ町, Mukawa-chō) is a town located in Iburi Subprefecture, Hokkaido, Japan. On March 27, 2006, Mukawa (鵡川町) absorbed the town of Hobetsu to create the new town of Mukawa. The new town was given the same name as the former town of Mukawa, but in hiragana, instead of former kanji name. As of April 30, 2017, the town (including the Hobetsu area) has an estimated population of 8,527, with a total of 4,369 households. The total area is 166.43 km². Mukawa is situated on the southern coast of Hokkaido, bordering the Pacific Ocean. It can be accessed via train from Tomakomai. By car, the town is approximately 1/2 hour east of Tomakomai along Route 235. The town is famed for shishamo, a small fish that is hung on bamboo poles. Shishamo are currently included in the Mukawa town sign. The shishamo are harvested during the Fall season. During this season the town holds a number of shishamo themed events, including a town race in October and Shishamo Matsuri in November. A large community center in the town features an indoor swimming pool, exercise room, hotel, onsen, cafe, restaurant, and lecture hall. During the late Summer, an obon matsuri is held near the town's community center. Population Statistics In recent years, Mukawa has faced an overall decline in population. In 1995, there were 7,853 people and 2,786 households. In 2000, the population declined to 7,232 people with 2,744 households, and by 2005, the population had declined to 6,765 people and 2,698 households. These numbers do not include the population of Mukawa's Hobetsu area. Climate Transportation Rail Mukawa is served by the JR Hokkaido Hidaka Main Line. However, no trains have operated between Mukawa and Samani since January 2015, due to storm damage. Plans to restore this section of the line have been abandoned, due to declining passenger numbers and very high maintenance costs, and the section will be officially closed on 1 April 2021 to be replaced by a bus service. Stations in Mukawa: Hama-Taura - Mukawa - Shiomi There has been no train service at Shiomi since January 2015, as it falls into the affected section of the line. Workforce As of the 2006, as total of 3,884 people are employed in Mukawa (excluding the workforce of Hobetsu). The working population is broken into different categories depending on occupational type and the number of workers, as shown below: Land Usage The 2006 Handbook does not distinguish between Hobetsu or Mukawa regarding land usage. The areas of Hobetsu (546.48 km²), and Mukawa (166.43 km²) total to 712.91 km². Of this total area, the land usage is divided into the following categories: Annual expenditure As with the proceeding information, the following comes from the Mukawa 2006 Handbook. The following information regarding the 2005 town expenditures does not consider Mukawa and Hobetsu separately. The unit of currency is millions of yen. Annual Income The following information for the 2005 income is also from the Mukawa 2006 Handbook, and as with the annual expenditure, Mukawa and Hobetsu are considered as a unified area. The unit of currency is millions of yen. Notable people Seino Araida (1917–2011), Japanese Ainu activist Media related to Mukawa, Hokkaidō at Wikimedia Commons Official Website (in Japanese)
Radical 92 or radical fang (牙部) meaning "tooth" or "fang" is one of the 34 Kangxi radicals (214 radicals total) composed of 4 strokes. In the Kangxi Dictionary, there are nine characters (out of 49,030) to be found under this radical. 牙 is also the 69th indexing component in the Table of Indexing Chinese Character Components predominantly adopted by Simplified Chinese dictionaries published in mainland China. Evolution Derived characters Sinogram As an independent sinogram it is a Jōyō kanji, or a Kanji used in writing the Japanese language. It is a secondary school kanji. It has design variations officially recognized by the Japanese government. It is also used in Chinese. See Also List of jōyō kanji Further reading Fazzioli, Edoardo (1987). Chinese calligraphy : from pictograph to ideogram : the history of 214 essential Chinese/Japanese characters. calligraphy by Rebecca Hon Ko. New York: Abbeville Press. ISBN 0-89659-774-1. Lunde, Ken (Jan 5, 2009). "Appendix J: Japanese Character Sets" (PDF). CJKV Information Processing: Chinese, Japanese, Korean & Vietnamese Computing (Second ed.). Sebastopol, Calif.: O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-51447-1. Unihan Database - U+7259
Nayoro (名寄市, Nayoro-shi, Ainu: Nay Oro meaning "in the middle of the valley") is a city in Kamikawa Subprefecture, Hokkaido, Japan. As of September 2016, the city has an estimated population of 28,373 and a population density of 53 persons per km2 (140 persons per sq. mi.). The total area is 535.23 km2 (206.65 sq mi). On March 27, 2006, the town of Fūren was merged into Nayoro. History 1909: Kaminayoro village was founded. 1915: Kaminayoro village became Nayoro town. 1920: Chiebun village split off from Shimonayoro village. 1924: Shimokawa village was separated from Nayoro town. 1954: Nayoro town and Chiebun village was merged to form Nayoro town. 1956: Nayoro town became Nayoro city. 2006: Nayoro city and Fūren town was merged to form Nayoro city. Education Universities Nayoro City University Junior colleges Nayoro City University Junior College High schools Hokkaido Nayoro High School Hokkaido Nayoro Industry High School Transportation Rail The Nayoro Main Line and Shimmei Line used to run from Nayoro Station. Sōya Main Line : Fūren - Nayorokōkō - Nayoro - Nisshin - Chiebun - ChihokuAbove are stations located in Nayoro. Road Nayoro is linked with National Route 40 linking Wakkanai and southern Hokkaido as well as the Hokkaidō Expressway linking with the island capital of Sapporo. Nayoro is bypassed to the west with the Nayoro Bypass (Route 40) serving two interchanges. Climate Nayoro has a wet and snowy warm-summer humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb). The climate retains warm and sometimes hot summers with very cold winters by Japanese standards, coupled with heavy sea-effect snowfall. Culture Mascot Nayoro's mascot is Nayoro-kun (なよろう). He is a mochi alien who loves star watching and collecting toys. He carries a telescope all the time to study the stars. He is designed by Sakiko Yatani from Ebetsu and was named by Ayumi Hagiwara from Sapporo. Sister cities and partner cities International Lindsay, Ontario, Canada Dolinsk, Russia. Within Japan Fujishima, Yamagata Suginami-ku, Tokyo Official Website (in Japanese)
HKG can mean the following: Hong Kong International Airport or Chek Lap Kok Airport, IATA code Kai Tak Airport, former Hong Kong International Airport Hong Kong, ISO 3166-2:HK country code Port of Hong Kong, the seaport of Hong Kong All pages with titles containing HKG or HKGs All pages with titles beginning with HKG HK (disambiguation) Hgk (disambiguation) GKH (disambiguation) GHK (disambiguation) KGH (disambiguation) KHG (disambiguation)
Sammi Cheng Sau-man (Chinese: 鄭秀文; pinyin: Zhèng Xiùwén; born 19 August 1972) is a Hong Kong singer and actress. She is considered one of the most prominent female singers in Hong Kong, with album sales of over million copies throughout Asia. Most notably in the 1990s, she was dubbed by the media as the "Cantopop Queen" (Chinese: 天后; pinyin: Tiānhòu; lit. 'Heavenly Queen'). Having success in entertainment industry for over three decades, Cheng is also best known for her roles in Hong Kong rom-com films in the early 2000s that were box office hits. For her performance in the 2022 film 'Lost Love', she won 4 best actress honors including from the Hong Kong Film Awards. Cheng holds the record of having the most best sales albums and The Best Sales Local Female Vocalist awards in the Hong Kong Cantopop industry since her debut. From 1993 to 2010, Cheng won a total of 12 Top Female Vocalist awards, 14 The Best Sales Local Female Vocalist Awards and has 7 albums that are The Best Sales Cantonese Release of the Year. She had also previously won the Most Popular Hong Kong Female Artist Award in annual Top Ten Jade Solid Gold Awards Presentation for three times, and in a year winning also the Gold Song Gold Award, the highest-ranked award which is the last to be presented at the ceremony. She also received Honorary Lifetime Achievement Award for Female Singer in 2011 Metro Radio Hits Awards. She had also won many top honors in various Chinese music awards held in Asia, including MTV Asia Awards for Favorite Artists Hong Kong 3 times, in 2002, 2003 and 2004. She has produced over 80 studio albums, 10 live concert albums, over 130 singles (songs) with also over 30 cover songs and had received numerous awards from acting to singing. She also starred in close to 40 films and 7 television dramas(in early years) and had held approximately 200 concerts up to date with over 12 concert tours. She is one of the female artists with most concert shows in Hong Kong Coliseum, at 102. Early life Sammi Cheng was previously named Twinnie Cheng. Contrary to popular belief, "Twiny" is not her birth name. The name came about when Sammi was still in school and her English Language teacher wanted everyone in class to have an English name. When Sammi turned to her sister for help, her sister came up with the name "Twiny". The name was later changed to "Sammi" as "Sammi" sounds a little like "Sau Man". Cheng received her education at SKH St. Peter's Primary School and Tang Shiu Kin Victoria Government Secondary School.She has three sisters and one brother. Two of her sisters are twins. Career Music Sammi Cheng entered the entertainment industry at the age of 16 through the New Talent Singing Awards in 1988. Although she came in third in the competition, the sponsoring record company Capital Artists saw her potential and offered her a recording contract. Cheng at the time was still in school, and had to balance her studies with her rising singing career. Sammi released 3 full-length studio albums prior to leaving school: "Sammi", "Holiday" and "Never Too Late". One of her first major award was the 1990 RTHK Top 10 Gold Songs Awards, where she was recognized as a best new prospect.She capitalized on the attention received from her duet with artist Andy Hui, "Do you really have me in your heart?" (其實你心裡有沒有我), winning the 1993 Jade Solid Gold Top 10 Awards with that song. Cheng then went through a transformation, dying her hair orange, changing her style. Her 4th studio album "Sammi's Happy Maze" (鄭秀文的快樂迷宮) was also released, which include the hit single "Chotto Matte" (Chotto 等等), meaning 'wait a moment' in Japanese. Her new image fitted well with the new single, which was a remake of a Japanese song by Maki Ohguro. The success helped Sammi and boosted her singing career. In 1994 she continued to capitalize on her wild, new image. Her first album of that year was "Big Revenge" (大報復). The album included the hit "Ding Dong" (叮噹), which became one of Sammi's signature songs. But with her new fame also came a lot of backlash from the media. Critics argued that Sammi purposely westernized her Cantonese. Instead of saying "Ding Dong", Sammi pronounced it as "Deen Dong". Despite the criticism, the song was one of the most popular dance songs of that year. In 1994 the racy and controversial cut of "Ten Commandments" (十誡) was banned from the radio for a few days after its initial airplay of the track including tiny bits of what can be recognized as pornography soundtrack. In 1995 Cheng disappeared from the public eye for nearly half a year. Later that year, it was revealed that Warner Music Group had signed her. She let her hair color return to black and temporarily abandoned the wild image she used to have.In 1995 she released her first album "Missing you" (捨不得你). In 1996, the company decided it was time for Sammi to expand her market and fan base beyond Hong Kong. They released her first Mandarin album, "Worth It" (值得). The album was number one on the Taiwan IFPI chart for six consecutive weeks. She won a number of awards, most notably she was voted back-to-back as the most popular female artist by TVB from 1996 to 1997. She went on to win the top female award again in 2001. She would finish that year with her first concert titled "Sammi's X-Dimension Concert" (鄭秀文X空間演唱會). In 1998 she was also a featured star in a Heineken sponsored Music Horizons concert along with international singers such as Boyz II Men and Julian Lennon. By the time Cheng was 24 years old, she had already released four greatest hits albums.In the 1990s, another female star, Faye Wong was one of her main rivals. When they were on stage together, they would be cold to one another. The rivalry was confirmed in the 1999 TVB music award night. Both Wong and Cheng were arranged to sit next to each other backstage. Cheng avoided Wong by repeatedly going off stage to fix her make-up. In addition, her fans were angry and hissed at Faye Wong when she went on stage to receive an award. Wong herself has insisted that the rivalry wasn't true, and that she was friendly toward Cheng.In July 2004, she held 7 nights of "Sammi Vs Sammi" concerts in Hong Kong. She also broke the record as being the youngest female singer to hold more than 50 accumulated concert nights in the city.From December 2014 to January 2015, she held 12 nights of 'Touch Mi' concerts in Hong Kong Coliseum. She also invited heavyweight stars to be the guests of her concerts, including Andy Lau, Jacky Cheung, Leon Lai, Ekin Cheng, Louis Koo, Nick Cheung and Eason Chan. Her 'Touch Mi' concert extends to World Tour in 2015 and 2016 with 4 shows at Genting (Malaysia), 3 shows at Macau (China), 3 shows at Singapore, 2 shows at Guangzhou (China), 1 show at Foshan (China), 1 show at Melbourne (Australia), 2 shows at Sydney (Australia), 1 show at Shenzhen (China), 1 show at London (United Kingdom). Her 'Touch Mi' World Tour concluded in Hong Kong with another 8 shows in September 2016, hence bringing her total number of shows for this world tour to 38. Some of her new guest stars in Touch Mi 2 Hong Kong shows are Dayo Wong, Dicky Cheung, Francis Ng and Alex To. In 2017, she held a series of mini-concert tours entitled Naked. Sammi in Taiwan and China. Also, she held a private mini-concert in Macau, entitled Sammi Cheng VIP Music Private Enjoy Show. She held a single-show Sidetrack Birthday Gig concert at Macau on 19 August 2018 in conjunction of her 46th birthday as a treat to her fans. At the same year she collaborate for the first time with Taiwanese rock band 831, releasing her remake song "眉飛色舞Plus" (Eyebrow Dance Plus). In conjunction with her 30th anniversary in the entertainment industry, her 10th concert world tour is organized, which began with 13 shows at Hong Kong's Coliseum in July 2019. This brought her total shows in Hong Kong's Coliseum exceeding 100-mark, at 102. In conjunction with her 49th birthday in 2021, she held a single-show 'Listen to Mi Birthday Gig' concert at Hong Kong on 18 August 2021. For her 50th birthday, she held a Christmas-themed 'You Are Beautiful To Mi Christmas Party' event at Hong Kong on December 2022. Acting Cheng's acting career began with the TVB series A Life of His Own (浪族闊少爺) in 1991. A year later she began her film career with the movie Best of the Best (飛虎精英之人間有情) in 1992 with fellow cantopop star Jacky Cheung. She would follow with another comedy film Feel 100% (百分百感覺) with Ekin Cheng and Gigi Leung. In the late 1990s during the slump of the HK film industry she starred in the film Needing You... by director Johnnie To, co-starring Andy Lau and the movie Summer Holiday in 2000. The films were hits at the box office hit in all South East Asia regions, and Hong Kong has cumulated nearly HK$60 million at the box office. The Needing You... VCD received a sold out record of more than 200,000 copies. From this film, she was also a nominee for "Best Actress" as well as taking part in singing the "Best original film song" in the 2001 Hong Kong Film Award. Following the success of those movies she starred in a few more including Wu Yen, Love on a Diet, Marry a Rich Man, My Left Eye Sees Ghosts and many more. At the 62nd Venice International Film Festival Cheng was one of the front runner for the "Best actress" award for the film Everlasting Regret in 2005. Other contenders for the award included Monica Bellucci, Gwyneth Paltrow, Lee Young-ae and Isabelle Huppert.Sammi had been nominated 10 times in Hong Kong Film Awards for best actress, from her performance in 'Needing You' (2001), triple nominations in 2002 for 'Fighting for Love', 'Wu Yen' and 'Love on a Diet', in 2006 for 'Everlasting Regret', in 2012 for 'Romancing in Thin Air', in 2013 for 'Blind Detective', double nominations in 2019 for 'Fagara' and 'Fatal Visit', and in 2022 for 'Lost Love'. This makes her one of the most nominated actress in the lead actress category in the history of Hong Kong Film Awards. She had also received 3 past nominations (for films 'Needing You', 'My Left Eye Sees Ghost', and 'Blind Detective') in best actress at the Taiwan's Golden Horse Awards, the most prestigious awards on Chinese language film. She had won Best Actress from Hong Kong Film Critics Society Awards in 2002 for her titular role in 'Wu Yen'. Due to her contribution in Hong Kong film industry and having starred in over 30 films, she is awarded 'Excellence in Asian Cinema' award in 11th Asian Film Awards on 2017. For her critically acclaimed performance in 'Lost Love', she won 4 best actress honors from Hong Kong Film Critics Society Awards, Hong Kong Directors' Guild Awards, Hong Kong Online Film Critics Highlight Awards and 41st Hong Kong Film Awards in 2023. Advertisements Cheng changes her look and image for every album, which enables her to gain extensive attention and appreciation from the music professional and the public. Sammi is a trendsetter of hair-coloring and has been chosen to be one of the Top Ten fashionable celebrities in Hong Kong. She has been signed and endorsed by many companies. These endorsements include SK-II skin care and Mona Lisa bridal service. Her first album with Warner Music Group, "Can't Give You Up" (捨不得你) released 3 hit singles, "Gentlemen, you are so fine today" (男仕今天你很好), "Can't Give You Up" (捨不得你) and "The Mourning Song for Love" (愛的輓歌). She was selected as the prominent celebrity for the endorsement of Panasonic using "Can't Give You Up" (捨不得你) as the theme song.In the many years of her active presence in entertainment industry, she had been involved in multiple advertisements for various brands ranging from sports shoes, watches, clothing, massager, skin-care products, magazine covers, etc. Post-break career Break (2005–2007) In 2005, Cheng had only one feature film release and no music projects. She became a representative for Veeko and Titus, a fashion and watch brand in Hong Kong, respectively. She also began writing Saturday columns for Mingpao magazine. In 2006, she released another greatest hits album, but there were no new tracks. The break was taken to recoup her energy from the entertainment industry.During a break lasting more than a 1,000 days, she reflected upon her life, she became evangelical Christian and was baptized in 2007. Show Mi Tour After taking a break for about 2 years, she re-invented herself again, and held her 6th concert in HK from 18 to 25 May 2007 titled "Show Mi" (Mi being the nickname of SamMI given by her fans). Due to the huge demand for tickets, the four performances was expanded to eight. She returned to entertain at the age of 34, and invited fellow star Andy Lau and Denise Ho to perform with her. At the end of the first show, audience members continued to shout 'encore' for 15 minutes until Sammi came back out and sang "Our Theme Song" (我們的主題曲). The concert was expanded to the Show Mi Tour. She then continues actively in Hong Kong entertainment industry after about two years of rest, marking a strong comeback with many more concerts held at Hong Kong, Macau, mainland China, Taiwan, Singapore, Malaysia, Canada, United States, Australia, etc. She also continued to work in films and had starred in various commercial advertisements. Community work In 2003 Cheng performed at the 1:99 Concert to raise funds for SARS affected families. She had participated in the 2008 Chinese winter storm support effort where many artists including Andy Lau, Alan Tam, Kelly Chen, etc. recorded a song called "Warmth in the Snow" in support of those effected by the storm. She was also a participant of the Artistes 512 Fund Raising Campaign. In April 2008, she participated in the activities of World Vision. She traveled to Laos with fellow singer Gigi Leung, also a World Vision volunteer, to experience for themselves the struggles of the local people and children. They also visited the local children there to find out more on their situation where food and supplies are lacking. When Sammi returned to Hong Kong, she and Leung were invited to a radio program 903 to talk about the experience; she responded by announcing she had "adopted" 24 children. Filmography Film Television series Discography Concerts X Live '96 (1996) Star Show (1997–1998) i Concert '99 (1999–2000) Shocking Colours Live (2001–2002) Sammi vs. Sammi (2004) Show Mi World Tour (2007–2008) Love Mi World Tour (2009–2011) Touch Mi World Tour (2014–2016) FOLLOWMi World Tour (2019) You & Mi World Tour (2023-) Awards and nominations Sammi Cheng at IMDb Sammi's Weibo
Leslie may refer to: Leslie (name), a name and list of people with the given name or surname, including fictional characters Families Clan Leslie, a Scottish clan with the motto "grip fast" Leslie (Russian nobility), a Russian noble family of Scottish origin Places Canada Leslie, Saskatchewan Leslie Street, a road in Toronto and York Region, Ontario Leslie (TTC), a subway station Leslie Street Spit, an artificial spit in Toronto United States Leslie, Arkansas Leslie, Georgia Leslie, Michigan Leslie, Missouri Leslie, West Virginia Leslie, Wisconsin Leslie Township, Michigan Leslie Township, Minnesota Elsewhere Leslie Dam, a dam in Warwick, Queensland, Australia Leslie, Mpumalanga, South Africa Leslie, Aberdeenshire, Scotland, see List of listed buildings in Leslie, Aberdeenshire Leslie, Fife, Scotland, UK Other uses Leslie speaker system Leslie Motor Car company Leslie Controls, Inc. Leslie (singer) (born 1985), French singer See also All pages with titles beginning with Leslie Lesley (disambiguation) Tropical Storm Leslie, a list of tropical storms
Shek Kip Mei, originally known as Shek Kap Mei, is an area in New Kowloon, to the northeast of the Kowloon Peninsula of Hong Kong. It borders Sham Shui Po and Kowloon Tong. History At the time of the 1911 census, the population of Shek Kip Mei was 72.A major fire on 25 December 1953 destroyed the Shek Kip Mei shanty town of immigrants from Mainland China who had fled to Hong Kong, leaving 53,000 people homeless. After the fire, the governor Alexander Grantham launched a public housing programme to introduce the idea of multi-storey building for the immigrant population living there. The standardised new structures offered fire- and flood-resistant construction to previously vulnerable hut dwellers. The programme involved demolishing the rest of the makeshift houses left untouched by the fire, and the construction of the Shek Kip Mei Low-cost Housing Estate in their stead. The apartments were small, only about 300 square feet (28 m2). Each unit could house five people, and each building had a capacity of 2,500 residents.The rent was HK$17 per square foot per month, while the rent for a commercial store downstairs was HK$100 per month. Foreign tourists visiting the apartment complexes referred to them as "prisons". Some scholars have argued that the government has been overstating the role of the fire in the history of public housing in Hong Kong.At the north of Shek Kip Mei is Tai Wo Ping (大窩坪), along Beacon Hill. This was a cottage area (a type of resettlement accommodation) from the 1950s to 1970s, but it has been developed into a public housing estate, Chak On Estate (澤安邨), and two private housing estates, Beacon Heights (畢架山花園) and Dynasty Heights (帝景峰). Present The Government has backed off from its plans to redevelop the area, following great opposition from many who believe they symbolised the history of Hong Kong. An alternative plan to renovate it for use as a hostel and museum has been completed. The museum includes restored rooms, resident stories and photos, and documentation of the history of public housing estates. Shek Kip Mei now has several types of housing including the public apartments, Pak Tin Estate and private housing such as Beacon Heights and Dynasty Heights. Several malls and churches can also be found in the area now. The old Shek Kip Mei Factory Estate was renovated and now serves as the Jockey Club Creative Arts Centre. Transportation Since 1 October 1979, it has been served by Shek Kip Mei station on the MTR at Woh Chai Street and Wai Chi Street. Route 7 passes to the north of the area and accessed via Nam Cheong Street. KMB and New World First Bus operates a number or routes that travel within the area. Education Shek Kip Mei is in Primary One Admission (POA) School Net 40. Within the school net are multiple aided schools (operated independently but funded with government money) and two government schools: Fuk Wing Street Government Primary School and Li Cheng Uk Government Primary School. See also Public housing in Hong Kong Shek Kip Mei Estate and Mei Ho House North Kowloon Magistracy Woh Chai Shan aka. Shek Kip Mei Hill aka. Bishop Hill, a hill in Shek Kip Mei Pictures of the 1953 fire and early resettlement buildings Jockey Club Creative Arts Centre project website Video showing Shek Kip Mei just after the fire
Fire is the rapid oxidation of a material (the fuel) in the exothermic chemical process of combustion, releasing heat, light, and various reaction products. At a certain point in the combustion reaction, called the ignition point, flames are produced. The flame is the visible portion of the fire. Flames consist primarily of carbon dioxide, water vapor, oxygen and nitrogen. If hot enough, the gases may become ionized to produce plasma. Depending on the substances alight, and any impurities outside, the color of the flame and the fire's intensity will be different.Fire, in its most common form, has the potential to result in conflagration, which can lead to physical damage, which can be permanent, through burning. Fire is a significant process that influences ecological systems worldwide. The positive effects of fire include stimulating growth and maintaining various ecological systems. Its negative effects include hazard to life and property, atmospheric pollution, and water contamination. When fire removes protective vegetation, heavy rainfall can contribute to increased soil erosion by water. Additionally, the burning of vegetation releases nitrogen into the atmosphere, unlike elements such as potassium and phosphorus which remain in the ash and are quickly recycled into the soil. This loss of nitrogen caused by a fire produces a long-term reduction in the fertility of the soil, which can be recovered as atmospheric nitrogen is fixed and converted to ammonia by natural phenomena such as lightning or by leguminous plants such as clover, peas, and green beans. Fire is one of the four classical elements and has been used by humans in rituals, in agriculture for clearing land, for cooking, generating heat and light, for signaling, propulsion purposes, smelting, forging, incineration of waste, cremation, and as a weapon or mode of destruction. Etymology The word "fire" originated from Old English Fyr 'Fire, a fire', which can be traced back to the Germanic root fūr-, which itself comes from the Proto-Indo-European perjos from the root *paewr- 'Fire'. The current spelling of "fire" has been in use since as early as 1200, but it was not until around 1600 that it completely replaced the Middle English term "fier" (which is still preserved in the word "fiery"). History Fossil record The fossil record of fire first appears with the establishment of a land-based flora in the Middle Ordovician period, 470 million years ago, permitting the accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere as never before, as the new hordes of land plants pumped it out as a waste product. When this concentration rose above 13%, it permitted the possibility of wildfire. Wildfire is first recorded in the Late Silurian fossil record, 420 million years ago, by fossils of charcoalified plants. Apart from a controversial gap in the Late Devonian, charcoal is present ever since. The level of atmospheric oxygen is closely related to the prevalence of charcoal: clearly oxygen is the key factor in the abundance of wildfire. Fire also became more abundant when grasses radiated and became the dominant component of many ecosystems, around 6 to 7 million years ago; this kindling provided tinder which allowed for the more rapid spread of fire. These widespread fires may have initiated a positive feedback process, whereby they produced a warmer, drier climate more conducive to fire. Human control of fire Early human control The ability to control fire was a dramatic change in the habits of early humans. Making fire to generate heat and light made it possible for people to cook food, simultaneously increasing the variety and availability of nutrients and reducing disease by killing pathogenic microorganisms in the food. The heat produced would also help people stay warm in cold weather, enabling them to live in cooler climates. Fire also kept nocturnal predators at bay. Evidence of occasional cooked food is found from 1 million years ago. Although this evidence shows that fire may have been used in a controlled fashion about 1 million years ago, other sources put the date of regular use at 400,000 years ago. Evidence becomes widespread around 50 to 100 thousand years ago, suggesting regular use from this time; interestingly, resistance to air pollution started to evolve in human populations at a similar point in time. The use of fire became progressively more sophisticated, as it was used to create charcoal and to control wildlife from tens of thousands of years ago.Fire has also been used for centuries as a method of torture and execution, as evidenced by death by burning as well as torture devices such as the iron boot, which could be filled with water, oil, or even lead and then heated over an open fire to the agony of the wearer. By the Neolithic Revolution, during the introduction of grain-based agriculture, people all over the world used fire as a tool in landscape management. These fires were typically controlled burns or "cool fires", as opposed to uncontrolled "hot fires", which damage the soil. Hot fires destroy plants and animals, and endanger communities. This is especially a problem in the forests of today where traditional burning is prevented in order to encourage the growth of timber crops. Cool fires are generally conducted in the spring and autumn. They clear undergrowth, burning up biomass that could trigger a hot fire should it get too dense. They provide a greater variety of environments, which encourages game and plant diversity. For humans, they make dense, impassable forests traversable. Another human use for fire in regards to landscape management is its use to clear land for agriculture. Slash-and-burn agriculture is still common across much of tropical Africa, Asia and South America. "For small farmers, it is a convenient way to clear overgrown areas and release nutrients from standing vegetation back into the soil", said Miguel Pinedo-Vasquez, an ecologist at the Earth Institute’s Center for Environmental Research and Conservation. However, this useful strategy is also problematic. Growing population, fragmentation of forests and warming climate are making the earth's surface more prone to ever-larger escaped fires. These harm ecosystems and human infrastructure, cause health problems, and send up spirals of carbon and soot that may encourage even more warming of the atmosphere – and thus feed back into more fires. Globally today, as much as 5 million square kilometres – an area more than half the size of the United States – burns in a given year. Later human control There are numerous modern applications of fire. In its broadest sense, fire is used by nearly every human being on earth in a controlled setting every day. Users of internal combustion vehicles employ fire every time they drive. Thermal power stations provide electricity for a large percentage of humanity by igniting fuels such as coal, oil or natural gas, then using the resultant heat to boil water into steam, which then drives turbines. Use of fire in war The use of fire in warfare has a long history. Fire was the basis of all early thermal weapons. Homer detailed the use of fire by Greek soldiers who hid in a wooden horse to burn Troy during the Trojan war. Later the Byzantine fleet used Greek fire to attack ships and men. The invention of gunpowder in China led to the fire lance, a flame-thrower weapon dating to around 1000 CE which was a precursor to projectile weapons driven by burning gunpowder. In the First World War, the earliest modern flamethrowers were used by infantry, and were successfully mounted on armoured vehicles in the Second World War. Hand-thrown incendiary bombs improvised from glass bottles, later known as Molotov cocktails, were deployed during the Spanish Civil War in the 1930s, which also saw the deployment of incendiary bombs against Guernica by Fascist Italian and Nazi German air forces that had been created specifically to support Franco's Nationalists. Incendiary bombs were dropped by Axis and Allies during the Second World War, notably on Coventry, Tokyo, Rotterdam, London, Hamburg and Dresden; in the latter two cases firestorms were deliberately caused in which a ring of fire surrounding each city was drawn inward by an updraft caused by a central cluster of fires. The United States Army Air Force also extensively used incendiaries against Japanese targets in the latter months of the war, devastating entire cities constructed primarily of wood and paper houses. The incendiary fluid napalm was used in July 1944, towards the end of the Second World War, although its use did not gain public attention until the Vietnam War. Productive use for energy Burning fuel converts chemical energy into heat energy; wood has been used as fuel since prehistory. The International Energy Agency states that nearly 80% of the world's power has consistently come from fossil fuels such as petroleum, natural gas, and coal in the past decades. The fire in a power station is used to heat water, creating steam that drives turbines. The turbines then spin an electric generator to produce electricity. Fire is also used to provide mechanical work directly by thermal expansion, in both external and internal combustion engines. The unburnable solid remains of a combustible material left after a fire is called clinker if its melting point is below the flame temperature, so that it fuses and then solidifies as it cools, and ash if its melting point is above the flame temperature. Fire management Controlling a fire to optimize its size, shape, and intensity is generally called fire management, and the more advanced forms of it, as traditionally (and sometimes still) practiced by skilled cooks, blacksmiths, ironmasters, and others, are highly skilled activities. They include knowledge of which fuel to burn; how to arrange the fuel; how to stoke the fire both in early phases and in maintenance phases; how to modulate the heat, flame, and smoke as suited to the desired application; how best to bank a fire to be revived later; how to choose, design, or modify stoves, fireplaces, bakery ovens, industrial furnaces; and so on. Detailed expositions of fire management are available in various books about blacksmithing, about skilled camping or military scouting, and about domestic arts. Physical properties Chemistry Fire is a chemical process in which a fuel and an oxidizing agent react, yielding carbon dioxide and water. This process, known as a combustion reaction, does not proceed directly and involves intermediates. Although the oxidizing agent is typically oxygen, other compounds are able to fulfill the role. For instance, chlorine trifluoride is able to ignite sand.Fires start when a flammable or a combustible material, in combination with a sufficient quantity of an oxidizer such as oxygen gas or another oxygen-rich compound (though non-oxygen oxidizers exist), is exposed to a source of heat or ambient temperature above the flash point for the fuel/oxidizer mix, and is able to sustain a rate of rapid oxidation that produces a chain reaction. This is commonly called the fire tetrahedron. Fire cannot exist without all of these elements in place and in the right proportions. For example, a flammable liquid will start burning only if the fuel and oxygen are in the right proportions. Some fuel-oxygen mixes may require a catalyst, a substance that is not consumed, when added, in any chemical reaction during combustion, but which enables the reactants to combust more readily. Once ignited, a chain reaction must take place whereby fires can sustain their own heat by the further release of heat energy in the process of combustion and may propagate, provided there is a continuous supply of an oxidizer and fuel. If the oxidizer is oxygen from the surrounding air, the presence of a force of gravity, or of some similar force caused by acceleration, is necessary to produce convection, which removes combustion products and brings a supply of oxygen to the fire. Without gravity, a fire rapidly surrounds itself with its own combustion products and non-oxidizing gases from the air, which exclude oxygen and extinguish the fire. Because of this, the risk of fire in a spacecraft is small when it is coasting in inertial flight. This does not apply if oxygen is supplied to the fire by some process other than thermal convection. Fire can be extinguished by removing any one of the elements of the fire tetrahedron. Consider a natural gas flame, such as from a stove-top burner. The fire can be extinguished by any of the following: turning off the gas supply, which removes the fuel source; covering the flame completely, which smothers the flame as the combustion both uses the available oxidizer (the oxygen in the air) and displaces it from the area around the flame with CO2; application of an inert gas such as carbon dioxide, smothering the flame by displacing the available oxidizer; application of water, which removes heat from the fire faster than the fire can produce it (similarly, blowing hard on a flame will displace the heat of the currently burning gas from its fuel source, to the same end); or application of a retardant chemical such as Halon (largely banned in some countries as of 2023) to the flame, which retards the chemical reaction itself until the rate of combustion is too slow to maintain the chain reaction.In contrast, fire is intensified by increasing the overall rate of combustion. Methods to do this include balancing the input of fuel and oxidizer to stoichiometric proportions, increasing fuel and oxidizer input in this balanced mix, increasing the ambient temperature so the fire's own heat is better able to sustain combustion, or providing a catalyst, a non-reactant medium in which the fuel and oxidizer can more readily react. Flame A flame is a mixture of reacting gases and solids emitting visible, infrared, and sometimes ultraviolet light, the frequency spectrum of which depends on the chemical composition of the burning material and intermediate reaction products. In many cases, such as the burning of organic matter, for example wood, or the incomplete combustion of gas, incandescent solid particles called soot produce the familiar red-orange glow of "fire". This light has a continuous spectrum. Complete combustion of gas has a dim blue color due to the emission of single-wavelength radiation from various electron transitions in the excited molecules formed in the flame. Usually oxygen is involved, but hydrogen burning in chlorine also produces a flame, producing hydrogen chloride (HCl). Other possible combinations producing flames, amongst many, are fluorine and hydrogen, and hydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide. Hydrogen and hydrazine/UDMH flames are similarly pale blue, while burning boron and its compounds, evaluated in mid-20th century as a high energy fuel for jet and rocket engines, emits intense green flame, leading to its informal nickname of "Green Dragon". The glow of a flame is complex. Black-body radiation is emitted from soot, gas, and fuel particles, though the soot particles are too small to behave like perfect blackbodies. There is also photon emission by de-excited atoms and molecules in the gases. Much of the radiation is emitted in the visible and infrared bands. The color depends on temperature for the black-body radiation, and on chemical makeup for the emission spectra. The common distribution of a flame under normal gravity conditions depends on convection, as soot tends to rise to the top of a general flame, as in a candle in normal gravity conditions, making it yellow. In micro gravity or zero gravity, such as an environment in outer space, convection no longer occurs, and the flame becomes spherical, with a tendency to become more blue and more efficient (although it may go out if not moved steadily, as the CO2 from combustion does not disperse as readily in micro gravity, and tends to smother the flame). There are several possible explanations for this difference, of which the most likely is that the temperature is sufficiently evenly distributed that soot is not formed and complete combustion occurs. Experiments by NASA reveal that diffusion flames in micro gravity allow more soot to be completely oxidized after they are produced than diffusion flames on Earth, because of a series of mechanisms that behave differently in micro gravity when compared to normal gravity conditions. These discoveries have potential applications in applied science and industry, especially concerning fuel efficiency. Typical adiabatic temperatures The adiabatic flame temperature of a given fuel and oxidizer pair is that at which the gases achieve stable combustion. Oxy–dicyanoacetylene 4,990 °C (9,000 °F) Oxy–acetylene 3,480 °C (6,300 °F) Oxyhydrogen 2,800 °C (5,100 °F) Air–acetylene 2,534 °C (4,600 °F) Blowtorch (air–MAPP gas) 2,200 °C (4,000 °F) Bunsen burner (air–natural gas) 1,300 to 1,600 °C (2,400 to 2,900 °F) Candle (air–paraffin) 1,000 °C (1,800 °F). Fire science Fire science is a branch of physical science which includes fire behavior, dynamics, and combustion. Applications of fire science include fire protection, fire investigation, and wildfire management. Fire ecology Every natural ecosystem on land has its own fire regime, and the organisms in those ecosystems are adapted to or dependent upon that fire regime. Fire creates a mosaic of different habitat patches, each at a different stage of succession. Different species of plants, animals, and microbes specialize in exploiting a particular stage, and by creating these different types of patches, fire allows a greater number of species to exist within a landscape. Prevention and protection systems Wildfire prevention programs around the world may employ techniques such as wildland fire use and prescribed or controlled burns. Wildland fire use refers to any fire of natural causes that is monitored but allowed to burn. Controlled burns are fires ignited by government agencies under less dangerous weather conditions.Fire fighting services are provided in most developed areas to extinguish or contain uncontrolled fires. Trained firefighters use fire apparatus, water supply resources such as water mains and fire hydrants or they might use A and B class foam depending on what is feeding the fire. Fire prevention is intended to reduce sources of ignition. Fire prevention also includes education to teach people how to avoid causing fires. Buildings, especially schools and tall buildings, often conduct fire drills to inform and prepare citizens on how to react to a building fire. Purposely starting destructive fires constitutes arson and is a crime in most jurisdictions.Model building codes require passive fire protection and active fire protection systems to minimize damage resulting from a fire. The most common form of active fire protection is fire sprinklers. To maximize passive fire protection of buildings, building materials and furnishings in most developed countries are tested for fire-resistance, combustibility and flammability. Upholstery, carpeting and plastics used in vehicles and vessels are also tested. Where fire prevention and fire protection have failed to prevent damage, fire insurance can mitigate the financial impact. See also Haung, Kai (2009). Population and Building Factors That Impact Residential Fire Rates in Large U.S. Cities. Applied Research Project. Texas State University. Karki, Sameer (2002). "Community Involvement in and Management of Forest Fires in South East Asia" (PDF). Project FireFight South East Asia. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 25, 2009. Retrieved 2009-02-13. : Cite journal requires \|journal= (help) Kosman, Admiel (January 13, 2011). "Sacred fire". Haaretz. Lentile, Leigh B.; Holden, Zachary A.; Smith, Alistair M. S.; Falkowski, Michael J.; Hudak, Andrew T.; Morgan, Penelope; Lewis, Sarah A.; Gessler, Paul E.; Benson, Nate C (2006). "Remote sensing techniques to assess active fire characteristics and post-fire effects". International Journal of Wildland Fire. 3 (15): 319–345. doi:10.1071/WF05097. S2CID 724358. Archived from the original on 2014-08-12. Retrieved 2010-02-04. Further reading Pyne, Stephen J. Fire : a brief history (University of Washington Press, 2001). Pyne, Stephen J. ''World fire : the culture of fire on earth (1995) online Pyne, Stephen J. Tending fire : coping with America's wildland fires (2004) online Pyne, Stephen J. Awful splendour : a fire history of Canada (2007) online Pyne, Stephen J. Burning bush : a fire history of Australia (1991) online Pyne, Stephen J. Between Two Fires: A Fire History of Contemporary America (2015) Pyne, Stephen J. California: A Fire Survey (2016)Safford, Hugh D., et al. "Fire ecology of the North American Mediterranean-climate zone." in Fire ecology and management: Past, present, and future of US forested ecosystems (2021): 337-392. re California and its neighbors online How Fire Works at HowStuffWorks What exactly is fire? from The Straight Dope On Fire, an Adobe Flash–based science tutorial from the NOVA (TV series) "20 Things You Didn't Know About... Fire" from Discover magazine
Rain is water droplets that have condensed from atmospheric water vapor and then fall under gravity. Rain is a major component of the water cycle and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the Earth. It provides water for hydroelectric power plants, crop irrigation, and suitable conditions for many types of ecosystems. The major cause of rain production is moisture moving along three-dimensional zones of temperature and moisture contrasts known as weather fronts. If enough moisture and upward motion is present, precipitation falls from convective clouds (those with strong upward vertical motion) such as cumulonimbus (thunder clouds) which can organize into narrow rainbands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation which forces moist air to condense and fall out as rainfall along the sides of mountains. On the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by downslope flow which causes heating and drying of the air mass. The movement of the monsoon trough, or intertropical convergence zone, brings rainy seasons to savannah climes. The urban heat island effect leads to increased rainfall, both in amounts and intensity, downwind of cities. Global warming is also causing changes in the precipitation pattern globally, including wetter conditions across eastern North America and drier conditions in the tropics. Antarctica is the driest continent. The globally averaged annual precipitation over land is 715 mm (28.1 in), but over the whole Earth, it is much higher at 990 mm (39 in). Climate classification systems such as the Köppen classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes. Rainfall is measured using rain gauges. Rainfall amounts can be estimated by weather radar. Formation Water-saturated air Air contains water vapor, and the amount of water in a given mass of dry air, known as the mixing ratio, is measured in grams of water per kilogram of dry air (g/kg). The amount of moisture in the air is also commonly reported as relative humidity; which is the percentage of the total water vapor air can hold at a particular air temperature. How much water vapor a parcel of air can contain before it becomes saturated (100% relative humidity) and forms into a cloud (a group of visible and tiny water and ice particles suspended above the Earth's surface) depends on its temperature. Warmer air can contain more water vapor than cooler air before becoming saturated. Therefore, one way to saturate a parcel of air is to cool it. The dew point is the temperature to which a parcel must be cooled in order to become saturated.There are four main mechanisms for cooling the air to its dew point: adiabatic cooling, conductive cooling, radiational cooling, and evaporative cooling. Adiabatic cooling occurs when air rises and expands. The air can rise due to convection, large-scale atmospheric motions, or a physical barrier such as a mountain (orographic lift). Conductive cooling occurs when the air comes into contact with a colder surface, usually by being blown from one surface to another, for example from a liquid water surface to colder land. Radiational cooling occurs due to the emission of infrared radiation, either by the air or by the surface underneath. Evaporative cooling occurs when moisture is added to the air through evaporation, which forces the air temperature to cool to its wet-bulb temperature, or until it reaches saturation.The main ways water vapor is added to the air are wind convergence into areas of upward motion, precipitation or virga falling from above, daytime heating evaporating water from the surface of oceans, water bodies or wet land, transpiration from plants, cool or dry air moving over warmer water, and lifting air over mountains. Water vapor normally begins to condense on condensation nuclei such as dust, ice, and salt in order to form clouds. Elevated portions of weather fronts (which are three-dimensional in nature) force broad areas of upward motion within the Earth's atmosphere which form clouds decks such as altostratus or cirrostratus. Stratus is a stable cloud deck which tends to form when a cool, stable air mass is trapped underneath a warm air mass. It can also form due to the lifting of advection fog during breezy conditions. Coalescence and fragmentation Coalescence occurs when water droplets fuse to create larger water droplets. Air resistance typically causes the water droplets in a cloud to remain stationary. When air turbulence occurs, water droplets collide, producing larger droplets. As these larger water droplets descend, coalescence continues, so that drops become heavy enough to overcome air resistance and fall as rain. Coalescence generally happens most often in clouds above freezing and is also known as the warm rain process. In clouds below freezing, when ice crystals gain enough mass they begin to fall. This generally requires more mass than coalescence when occurring between the crystal and neighboring water droplets. This process is temperature dependent, as supercooled water droplets only exist in a cloud that is below freezing. In addition, because of the great temperature difference between cloud and ground level, these ice crystals may melt as they fall and become rain.Raindrops have sizes ranging from 0.1 to 9 mm (0.0039 to 0.3543 in) mean diameter but develop a tendency to break up at larger sizes. Smaller drops are called cloud droplets, and their shape is spherical. As a raindrop increases in size, its shape becomes more oblate, with its largest cross-section facing the oncoming airflow. Large rain drops become increasingly flattened on the bottom, like hamburger buns; very large ones are shaped like parachutes. Contrary to popular belief, their shape does not resemble a teardrop. The biggest raindrops on Earth were recorded over Brazil and the Marshall Islands in 2004 — some of them were as large as 10 mm (0.39 in). The large size is explained by condensation on large smoke particles or by collisions between drops in small regions with particularly high content of liquid water.Raindrops associated with melting hail tend to be larger than other raindrops.Intensity and duration of rainfall are usually inversely related, i.e., high-intensity storms are likely to be of short duration and low-intensity storms can have a long duration. Droplet size distribution The final droplet size distribution is an exponential distribution. The number of droplets with diameter between d {\displaystyle d} and D + d D {\displaystyle D+dD} per unit volume of space is n ( d ) = n 0 e − d / ⟨ d ⟩ d D {\displaystyle n(d)=n_{0}e^{-d/\langle d\rangle }dD} . This is commonly referred to as the Marshall–Palmer law after the researchers who first characterized it. The parameters are somewhat temperature-dependent, and the slope also scales with the rate of rainfall ⟨ d ⟩ − 1 = 41 R − 0.21 {\displaystyle \langle d\rangle ^{-1}=41R^{-0.21}} (d in centimeters and R in millimeters per hour).Deviations can occur for small droplets and during different rainfall conditions. The distribution tends to fit averaged rainfall, while instantaneous size spectra often deviate and have been modeled as gamma distributions. The distribution has an upper limit due to droplet fragmentation. Raindrop impacts Raindrops impact at their terminal velocity, which is greater for larger drops due to their larger mass-to-drag ratio. At sea level and without wind, 0.5 mm (0.020 in) drizzle impacts at 2 m/s (6.6 ft/s) or 7.2 km/h (4.5 mph), while large 5 mm (0.20 in) drops impact at around 9 m/s (30 ft/s) or 32 km/h (20 mph).Rain falling on loosely packed material such as newly fallen ash can produce dimples that can be fossilized, called raindrop impressions. The air density dependence of the maximum raindrop diameter together with fossil raindrop imprints has been used to constrain the density of the air 2.7 billion years ago.The sound of raindrops hitting water is caused by bubbles of air oscillating underwater.The METAR code for rain is RA, while the coding for rain showers is SHRA. Virga In certain conditions, precipitation may fall from a cloud but then evaporate or sublime before reaching the ground. This is termed virga and is more often seen in hot and dry climates. Causes Frontal activity Stratiform (a broad shield of precipitation with a relatively similar intensity) and dynamic precipitation (convective precipitation which is showery in nature with large changes in intensity over short distances) occur as a consequence of slow ascent of air in synoptic systems (on the order of cm/s), such as in the vicinity of cold fronts and near and poleward of surface warm fronts. Similar ascent is seen around tropical cyclones outside the eyewall, and in comma-head precipitation patterns around mid-latitude cyclones. A wide variety of weather can be found along an occluded front, with thunderstorms possible, but usually, their passage is associated with a drying of the air mass. Occluded fronts usually form around mature low-pressure areas. What separates rainfall from other precipitation types, such as ice pellets and snow, is the presence of a thick layer of air aloft which is above the melting point of water, which melts the frozen precipitation well before it reaches the ground. If there is a shallow near-surface layer that is below freezing, freezing rain (rain which freezes on contact with surfaces in subfreezing environments) will result. Hail becomes an increasingly infrequent occurrence when the freezing level within the atmosphere exceeds 3,400 m (11,000 ft) above ground level. Convection Convective rain, or showery precipitation, occurs from convective clouds (e.g., cumulonimbus or cumulus congestus). It falls as showers with rapidly changing intensity. Convective precipitation falls over a certain area for a relatively short time, as convective clouds have limited horizontal extent. Most precipitation in the tropics appears to be convective; however, it has been suggested that stratiform precipitation also occurs. Graupel and hail indicate convection. In mid-latitudes, convective precipitation is intermittent and often associated with baroclinic boundaries such as cold fronts, squall lines, and warm fronts. Orographic effects Orographic precipitation occurs on the windward side of mountains and is caused by the rising air motion of a large-scale flow of moist air across the mountain ridge, resulting in adiabatic cooling and condensation. In mountainous parts of the world subjected to relatively consistent winds (for example, the trade winds), a more moist climate usually prevails on the windward side of a mountain than on the leeward or downwind side. Moisture is removed by orographic lift, leaving drier air (see katabatic wind) on the descending and generally warming, leeward side where a rain shadow is observed.In Hawaii, Mount Waiʻaleʻale, on the island of Kauai, is notable for its extreme rainfall, as it is amongst the places in the world with the highest levels of rainfall, with 9,500 mm (373 in). Systems known as Kona storms affect the state with heavy rains between October and April. Local climates vary considerably on each island due to their topography, divisible into windward (Koʻolau) and leeward (Kona) regions based upon location relative to the higher mountains. Windward sides face the east to northeast trade winds and receive much more rainfall; leeward sides are drier and sunnier, with less rain and less cloud cover.In South America, the Andes mountain range blocks Pacific moisture that arrives in that continent, resulting in a desert-like climate just downwind across western Argentina. The Sierra Nevada range creates the same effect in North America forming the Great Basin and Mojave Deserts. Within the tropics The wet, or rainy, season is the time of year, covering one or more months, when most of the average annual rainfall in a region falls. The term green season is also sometimes used as a euphemism by tourist authorities. Areas with wet seasons are dispersed across portions of the tropics and subtropics. Savanna climates and areas with monsoon regimes have wet summers and dry winters. Tropical rainforests technically do not have dry or wet seasons, since their rainfall is equally distributed through the year. Some areas with pronounced rainy seasons will see a break in rainfall mid-season when the intertropical convergence zone or monsoon trough move poleward of their location during the middle of the warm season. When the wet season occurs during the warm season, or summer, rain falls mainly during the late afternoon and early evening hours. The wet season is a time when air quality improves, freshwater quality improves, and vegetation grows significantly. Tropical cyclones, a source of very heavy rainfall, consist of large air masses several hundred miles across with low pressure at the centre and with winds blowing inward towards the centre in either a clockwise direction (southern hemisphere) or counterclockwise (northern hemisphere). Although cyclones can take an enormous toll in lives and personal property, they may be important factors in the precipitation regimes of places they impact, as they may bring much-needed precipitation to otherwise dry regions. Areas in their path can receive a year's worth of rainfall from a tropical cyclone passage. Human influence The fine particulate matter produced by car exhaust and other human sources of pollution forms cloud condensation nuclei leads to the production of clouds and increases the likelihood of rain. As commuters and commercial traffic cause pollution to build up over the course of the week, the likelihood of rain increases: it peaks by Saturday, after five days of weekday pollution has been built up. In heavily populated areas that are near the coast, such as the United States' Eastern Seaboard, the effect can be dramatic: there is a 22% higher chance of rain on Saturdays than on Mondays. The urban heat island effect warms cities 0.6 to 5.6 °C (1.1 to 10.1 °F) above surrounding suburbs and rural areas. This extra heat leads to greater upward motion, which can induce additional shower and thunderstorm activity. Rainfall rates downwind of cities are increased between 48% and 116%. Partly as a result of this warming, monthly rainfall is about 28% greater between 32 and 64 km (20 and 40 mi) downwind of cities, compared with upwind. Some cities induce a total precipitation increase of 51%.Increasing temperatures tend to increase evaporation which can lead to more precipitation. Precipitation generally increased over land north of 30°N from 1900 through 2005 but has declined over the tropics since the 1970s. Globally there has been no statistically significant overall trend in precipitation over the past century, although trends have varied widely by region and over time. Eastern portions of North and South America, northern Europe, and northern and central Asia have become wetter. The Sahel, the Mediterranean, southern Africa and parts of southern Asia have become drier. There has been an increase in the number of heavy precipitation events over many areas during the past century, as well as an increase since the 1970s in the prevalence of droughts—especially in the tropics and subtropics. Changes in precipitation and evaporation over the oceans are suggested by the decreased salinity of mid- and high-latitude waters (implying more precipitation), along with increased salinity in lower latitudes (implying less precipitation and/or more evaporation). Over the contiguous United States, total annual precipitation increased at an average rate of 6.1 percent since 1900, with the greatest increases within the East North Central climate region (11.6 percent per century) and the South (11.1 percent). Hawaii was the only region to show a decrease (−9.25 percent).Analysis of 65 years of United States of America rainfall records show the lower 48 states have an increase in heavy downpours since 1950. The largest increases are in the Northeast and Midwest, which in the past decade, have seen 31 and 16 percent more heavy downpours compared to the 1950s. Rhode Island is the state with the largest increase, 104%. McAllen, Texas is the city with the largest increase, 700%. Heavy downpour in the analysis are the days where total precipitation exceeded the top one percent of all rain and snow days during the years 1950–2014.The most successful attempts at influencing weather involve cloud seeding, which include techniques used to increase winter precipitation over mountains and suppress hail. Characteristics Patterns Rainbands are cloud and precipitation areas which are significantly elongated. Rainbands can be stratiform or convective, and are generated by differences in temperature. When noted on weather radar imagery, this precipitation elongation is referred to as banded structure. Rainbands in advance of warm occluded fronts and warm fronts are associated with weak upward motion, and tend to be wide and stratiform in nature.Rainbands spawned near and ahead of cold fronts can be squall lines which are able to produce tornadoes. Rainbands associated with cold fronts can be warped by mountain barriers perpendicular to the front's orientation due to the formation of a low-level barrier jet. Bands of thunderstorms can form with sea breeze and land breeze boundaries if enough moisture is present. If sea breeze rainbands become active enough just ahead of a cold front, they can mask the location of the cold front itself.Once a cyclone occludes an occluded front (a trough of warm air aloft) will be caused by strong southerly winds on its eastern periphery rotating aloft around its northeast, and ultimately northwestern, periphery (also termed the warm conveyor belt), forcing a surface trough to continue into the cold sector on a similar curve to the occluded front. The front creates the portion of an occluded cyclone known as its comma head, due to the comma-like shape of the mid-tropospheric cloudiness that accompanies the feature. It can also be the focus of locally heavy precipitation, with thunderstorms possible if the atmosphere along the front is unstable enough for convection. Banding within the comma head precipitation pattern of an extratropical cyclone can yield significant amounts of rain. Behind extratropical cyclones during fall and winter, rainbands can form downwind of relative warm bodies of water such as the Great Lakes. Downwind of islands, bands of showers and thunderstorms can develop due to low-level wind convergence downwind of the island edges. Offshore California, this has been noted in the wake of cold fronts.Rainbands within tropical cyclones are curved in orientation. Tropical cyclone rainbands contain showers and thunderstorms that, together with the eyewall and the eye, constitute a hurricane or tropical storm. The extent of rainbands around a tropical cyclone can help determine the cyclone's intensity. Acidity The phrase acid rain was first used by Scottish chemist Robert Augus Smith in 1852. The pH of rain varies, especially due to its origin. On America's East Coast, rain that is derived from the Atlantic Ocean typically has a pH of 5.0–5.6; rain that comes across the continental from the west has a pH of 3.8–4.8; and local thunderstorms can have a pH as low as 2.0. Rain becomes acidic primarily due to the presence of two strong acids, sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3). Sulfuric acid is derived from natural sources such as volcanoes, and wetlands (sulfate-reducing bacteria); and anthropogenic sources such as the combustion of fossil fuels, and mining where H2S is present. Nitric acid is produced by natural sources such as lightning, soil bacteria, and natural fires; while also produced anthropogenically by the combustion of fossil fuels and from power plants. In the past 20 years, the concentrations of nitric and sulfuric acid has decreased in presence of rainwater, which may be due to the significant increase in ammonium (most likely as ammonia from livestock production), which acts as a buffer in acid rain and raises the pH. Köppen climate classification The Köppen classification depends on average monthly values of temperature and precipitation. The most commonly used form of the Köppen classification has five primary types labeled A through E. Specifically, the primary types are A, tropical; B, dry; C, mild mid-latitude; D, cold mid-latitude; and E, polar. The five primary classifications can be further divided into secondary classifications such as rain forest, monsoon, tropical savanna, humid subtropical, humid continental, oceanic climate, Mediterranean climate, steppe, subarctic climate, tundra, polar ice cap, and desert. Rain forests are characterized by high rainfall, with definitions setting minimum normal annual rainfall between 1,750 and 2,000 mm (69 and 79 in). A tropical savanna is a grassland biome located in semi-arid to semi-humid climate regions of subtropical and tropical latitudes, with rainfall between 750 and 1,270 mm (30 and 50 in) a year. They are widespread on Africa, and are also found in India, the northern parts of South America, Malaysia, and Australia. The humid subtropical climate zone is where winter rainfall is associated with large storms that the westerlies steer from west to east. Most summer rainfall occurs during thunderstorms and from occasional tropical cyclones. Humid subtropical climates lie on the east side continents, roughly between latitudes 20° and 40° degrees away from the equator.An oceanic (or maritime) climate is typically found along the west coasts at the middle latitudes of all the world's continents, bordering cool oceans, as well as southeastern Australia, and is accompanied by plentiful precipitation year-round. The Mediterranean climate regime resembles the climate of the lands in the Mediterranean Basin, parts of western North America, parts of Western and South Australia, in southwestern South Africa and in parts of central Chile. The climate is characterized by hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters. A steppe is a dry grassland. Subarctic climates are cold with continuous permafrost and little precipitation. Pollution Measurement Gauges Rain is measured in units of length per unit time, typically in millimeters per hour, or in countries where imperial units are more common, inches per hour. The "length", or more accurately, "depth" being measured is the depth of rain water that would accumulate on a flat, horizontal and impermeable surface during a given amount of time, typically an hour. One millimeter of rainfall is the equivalent of one liter of water per square meter.The standard way of measuring rainfall or snowfall is the standard rain gauge, which can be found in 100-mm (4-in) plastic and 200-mm (8-in) metal varieties. The inner cylinder is filled by 25 mm (0.98 in) of rain, with overflow flowing into the outer cylinder. Plastic gauges have markings on the inner cylinder down to 0.25 mm (0.0098 in) resolution, while metal gauges require use of a stick designed with the appropriate 0.25 mm (0.0098 in) markings. After the inner cylinder is filled, the amount inside it is discarded, then filled with the remaining rainfall in the outer cylinder until all the fluid in the outer cylinder is gone, adding to the overall total until the outer cylinder is empty. Other types of gauges include the popular wedge gauge (the cheapest rain gauge and most fragile), the tipping bucket rain gauge, and the weighing rain gauge. For those looking to measure rainfall the most inexpensively, a can that is cylindrical with straight sides will act as a rain gauge if left out in the open, but its accuracy will depend on what ruler is used to measure the rain with. Any of the above rain gauges can be made at home, with enough know-how.When a precipitation measurement is made, various networks exist across the United States and elsewhere where rainfall measurements can be submitted through the Internet, such as CoCoRAHS or GLOBE. If a network is not available in the area where one lives, the nearest local weather or met office will likely be interested in the measurement. Remote sensing One of the main uses of weather radar is to be able to assess the amount of precipitations fallen over large basins for hydrological purposes. For instance, river flood control, sewer management and dam construction are all areas where planners use rainfall accumulation data. Radar-derived rainfall estimates complement surface station data which can be used for calibration. To produce radar accumulations, rain rates over a point are estimated by using the value of reflectivity data at individual grid points. A radar equation is then used, which is where Z represents the radar reflectivity, R represents the rainfall rate, and A and b are constants. Satellite-derived rainfall estimates use passive microwave instruments aboard polar orbiting as well as geostationary weather satellites to indirectly measure rainfall rates. If one wants an accumulated rainfall over a time period, one has to add up all the accumulations from each grid box within the images during that time. Intensity Rainfall intensity is classified according to the rate of precipitation, which depends on the considered time. The following categories are used to classify rainfall intensity: Light rain — when the precipitation rate is < 2.5 mm (0.098 in) per hour Moderate rain — when the precipitation rate is between 2.5 mm (0.098 in) – 7.6 mm (0.30 in) or 10 mm (0.39 in) per hour Heavy rain — when the precipitation rate is > 7.6 mm (0.30 in) per hour, or between 10 mm (0.39 in) and 50 mm (2.0 in) per hour Violent rain — when the precipitation rate is > 50 mm (2.0 in) per hourTerms used for a heavy or violent rain include gully washer, trash-mover and toad-strangler. The intensity can also be expressed by rainfall erosivity R-factor or in terms of the rainfall time-structure n-index. Return period The average time between occurrences of an event with a specified intensity and duration is called the return period. The intensity of a storm can be predicted for any return period and storm duration, from charts based on historic data for the location. The return period is often expressed as an n-year event. For instance, a 10-year storm describes a rare rainfall event occurring on average once every 10 years. The rainfall will be greater and the flooding will be worse than the worst storm expected in any single year. A 100-year storm describes an extremely rare rainfall event occurring on average once in a century. The rainfall will be extreme and flooding worse than a 10-year event. The probability of an event in any year is the inverse of the return period (assuming the probability remains the same for each year). For instance, a 10-year storm has a probability of occurring of 10 percent in any given year, and a 100-year storm occurs with a 1 percent probability in a year. As with all probability events, it is possible, though improbable, to have multiple 100-year storms in a single year. Forecasting The Quantitative Precipitation Forecast (abbreviated QPF) is the expected amount of liquid precipitation accumulated over a specified time period over a specified area. A QPF will be specified when a measurable precipitation type reaching a minimum threshold is forecast for any hour during a QPF valid period. Precipitation forecasts tend to be bound by synoptic hours such as 0000, 0600, 1200 and 1800 GMT. Terrain is considered in QPFs by use of topography or based upon climatological precipitation patterns from observations with fine detail. Starting in the mid to late 1990s, QPFs were used within hydrologic forecast models to simulate impact to rivers throughout the United States.Forecast models show significant sensitivity to humidity levels within the planetary boundary layer, or in the lowest levels of the atmosphere, which decreases with height. QPF can be generated on a quantitative, forecasting amounts, or a qualitative, forecasting the probability of a specific amount, basis. Radar imagery forecasting techniques show higher skill than model forecasts within 6 to 7 hours of the time of the radar image. The forecasts can be verified through use of rain gauge measurements, weather radar estimates, or a combination of both. Various skill scores can be determined to measure the value of the rainfall forecast. Impact Agricultural Precipitation, especially rain, has a dramatic effect on agriculture. All plants need at least some water to survive, therefore rain (being the most effective means of watering) is important to agriculture. While a regular rain pattern is usually vital to healthy plants, too much or too little rainfall can be harmful, even devastating to crops. Drought can kill crops and increase erosion, while overly wet weather can cause harmful fungus growth. Plants need varying amounts of rainfall to survive. For example, certain cacti require small amounts of water, while tropical plants may need up to hundreds of inches of rain per year to survive. In areas with wet and dry seasons, soil nutrients diminish and erosion increases during the wet season. Animals have adaptation and survival strategies for the wetter regime. The previous dry season leads to food shortages into the wet season, as the crops have yet to mature. Developing countries have noted that their populations show seasonal weight fluctuations due to food shortages seen before the first harvest, which occurs late in the wet season. Rain may be harvested through the use of rainwater tanks; treated to potable use or for non-potable use indoors or for irrigation. Excessive rain during short periods of time can cause flash floods. Culture and religion Cultural attitudes towards rain differ across the world. In temperate climates, people tend to be more stressed when the weather is unstable or cloudy, with its impact greater on men than women. Rain can also bring joy, as some consider it to be soothing or enjoy the aesthetic appeal of it. In dry places, such as India, or during periods of drought, rain lifts people's moods. In Botswana, the Setswana word for rain, pula, is used as the name of the national currency, in recognition of the economic importance of rain in its country, since it has a desert climate. Several cultures have developed means of dealing with rain and have developed numerous protection devices such as umbrellas and raincoats, and diversion devices such as gutters and storm drains that lead rains to sewers. Many people find the scent during and immediately after rain pleasant or distinctive. The source of this scent is petrichor, an oil produced by plants, then absorbed by rocks and soil, and later released into the air during rainfall. Rain holds an important religious significance in many cultures. The ancient Sumerians believed that rain was the semen of the sky god An, which fell from the heavens to inseminate his consort, the earth goddess Ki, causing her to give birth to all the plants of the earth. The Akkadians believed that the clouds were the breasts of Anu's consort Antu and that rain was milk from her breasts. According to Jewish tradition, in the first century BC, the Jewish miracle-worker Honi ha-M'agel ended a three-year drought in Judaea by drawing a circle in the sand and praying for rain, refusing to leave the circle until his prayer was granted. In his Meditations, the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius preserves a prayer for rain made by the Athenians to the Greek sky god Zeus. Various Native American tribes are known to have historically conducted rain dances in effort to encourage rainfall. Rainmaking rituals are also important in many African cultures. In the present-day United States, various state governors have held Days of Prayer for rain, including the Days of Prayer for Rain in the State of Texas in 2011. Global climatology Approximately 505,000 km3 (121,000 cu mi) of water falls as precipitation each year across the globe with 398,000 km3 (95,000 cu mi) of it over the oceans. Given the Earth's surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 mm (39 in). Deserts are defined as areas with an average annual precipitation of less than 250 mm (10 in) per year, or as areas where more water is lost by evapotranspiration than falls as precipitation. Deserts The northern half of Africa is dominated by the world's most extensive hot, dry region, the Sahara Desert. Some deserts also occupy much of southern Africa: the Namib and the Kalahari. Across Asia, a large annual rainfall minimum, composed primarily of deserts, stretches from the Gobi Desert in Mongolia west-southwest through western Pakistan (Balochistan) and Iran into the Arabian Desert in Saudi Arabia. Most of Australia is semi-arid or desert, making it the world's driest inhabited continent. In South America, the Andes mountain range blocks Pacific moisture that arrives in that continent, resulting in a desert-like climate just downwind across western Argentina. The drier areas of the United States are regions where the Sonoran Desert overspreads the Desert Southwest, the Great Basin and central Wyoming. Polar deserts Since rain only falls as liquid, it rarely falls when surface temperatures are below freezing, unless there is a layer of warm air aloft, in which case it becomes freezing rain. Due to the entire atmosphere being below freezing most of the time, very cold climates see very little rainfall and are often known as polar deserts. A common biome in this area is the tundra which has a short summer thaw and a long frozen winter. Ice caps see no rain at all, making Antarctica the world's driest continent. Rainforests Rainforests are areas of the world with very high rainfall. Both tropical and temperate rainforests exist. Tropical rainforests occupy a large band of the planet mostly along the equator. Most temperate rainforests are located on mountainous west coasts between 45 and 55 degrees latitude, but they are often found in other areas. Around 40–75% of all biotic life is found in rainforests. Rainforests are also responsible for 28% of the world's oxygen turnover. Monsoons The equatorial region near the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), or monsoon trough, is the wettest portion of the world's continents. Annually, the rain belt within the tropics marches northward by August, then moves back southward into the Southern Hemisphere by February and March. Within Asia, rainfall is favored across its southern portion from India east and northeast across the Philippines and southern China into Japan due to the monsoon advecting moisture primarily from the Indian Ocean into the region. The monsoon trough can reach as far north as the 40th parallel in East Asia during August before moving southward thereafter. Its poleward progression is accelerated by the onset of the summer monsoon which is characterized by the development of lower air pressure (a thermal low) over the warmest part of Asia. Similar, but weaker, monsoon circulations are present over North America and Australia. During the summer, the Southwest monsoon combined with Gulf of California and Gulf of Mexico moisture moving around the subtropical ridge in the Atlantic Ocean bring the promise of afternoon and evening thunderstorms to the southern tier of the United States as well as the Great Plains. The eastern half of the contiguous United States east of the 98th meridian, the mountains of the Pacific Northwest, and the Sierra Nevada range are the wetter portions of the nation, with average rainfall exceeding 760 mm (30 in) per year. Tropical cyclones enhance precipitation across southern sections of the United States, as well as Puerto Rico, the United States Virgin Islands, the Northern Mariana Islands, Guam, and American Samoa. Impact of the Westerlies Westerly flow from the mild north Atlantic leads to wetness across western Europe, in particular Ireland and the United Kingdom, where the western coasts can receive between 1,000 mm (39 in), at sea level and 2,500 mm (98 in), on the mountains of rain per year. Bergen, Norway is one of the more famous European rain-cities with its yearly precipitation of 2,250 mm (89 in) on average. During the fall, winter, and spring, Pacific storm systems bring most of Hawaii and the western United States much of their precipitation. Over the top of the ridge, the jet stream brings a summer precipitation maximum to the Great Lakes. Large thunderstorm areas known as mesoscale convective complexes move through the Plains, Midwest, and Great Lakes during the warm season, contributing up to 10% of the annual precipitation to the region.The El Niño-Southern Oscillation affects the precipitation distribution, by altering rainfall patterns across the western United States, Midwest, the Southeast, and throughout the tropics. There is also evidence that global warming is leading to increased precipitation to the eastern portions of North America, while droughts are becoming more frequent in the tropics and subtropics. Wettest known locations Cherrapunji, situated on the southern slopes of the Eastern Himalaya in Shillong, India is the confirmed wettest place on Earth, with an average annual rainfall of 11,430 mm (450 in). The highest recorded rainfall in a single year was 22,987 mm (905.0 in) in 1861. The 38-year average at nearby Mawsynram, Meghalaya, India is 11,873 mm (467.4 in). The wettest spot in Australia is Mount Bellenden Ker in the north-east of the country which records an average of 8,000 mm (310 in) per year, with over 12,200 mm (480.3 in) of rain recorded during 2000. The Big Bog on the island of Maui has the highest average annual rainfall in the Hawaiian Islands, at 10,300 mm (404 in). Mount Waiʻaleʻale on the island of Kauaʻi achieves similar torrential rains, while slightly lower than that of the Big Bog, at 9,500 mm (373 in) of rain per year over the last 32 years, with a record 17,340 mm (683 in) in 1982. Its summit is considered one of the rainiest spots on earth, with a reported 350 days of rain per year. Lloró, a town situated in Chocó, Colombia, is probably the place with the largest rainfall in the world, averaging 13,300 mm (523.6 in) per year. The Department of Chocó is extraordinarily humid. Tutunendaó, a small town situated in the same department, is one of the wettest estimated places on Earth, averaging 11,394 mm (448.6 in) per year; in 1974 the town received 26,303 mm (86 ft 3.6 in), the largest annual rainfall measured in Colombia. Unlike Cherrapunji, which receives most of its rainfall between April and September, Tutunendaó receives rain almost uniformly distributed throughout the year. Quibdó, the capital of Chocó, receives the most rain in the world among cities with over 100,000 inhabitants: 9,000 mm (354 in) per year. Storms in Chocó can drop 500 mm (20 in) of rainfall in a day. This amount is more than what falls in many cities in a year's time. See also a b c The value given is the continent's highest, and possibly the world's, depending on measurement practices, procedures and period of record variations. ^ The official greatest average annual precipitation for South America is 900 cm (354 in) at Quibdó, Colombia. The 1,330 cm (523.6 in) average at Lloró [23 km (14 mi) SE and at a higher elevation than Quibdó] is an estimated amount. ^ Approximate elevation. ^ Recognized as "The Wettest place on Earth" by the Guinness Book of World Records. ^ This is the highest figure for which records are available. The summit of Mount Snowdon, about 500 yards (460 m) from Glaslyn, is estimated to have at least 200.0 inches (5,080 mm) per year. BBC article on the weekend rain effect BBC article on rain-making BBC article on the mathematics of running in the rain What are clouds, and why does it rain?
Holly Brook Hafermann (born February 23, 1986), known professionally as Skylar Grey, is an American singer and songwriter from Mazomanie, Wisconsin. In 2004, at the age of 17, Grey signed a publishing deal with Universal Music Publishing Group and a recording contract with Machine Shop Recordings under the name Holly Brook. In 2006, she released her debut studio album, Like Blood Like Honey, under the aforementioned labels. In 2010, Grey co-wrote Eminem and Rihanna's hit single "Love the Way You Lie" alongside Eminem and Alex da Kid, who subsequently signed Grey to his Interscope Records label imprint Kidinakorner. Grey's second album, Don't Look Down, was released under the label in July 2013. The album reached the top 10 in the US and produced four singles. Grey's third studio release, Natural Causes, was issued in September 2016. An eponymous fourth studio album was released in April 2022. Grey is also known for providing guest vocals on several hit singles, such as Fort Minor's "Where'd You Go", Diddy's "Coming Home", Dr. Dre's "I Need a Doctor", Nicki Minaj's "Bed of Lies", Macklemore's "Glorious" and Illenium’s “From The Ashes”. Additionally, she has written songs for a number of prominent singers, including Kehlani, G-Eazy, Alicia Keys, Christina Aguilera, Zedd, Nick Jonas, Céline Dion, and CeeLo Green. Life and career 1994–2004: Early life and Generations As a child, Grey performed professionally in a folk duo with her mother, Candace Kreitlow, called Generations. The group released three studio albums together. 2005–2010: Like Blood Like Honey and EPs Grey co-wrote "Done With Like" and "She Said" with Jon Ingoldsby and American actress Brie Larson for Larson's first and only album, Finally Out of P.E. (2005). In 2005, Grey was featured on American hip hop group Fort Minor's songs, "Where'd You Go" and "Be Somebody". "Where'd You Go" was released as a single on April 14, 2006, with an accompanying music video following soon after. The song gained commercial success and ended up becoming a top four hit on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart and also became certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). After working with music producer Jonathan Ingoldsby, Grey released her debut album, titled Like Blood Like Honey, on June 6, 2006, under Warner Bros. Records. The album peaked at number 35 on Billboard's Heatseekers Albums chart. During this time, Grey had landed opening spots for concert tours with Jamie Cullum, k.d. lang, Daniel Powter, Teddy Geiger and Duncan Sheik.Through Machine Shop Records, Grey worked with Linkin Park affiliates Styles of Beyond and Apathy. She was featured on two tracks, "Victim" and "No Sad Tomorrow", from Apathy's second studio album, Wanna Snuggle? (2009). Grey toured as part of Duncan Sheik's band and contributed substantially to his 2009 album, Whisper House. In 2009, Grey sang backing vocals on Eurovision contestant Yohanna's debut album, Butterflies and Elvis. In August 2009, still under the name Holly Brook, she lent both her song "It's Raining Again" and her image to a promotional campaign for Ciao Water. In early 2010, she performed in the theatrical version of "Whisper House," playing one of the two lead ghost vocalists, along with David Poe. On June 10, 2010, she self-released the seven-song extended play (EP), O’Dark:Thirty. Production of the EP was handled by Duncan Sheik and Jon Ingoldsby. 2010–2011: Songwriting and name change Brook later changed her stage name to Skylar Grey. While still living in Oregon, Grey visited New York to meet her publisher Jennifer Blakeman, to seek help presenting her work. Blakeman had suggested that she work with English producer Alex da Kid. Alex da Kid then sent Grey a few tracks that he had been working on, the first song finished being "Love the Way You Lie". The song was given to American rapper Eminem (who wrote the verses) and Barbadian singer Rihanna. Their song became a worldwide hit, reaching number one on 26 charts and being nominated for four Grammy Awards. Grey received a Song of the Year Grammy nomination for "Love the Way You Lie". Grey wrote the hook to all three versions of "Love the Way You Lie" by Eminem and Rihanna, and even recorded a solo version that was later featured on her fourth EP, The Buried Sessions of Skylar Grey (2012). Alex da Kid went on to sign Skylar Grey to a production deal on his KIDinaKORNER record label imprint. In 2010, Grey also co-wrote and was featured on Diddy – Dirty Money's single "Coming Home", which gained massive commercial success. Also in 2010, Grey co-wrote "Castle Walls" by American rapper T.I. and American pop singer Christina Aguilera. On February 1, 2011, American renowned hip hop producer Dr. Dre released a song titled "I Need a Doctor", featuring Eminem and Grey. "I Need a Doctor" managed to peak at number four on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart and was certified double platinum by the RIAA. The song garnered Grey several Grammy nominations. Grey made her national television debut under her new alias during the 53rd Annual Grammy Awards, where she performed "I Need a Doctor", with Eminem and Dr. Dre. During this time, Grey announced that she had begun working on her album then-titled Invinsible. In March 2011, it was revealed Grey signed to Interscope Records, through Alex da Kid's KIDinaKORNER and announced she would be releasing a single in the spring. Later in 2011, Grey was featured on a song titled "Words I Never Said", the second single from Lupe Fiasco's Lasers (2011). Grey released her debut single, "Dance Without You", on June 6, 2011. The song later received a music video, which was released on July 5. Grey's second single and formerly her second album's title-track, "Invisible", was released to radio on June 16. Grey performed alongside aspiring rapper Eli Porter on the September 20, 2011 episode of Tosh.0. In October, Grey was featured on American DJ Kaskade's seventh album Fire & Ice, writing and singing on two versions of the song "Room for Happiness", which became the album's third single and earned a Grammy nomination. 2012–2014: Don't Look Down and collaborations In August 2012, appeared twice as a guest vocalist on American hip hop supergroup Slaughterhouse's second album, Welcome to: Our House (2012). In September 2012, Grey's song "Building a Monster", was featured on the soundtrack to Tim Burton's Frankenweenie.In 2012, Grey co-wrote Russian-German producer Zedd's 2012 single "Clarity" featuring Foxes, which won the Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording in 2014.In February 2013, American recording artist CeeLo Green released a single titled "Only You", which he co-wrote with Grey. On March 8, 2013, Grey performed a six-song set for "Guitar Center Sessions" on DirecTV. Grey also contributed an exclusive song, titled "Slowly Freaking Out", to the soundtrack album for the film 2013 film The Host, based on the novel by Stephenie Meyer, In April 2013, Grey contributed to will.i.am's fourth solo album #willpower, on the song "Love Bullets".On October 31, 2012, Grey announced Eminem would be executive producer for her album whose title she had changed from Invinsible to Don't Look Down. The album was preceded by the singles "C'mon Let Me Ride", "Final Warning", and "Wear Me Out". Grey's second album, Don't Look Down, was released July 5, 2013.The album debuted at number eight on the US Billboard 200 chart, selling 24,000 copies in the United States.In September 2013, Grey released a music video for her cover version of Daft Punk's hit single "Get Lucky". In October 2013, Grey appeared on the track "The Last Day" on Moby's eleventh album, Innocents. On October 17, 2013, Grey previewed a new cover of Robert Palmer's "Addicted to Love" in a trailer for the 2014 remake of Endless Love. In November 2013, she appeared on Eminem's eighth studio album, The Marshall Mathers LP 2, on a track titled "Asshole".On January 20, 2014, Grey released a song titled "Shot Me Down", with David Guetta. The song was successful charting in the top ten in several countries. In March 2014, a new collaboration with American recording artist Kid Cudi, titled "Hero", was recorded for the Need for Speed film and released on the film's official soundtrack. In August 2014, Grey appeared on American rapper T.I.'s song "New National Anthem", from his ninth album, Paperwork. In November 2014, Grey featured on Shady XV, a compilation album performed by various artists of Shady Records, on "Twisted" alongside Eminem and Yelawolf. In 2014, Grey teamed up with American rapper Nicki Minaj to co-write the song "Bed of Lies", from Minaj's third album, The Pinkprint. Grey sang on the recording and performed it with Minaj at the 2014 MTV Europe Music Awards and the December 6, 2014 episode of Saturday Night Live. 2015–2017: Natural Causes and soundtracks Grey confirmed on her official Instagram account that her third studio album would be released in 2015. In February 2015, Grey released a song from the Fifty Shades of Grey soundtrack called "I Know You". Also in February, Grey confirmed she has a song on the Furious 7 soundtrack, called "I Will Return." In March 2015, she released her version of "Addicted to Love" on iTunes, and also re-released the song "Words," which was deleted from the iTunes Store in 2013. On March 29, 2015, Grey appeared at her third WrestleMania event, performing a medley of "Rise" and "Money and the Power" at the thirty-first annual event, with Travis Barker and Kid Ink.On May 18, 2015, house producer deadmau5 released a short demo on SoundCloud in collaboration with Kaskade, featuring vocals by Grey, titled "Beneath with Me". On October 6, 2016, a music video for the song was released.Natural Causes, Grey's third studio album, was released on September 23, 2016. The album received positive reviews and was a moderate commercial success. It was preceded by the singles "Moving Mountains", the Eminem-produced "Come Up For Air", and "Lemonade". In the fall of 2016, Grey went on her Natural Causes Tour with morgxn.In 2017, Grey provided vocals for the song "Wreak Havoc" and wrote Kehlani's "Gangsta" for the Suicide Squad soundtrack. Grey later co-wrote Kehlani and G-Eazy's song "Good Life" for The Fate of the Furious: The Album soundtrack. Grey collaborated with G-Eazy again, writing "Pick Me Up" for his album The Beautiful & Damned.On March 31, 2017, American rock band Papa Roach released their song, "Periscope", featuring guest vocals by Grey. Grey was also featured on American rapper Macklemore's single "Glorious", released on June 25, 2017. The platinum selling single topped the charts in numerous countries. Grey collaborated with Eminem on his album Revival, co-writing the collaborations "Walk On Water" with Beyoncé, "Like Home" with Alicia Keys, "Need Me" with Pink, and "Tragic Endings" with Grey herself.Previous collaborator Kaskade released his debut Christmas album Kaskade Christmas on November 24 and featured Grey singing a cover of "O Come, O Come, Emmanuel" retitled "O Come Emmanuel". 2018–2020: Angel with Tattoos and Make It Through The Day On January 25, 2018, Grey released a cover of Ben E. King's "Stand by Me", which was featured in a Budweiser Super Bowl LII commercial. A portion of the proceeds from the song went to the American Red Cross to benefit those affected by natural disasters. A music video was released on February 2, 2018.In an interview with Uproxx published on January 26, 2018, Grey revealed that she was working on her fourth album and is planning on including her own version of "Walk on Water", which she had written for Eminem and Beyoncé, on the album. Later that year, Grey co-wrote and performed the single "Everything I Need", for James Wan's superhero blockbuster film Aquaman.In May 2019 Grey, along with fellow artists Jamie N Commons and Gallant, released a new version of Soul Asylum's 1993 "Runaway Train". The video for the song was made in collaboration with the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children and utilizes geotargeting to show viewers missing children in their local area. The video was later nominated for a VMA.On July 19, 2019, Grey announced on social media that she had left Interscope Records/KIDinaKORNER and that she would release her fourth studio album Angel with Tattoos. The first single released was titled "Shame On You". Angel with Tattoos was released as an EP on October 18, 2019, and she released the music video for the title-song of the album on the same day. Grey announced that the album is open ended, and songs will be added over time, stating; "Who knows? It could end up with a hundred songs, it could stop at five.”.On August 7, 2019, Grey released a new song titled "New Kind Of Love" that was featured on Hulu's re-make of "Four Weddings And A Funeral". In the Aug. 24 issue of Billboard, Grey revealed that she had left Interscope Records due to "creative differences;" that her departure had been "amicable;" and that she had signed with Crush Music in 2017.In 2019, Grey and her fiancé Elliott Taylor wrote "Falling In Love Again" for Celine Dion's Courage. Train also released a song featuring Grey titled "Mai Tais". The song was featured on the CBS show Magnum P.I.On January 17, 2020, Eminem released his eleventh studio album, Music to Be Murdered By, featuring a song featuring Grey titled "Leaving Heaven". Furthermore, Grey co-wrote and produced the song, making her the first sole female to produce an Eminem song.On July 14, 2020, Grey revealed her then-upcoming album title, Dark Thoughts. The project was preceded by the singles "Dark Thoughts", a cover of "Goosebumps", and "Sunscreen". The project was eventually scrapped as Grey announced she started working on a new album via various social platforms on January 16, 2021. Some singles released in 2020 were compiled as part of Make It Through The Day - EP, released on November 6, 2020. 2021–present: Skylar Grey and re-recording of catalog On September 30, 2021, Grey's song "Last One Standing" was featured on the soundtrack for the film Venom: Let There Be Carnage with Eminem, Polo G, and Mozzy featured on the song.After the release of several singles, Grey's eponymous fourth studio offering, Skylar Grey was released on April 28, 2022.On July 15, 2022, Grey's song "My Heart Has Teeth", produced by deadmau5, was featured on the soundtrack for the series Resident Evil.On October 27, 2022, Grey's song "Walking On Fire", produced by Th3rdstream, was featured on the soundtrack for the series Vampire Academy.On January 8, 2023 Skylar Grey announced that she will be rereleasing her hit songs, after she sold her music catalogue to settle a divorce suit in 2021. Artistry Musical style and influences Grey has listed Bon Iver, Fleetwood Mac, James Taylor, Shirley Manson of Garbage, Joni Mitchell, Radiohead, Marilyn Manson, Bob Dylan, Fiona Apple, Neil Young, Sarah McLachlan, Eminem, Death Cab for Cutie and Alana Davis as her influences. Stage name Grey explained that she thought her stage name "represents the unknowns in life. People seem to be afraid of the unknowns, but I'm the complete opposite. I dive into the unknown because I feel like that's where all your possibilities come from." She explained to Beatweek that she chose "grey" with an e rather than an a because "I like to do things the original way" and because "it's more masculine. I'm not a very feminine person." Personal life Grey was previously married to Todd Jeremy Mandel. In 2017, she was granted a temporary restraining order against him after he allegedly stalked and followed her and her boyfriend, Elliott Taylor. Grey is currently engaged to Taylor. Discography Like Blood Like Honey (2006) Don't Look Down (2013) Natural Causes (2016) Skylar Grey (2022) Filmography Film Television Web Tours Don't Look Down Summer US Tour The Natural Causes Tour Awards and nominations Grammy Awards Grey has been nominated for five Grammys. MTV Video Music Awards Teen Choice Awards Variety's Breakthrough of the Year Awards Vevocertified Awards World Music Awards Official website Skylar Grey at AllMusic On Interscope.com Catalog record for Holly Brook at the United States Library of Congress
Hebei UK: or , UK: (Chinese: ; lit. 'River North'; alternately Hopeh) is a northern province of China. Hebei is China's sixth most populous province, with over 75 million people. Shijiazhuang is the capital city. The province is 96% Han Chinese, 3% Manchu, 0.8% Hui, and 0.3% Mongol. Three Mandarin dialects are spoken: Jilu Mandarin, Beijing Mandarin and Jin. Hebei borders the provinces of Shanxi to the west, Henan to the south, Shandong to the southeast, Liaoning to the northeast, and the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region to the north. Hebei province additionally borders the direct-administered municipalities of Beijing and Tianjin, whose territory it (together with the Bohai Sea) it entirely encloses. Its economy is based on agriculture and manufacturing. The province is China's premier steel producer, although the steel industry creates serious air pollution.Five UNESCO World Heritage Sites can be found in the province, the: Great Wall of China, Chengde Mountain Resort, Grand Canal, Eastern Qing tombs, and Western Qing tombs. It is also home to five National Famous Historical and Cultural Cities: Handan, Baoding, Chengde, Zhengding and Shanhaiguan. Historically, during the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period, the region was ruled by the Chinese Yan and Zhao states. During the Yuan dynasty, the region was called the Zhongshu Province. It was called North Zhili during the Ming dynasty, and Zhili Province during the Qing dynasty. The modern-day province of Hebei was created in 1928. Etymology Hebei Province received its name from its location in the North China Plain, north of the Yellow River. Hebei means "north of the river". Since the province is recorded in Yu Gong as Ji Province, or Jizhou, it is abbreviated as Ji (Chinese: 冀). The province's nickname is Yanzhao (Chinese: 燕赵), which is the collective name of the Yan and Zhao states that controlled the region during the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period. In 1421, the Yongle Emperor moved the capital from Nanjing to Beijing and the province started to be called North Zhili (Chinese: 北直隶) or Zhili (Chinese: 直隶), which means "Directly Ruled (by the Imperial Court)". When Nanjing became the capital of the Republic of China in 1928, the Zhili province was abolished and given its present name, Hebei. History Pre and early history Peking man, an early pre-historic Homo erectus, lived on the plains of Hebei around 200,000 to 700,000 years ago. Neolithic findings at the prehistoric Beifudi site date to 7000 and 8000 BC.Many early Chinese myths are set in the province. Fuxi, one of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors, is said to have lived in present-day Xingtai. The mythical Battle of Zhuolu, won by the Yellow Emperor, Yan Emperor, and their Yanhuang tribes against the Chiyou-led Jiuli tribes, took place in Zhangjiakou and started the Huaxia civilization. During the Spring and Autumn period (722 BC–476 BC), Hebei was under the rule of Yan in the north and Jin in the south. Also during this period, a nomadic people known as Dí invaded the plains of northern China and established Zhongshan in central Hebei. In the Warring States period (403 BC–221 BC), Jin was partitioned and much of its territory in Hebei went to Zhao. Qin and Han dynasties The Qin dynasty unified China in 221 BC. The Han dynasty (206 BC–220 AD) ruled the area under two provinces, You Prefecture in the north and Ji Province in the south. At the end of the Han dynasty, most of Hebei was under the control of warlords Gongsun Zan in the north and Yuan Shao further south. Yuan Shao emerged as the victor of the two, but he was defeated by Cao Cao in the Battle of Guandu in 200. Hebei came under the rule of the Kingdom of Wei, established by the descendants of Cao Cao. Jin through the Three Kingdoms After the invasions of northern nomadic peoples at the end of the Western Jin dynasty, chaos ensued in the Sixteen Kingdoms and the Northern and Southern dynasties. Because of its location on the northern frontier, Hebei changed hands many times and was controlled at various times by Later Zhao, Former Yan, Former Qin, and Later Yan. The Northern Wei reunified northern China in 440 but split in 534, with Hebei coming under Eastern Wei; then the Northern Qi, with its capital at Ye near modern Linzhang, Hebei. The Sui dynasty again unified China in 589. Tang and Five dynasties During the Tang dynasty (618–907), the area was officially called Hebei for the first time. The Great Yan State was established in Hebei from 756 to 763 during the An Lushan Rebellion. After the rebellion, Lulong Jiedushi retained its autonomy from Tang during most of the 9th century. During the late Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, Lulong was fragmented among several regimes including the short-lived Yan. It was eventually annexed in 913 by Li Cunxu, who established the Later Tang (923–936). Emperor Gaozu of the Later Jin dynasty ceded much of northern Hebei to the Khitan Liao dynasty. This territory, called the Sixteen Prefectures of Yanyun, became a weakness in the Chinese defense against the Khitans for the next century because it lay within the Great Wall. Song through Yuan dynasties During the Northern Song dynasty (960–1127), the sixteen ceded prefectures continued to be an area of contention between Song China and the Liao dynasty. Later, the Southern Song dynasty abandoned all of North China, including Hebei, to the Jurchen Jin dynasty after the 1127 Jingkang Incident of the Jin–Song wars. Hebei was heavily affected by the flooding of the Yellow River; between 1048 and 1128, the river ran directly through the province rather than to its south.The Mongol Yuan dynasty divided China into provinces but did not establish Hebei as a province. Instead, the area was directly administrated by the Secretariat at the capital Dadu. Ming and Qing dynasties The Ming dynasty ruled Hebei as Beizhili, meaning Northern Directly Ruled because the area contained and was directly ruled by the imperial capital in Beijing. The "Northern" designation was used because there was a southern counterpart covering present-day Jiangsu and Anhui. When the Manchu Qing dynasty came to power in 1644, they abolished the southern counterpart, and Hebei became known as Zhili or Directly Ruled. During the Qing dynasty, the northern borders of Zhili extended deep into Inner Mongolia and overlapped in jurisdiction with the leagues of Inner Mongolia. Republic of China The Qing dynasty collapsed in 1912 and was replaced by the Republic of China. In a few years, China descended into a civil war, with regional warlords vying for power. Since Zhili was so close to the capital of Peking (Beijing), it was the site of the Zhiwan War, the First Zhifeng War, and the Second Zhifeng War. With the success of the Northern Expedition in 1926 and 1927 by the Kuomintang, the capital was moved from Peking to Nanking (Nanjing). As a result, the provence's name was changed to Hebei, reflecting the relocation of the capital and its standard provincial administration. During the World War II, Hebei was under the control of the Reorganized National Government of the Republic of China, a puppet state of Imperial Japan. People's Republic of China The founding of the People's Republic of China saw several changes. The region around Chengde, previously part of Rehe Province (historically part of Manchuria), and the region around Zhangjiakou, previously part of Chahar Province (historically part of Inner Mongolia), were merged into Hebei. This extended its borders northwards beyond the Great Wall. Meanwhile, the city of Puyang was carved away, causing Hebei to lose access to the Yellow River. The city became part of the short-lived Pingyuan Province before eventually being annexed into Henan.The capital was also moved from Baoding to the new city of Shijiazhuang, and, for a short period, to Tianjin. On July 28, 1976, Tangshan was struck by the Tangshan earthquake, the deadliest earthquake of the 20th century, killing over 240,000 people. There were a series of smaller earthquakes in the following decade. Today, Hebei, along with Beijing and Tianjin municipalities which it includes, make up the Jing-Jin-Ji megalopolis region. With a population of 130 million, it is about six times the size of the New York metropolitan area and is one of the largest megalopolis clusters in China. Beijing had also unloaded some of its non-capital functions to the province with the establishment of the Xiong'an New Area, which integrates the three municipalities. Geography Hebei is the only province in China to contain plateaus, mountains, hills, shorelines, plains, and lakes. Most of central and southern Hebei lies within the North China Plain. Western Hebei rises into the Taihang Mountains (Taihang Shan), while the Yan Mountains (Yan Shan) runs through northern Hebei. Beyond the mountains are the grasslands of Inner Mongolia. The highest peak is Mount Xiaowutai in Yu County in the northwest of the province, with an altitude of 2,882 m (9,455 ft).Hebei borders the Bohai Sea on the east. The Hai River watershed covers most of the province's central and southern parts; the Luan River watershed covers the northeast. Excluding manmade reservoirs, the largest lake in Hebei is Baiyangdian, located in Anxin County, Baoding. Major cities in Hebei include: Shijiazhuang, Baoding, Tangshan, Qinhuangdao, Handan, and Zhangjiakou. Hebei has a monsoon-influenced humid continental climate. Its winters are cold and dry, while its summers are hot and humid. Temperatures average −16 to −3 °C (3 to 27 °F) in January and 20 to 27 °C (68 to 81 °F) in July. The annual precipitation ranges from 400 to 800 mm (16 to 31 in), concentrated heavily in summer. Government The politics of Hebei is structured in a dual party-government system like all other governing institutions in mainland China. The Governor of Hebei is the highest-ranking official in the People's Government of Hebei. However, in the province's dual party-government governing system, the governor has less power than the Hebei Chinese Communist Party Provincial Committee Secretary (CCP Party Chief). Administrative divisions Hebei has eleven prefecture-level divisions. All are prefecture-level cities: These eleven prefecture-level divisions are subdivided into 168 county-level divisions (47 districts, 21 county-level cities, 94 counties and 6 autonomous counties). Those are, in turn, divided into 2207 township-level divisions (1 district public office, 937 towns, 979 townships, 55 ethnic townships, and 235 subdistricts). At the end of 2017, the total population of Hebei was 75.2 million. Urban areas Economy In 2014, Hebei's gross domestic product (GDP) was 2.942 trillion yuan (US$479 billion). It is ranked sixth in the PRC, with its GDP per capita reaching 40,124 renminbi. As of 2011, the primary, secondary, and tertiary sectors of industry contributed 203.46 billion, 877.74 billion, and 537.66 billion RMB respectively. The registered urban unemployment rate was 3.96%. Hebei's industries include textiles, coal, steel, iron, engineering, chemical production, petroleum, power, ceramics, and food. 40% of Hebei's labor force works in the agriculture, forestry, and animal husbandry sectors, with the majority of production from these industries going to Beijing and Tianjin. Hebei's main agricultural products are cereal crops, including wheat, maize, millet, and sorghum. Cash crops like cotton, peanut, soybeans and sesame are also produced. Hebei has abundant natural resources. The Kailuan mine in Tangshan, with a history of over 100 years, is one of China's first modern coal mines. It remains active, with an annual production of over 20 million metric tonnes. Much of the North China Oilfied is within Hebei. There are major iron mines at Handan and Qian'an. Iron and steel manufacturing are the largest industries in Hebei. Economic and technological development zones Baoding Hi-Tech Industry Development Zone Langfang Export Processing Zone Qinhuangdao Economic & Technological Development Zone Qinhuangdao Export Processing Zone Shijiazhuang Hi-Tech Industrial Development Zone Xiong'an New Area Demographics The population in Hebei is mostly Han Chinese. There are 55 ethnic minorities in Hebei, representing 4.27% of the total population. The largest ethnic groups are Manchu (2.1 million people), Hui (600,000 people), and Mongol (180,000 people). Population totals do not include those in active service with the People's Liberation Army. In 2019, the birth rate was 10.83 births per 1,000 people, while the death rate was 6.12 deaths per 1,000 people. The male population is 37,679,003 (50.50%), the female population is 36,931,232 (49.50%). The gender ratio of the total population was 102.02, decreasing by 0.82 from 2010. Religion The dominant religions in Hebei are Chinese folk religions, Taoist traditions, and Chinese Buddhism. According to surveys conducted in 2007 and 2009, 5.52% of the population believe in and are involved in ancestor veneration, while 3.05% identify as Christian, belonging mostly to the Catholic Church. As of 2010 Muslims constitute 0.82% of the population of Hebei.Although the surveys did not provide specific data for other religions, 90.61% of the population are either nonreligious or are involved in worship of nature deities, Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, and folk religious sects. Zailiism is a folk religious sect that originated in Hebei. Local worship of deities organized into benevolent churches in reaction to Catholicism in the Qing dynasty. Hebei has the largest Catholic population in China, with one million members and 1.5 million Catholics according to the Catholic Church. In 1900, apparition of the Virgin Mary was said have appeared in the town of Donglu in Baoding. As a result, Donglu is "one of the strongholds of the unofficial Catholic Church in China". Many Catholics in Hebei remain loyal to the Pope and reject the authority of the Catholic Patriotic Church. Four of Hebei's underground bishops have been imprisoned in recent years: Bishop Francis An Shuxin of Donglu since 1996; Bishop James Su Zhimin since October 1997; Bishop Han Dingxiang of Yongnian who died in prison in 2007, and Bishop Julius Jia Zhiguo of Zhengding since late 1999. Culture Language People speak dialects of Mandarin across the Hebei, with most classified as part of the Ji Lu Mandarin subdivision of Chinese. Along the western border with Shanxi, dialects are distinct enough for linguists to consider them as part of Jin, another subdivision of Chinese. In general, the dialects of Hebei are similar to the Beijing dialect, which forms the basis for Standard Chinese and the official language of the nation. However, there are also some distinct differences, such as the pronunciation of some words, made by entering tone syllables (syllables ending on a plosive) in Middle Chinese. Arts Traditional forms of Chinese opera in Hebei include Pingju, Hebei Bangzi (Hebei Clapper Opera), and Cangzhou Kuaiban Dagu. Pingju is especially popular because it tends to use colloquial language which is easier for audiences to understand. Originating from northeastern Hebei, Pingju was influenced by other forms of Chinese opera such as Beijing opera. Traditionally Pingju has a xiaosheng (young male lead), a xiaodan (young female lead), and a xiaohualian (young comic character), though it has diversified to include other roles.Quyang County, in central Hebei, is noted for Ding ware, a type of Chinese ceramics which includes various vessels such as bowls, plates, vases, and cups, as well as figurines. Ding ware is usually creamy white, though it is also made in other colors. Cuisine Hebei cuisine is typically based on wheat, mutton, and beans. The donkey burger, originating from the cities of Baoding and Hejian, Cangzhou, is a staple in provincial cuisine and has spread into the two municipalities. Other dishes include local variants of shaobing. Entertainment Beidaihe, located near Shanhaiguan, is a popular beach resort. Architectural and cultural sites The Ming Great Wall crosses the northern part of Hebei, and its eastern end is located on the coast at Shanhaiguan (Shanhai Pass), near Qinhuangdao. Informally known as the First Pass of The World, Shanhaiguan Pass was where Ming general Wu Sangui opened the gates to Manchu forces in 1644, beginning nearly 300 years of Manchu rule. The Chengde Mountain Resort and its outlying temples are a World Heritage Site. Also known as the Rehe Palace, this was the summer resort of the Manchu Qing dynasty emperors. The resort was built between 1703 and 1792. It consists of a palace complex and a large park with lakes, pavilions, causeways, and bridges. There are also several Tibetan Buddhist and Han Chinese temples in the surrounding area. There are Qing dynasty imperial tombs at Zunhua (Eastern Qing Tombs) and Yixian (West Qing Tombs). The Eastern Qing Tombs are the resting place of 161 Qing emperors, empresses, and other members of the Qing imperial family, while the West Qing Tombs have 76 burials. Both tomb complexes are part of a World Heritage Site. The Zhaozhou, or Anji Bridge, was built by Li Chun during the Sui dynasty and is the oldest stone arch bridge in China. It is one of the most significant examples of pre-modern Chinese civil engineering. Baoding, the old provincial capital, contains the historic Zhili governor's residence and the former court. Xibaipo, a village about 90 km (56 mi) from Shijiazhuang in Pingshan County, was the location of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party and the headquarters of the People's Liberation Army during the decisive stages of the Chinese Civil War between May 26, 1948 and March 23, 1949. Today, the area houses a memorial site. Sports The 2018 Women's Bandy World Championship was held in Hebei. Sports teams based in Hebei include National Basketball League (China), Hebei Springs Benma, and the Chinese Football Association team Hebei F.C., Hebei Elite F.C., and Cangzhou Mighty Lions F.C. Baoding is home to the Baoding balls, a kind of metal ball for exercise and meditation. Education Under the national Ministry of Education: North China Electric Power University (华北电力大学)Under other national agencies: Central Institute for Correctional Police (中央司法警官学校) Chinese People's Armed Police Force Academy (中国人民武装警察部队学院) North China Institute of Science and Technology (华北科技学院)Under the provincial government: Chengde Medical College (承德医学院) Handan College (邯郸学院) Hebei Agricultural University (河北农业大学) Hebei Engineering University (河北工程大学) Hebei Institute of Architecture and Civil Engineering (河北建筑工程学院) Hebei Medical University (河北医科大学) Hebei Normal University (河北师范大学) Hebei Normal University of Science and Technology (河北科技技师学院) Hebei North University (河北北方学院) Hebei Physical Educational Institute (河北体育学院) North China University of Science and Technology (华北理工大学) Hebei University (河北大学) Hebei University of Economics and Business (河北经贸大学) Hebei University of Technology (河北工业大学) Hebei University of Science and Technology (河北科技大学) Hengshui University (衡水学院) Langfang Teacher's College (廊坊师范学院) North China Coal Medical College (华北煤炭医学院) Shijiazhuang College (石家庄学院) Shijiazhuang Railway Institute (石家庄铁道学院) Shijiazhuang University of Economics (石家庄经济学院) Tangshan College (唐山学院) Tangshan Teacher's College (唐山师范学院) Xingtai University (邢台学院) Yanshan University (燕山大学)There are also Tibetan Buddhist schools in the province. Infrastructure Transportation Intracity Rail The Shijiazhuang Metro is the only operational rapid transit system in Hebei. Xiong'an Rail Transit is a planned metro system in Xiong'an. Intercity Rail As of early 2013, railway schedule systems listed 160 passenger train stations within the province. Because Hebei surrounds Beijing and Tianjin, all the important railway lines from these cities pass through Hebei. The Beijing–Guangzhou railway is one of the most important. It passes through many major cities, including Baoding, Shijiazhuang, Xingtai and Handan on its way south to Henan. Other important railways include the Beijing–Kowloon railway, Beijing–Shanghai railway, Beijing–Harbin railway, Beijing–Chengde railway, Beijing–Tongliao railway, Beijing–Baotou railway and Fengtai–Shacheng railway. High-speed rail lines crossing the province include the Beijing–Shanghai high-speed railway, Beijing–Guangzhou high-speed railway, and Shijiazhuang–Taiyuan high-speed railway. During the Eleventh Five-Year Plan, Beijing and Hebei collaborated on a new passenger railway. The RMB 82.6 billion network will add 844 kilometres (524 mi) to the system. Current railway systems for Hebei are also being upgraded and will soon be able to travel at speeds of between 160 and 200 kilometres (99 and 124 mi) per hour. Highways and primary routes The recent expressway boom in China included Hebei. There are expressways to every prefecture-level city in Hebei, totaling approximately 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi). The total length of highways within Hebei is around 40,000 kilometres (25,000 mi). Air transit Shijiazhuang's Zhengding Airport is the province's center for air transportation, with domestic and international flights. Parts of Hebei are served by the Beijing Daxing International Airport in Beijing. Ocean transit There are several ports along the Bohai Sea, including Huanghua, Jingtang, and Qinhuangdao. Qinhuangdao is the second busiest port in China and has a capacity of over 100 million tons. Media Hebei is served by the province-wide Hebei Television, abbreviated HEBTV. Shijiazhuang Radio & Television is a regional network that covers the provincial capital. Hebei is also served by three major newspapers: Hebei Daily, Yanzhao Metropolis Daily, and Yanzhao Evening News. Hebei Daily Newspaper Group publishes all three newspapers. Notable people Zu Chongzhi (429–500) – astronomer, mathematician, politician, inventor, and writer known for calculating pi to an accuracy that was not surpassed for 800 years Feng Dao (881–954) – inventor, printer, and politician Zhang Fei (?–221) – military general during the Eastern Han dynasty and Three Kingdoms period who became sworn brothers with Liu Bei and Guan Yu Xia Gengqi (born 1933) – curator in the Beijing Palace Museum Qin Shi Huang (259 BC–210 BC) – founder of the Qin dynasty and the first emperor of a unified China Guo Jingjing (born 1981) – Olympic gold medalist diver and world champion Jing Ke (?–227 BC) – retainer of Crown Prince Dan, assassin who attempted to murder Qin Shi Huang Zhao Lirong (1928–2000) – Singer, film actress, and Ping opera performer Deng Lun (born 1992) – actor who gained popularity from the xianxia drama, Ashes of Love Liu Shichao or Hebei Pangzai – Internet personality known for his food and drink stunts Yan Yuan (1635–1704) – Confucian philosopher Zheng Yuanjie (born 1955) – Children's books author, and founder and writer of King of Fairy Tales Zanilia Zhao (born 1987) – television actress Zhao Yun or Zhao Zilong (?–229) – Military general who lived during the same period as Zhang Fei Liu Zhesheng (柳哲生, 1914–1991) – ace-fighter pilot of Nationalist Air Force of China, a veteran of the War of Resistance-WWII Sister subdivisions Hebei is a sister district with the following country states, districts, and other subdivisions: Athens (September 26, 2002) Buenos Aires Province (May 19, 1992) East Flanders (October 4, 1991) Goiás (March 24, 1999) Hauts-de-Seine (February 11, 1997) Iowa (July 22, 1983) Leningrad Oblast (July 20, 1992) Missouri (January 25, 1994) Nagano Prefecture (November 11, 1983) Pest County (May 27, 2015) South Chungcheong Province (October 19, 1994) Tottori Prefecture (June 9, 1986) Veneto (May 17, 1988) See also Dongyi Protectorate Hebei People List of prisons in Hebei Major national historical and cultural sites in Hebei
Jin may refer to: States Jìn 晉 Jin (Chinese state) (晉國), major state of the Zhou dynasty, existing from the 11th century BC to 376 BC Jin dynasty (266–420) (晉朝), also known as Liang Jin and Sima Jin Jin (Later Tang precursor) (晉國; 907–923), Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period Later Jin (Five Dynasties) (後晉; 936–947), Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period Jīn 金 Jin dynasty (1115–1234) (金朝), also known as the Jurchen Jin Later Jin (1616–1636) (後金; 1616–1636), precursor of the Qing dynasty Others Jin (Korean state) (辰國), precursor of the Jinhan Confederation Balhae (698–713), originally known as Jin (震) Places Jin Prefecture (Shanxi) (晉州), a former Chinese prefecture centered on present-day Linfen, Shanxi Jin Prefecture (Shaanxi) (金州), a former Chinese efecture centered on present-day Ankang, Shaanxi Jin Prefecture (Hunan) (锦州), a former Chinese prefecture centered on Luyang in present-day Hunan Shanxi, official abbreviation Jin (晋) Tianjin, official abbreviation Jin (津) Rivers Jin River (Bei River tributary) (锦江, Jǐn Jiāng), a tributary of the Bei River in Guangdong Jin River (Sichuan) (锦江, Jǐn Jiāng), a tributary of the Min River in Sichuan Jin River (Fujian) (晋江, Jìn Jiāng), a river in Quanzhou Municipality, Fujian Jin River (Xiang River tributary) (靳江, Jìn Jiāng), a tributary of the Xiang River in Hunan Surnames Jin (Chinese surname), various Chinese surnames Jin (Korean surname), various Korean surnames Entertainment Jin (manga), a Japanese manga series by Motoka Murakami Jin (TV series), a Japanese television adaptation of the manga "Jin, the Wind Master", an episode of Yu Yu Hakusho Jîn, a 2013 Turkish-German film Jin (film), a 2023 Bangladeshi film People Jin (singer) (Kim Seok-jin, born 1992), South Korean singer of the boy band BTS Jin Akanishi (赤西仁, born 1984), Japanese musician Jin Horikawa (堀川仁, born 1962), Japanese voice actor Jin Tanaka (田中仁, born 1976), Japanese screenwriter Jin Yamanoi (山野井仁, born 1962), Japanese voice actor Jinjin (Park Jin-woo, born 1996), South Korean singer of the boy group Astro MC Jin (born 1982), Hong Kong American rapper Fictional characters Jin Kazama, the protagonist of the Tekken video game series Jin-Soo Kwon, a character in Lost Jin, a character in the O-Parts Hunter series Jin, a character in Samurai Champloo media Jin, a character in YuYu Hakusho Jin Kariya, a character in the anime Bleach Jin Kirigiri, a character in Danganronpa Jin Kisaragi, a character in BlazBlue video games Jin Shirato, a character in Persona 3 Jin Uzuki, a character in Xenosaga Jin Lee, The father of Meilin Lee in Turning Red. Jin Ryu, a character in Beyblade Jin Kaien, a character in Grand Chase Jin, the protagonist of the Choushinsei Flashman Jin, an antagonist in Xenoblade Chronicles 2 Jin Bubaigawa, also known as Twice, an antagonist in My Hero Academia Jin Saotome, main protagonist of Cyberbots: Full Metal Madness Jin Sakai, main protagonist of Ghost of Tsushima Jin Kuwana, main antagonist of Lost Judgment Sports Jin Akimoto (born 1971), Japanese mixed martial artist Jin Okubo (大久保陣, born 1988), Japanese cyclist Jin Hanato (端戸仁, born 1990), Japanese footballer Jin Watanabe (handball player) (渡部仁, born 1990), Japanese handball player Jin Ueda (上田仁, born 1991), Japanese table tennis player Jin Hiratsuka (平墳迅, born 1999), Japanese footballer Jin Ikoma (生駒仁, born 1999), Japanese footballer Other uses JIN, the code for Jinja Airport in Uganda Jin Air, a South Korean airline Jin language Jīn (斤), the Chinese name for the catty, a traditional East Asian unit of weight Jin, a deadwood bonsai technique See also Jinhan confederacy (辰韓; 1st century BC – 4th century AD), also known as Qinhan Jinn (disambiguation) Jinzhou (disambiguation) Jinjiang (disambiguation) Gin (disambiguation) Chin (disambiguation)
Taiyuan (; ; Chinese: 太原; pinyin: Tàiyuán; Mandarin pronunciation: [tʰâɪ.ɥɛ̌n]; also known as Bīng (并), Jìnyáng (晋阳)) is the capital and largest city of Shanxi Province, People's Republic of China. Taiyuan is the political, economic, cultural and international exchange center of Shanxi Province. It is an industrial base focusing on energy and heavy chemicals. Throughout its long history, Taiyuan was the capital or provisional capital of many dynasties in China, hence the name Lóngchéng (龙城; Dragon City).As of 2021, the city will govern 6 districts, 3 counties, and host a county-level city with a total area of 6,988 square kilometers and a permanent population of 5,390,957.Taiyuan is located roughly in the centre of Shanxi, with the Fen River flowing through the central city.Taiyuan belongs to the warm temperate continental monsoon climate, with long, dry and cold winters, hot and humid summers, short and windy spring and autumn, and distinct dry and wet seasons. Etymology and names The two Chinese characters of the city's name are 太 (tài, "great") and 原 (yuán, "plain"), referring to the location where the Fen River leaves the mountains and enters a relatively flat plain. Throughout its long history, the city had various names, including Bīngzhōu (并州) (from which the city's abbreviated single-character name Bīng (并) is derived), Jìnyáng (晋阳) and Lóngchéng (龙城).During the Tang dynasty and subsequent Five Dynasties, the status of the city of Taiyuan was elevated to be the Northern Capital, hence the name Běidū (北都), and Běijīng (北京, different from present-day Beijing). History Taiyuan is an ancient city with more than 2500 years of urban history, dating back from 497 BC. It was the capital or secondary capital (陪都, 别都) of Zhao, Former Qin, Eastern Wei, Northern Qi, Northern Jin, Later Tang, Later Jin, Later Han, Northern Han. Its strategic location and rich history make Taiyuan one of the economic, political, military, and cultural centers of Northern China. Pre-Qin dynasty history From about 859 BC the area around modern-day Taiyuan was occupied by the Rong people. In 662 BC the Rong were driven out by the Di people.During the Spring and Autumn period, the state of Jin emerged to the south of Taiyuan. In 541 BC, the Jin army led by General (荀吴), drove out the Di Tribes, and Taiyuan became part of the state of Jin.In 497 BC, the first ancient city of Jinyang was built around the southern Jinyuan District of present-day Taiyuan, by Dong Anyu (董安于), who was a steward of Zhao Jianzi (赵鞅), an upper-level official of the state of Jin.During the Battle of Jinyang in 453 BC, Zhi Yao diverted the flow of the Fen River to inundate the city of Jinyang, caused significant damage to the Zhao. Later, Zhao Xiangzi alerted Wei and Han, who both decided to ally with Zhao. On the night of 8 May 453 BC, Zhao troops broke the dams of the Fen River and let the river flood the Zhi armies, and eventually annihilated the Zhi army, with the help from Wei and Han.The Tripartition of Jin happened in 403 BC, when the state of Jin, then a strong power in Northern China, was divided into three smaller states of Han, Zhao and Wei. This event is the watershed between the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods in Chinese history. Jinyang, was chosen as the capital of Zhao, by Zhao Ji. Later, the capital of Zhao was moved to Handan in modern Hebei. Qin dynasty In 248 BC, the state of Qin attacked Zhao under General Meng'ao, and obtained the area around Jinyang from Zhao. Qin set up the Commandery of Taiyuan (太原郡), with the city of Jinyang as its administrative center. Although, the name Taiyuan had appeared in historic records before, potentially referring to different regions in nowadays southern and central Shanxi, this was the first time Taiyuan was officially used to refer to present-day Taiyuan.In 246 BC, there was an uprising in Jinyang, and it was quickly quelled by Meng'ao.Between 229 and 228 BC, Qin General Li Xin lead two armies that marched from the cities of Taiyuan and Yunzhong to attack Zhao's northern commandery of Dai. Three months after General Li Mu’s death; Wang Jian, Li Xin & Qiang Lei conquered Zhao. In 221 BC, Qin conquered the rest of China, and officially started the first imperial dynasty of China. Qin established thirty-six commanderies on its territory, and Taiyuan was one of them. Also, the capital of commandery of Taiyuan was Jinyang. Han dynasty and Three Kingdoms In 206 BC, Emperor Gaozu Liu Bang established the Han dynasty. During that period, the Qin administrative system of commanderies was abolished, the two Commanderies of Taiyuan and Yanmen were combined as the vassal state of Han (韩国) under the rule of King Xin of Han (韩王信).Later, King Xin of Han moved the capital from Jinyang to Mayi (present-day Shuozhou) with the approval from the emperor Gaozu. However, King Xin of Han conspired with the Xiongnu against Gaozu, and attacked Han for many years. In 196 BC, King Xin of Han was killed after he lost a battle. And the vassal state of Han was replaced by the vassal state of Dai, with Jinyang as the administrative center of Dai.During the tumultuous Three Kingdoms, the population of Taiyuan decreased significantly due to constant warfares. Taiyuan was ruled by Gongsun Zan, Yuan Shao, and then by Cao Cao, and was part of Cao Wei afterwards. Jin dynasty and Sixteen Kingdoms During the Jin dynasty, Taiyuan was again changed into a vassal state. Following the ending of the Jin dynasty, ethnic minority peoples settled a series of short-lived sovereign states in northern China, commonly referred to as Sixteen Kingdoms. Taiyuan was part of Former Zhao, Later Zhao, Former Qin, Former Yan, Former Qin again, Western Yan, and Later Yan chronologically. In 304, Liu Yuan founded the Xiongnu state of Former Zhao, whose army raided the area around Taiyuan for years and eventually obtained Taiyuan in 316. In 319, Taiyuan became part of Later Zhao, founded by Shi Le. Later, Taiyuan was obtained by Former Yan in 358, and by Former Qin in 370. Former Qin was founded by Fu Jian in 351 with capital of Chang'an.Fu Jian died in 384. His son Fu Pi declared himself an emperor in 385, with Jinyang (central city of Taiyuan) as the capital. But the next year, Fu Pi was defeated by the Western Yan prince Murong Yong in 386, and Taiyuan became part of Western Yan. In 394, Taiyuan was conquered by Later Yan army. Southern and Northern Dynasties In 386, Tuoba Gui founded Northern Wei. In 396, Northern Wei expanded to Taiyuan. In 543, Eastern Wei was founded by Gao Huan, with the capital at the city of Ye, and Taiyuan as the alternative capital (别都), where the Mansion of the "Great Chancellor" Gao Huan (大丞相府) was located. In 550, Northern Qi was founded by Gao Yang, who maintained his father Gao Huan's choice of Taiyuan as the alternative capital. The Buddhist Tianlongshan Grottoes of Taiyuan started during this period, and continued for many centuries afterwards.In 577, Taiyuan was conquered and became part of Northern Zhou. Sui dynasty In 581, Emperor Wen of Sui founded Sui dynasty. Jinyang was first the administrative center of Bing Zhou (并州), which was changed into Taiyuan Commandery. In 617, Li Yuan rose in rebellion based in Taiyuan, and expanded quickly. Tang dynasty In 618, Li Yuan founded Tang dynasty, which is generally considered a golden age of Chinese civilization. Taiyuan expanded significantly during the Tang dynasty, partly because Taiyuan was the military base of the founding emperors Li Yuan and Li Shimin. As Li Shimin wrote in 619: "Taiyuan, the base of the imperial regime and the foundation of the state." (太原，王业所基，国之根本)In 690, Wu Zetian set Taiyuan as the Northern Capital, (北都; Běidū), one of the three capitals, along with Chang'an and Luoyang, as depicted in the poem by Li Bai: "The king of the heaven has three capitals, the Northern capital is one of them." ("天王三京，北都居一"). In 742 AD, Emperor Xuanzong of Tang changed its name further to Beijing (北京). During the Tang dynasty, the title Northern Capital to Taiyuan had been endowed or abolished multiple times. Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms In 923, Li Cunxu, son of Li Keyong, founded Later Tang with capital of Daming, and soon conquered most of North China, and ended Later Liang. Afterwards, Li Cunxu moved the capital from Daming to Luoyang, and Taiyuan was set as a provisional capital, titled "Beidu" (北都, literally 'Northern Capital').In 936, Shi Jingtang established Later Jin in Taiyuan with the help from Khitan Liao dynasty. The next year, Shi Jingtang moved the capital from Taiyuan to Luoyang, and then to Kaifeng, and Taiyuan became a provisional northern capital ("Beijing") again. Song dynasty Zhao Kuangyin (Emperor Taizu of Song ) established the Song dynasty and embarked on the campaign of re-unification of China. Using a power struggle at the Northern Han court Taizu moved against it in the late 968. By early 969 his armies encircled Taiyuan and defeated the reinforcements sent by the Khitan. However, an attempt to flood the city failed. The siege was lifted after three months, as heavy rains caused diseases in the besieging army, the supplies were running low, and another Khitan relief force was advancing towards the city.Taizu launched the second invasion of Northern Han in September 969, but the armies were recalled after his death (November 14,969).Taizu's brother Taizong subjugated the last independent kingdoms in the south of China by 978, and in 979 launched the third campaign against the Northern Han and its overlord the Khitan state of Liao. Using the north-western route instead of the southern (used in the previous campaigns) the armies of Taizong defeated a major Liao force. Isolated, the Northern Han resisted for only fifteen days before surrendering. In contrast to the mild policies of his brother, Taizong dealt harshly with the city. He ordered the flooding of Taiyuan by releasing the Fen River, and set the city on fire. The former capital was downgraded from prefecture to county town status. It was not until 982 that a new city was founded on the banks of the Fen River. The oldest existing building in Taiyuan today is the Temple of the Goddess (simplified Chinese: 圣母殿; traditional Chinese: 聖母殿) inside the Jin Ci Complex. It was originally built in 1023 and reconstructed in 1102. From 1027 one of the two private markets for Tangut goods, particularly salt, operated in Taiyuan. During the Song period many people, including the family of chancellor Wang Anshi, migrated south. Jin dynasty The Jurchen Jin dynasty was founded in 1115, and in 1125, Taiyuan was conquered by Jin. Yuan dynasty The Mongol empire emerged in 1206 under the leadership of Genghis Khan, and it expanded quickly. In 1218, Taiyuan was conquered by the Mongol army led by General Muqali. Kublai Khan established the Yuan dynasty in 1271, and the administrative area of Taiyuan Lu (太原路) was expanded. The Taoist Longshan Grottoes was built in early Yuan dynasty, initiated by Taoist monk Song Defang (宋德芳). Ming dynasty In 1368, Hongwu Emperor established the Ming dynasty, and Taiyuan was obtained from Yuan, by General Xu Da. The Ming dynasty installed Nine Military Garrisons to defend the northern territory during the reign of the Hongzhi Emperor, which included the Garrison of Taiyuan (太原镇). Shanxi merchants became prominent in Chinese business history since the beginning of Ming dynasty, thanks to the logistic requirements of the military around the borders of northern Shanxi to defend Ming against the remnant Mongol Northern Yuan dynasty. In the ending period of Ming dynasty, the rebel leader Li Zicheng conquered Taiyuan, and Taiyuan became part of Great Shun temporarily in 1644. Qing dynasty In 1644, Shunzhi founded the Qing dynasty and defeated the Great Shun Army in Taiyuan in the same year. Throughout the Qing dynasty, the international trade with Russia, especially of tea, and the creation and development of so-called draft banks, or Piaohao, boosted the central Shanxi basin to become the financial center of Qing China. Even though most of these Piaohao were based in different neighboring counties of Qi County, Taigu, and Yuci, Taiyuan became a significant trading center, due to its political and economical status in Shanxi.In 1900, the Taiyuan Massacre occurred, during which a number of Western missionaries were killed. Republic of China The warlord Yan Xishan retained control of Shanxi from the Xinhai Revolution in 1911 to the end of the Chinese Civil War in 1949. Taiyuan consequently flourished as the center of his comparatively progressive province and experienced extensive industrial development. It was linked by rail both to the far southwest of Shanxi and to Datong in the north. Until the end of the Chinese Civil War in 1949, Yan's arsenal in Taiyuan was the only factory in China sufficiently advanced to produce field artillery. Because Yan succeeded in keeping Shanxi uninvolved in most of the major battles between rival warlords that occurred in China during the 1910s and 1920s, Taiyuan was never taken from Yan by an invading army until the Japanese conquered it in 1937. Yan was aware of the threat posed by the Japanese; and, in order to defend against the impending Japanese invasion of Shanxi, Yan entered into a secret "united front" agreement with the Communists in November 1936. After concluding his alliance with the Communists, he allowed agents under Zhou Enlai to establish a secret headquarters in Taiyuan. Yan, under the slogan "resistance against the enemy and defense of the soil", attempted to recruit young patriotic intellectuals to his government from across China. By 1936 Taiyuan became a gathering point for anti-Japanese intellectuals who had fled from Beijing, Tianjin, and Northeast China. A representative of the Japanese army, speaking of the final defense of Taiyuan, said that "nowhere in China have the Chinese fought so obstinately".From the Japanese occupation of Taiyuan to the Japanese surrender in 1945, the Japanese continued to exploit Taiyuan's industries and resources to supply the Japanese army. After the Japanese army in Shanxi surrendered to Yan Xishan, 10,000–15,000 Japanese troops, including both enlisted men and officers, decided to fight for Yan rather than return to Japan. Yan also retained the services of experienced and foreign-educated Japanese technicians and professional staff brought into Taiyuan by the Japanese to run the complex of industries that they had developed around Taiyuan. Taiyuan was the last area in Shanxi to resist Communist control during the final stages of the Chinese Civil War. The city was taken by the Communists on 22 April 1949, after they surrounded Taiyuan and cut it off from all means of land and air supply, and taking the city required the support of 1,300 pieces of artillery. Many Nationalist officers committed suicide when the city fell to a Communist army. Geography Taiyuan lies on the Fen River in the north of its fertile upper basin. The city is located at the center of the province with an east–west span of 144 km (89 mi) and a north–south span of 107 km (66 mi). It commands the north–south route through the province, as well as important natural lines of transportation through the Taihang Mountains to Hebei in the east and to northern Shaanxi in the west. Natural resources Taiyuan is abundant in natural resources such as coal, iron, marble, silica, bauxite, limestone, graphite, quartz, phosphorus, gypsum, mica, copper, and gold. It boasts high production of coal, iron, silica and marble. The western satellite city of Gujiao is the largest production site of metallurgical coal in China. The tree population in Taiyuan is dominated by coniferous forest, pine, white pine, spruce, and cypress. Climate Taiyuan experiences a cold semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification BSk). Taiyuan has a temperate monsoon climate. Spring is dry, with occasional dust storms, followed by early summer heat waves. Summer tends to be warm to hot with most of the year's rainfall concentrated in July and August. Winter is long and cold, but dry and sunny. Because of the aridity, there tends to be considerable diurnal variation in temperature, except during the summer. The weather is much cooler than comparable-latitude cities, such as Shijiazhuang, due to the moderately high altitude. The monthly 24-hour average temperature range from −4.7 °C (23.5 °F) in January to 24.3 °C (75.7 °F) in July, while the annual mean is 10.9 °C (51.6 °F). With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 51 percent in July to 61 percent in May, there are 2,493 hours of sunshine annually. Environment The municipality of Taiyuan is 6,988 km2 (2,698 sq mi). Taiyuan has a forest area of 146,700 hectares. and total grassland area of 422.5 km2 (163.1 sq mi) in 2007. The forest area coverage rate in the six urban districts has been increased to 21.69% in 2015. Air pollution Taiyuan had suffered from severe air pollution, especially in the 1990s, and the first decade of the 21st century, and once it was even listed among the ten most air-polluted cities in the world. Recently, the air quality has been gradually improved with increasing public awareness of air quality control and stricter and more detailed rules for pollution applied. However, according to the 2014 statistical book issued by the National Bureau of Statistics, even though no longer among the worst polluted cities in China, Taiyuan still has below-average ambient air quality, compared with other major Chinese cities. A 2019 study estimated that in 2016, there were 228,000 households in the city burning coal, burning a total of 1,096,000 tons that year alone. The authors of the study suggested that the local government should do more to transition from coal energy to gas energy, provide more electrical heating infrastructure, and transition to more renewable energy sources. In recent years, the city has taken further action to combat air pollution, creating a "coal-free zone" of 1,460 km2 in 2017. This zone prevents most people and organizations from buying, selling, storing, transporting, burning, or using coal. In 2019, the Taiyuan City Government expanded the size of this zone slightly, to a total of 1,574 km2. Administrative divisions Demographics As of the 2020 census, Taiyuan prefecture had a total population of 5,304,061 inhabitants on 6,959 km2 (2,687 sq mi), from whom 4,529,141 lived in the 6 urban districts on 1,460 km2 (560 sq mi). Economy Consistent with China's economic expansion throughout the 2010s, Taiyuan's economy has shown consistent growth in recent years. In 2018, Taiyuan's GDP was worth 388.450 billion Yuan, more than double what it was in 2010. Disposable income per capita was reported to be 31,031 Yuan in 2018, a 7.2% increase from 2017. In 2015, Taiyuan imported 4,085.130 million USD worth of goods, and exported 6,592.250 million USD worth. Taiyuan's primary, secondary, and tertiary industries were worth 3.9 billion yuan, 105.2 billion yuan, and 132.2 billion yuan respectively in 2007. Shanxi produces a quarter of China's coal, and Taiyuan is the location of the China Taiyuan Coal Transaction Center, which began trading in 2012. Transportation Taiyuan is one of the transportation hubs in North China, with highways linking neighboring provincial capitals, and airlines to most other major Chinese cities and some international cities. Public Transportation The Taiyuan Metro is still under construction. Line 1 is set to open in 2024, while Line 2 has been operating since 26 December 2020.In early 2016 the city began the conversion of all its 8000 taxi fleet into purely electric vehicles, initially using BYD Auto model E6. Air The primary airport of the city is Taiyuan Wusu International Airport. It has been expanded for the landing of Airbus A380. The airport has domestic airlines to major cities including Beijing, Shanghai, and coastal cities such as Dalian. International flights to Taipei and Da Nang are available. Highway Taiyuan has a number of major roads, Including the G5, G20 (including Shitai Expressway), G55, G2001 (Ring Highway around Taiyuan), G307, G108, G208. A 45-kilometer Middle Ring Highway circles the metropolis of Taiyuan. Two highways on the banks of Fen River run through the center of the city. Nine Riverside highways along the nine branches of Fen River, including the Southern Shahe river, Northern Shahe river, etc., comprise an expressway system, connecting the central Fen River bank with surrounding areas of urban Taiyuan. The southern part of Taiyuan has three "East-West" direction highways: South Middle Ring Street, Huazhang Street and Yingbin Road, and five "North-South" direction highways: West Middle Ring Road, Binhe West Road, Binhe East Road, Dayun Road, Jianshe Road & Taiyu Road. The western S56 Taiyuan-Gujiao Highway links Taiyuan with the western satellite city of Gujiao, and further connects Loufan. The northern Yangxing Highway connects downtown Taiyuan with the northern suburb of Yangqu County. Railway Taiyuan is one of the main national hubs for the high-speed railway system of Northern China. Major high-speed railways passing Taiyuan, including the Shijiazhuang–Taiyuan high-speed railway and Datong–Xi'an high-speed railway. By high-speed trains, the travel time between Taiyuan and Beijing is less than three hours on a distance of 600 km (370 mi). The main high-speed railway station is Taiyuan South railway station. The conventional-speed Taiyuan–Zhongwei–Yinchuan railway, opened in 2011, provides a direct connection with western Shanxi, northern Shaanxi, Ningxia, and points further west. Food Taiyuan's local specialities include: Tomato egg noodles (Chinese: 西红柿炒鸡蛋面; pinyin: xīhóngshì chǎo jīdàn miàn; lit. 'noodles with tomato and scrambled eggs') Tijian (剔尖; tī jiān; 'scraped noodles') Dao Xiao noodles (刀削面; dāo xiāo miàn) Tounao (头脑; tóu nǎo; 'brain-enhancing soup'): Contains mutton, rice wine and vegetables in the soup. This dish was first created by Chinese polymath Fu Shan, who was proficient in medicine, for his old and illness-ridden mother as a food substitute for the ancient medicine Bazhen Tang (literally "Soup of Eight Treasures") using only locally available food materials that have similar effects as the original medicine. Lao Chen Cu mature vinegar (老陈醋; lǎo chén cù) Yuci Flour Sausage (榆次灌肠; Yú Cì guàn cháng) Fried Pork with vegetables (过油肉; guò yóu ròu) Mutton Soup (羊肉汤; yángròu tāng) Sports The Shanxi Brave Dragons of the Chinese Basketball Association play at Riverside Sports Arena. The football club Shanxi Metropolis, currently playing in China League Two, plays in the Shanxi Sports Centre Stadium. Tourism Taiyuan is a modern city with just a few historic buildings remaining in the centre. The remnants of old Taiyuan can be found west of the central station, north of Fudong Street and close to Wuyi Road. One of the main tourist destinations is Shanxi Museum located in West Binhe Road, downtown Taiyuan, which is among the largest museums in China. The Twin Towers in Yongzuo Temple, which are featured in the emblem of the city, have been regarded as a symbol of Taiyuan for a long time. Yongzuo Temple is at southeast of the city centre, also famous for its peony garden and martyrs cemetery. The Chongshan Monastery, Longtan Park, and Yingze Park (just off Yingze Street), in the city centre, are popular tourist destinations.Jinci Temple also called Tangshuyu Temple, located in Jinyuan District of southern Taiyuan, dates back to the Zhou dynasty. In Jinci, there are three treasures: the Nanlao Spring, the Beauty Status and the Queen status. The Flying Bridge Across the Fish Pond was built during the Song dynasty, which is famous for its cross-shaped structure.Along the West Mountain range in western Taiyuan, tourists can find Tianlongshan Grottoes, which were gradually built over many centuries, from the northern Qi dynasty, and contains thousands of Buddhist statues and artwork. The grottoes exist today in a damaged state with many of the sculptures now missing, that visitors to the caves cannot imagine how they looked in the past. Many of the sculptures from the caves are now in museums around the world. However, though the sculptures may be preserved and displayed, visitors to museums cannot understand them in their original historical, spatial, and religious contexts. Researchers at the University of Chicago initiated the Tianlongshan Caves Project in 2013 to pursue research and digital imaging of the caves and their sculptures.Not far from the Tianlongshan Grottoes are the Longshan Grottoes, which is the only Taoist grottoes site in China. The main eight grottoes were carved in 1234~1239 during the Yuan dynasty. Education and research Taiyuan is a major city for research appearing among the top 200 cities in the world by scientific research outputs as of 2022, as tracked by the Nature Index and home to Taiyuan University of Technology, the national key university in China and other public universities including Shanxi University, Taiyuan University of Science and Technology and North University of China. Colleges and universities Taiyuan University of Technology (太原理工大学) Shanxi University (山西大学) North University of China (中北大学) Shanxi Medical University (山西医科大学) Taiyuan University of Science and Technology (太原科技大学) Taiyuan Normal University (太原师范学院) Shanxi University of Finance and Economics (山西财经大学) Shanxi College of Traditional Chinese Medicine Major high schools The Affiliated High School of Shanxi University (山西大学附属中学) Taiyuan No. 5 Secondary School (太原五中) Shanxi Experimental Secondary School (山西省实验中学) Taiyuan Foreign Language School (太原市外国语学校) Shanxi Modern Bilingual School (山西现代双语学校) Taiyuan Chengcheng Secondary School (太原成成中学) Taiyuan No. 12 Secondary School (太原十二中) International relations Taiyuan has a friendship pairing with the following cities: Launceston, Tasmania, Australia (Established relations on 28 November 1995) Douala, Cameroon (Established relations on 12 October 1999) Chemnitz, Saxony, Germany (Established relations on 17 May 1995) Saint-Denis, Réunion, France (Established relations formally on 2 March 2012) Himeji, Hyōgo, Japan (Established relations on 19 May 1987) Saratov and Syktyvkar, Russia (Established relations on 8 December 1995 and 1 September 1994) Khujand, Tajikistan (Established relations on 31 August 2017) Donetsk, Ukraine (Established relations formally on 25 August 2012) Nashville, Tennessee, United States (Established relations on 18 April 2007) See also Taiyuan Satellite Launch Center Taiyuan Government website
Hohhot, formerly known as Kweisui or Guisui, is the capital of Inner Mongolia in the north of the People's Republic of China, serving as the region's administrative, economic and cultural center. Its population was 3,446,100 inhabitants as of the 2020 census, of whom 2,944,889 lived in the metropolitan area consisting of 4 urban districts (including Hohhot Economic and Development Zone) plus the Tümed Left Banner.The name of the city in Mongolian means "Blue City", although it is also wrongly referred to as the "Green City." The color blue in Mongol culture is associated with the sky, eternity and purity. In Chinese, the name can be translated as Qīng Chéng (Chinese: 青城; lit. 'Blue/Green City') The name has also been variously romanized as Kokotan, Kokutan, Kuku-hoton, Huhohaot'e, Huhehot, Huhot, or Köke qota.The city is a seat of the Inner Mongolia University, the largest regional comprehensive university and the only 211 Project University in Inner Mongolia. History Early history Yunzhong Commandery (Chinese: 雲中郡) was a historical commandery of China. Its territories were between the Great Wall and Yin Mountains, and correspond to part of modern-day Hohhot, Baotou and Ulanqab prefectures in Inner Mongolia. The central city of Yunzhong was in the suburbs of today's Hohhot. The commandery was created during King Wuling of Zhao's reign after a successful campaign against the Linhu (林胡) and Loufan (樓煩) peoples. After the establishment of Qin and Han dynasty, the commandery became the frontier between Han and the Xiongnu. In early Han dynasty, the region saw frequent Xiongnu raids. However, from Emperor Wu's reign onwards, it became an important base of military operations in the wars against the Xiongnu. In 127 BC, it was from Yunzhong that General Wei Qing led a 40,000-men strong cavalry force and conquered the modern Hetao and Ordos regions. In 2 AD, the commandery administered 11 counties, namely Yunzhong (雲中), Xianyang (咸陽), Taolin (陶林), Zhenling (楨陵), Duhe (犢和), Shaling (沙陵), Yuanyang (原陽), Shanan (沙南), Beiyu (北輿), Wuquan (武泉) and Yangshou (陽壽). The population totaled 38,303 households, or 173,270 people. During Eastern Han, 3 counties were abolished, while 3 new counties were added from Dingxiang Commandery. In 140 AD, the population was 5,351 households, or a population of 26,430. Toward the late Han dynasty, the area's population decreased sharply as residents fled from invading northern nomadic peoples, and the commandery was dissolved.The Tuoba chieftain Gui (called Tuoba Gui) was able to refound the Dai empire in 386. From his capital at Shengle (near modern Helingeer). His descendants would, step by step, conquer the north of China, divide the Later Yan realm into two parts, and subdue the Xia (407–431), the Later Qin (384–417) and the many Liang and Yan empires. Ming and Qing era In 1557, the Tümed Mongol leader Altan Khan began building the Da Zhao Temple on the Tümed plain in order to convince the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) government of his leadership of the southern Mongol tribes. The town that grew up around this temple was called the "Blue Town" (Kokegota in Mongolian). The Ming had been blockading the Mongols' access to Chinese iron, cotton, and crop seeds, in order to dissuade them from attacking the North China plain. In 1570, Altan Khan successfully negotiated the end of the blockade by establishing a vassal-tributary relationship with the Ming, who changed Kokegota's name to Guihua (traditional Chinese: 歸化; simplified Chinese: 归化; pinyin: Guīhuà; postal: Kweihua; lit. 'Return to Civilization') in 1575. The population of Guihua grew to over 150,000 in the early 1630s as local Mongol princes encouraged the settlement of Han Chinese merchants. There were occasional attacks on Guihua by Mongol armies, such as the total razing of the city by Ligdan Khan in 1631. Altan Khan and his successors constructed temples and fortresses in 1579, 1602 and 1727. The Tümed Mongols of the area had long since adopted a semiagricultural way of life. Hui merchants gathered north of the gate of the city's fortress, building a mosque in 1693. Their descendants formed the nucleus of the modern Huimin district. After the Manchus founded the Qing dynasty (1636–1912), the Kangxi Emperor (reigned 1661–1722) sent troops to control the region, which was of interest to the Qing as a center of study of Tibetan Buddhism. Just 2 km northeast of Guihua the Qing built the strong garrison town of Suiyuan (traditional Chinese: 綏遠; simplified Chinese: 绥远; pinyin: PRC Standard Mandarin: Suíyuǎn, ROC Standard Mandarin: Suīyuǎn), from which they supervised the defense of southwestern Inner Mongolia against Mongol attacks from the north in 1735–39.: 13 Guihua and Suiyuan was merged into Shanxi province and became Guihua County (歸化縣; 归化县; Guīhuà Xiàn) of Qing China. French missionaries established a Catholic church in Guihua in 1874, but the Christians were forced to flee to Beijing during the antiforeign Boxer Rebellion of 1899–1901. Republican era In 1913, the government of the new Republic of China united the garrison town of Suiyuan and the old town of Guihua as Guisui (traditional Chinese: 歸綏; simplified Chinese: 归绥; pinyin: PRC Standard Mandarin: Guīsuí, ROC Standard Mandarin: Guīsuī; postal: Kweisui). Guisui town was the center of Guisui County (歸綏縣; 归绥县; PRC: Guīsuí Xiàn, ROC: Guīsuī Xiàn) and the capital of Suiyuan Province in northern China. A bubonic plague outbreak in 1917 and the connection of Guisui to railway links in Shanxi, Shaanxi, Hebei, and Beijing helped renew the economy of Guisui town by forming links with eastern China and western China's Xinjiang province.: 15 In 1918, the American specialist on Inner Asia Owen Lattimore noted Guisui's ethnic composition as "a town purely Han Chinese except for the Lama monasteries ... the Tümeds are now practically nonexistent and the nearest Mongolians are to be sought at 50 or 60 miles [80 or 100 kilometres] distance on the plateau.": 15 During the progressive Japanese invasion of China in the 1930s, the Japanese created the puppet state of Mengjiang headed by Prince De, who renamed Guisui "Blue City" (Hohhot; (Chinese: 厚和市; pinyin: Hòuhé shì). After the surrender of Japan in 1945, the Republic of China changed the name back to Guisui.: 16 The Communist Party of China's forces drove out General Fu Zuoyi, the Republic's commander in Suiyuan, during the Chinese Civil War, and after the Chinese Revolution in 1949, Guisui was renamed Hohhot.: 16 People's Republic era During the Civil War, seeking the support of separatist Mongols, the Communists established the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region in Mongol-minority areas of the Republic's provinces of Suiyuan, Xing'an, Chahar, and Rehe. Guisui was chosen as the region's administrative centre in 1952, replacing Zhangjiakou. In 1954, after the establishment of the People's Republic of China, the city was renamed from Guisui to Hohhot, though with a different Chinese pronunciation of Huhehaote.: 16 The city has seen significant development since China's reform and opening began. The city's far east side began development around 2000 and is now home to the municipal government, most of the Autonomous Region's administrative buildings, an artificial lake called Ruyi He, and a large number of condominiums, mostly built by the local real estate company Gold Horse International Inc. The Hohhot City Stadium, built on the city's north side, was finished in 2007.A city with a rich cultural background, Hohhot is known for its historical sites and temples and is one of the major tourist destinations of Inner Mongolia. It is also nationally known as the home of China's dairy giants Mengniu and Yili, and was declared "Dairy Capital of China" by the China Dairy Industry Association and the Dairy Association of China in 2005. Geography Located in the south central part of Inner Mongolia, Hohhot is encircled by the Daqing Shan (Chinese: 大青山; lit. 'Great blue Mountains') to the north and the Hetao Plateau to the south.The city's antipodal location is 22 kilometres (14 mi) from the village of Los Menucos in Río Negro Provence, Argentina. Climate Hohhot features a cold semi-arid climate (Köppen BSk), marked by long, cold, and very dry winters; hot, somewhat humid summers; strong winds (especially in spring); and monsoonal influence. The coldest month is January, with a daily mean of −10.7 °C (12.7 °F), while July, the hottest month, averages 23.2 °C (73.8 °F). The annual mean temperature is 7.6 °C (45.7 °F), and the annual precipitation is 411 millimetres (16.2 in), with more than half of it falling in July and August alone. Variability can be very high, however: in 1965 Hohhot recorded as little as 155.1 mm (6.11 in) but six years before that, as much as 929.2 mm (36.58 in), of which over a third (338.6 mm (13.33 in)) only in July.Hohhot is a popular destination for tourists during the summer months because of the nearby Zhaohe grasslands. More recently, due to desertification, the city sees sandstorms on almost an annual basis. With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 54 percent in November to 66 percent in September, sunshine is abundant year-round, the city receives 2,680 hours of bright sunshine annually. Extreme temperatures have ranged from −32.8 °C (−27 °F) on 6 February 1951 to 38.9 °C (102 °F) on 30 July 2010. Administrative divisions The city is administratively at the prefecture-level, meaning that it administers both its urban area and the rural regions in its vicinity. The administrative area includes 4 counties, 4 districts, and a county-level banner; they are further divided into 20 urban sub-districts, and 96 townships. The data here represented is in km2 and uses data from the 2010 Census. Demographics The urban population of Hohhot has increased rapidly since the 1990s. According to the 2010 Census, the population of Hohhot had reached 2,866,615 people, 428,717 more inhabitants than in 2000 (the average annual demographic growth for the period 2000–2010 was of 1.63 percent). Its built-up (or metro) area is home to 1,980,774 inhabitants (4 urban districts). The majority of the population of Hohhot are Han Chinese, representing 87.16 percent of the total population in 2010. Most Han in Hohhot, if their ancestry is traced several decades back, have ancestors from Shanxi, northeast China, or Hebei. Most Mongols in the city speak Chinese. A 1993 survey conducted by Inner Mongolia University found that only 8 percent of Tümed Mongols (the majority tribe in Hohhot) could speak the Mongolian language.: 15 A significant portion of the population is of mixed ethnic origin. According to the anthropologist William Jankowiak, author of the book Sex, Death, and Hierarchy in a Chinese City (1993), there is "relatively little difference between minority culture and Han culture" in Hohhot, with differences concentrating around relatively minor attributes such as food and art, and similarities abounding over fundamental issues of ethics, status, life goals, and worldview.: 5 Ethnic groups in Hohhot, according to the 2000 census, were: Economy Hohhot is a major industrial center within Inner Mongolia. Together with Baotou and Ordos, it accounts for more than 60 percent of the total industrial output of Inner Mongolia. After Baotou and Ordos, it is the third-largest economy of the province, with GDP of RMB 247.56 billion in 2012, up 11.0 percent year on year. Hohhot accounted for approximately 15.5 percent of the province's total GDP in 2012. It is also the largest consumer center in the region, recording ¥102.2 billion retail sales of consumer goods in 2012, an increase of 14.9 percent from 2011. The city has been a central developmental target for the China Western Development project being pursued by the Central Government. There are many famous enterprises located in Hohhot, including China's largest dairy producer by sales revenue, the Inner Mongolia Yili Industrial Group, and the China Mengniu Dairy Co.As the economic center of Inner Mongolia, Hohhot's urban area has expanded greatly since the 1990s. CBDs have grown rapidly in all the city's major districts. The completion of a new office tower for the Municipal Government in Eastern Hohhot marked a shift of the city center to the east. Hailiang Plaza (海亮广场), a 41-floor tower constructed in the city center, became one of the few notable department stores for luxury merchandise in the city. Major development zones Hohhot Economic and Technological Development Zone Hohhot Export Processing Zone Culture Due to its relatively diverse cultural make-up, and despite its characteristics as a mid-sized Chinese industrial city, the Hohhot street scene has no shortage of ethnic minority elements. Tongdao Road, a major street in the old town area, is decorated with Islamic and Mongol exterior designs on all its buildings. A series of government initiatives in recent years have emphasized Hohhot's identity with ethnic minority groups, especially in increasing Mongol-themed architecture around the city. By regulation, all street signs and public transportation announcements are in both Chinese and Mongolian. Dialect Older Hohhot residents mostly tend to converse in the Hohhot dialect, a branch of the Jin language from neighbouring Shanxi province. This spoken form can be difficult to understand for speakers of other Mandarin Chinese dialects. The newer residents, mostly concentrated in Xincheng and Saihan Districts, speak Hohhot-based Mandarin, the majority also with a noticeable accent and some unique vocabulary. Cuisine Food specialty in the area is mostly focused on Mongol cuisine and dairy products. Commercially, Hohhot is known for being the base of the nationally renowned dairy giants Yili and Mengniu. The Mongol drink suutei tsai (Chinese: 奶茶; pinyin: nǎichá; lit. 'milk tea'), has become a typical breakfast selection for anyone living in or visiting the city. The city also has rich traditions in the making of hot pot and shaomai, a type of traditional Chinese dumpling served as dim sum. Transportation Airport Hohhot's Baita International Airport (IATA:HET) is located about 14.3 km (8.9 mi) east of the city centre by car. It has direct flights to larger domestic cities including Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, Shenzhen, Chengdu, and others. It also has flights to Taichung, Hong Kong, and Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. Railway Hohhot lies on the Jingbao Railway from Beijing to Baotou, and is served by two railway stations: Hohhot railway station and Hohhot East railway station. The line began operation in 1921. Trains to Beijing link to destinations to the south and the northeast. The most prominent rail link with Beijing is the overnight K90 train, which has served the Hohhot-Beijing line since the 1980s and is referred to colloquially as the "9-0". Westbound trains go through Baotou and Lanzhou. There are also rail links to most major Inner Mongolian cities and to Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. Because the quickest trip to Beijing takes around six and a half hours despite the relatively close proximity of the two cities, plans for high-speed rail were discussed extensively prior to the construction of a high-speed railway station beginning in 2008. The station was completed in 2011 and initially serviced only ordinary lines. In January 2015, CRH opened its first D-series (dongchezu) route in Inner Mongolia in the Baotou-Hohhot-Jining corridor, shortening travel time between Inner Mongolia's two largest cities to a mere 50 minutes. This line reached a maximum speed of 200 km/h (124 mph) between Hohhot and Baotou. Another high-speed rail line linking Hohhot to Zhangjiakou and the planned Beijing-Zhangjiakou railway are due for completion in 2017, and are designed to operate at 250 km/h (155 mph). The section between Hohhot and Ulanqab (Jining) opened in August 2017; travel time between the two cities was shortened to 40 minutes. Expressways An expressway built in 1997 (then known as the Hubao Expressway) links Hohhot with Baotou. In recent years this expressway has been expanded eastwards to Jining and Zhangjiakou, and on to Beijing as part of the G6 Beijing–Lhasa Expressway (Jingzang Expressway). The city is on the route of China National Highway 110, which runs from Yinchuan to Beijing. China National Highway 209 begins in Hohhot and carries traffic southbound towards southern China, with its terminus in Guangxi. Hohhot is connected to its northern counties by the Huwu Highway, which was completed in 2006. Previously, travel to the northern counties had required lengthy navigation through mountainous terrain. Long-distance buses connect Hohhot to outlying counties, the cities of Baotou, Wuhai, and Ordos, and other areas in Inner Mongolia. Public transport & Roadways Hohhot's major north–south thoroughfares are called roads (Lu) and its east–west thoroughfares are called streets (Jie). The largest elevated interchange is near the site of the city's Drum Tower (Gulou), after which it is named. Several major streets are named after Inner Mongolian leagues and cities; among these, Hulun Buir, Jurim (now Tongliao), Ulaanhad (Now Chifeng), Xilin Gol, and Xing'an run north–south, while Bayannur, Hailar, Ulaanqab, and Erdos run east–west. The city's public transit system is composed of nearly one hundred bus routes and a large fleet of taxicabs, which are normally green or blue. Bus fare is 1 yuan; taxi fares begin at 8 yuan. Metro The Hohhot Metro is in operation. Line 1 opened on 29 December 2019. Education Universities located in Hohhot include: Inner Mongolia University of Finance and Economics Inner Mongolia University, only 211 Project University in Inner Mongolia. Inner Mongolia University of Agriculture Inner Mongolia Normal University Inner Mongolia University of Technology Inner Mongolia College of Medicine Inner Mongolia College of Finance and Economics Hohhot College of Education Hohhot College of Police Honder College of Inner Mongolia Normal UniversityHigh Schools located in Hohhot include: Hohhot No.2 Middle School Affiliated Middle School to Inner Mongolia Normal University Hohhot experimental middle school Hohhot No.1 Middle School Sports Hohhot lacked a professional soccer team until Shenyang Dongjin F.C. relocated to Hohhot, changing their name to Hohhot Dongjin, in 2012. They played at Hohhot City Stadium, which was newly built in 2007. The club finished in the bottom of the league in the 2012 season and was and relegated to League Two. After playing half a season at Hohhot in 2013, the team relocated to Liaoning and chose Benxi City Stadium as their new home court.On 14 January 2015, Taiyuan Zhongyou Jiayi F.C. moved to Hohhot and changed their name to Nei Mongu Zhongyou F.C. The team play in China League One and chose Hohhot City Stadium as their home in 2015. The team had been first established as Shanxi Jiayi F.C. on 8 October 2011. Notable landmarks There were over 50 Ming and Qing Buddhist temples and towers in Guihua and Suiyuan. Zhaojun Tomb (昭君墓), located about nine kilometers south of the city center. It is said to be the tomb of Wang Zhaojun, a woman of the Han Empire who married a Xiongnu Chanyu (king). Baita Pagoda (白塔), located in the eastern rural area nearing the airport. It was constructed during the Liao Dynasty. The airport of Hohhot is named after Baita Pagoda. Da Zhao Temple (大召), located in the centre of Guihua town. It was constructed in the Northern Yuan Dynasty and is the oldest Buddhist lama monastery in the city. Temple of the Five Pagodas (五塔寺), located in the eastern part of Guihua town. It was completed in the Qing Dynasty, with architecture very similar to that of Indian temples. On its walls there are more than 1,500 figures of Buddha. Residence of Gurun Princess Kejing (固倫恪靖公主府), located at the foot of Yinshan Mountain. It was the mansion of Gurun Princess Kejing of the Qing Dynasty, who was married to a Mongol prince. Residence of the General (將軍衙署), located in the centre of Suiyuan town. It was the residence and office building of Suiyuan Generals of the Qing Dynasty. Great Mosque of Hohhot (清真大寺), located out of the northern gate of Guihua town. It was constructed during the Qing Dynasty. Inner Mongolia Museum (内蒙古博物院). Main exhibits include dinosaur fossils, historical artifacts of nomadic peoples, and the cultural life of modern nomadic peoples. Qingcheng Park (青城公园), formerly People's Park, in the city center See also Manhan folk song Suiyuan Province Bibliography Hohhot government website Archived 18 April 2005 at the Wayback Machine (in Chinese) Hohhot government website (in Mongolian) China Daily news Hohhot travel guide from Wikivoyage
ATM or atm often refers to: Atmosphere (unit) or atm, a unit of atmospheric pressure Automated teller machine, a cash dispenser or cash machineATM or atm may also refer to: Computing ATM (computer), a ZX Spectrum clone developed in Moscow in 1991 Adobe Type Manager, a computer program for managing fonts Accelerated Turing machine, or Zeno machine, a model of computation used in theoretical computer science Alternating Turing machine, a model of computation used in theoretical computer science Asynchronous Transfer Mode, a telecommunications protocol used in networking ATM adaptation layer ATM Adaptation Layer 5 Media Amateur Telescope Making, a series of books by Albert Graham Ingalls ATM (2012 film), an American film ATM: Er Rak Error, a 2012 Thai film Azhagiya Tamil Magan, a 2007 Indian film "ATM" (song), a 2018 song by J. Cole from KOD People and organizations Abiding Truth Ministries, anti-LGBT organization in Springfield, Massachusetts, US Association of Teachers of Mathematics, UK Acrylic Tank Manufacturing, US aquarium manufacturer, televised in Tanked ATM FA, a football club in Malaysia A. T. M. Wilson (1906–1978), British psychiatrist African Transformation Movement, South African political party founded in 2018 The a2 Milk Company (NZX ticker symbol ATM) Science Apollo Telescope Mount, a solar observatory ATM serine/threonine kinase, a serine/threonine kinase activated by DNA damage The Airborne Topographic Mapper, a laser altimeter among the instruments used by NASA's Operation IceBridge Transportation Active traffic management, a motorway scheme on the M42 in England Air traffic management, a concept in aviation Altamira Airport, in Brazil (IATA code ATM) Azienda Trasporti Milanesi, the municipal public transport company of Milan Airlines of Tasmania (ICAO code ATM) Catalonia, Spain Autoritat del Transport Metropolità (ATM Àrea de Barcelona), in the Barcelona metropolitan area Autoritat Territorial de la Mobilitat del Camp de Tarragona (ATM Camp de Tarragona), in the Camp de Tarragona area Autoritat Territorial de la Mobilitat de l'Àrea de Girona (ATM Àrea de Girona), in the Girona area Autoritat Territorial de la Mobilitat de l'Àrea de Lleida (ATM Àrea de Lleida), in the Lleida area Other uses Actun Tunichil Muknal, a cave in Belize Anti-tank missile, a missile designed to destroy tanks Ass to mouth, a sexual act At the money, moneyness where the strike price is the same as the current spot price At-the-market offering, a type of follow-on offering of stock Automatenmarken, a variable value stamp Contracted form of Atlético Madrid, football club in Spain Common abbreviation in SMS language for "at the moment"
Gweilo or gwailou (Chinese: 鬼佬; Cantonese Yale: gwáilóu, pronounced [kʷɐ̌i lǒu] ) is a common Cantonese slang term for Westerners. In the absence of modifiers, it refers to white people and has a history of racially deprecatory and pejorative use. Cantonese speakers frequently use gwailou to refer to Westerners in general use, in a non-derogatory context, although whether this type of usage is offensive (i.e., an ethnic slur) is disputed by both Cantonese and Westerners. Etymology and history Gwái (鬼) means "ghost" or "devil", and lóu (佬) means "man" or "guy". The literal translation of gwáilóu would thus be "ghostly man" or "devil man". It is sometimes translated into English as "foreign devil". In Chinese, "ghost" can be a derogatory term used as a curse or an insult. The term ghost has also been used to describe other ethnic groups, for example, a 17th-century writer from Canton, Qu Dajun, wrote that Africans "look like ghosts", and gwáinòu (Chinese: 鬼奴; lit. 'ghost slave') was once used to describe African slaves. Usage The term gwái (鬼) is an adjective that can be used to express hate and deprecation, an example being the locals' expression of their hatred towards the Japanese during their occupation of Hong Kong in World War II with the same gwái. It conveys a general bad and negative feeling but is a somewhat obsolete and archaic/old-fashioned term nowadays and other more modern terms have largely replaced gwái for similarly negative meanings. Cantonese people sometimes call each other sēui gwái (衰鬼), which means bad person, though more often than not it is applied affectionately, similar to "Hey, bitch!" in English when used affectionately. Nowadays, Cantonese speakers often refer to non-Chinese people by their ethnicity. Gwáilóu is often considered to be an acceptable generic racial term for Westerners. Also, some members of the Hong Kong community with European ancestry (particularly those with limited or zero Cantonese fluency) are indifferent to the term, and those who believe that the best way to defang a word intended as a "slur" is to embrace it, and use gweilo to refer to non-Chinese in Hong Kong. Gwailóu has, in some instances, been recognised as simply referring to white foreigners in South East Asia and now appears on Oxford Dictionaries defined as such, although non-white foreigners are not gwáilóu. While gwáilóu is used by some Cantonese speakers in informal speech, the more polite alternative sāi yàn (西人; 'Western person') is now used as well, particularly if the conversation involves a non-Chinese person in order to avoid offense.CFMT-TV in Toronto, Canada had a cooking show named Gwai Lo Cooking (1999) hosted by a Cantonese-speaking European chef, who was also the show's producer and the person who named the show. According to CFMT-TV, "Gwei Lo" was used as "a self-deprecating term of endearment". In response to some complaints, the Canadian Broadcast Standards Council ruled that: While historically, "gwai lo" may have been used by Chinese people as a derogatory remark concerning foreigners, particularly European Westerners, the persons consulted by the Council indicate that it has since lost much of its derogatory overtone. The Council finds that the expression has also lost most of its religious meaning, so that "foreign devil" no longer carries the theological significance it once did. Based on its research, the Council understands that the expression has gone from being considered offensive to, at worst, merely "impolite". Related terms Gwai is one of a number of terms to referring to non-Chinese people that can be considered controversial and potentially offensive; a list of such terms is given below: gwaijai (鬼仔; Cantonese Yale: gwáijái; lit. 'ghost boy') for a white boy. gwaimui (鬼妹; Cantonese Yale: gwáimūi; lit. 'ghost girl') for a white girl. gwaipo (鬼婆; Cantonese Yale: gwáipò; lit. 'ghost woman') for white woman. baakgwai (白鬼; Cantonese Yale: baahkgwái; lit. 'white ghost') for white people. haakgwai (黑鬼; Cantonese Yale: hāakgwái; lit. 'black ghost') for Black people. sai yan (西人; Cantonese Yale: sāi yàn; lit. 'western person') for Westerners. yeung yan (洋人; Cantonese Yale: yèung yàn; lit. 'overseas person') for Westerners. ngoigwok yan (外國人; Cantonese Yale: ngoih gwok yàn; lit. 'foreign country person') for foreign nationals. acha (阿差; Cantonese Yale: achā; from "acchā" meaning "good" in Hindi) for South Asians. molocha (摩囉差; Cantonese Yale: mōlōchā; lit. 'Mouro Indian') for South Asians. Mandarin Chinese Guizi (鬼子; pinyin: guǐzi) is a Mandarin Chinese slang term for foreigners, and has a long history of being used as a racially deprecating insult. Riben guizi (日本鬼子; pinyin: rìběn guǐzi; lit. 'Japanese devil') or dongyang guizi (東洋鬼子; pinyin: dōngyáng guǐzi; lit. 'east ocean devil') – used to refer to Japanese. Er guizi (二鬼子; pinyin: èr guǐzi; lit. 'second devil') – used to refer to the Korean soldiers who were a part of the Japanese army during the Sino-Japanese War in World War II. Yang guizi (洋鬼子; pinyin: yáng guǐzi; lit. 'Western/overseas devil') or xiyang guizi (西洋鬼子; pinyin: xiyáng guǐzi; lit. 'west ocean devil') – used to refer to Westerners.However, xiaogui (小鬼; pinyin: xiǎoguǐ; lit. 'little ghost') is a common term in Mandarin Chinese for a child. Therefore, some argue that gui (鬼) in Mandarin is just a neutral word that describes something unexpected or hard to predict.Laowai (老外; pinyin: lǎowài; lit. 'old foreigner/outsider') is the word most commonly used for foreigners and is a less pejorative term than guizi. Although laowai literally means "old foreigner", depending on context, "old" can be both a term of endearment and one of criticism. See also "Is Using the Term "Gweilo" Discriminatory in the Hong Kong Workplace?". Mayer Brown. 17 February 2022. "Is 'gweilo' a racist word? Our editors discuss". South China Morning Post. 12 September 2018. Fafata, Brett (8 March 2018). "Are Cantonese terms like "gweilo" outdated and offensive in Asia's World City?". Young Post. - Opinion
Year 199 (CXCIX) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was sometimes known as year 952 Ab urbe condita. The denomination 199 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events By place Roman Empire Mesopotamia is partitioned into two Roman provinces divided by the Euphrates, Mesopotamia and Osroene. Emperor Septimius Severus lays siege to the city-state Hatra in Central-Mesopotamia, but fails to capture the city despite breaching the walls. Two new legions, I Parthica and III Parthica, are formed as a permanent garrison. China Battle of Yijing: Chinese warlord Yuan Shao defeats Gongsun Zan. Korea Geodeung succeeds Suro of Geumgwan Gaya, as king of the Korean kingdom of Gaya (traditional date). By topic Religion Pope Zephyrinus succeeds Pope Victor I, as the 15th pope. Births Deaths February 7 Gao Shun, Chinese general and advisor Lü Bu, Chinese general and warlord Chen Ji, Chinese official, scholar and politician Gongsun Zan, Chinese general and warlord Qin Yilu (or Qin Yi), Chinese general Suro of Geumgwan Gaya, Korean ruler Tian Kai, Chinese official and general Yuan Shu, Chinese general and warlord
Year 196 (CXCVI) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Dexter and Messalla (or, less frequently, year 949 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 196 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events By place Roman Empire Emperor Septimius Severus attempts to assassinate Clodius Albinus but fails, causing Albinus to retaliate militarily. Emperor Septimius Severus captures and sacks Byzantium; the city is rebuilt and regains its previous prosperity. In order to assure the support of the Roman legion in Germany on his march to Rome, Clodius Albinus is declared Augustus by his army while crossing Gaul. Hadrian's wall in Britain is partially destroyed. China First year of the Jian'an Era, during the reign of the Xian Emperor of the Han. The Xian Emperor returns to war-ravaged Luoyang and seeks the protection of warlord Cao Cao. He is advised to move the capital to Xuchang; the emperor becomes a pawn in the hands of the Chinese warlords. Korea Naehae becomes king of Silla. Births Cao Chong, son of Cao Cao (d. 208) Deaths Beolhyu, Korean ruler of Silla Cao Bao, Chinese general and governor Chizhi Shizhu Hou, Chinese puppet ruler (b. 150) Zhou Xin, Chinese official and politician
Oolong is a kind of Chinese tea. Oolong may also refer to: Fictional characters Oolong, a main character from Yie Ar Kung-Fu Oolong (Dragon Ball), a character in the Dragon Ball series Other uses Oolong (programming language), an assembler for the Java virtual machine Oolong (rabbit), a Japanese rabbit that was an internet phenomenon Oolong, New South Wales, a locality in New South Wales, Australia Udon, a Japanese noodle called oolong in Chinese See also Oolong Creek, a stream running through Dalton, New South Wales, Australia Oolong Island, a fictional location from the DC Comics series 52 Ulong (disambiguation)
The National Stadium (Chinese: 国家体育场; pinyin: Guójiā Tǐyùchǎng; lit. 'National Stadium'), also known as the Bird's Nest (鸟巢; Niǎocháo), is an 91,000-capacity stadium in Beijing. The stadium was jointly designed by architects Jacques Herzog and Pierre de Meuron from Basel-based architecture team Herzog & de Meuron, project architect Stefan Marbach, artist Ai Weiwei, and CADG, which was led by chief architect Li Xinggang. The stadium was designed for use throughout the 2008 Summer Olympics and Paralympics. It was used again in the 2022 Winter Olympics and Paralympics. The Bird's Nest sometimes has temporary large screens installed at the stands. History Located at the Olympic Green, the stadium cost US$428 million. The design was awarded to a submission from the Swiss architecture firm Herzog & de Meuron in April 2003 after a bidding process that included 13 final submissions. The design, which originated from the study of Chinese ceramics, implemented steel beams in order to hide supports for the retractable roof; giving the stadium the appearance of a bird's nest. Leading Chinese artist Ai Weiwei was the artistic consultant on the project. The retractable roof was later removed from the design after inspiring the stadium's most recognizable aspect. Ground was broken on 24 December 2003 and the stadium officially opened on 28 June 2008. A shopping mall and a hotel are planned to be constructed to increase use of the stadium, which has had trouble attracting events, football and otherwise, after the Olympics. Bidding In 2001, before Beijing had been awarded the games, the city held a bidding process to select the best arena design. Multiple requirements including the ability for post-Olympics use, a retractable roof, and incredibly low maintenance costs, were required of each design. The entry list was narrowed to thirteen final designs. Of the final thirteen, Li Xinggang of China Architecture Design and Research Group (CADG), said after he placed the model of the "nest" proposal at the exhibition hall and saw the rival entries he thought to himself, "We will win this." The model was approved as the top design by a professional panel and later exhibited to the public. Once again, it was selected as the top design. The "nest scheme" design became official in April 2003. Design Beijing National Stadium (BNS) was a joint venture among architects Jacques Herzog and Pierre de Meuron of Herzog & de Meuron, project architect Stefan Marbach and CADG, which was led by chief architect Li Xinggang. During their first meeting in 2003, at Basel, the group decided to do something unlike Herzog and de Meuron had traditionally designed. "China wanted to have something new for this very important stadium," Li stated. In an effort to design a stadium that was "porous" while also being "a collective building, a public vessel", the team studied Chinese ceramics. This line of thought brought the team to the "nest scheme". The stadium consists of two independent structures, standing 50 feet apart: a red concrete seating bowl and the outer steel frame around it.In an attempt to hide steel supports for the retractable roof, required in the bidding process, the team developed the "random-looking additional steel" to blend the supports into the rest of the stadium. Twenty-four trussed columns encase the inner bowl, each one weighing 1,000 tons. Despite the random appearance of the Stadium, each half is nearly symmetrical. After a collapse of a roof at the Charles de Gaulle Airport, Beijing reviewed all major projects. It was decided to eliminate the retractable roof, the original inspiration for the "nest" design, as well as 9,000 seats from the design. The removal of the elements helped to bring the project under the reduced construction budget of $290 million, from an original $500 million. With the removal of the retractable roof, the building was lightened, which helped it stand up to seismic activity; however, the upper section of the roof was altered to protect fans from weather. Enerpac was granted the contract to perform the stage lifting and lowering of the stadium roof as part of the construction process. China National Electric Engineering Co. Ltd. CNEEC and China National Mechanical Engineering Company lifted and welded the steel structure. Due to the stadium's outward appearance, it was nicknamed "The Bird's Nest". The phrase was first used by Herzog & de Meuron, though the pair still believes "there should be many ways of perceiving a building." The use is a compliment Li explained, "In China, a bird's nest is very expensive, something you eat on special occasions." Construction Construction of the stadium proceeded in several distinct phases, the first phase involving the construction of a concrete supporting structure upon the concrete foundations laid for the construction site. This was followed by the phased installation of the curved steel frame surrounding the stadium, which is largely self-supporting. This phased installation involved the interconnection of sections of the curved steel frame constructed in Shanghai and transported to Beijing for assembly and welding. The entire structure of interconnected sections was welded together as the primary means of interconnection used to assemble the entire surrounding nest structure. Upon removal of the supporting columns used for the purpose of expediting the assembly of the interconnecting sections, the completed nest structure as a whole settled approximately 27 cm to attain full stability before the interior design and construction of the stadium could be installed and completed. Completion Ground was broken, at the Olympic Green, for Beijing National Stadium on 24 December 2003. At its height, 17,000 construction workers worked on the stadium. Portraits of 143 migrant workers at the construction site were featured in the book Workers (Gong Ren) by artist Helen Couchman. On 1 January 2008, The Times reported that 10 workers had died throughout construction; despite denial from the Chinese government. However, in a story the following week, Reuters, with the support of the Chinese government, reported that only two workers had died. All 121,000 tons of steel were made in China. On 14 May 2008 the grass field of 7,811 square meters was laid in 24 hours. The field is a modular turf system by GreenTech ITM. Building the Beijing Olympic Field Beijing National Stadium officially opened at a ceremony on 28 June 2008. Features and events The eastern and western stands of Beijing National Stadium are higher than northern and southern stands, in order to improve sightlines. A 24-hour-per-day rainwater collector is located near the stadium; after water is purified, it is used throughout and around the stadium. Pipes placed under the playing surface gather heat in the winter to warm the stadium and disperse heat in the summer to cool the stadium. The stadium's design originally called for a capacity of 100,000 people; however 9,000 were removed during a simplification of the design. The new total of 91,000 was shaved further when 11,000 temporary seats were removed after the 2008 Olympics; bringing the stadium's capacity to 80,000. The farthest seat is 460 feet (140 meters) from center field. Temperature and airflow of every surface were optimized to increase ventilation.Beijing National Stadium hosted the opening and closing ceremonies, athletic events, and football final of the 2008 Summer Olympics from 8 to 24 August 2008. The stadium also hosted the Opening and Closing ceremonies and athletic events of the 2008 Summer Paralympics from 6 to 17 September 2008. Though designed for track & field events of the Olympics, the stadium continued to host sporting events, such as football, afterwards. A shopping mall and a hotel, with rooms overlooking the field, are planned to help increase use after the Olympics. Li stated, "This will become the most important public space in Beijing."Although ignored by the Chinese media, design consultant Ai Weiwei has voiced his anti-Olympics views and distanced himself from the project, saying, "I've already forgotten about it. I turn down all the demands to have photographs with it," and that it is part of a "pretend smile" of bad taste. Football China men's and women's team hasn't played any matches since the opening of the stadium. On its first anniversary, 8 August 2009, the stadium hosted a performance of the opera Turandot, and the 2009 Supercoppa Italiana (Italian Super Cup) final, the traditional curtain raiser to the Italian football league season. In August 2011, the Bird's Nest once again hosted the Supercoppa Italiana, the stadium's second in three years, and also in 2012. The Beijing Guo’an football club was scheduled to play at the stadium, but later backed out of their agreement, citing the embarrassment of using an 80,000+ seat venue for games that routinely draw only slightly more than 10,000.In July 2010, the stadium hosted a friendly football match between Football League Championship team Birmingham City and Beijing Guoan as a part of Birmingham's pre-season trip to China, homeland of the club's owner Carson Yeung. Birmingham City recorded a 1–0 victory in the game.Arsenal and Manchester City played each other in the inaugural 'China Cup', a one-off match in Beijing's played on 27 July 2012. Manchester City won the match with a score of 2–0.On 25 July 2016 Manchester City were scheduled to meet Manchester United as part of the 2016 International Champions Cup. However the game was cancelled due to heavy rain soaking the pitch, poor pitch conditions due to fungus and the pitch being relaid with turf.On 22 July 2017, Arsenal and Chelsea played against each other in a friendly match.After China became the host of the 2023 AFC Asian Cup on 4 June 2019 which the stadium was originally intended as the Beijing venue, but it was replaced by Workers' Stadium on 4 January 2020. However, on 14 May 2022, AFC announced that China would not be able to host the tournament due to the exceptional circumstances caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. Other sports events The stadium hosted the 2009 Race of Champions motor racing carnival. In 2014 and 2015, the FIA Formula E Championship motor racing series hosted the Beijing ePrix at the Beijing Olympic Park. On 1 November 2010, the IAAF announced that the 2015 World Championships in Athletics would take place at the Beijing National Stadium.On 29 July 2017, the stadium hosted Monster Jam and the Stadium Super Trucks, marking the first Chinese race for both racing series. Chinese driver Li Ya Tao was among the ten drivers competing in the Stadium Super Truck race.On 4 November 2017, the stadium hosted the League of Legends World Championship 2017 Finals. Concerts Jackie Chan was the first artist to hold a pop concert at the stadium on 2 April 2009. "King of Chinese Pop" Wang Leehom held the first solo pop concert at the stadium on 14 April 2012 for a sold-out crowd of 90,000 fans. Taiwanese band Mayday performed at the stadium for two nights from 29 to 30 April 2012, as part of their Mayday No Where Tour. They were the first band ever to hold two-day concerts at the stadium. They returned in August 2013 to hold one show as part of their Mayday Now Here Tour. They came back to the stadium to hold their three shows of their Just Rock It!!! World Tour in August 2016 and five shows of their Mayday Life Tour in August 2017 and 2018. They returned in August 2019 to hold three shows of their Just Rock It!!! World Tour to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the release of their first album in 1999. Korean pop artists under S.M. Entertainment including Kangta, BoA, TVXQ, Super Junior (Super Junior-M), Girls' Generation, SHINee, f(x), EXO, Zhang Liyin, and Tasty performed at the stadium for the first time on 19 October 2013 as part of the SMTown Live World Tour III. Chinese pop star Jason Zhang held the Future Live concert at the stadium on 11 August 2018. Chinese pop and rock star Hua Chenyu was the first solo artist under 30 to hold a concert, let alone two, on 8 September 2018, to 9 September 2018. Since 2014, the finals for the Chinese singing competition The Voice of China and Sing! China, based on the hit international singing competition The Voice, were held at the stadium. The finals were usually held on either 7 October or on a Sunday of the Golden Week to commemorate the event. Pageants In 4th quarter of 2017, this stadium is also open for both local & international pageant events. Post-Olympics legacy On 12 January 2009 the venue's owners announced plans for the stadium to anchor a shopping and entertainment complex. These plans, having been developed by operator CITIC Group, were projected to take three to five years to achieve. The stadium also continues to function as a tourist attraction, while hosting sports and entertainment events. However, by 2013 the stadium had fallen into visual disrepair and was criticized as appearing rusty and neglected by visitors to Beijing. In 2009, the stadium was the site of a Pit Stop for the double-length penultimate leg in the 14th season of The Amazing Race. In 2010, an Olympic-themed Detour was held here in the fifth leg of the first season of The Amazing Race: China Rush. Later in 2016, the first leg of the third season of The Amazing Race China featured a Roadblock where a team member reenacted a dancing segment from the opening ceremony.The National Stadium was intended to be a Monument of New China, expected to be visited by millions of tourists and showcased through an array of media representations.In spite of the lack of significant events, the stadium appears to be quite profitable, drawing some 20,000 to 30,000 people a day at the price of a 50 yuan admission. In 2010 it was used as a snow theme park. The venue costs approximately $9 million to maintain per year.The stadium was used for the finals of the 2017 League of Legends World Championship. This included performances by Jay Chou. The stadium was used to host "The Great Journey," an art performance marking the 100th Anniversary of the Chinese Communist Party on 1 July 2021. 2022 Winter Olympics The stadium was used for the opening and closing ceremonies of 2022 Winter Olympics and 2022 Winter Paralympics. It is the only stadium to host both the Summer and Winter Olympics and Paralympics opening and closing ceremonies. See also Workers' Stadium Pasternack, Alex (2008). Clifford A. Pearson. "National Stadium". Architectural Record: 92–9. Archived from the original on 28 August 2008. Retrieved 27 August 2008. Beijing2008.cn profile Beijing National Stadium Official site Archived 25 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine (in Chinese)
Ivana Wong Yuen Chi (Chinese: 王菀之; born 18 June 1980) is a Hong Kong female singer-songwriter who entered the music industry in 2005. In subsequent years, she swept the board of creative singer awards as well as songwriting awards. She was awarded the Singer-Songwriter Awards in Commercial Radio's Ultimate Song Chart Awards Presentation for seven consecutive years, including four times of Singer-Songwriter Gold Awards, for which she was widely acclaimed as “the Queen of Singer Songwriters (唱作皇后)”. In 2011, Ivana wrote and performed the theme song “Missed Address” for the movie “A Beautiful Life” directed by Andrew Lau Wai-keung. It was nominated as Best Original Film Song in a Movie Picture. In 2012, her song “Liu Bai” achieved the 2012 Golden Song JSG Award (Jade Solid Gold Awards Presentation) and was the only song awarded in all four music award ceremonies in the industry. Her debut concert held in the Hong Kong Coliseum in October 2011, “The Water Lily Concert”, led by three renowned musical directors working with an orchestra of forty-two musicians, was considered unprecedented and phenomenal, and was recognized by all as an “art Show upsurge that overpowers the HK Coliseum”. She then had her second concert held in the Hong Kong Coliseum in May 2014, and her first collaboration concert with the Hong Kong Philharmonic Orchestra held in the Concert Hall at the Hong Kong Cultural Centre in October 2015, “Fragrance of Music, Ivana Wong x Hong Kong Philharmonic Orchestra”. Both concerts received immense praise. Apart from being a professional singer, Ivana has made a number of appearances in dramas. In 2010, she appeared in the musical drama “Octave”, which held nineteen full-house shows, and the music she wrote for this drama was nominated for The Best Original Music Score in a Drama in the 20th Hong Kong Drama Society Award. In 2011, her appearance in the Broadway Musical “I Love You Because” brought her the first nomination for Best Supporting Actress in the 21st Hong Kong Drama Award Presentation. In 2013, she appeared the first time as actress-in-a-main-role in the TVB series “Inbound Troubles”. Subsequently, in the same year, she took the role of Wu Lu, as her film debut, in the Lunar New Year movie “Golden Chickensss”. Her acting was widely praised, and this role brought her accolades “Best Performer” and “Best Supporting Actress” of The 34th Hong Kong Film Awards in 2015, also “Best Newcomer” of Hong Kong Film Directors’ Guild. She participated in the performance of the stage play "Little HK 4-6" from 2013 to 2017. In May 2018, she formed “Lungg” together with Michael Ning and Yeung Wai Leun (Lun) for the 21 performances of the "Laboratory". In August 2019, she translated the Broadway romantic music comedy "First Date". Ivana Wong is the initiator of this play. She is an actor, producer, co-ordinator and investor. She participates all parts of the performance such as selection of repertoire, selection of plays, and translation of scripts. Discography 2005 May - Ivana - Universal Music 2005 November - I Love My Name - Universal Music 2006 December - Poetry. Painting - Universal Music 2007 June - Read My Senses... New Songs + Best Selections - Universal Music 2007 December - Ivana First Mandarin Album - SeedMusic / East Asia 2008 October - Infinity Journey - East Asia 2009 October - On Wings Of Time - East Asia 2010 July - Octave EP - East Asia 2011 May - Cinema of Love - East Asia 2011 October - The Songbird Anthology - East Asia 2013 February - Atmosphere EP - East Asia 2013 June - Sunny Songs Collection - East Asia 2017 February - The Whimsical Voyage EP - Media Asia 2017 March - Much Feeling Little Thinking - Media Asia AWARDS 2000 – CASH Song Writers Quest Champion 2000 CASH 流行曲創作大賽冠軍 2005 – TVB JSG Seasonal (Second) "Newcomers" Award (one of the awards)2005 TVB勁歌金曲優秀選第二回"新人薦場飆星獎" (得獎者之一) 2005 – TVB Top Ten Children's Songs – "Little Happy Doctor"2005 十大兒歌金曲(得獎作品《快樂小博士》) 2005 – Metroshowbiz Top Ten New Stars Second Round "Dazzling New Female Star"2005 新城十強新星鬥第二回「奪目女新星」 2005 – Friday Weekly "University and College Students' Favourite New Singer-songwriters2005 學勢力xFriday大專生熱愛歌手選「大專生最熱愛唱作新人」 2005 – PM Newcomers Awards "PM Powerful New Singer-songwriter"2005 PM 樂壇新人頒獎禮"PM強勢唱作女新人" 2005 – TVB8 Hall of Fame "Best Female Newcomers" Silver Award2005 TVB8金曲榜頒獎典禮"最佳女新人銀獎" 2005 – Guangzhou Radio/TV Hall of Fame "Best Female Newcomers of Year (Hong Kong, Taiwan and Overseas)" Gold Award2005 廣州電台/電視台05金曲金榜頒獎禮"年度最佳女新人(港台海外)金獎" 2005 – Metroshowbiz Hits New Hopes Award (one of the awarded)2005 新城勁爆唱好新希望獎 2005 – Metroshowbiz "Hits Singer-songwriters of New Generation" (one of the awarded)2005 新城勁爆新一代創作歌手 (得獎者之一) 2005 – Metroshowbiz "i-Tech Metro Hits Kings of New Singers" (one of the awarded)2005 i-Tech 新城勁爆新人王 (得獎者之一) 2005 – 4 Stages Association Performance Excellence Award – Bronze2005 四台聯頒音樂大獎 – 卓越表現大獎銅獎 2005 – Ultimate Song Chart "Singer-songwriter" Bronze Award2005 叱吒樂壇唱作人銅獎 2005 – Ultimate Song Chart "New Female Singer" Silver Award2005 叱吒樂壇生力軍女歌手銀獎 2005 – TVB JSG Award "Most Popular Singer-songwriter" Silver Award2005 TVB十大勁歌金曲頒獎典禮 – 最受歡迎唱作歌星銀獎 2005 – TVB JSG Award "Most Popular New Female Singer" Silver Award2005 TVB十大勁歌金曲頒獎典禮 – 最受歡迎新人獎(女)銀獎 2005 – Hit Rank of Chinese Songs (Cantonese)"New Female Singer Praised by the whole Nation"2005 加拿大至HIT中文歌曲排行榜(粵語組)"全國推祟女新人" 2005 – 28th Hong Kong Top Ten Chinese Songs "New Female Singer with Best Prospect" Silver Award2005 第二十八屆香港十大中文金曲頒獎禮"最有前途女新人銀獎" 2005 – SINA MUSIC Voting Index Awards "Best Live Performance" Award – "Hopes in Hand (Care Version)" with Hins Cheung2005 SINA MUSIC樂壇民意指數頒獎典禮 "最佳現場演繹大獎" (得獎作品：與張敬軒合唱《手望(守望版)》 2005 – SINA MUSIC Voting Index Awards "My Favourite New Female Singer" Gold Award2005 SINA MUSIC樂壇民意指數頒獎典禮"我最喜愛女新人金獎"　 2006 – Ultimate Song Chart "Singer-songwriter" Bronze Award2006 叱吒樂壇唱作人銅獎 2007– Metroshowbiz "Hits Original Song" 2007 新城勁爆頒獎禮 – 勁爆原創歌曲《幸福》 2007– Metroshowbiz "Hits Singer- Songwriters of the year" 2007 新城勁爆頒獎禮 – 新城勁爆創作歌手 2007– Ultimate Song Chart "Singer- Songwriter " Gold Award 2007 年度叱吒樂壇流行榜頒獎典禮「叱吒樂壇唱作人金獎」 2007– RoadShow Best Music Award "Best song" RoadShow至尊音樂頒獎禮2007 – 至尊歌曲《真心話》 2007– RoadShow Best Music Award "Most improved Singer" 2007 RoadShow至尊音樂頒獎禮 – 至尊飛躍歌手 2007– TVB JSG Award "Most Popular Singer-Songwriter Gold" 2007 TVB十大勁歌金曲頒獎典禮「最受歡迎唱作歌手金獎」 2007– 30th Top 10 Hong Kong Chinese Songs " CASH best singer- songwriter" 2007 第三十屆十大中文金曲「CASH最佳創作歌手」 2008– Metroshowbiz "Hits Original Songwriter Album Award" 2008 新城勁爆頒獎禮「新城勁爆創作專輯」【Infinity Journey】 2008– Metroshowbiz "Hits Songwriter Album Award" 2008 新城勁爆頒獎禮「新城勁爆創作歌手」 2008– Metroshowbiz "Hits Song Award" 2008 新城勁爆頒獎禮「新城勁爆歌曲」《我來自火星》 2008– Ultimate Song Chart "Singer- Songwriter " Silver Award 2008 年度叱吒樂壇流行榜頒獎典禮「叱咤樂壇唱作人銀獎」 2008– Ultimate Song Chart "Female Singer" Bronze Award 2008 年度叱吒樂壇流行榜頒獎典禮「叱咤樂壇女歌手銅獎」 2008– 31st Top 10 Hong Kong Chinese Songs " Top 10 Elite Singers" 2008 第31屆十大中文金曲頒獎典禮「優秀流行歌手大獎」 2008– TVB JSG Award "Most Popular Singer-Songwriter Gold" 2008 TVB十大勁歌金曲頒獎典禮「最受歡迎唱作歌手金獎」 2008 – Top 10 Selling Mandarin Albums of the Year – IFPI Hong Kong Album SalesAwardsIvana's First Mandarin Album (王菀之Ivana首張國語創作專輯) 2009 - Top 10 Selling Mandarin Albums of the Year – IFPI Hong Kong Album Sales Awards 2009 香港唱片銷量大獎 - 十大銷量本地歌手 2009 - Ultimate Song Chart "Singer- Songwriter " Gold Award 2009 商業電台叱咤樂壇流行榜頒獎典禮 - 叱咤樂壇唱作人金獎 2009 - TVB JSG Award "Most Popular Singer-Songwriter Gold" 2009 TVB十大勁歌金曲頒獎典禮 - 最受歡迎唱作歌星金獎 2009 - 32st Top 10 Hong Kong Chinese Songs " Top 10 Elite Singers" 2009 香港電台第32屆十大中文金曲頒獎禮 - 十大優秀流行歌手大獎 2009 - 32st Top 10 Hong Kong Chinese Songs 2009 香港電台第32屆十大中文金曲頒獎禮 - 十大金曲《月亮說》 2009 - 32st Top 10 Hong Kong Chinese Songs "Composer Award" 2009 香港電台第32屆十大中文金曲頒獎禮 - 作曲人大奬 2009 - Metroshowbiz "Hits Songwriter Album Award" 2009 新城勁爆頒獎禮 - 新城勁爆創作歌手 2009 - Metroshowbiz "Hits Song Award" 2009 新城勁爆頒獎禮 - 新城勁爆歌曲《月亮說》 2009 - Top 20 Sina Music Voting Index Awards"Highest listening rate" 2009 Sina Music樂壇民意指數頒獎禮 - Sina Music最高收聽率20大歌曲《月亮說》 2009 - Sina Music Voting Index Awards "Creative concept album《On Wings Of Time》2009 Sina Music樂壇民意指數頒獎禮 - Sina Music創作概念大碟《On Wings Of Time》 2009 - Sina Music Voting Index Awards "My favorite creator" 2009 Sina Music樂壇民意指數頒獎禮 - 我最喜愛唱作人(女) 2009 - Hit Rank of Chinese Songs (Cantonese)"National praise for Cantonse singer-songwriters" 2009 加拿大至HiT中文歌曲排行榜 - 全國推崇粵語唱作人 2009 - Hit Rank of Chinese Songs (Cantonese)"Top 10 Cantonse songs nationwide" 2009 加拿大至HiT中文歌曲排行榜 - 全國推崇十大粵語歌曲《月亮說》 2009 - TVB JSG Seasonal (Second) 2009 勁歌金曲優秀選第二回 - 歌曲《大笨鐘》 2009 - TVB JSG Seasonal (Third) 2009 勁歌金曲優秀選第三回 - 歌曲《月亮說》 2009 - Esquire“Women We Love” 2009 Esquire月亮女神 2009 - TOUCH ICON 2009 - CASH Golden Sail Music Awards "Best melody" 2009 CASH金帆音樂獎 - 最佳旋律《月亮說》 2009 - "10th Anniversary Ceremony" Top Chinese Music Award "New power female singer" 2009 音樂風雲榜十周年盛典 - 樂壇新勢力女歌手 2009 - The 10th Chinese Music Media Awards "Baijia Media"s most watched album of the year《On Wings Of Time》" 2009 第十屆華語音樂傳媒大獎 - 百家傳媒年度最受矚目專輯《On Wings Of Time》 2009 - Chinese Music Awards - Top 10 Chinese Album (Cantonese)《On Wings Of Time》2009 華語金曲獎 - 十大華語唱片(粵語)《On Wings Of Time》 2009 - Neway Karaoke Awards 2009 Neway卡拉OK頒獎典禮 - 歌曲《月亮說》 2010 - Ultimate Song Chart "Singer- Songwriter " Gold Award 2010 商業電台叱咤樂壇流行榜頒獎典禮 - 叱咤樂壇唱作人金獎 2010 - TVB JSG Award "Top 10 Golden Songs" 2010 TVB十大勁歌金曲頒獎典禮 - 十大金曲《開籠雀》 2010 - Metroshowbiz "Hits Singer- Songwriters of the year" 2010 新城勁爆頒獎禮 - 新城勁爆創作歌手 2010 - Metroshowbiz "Hits Song" 2010新城勁爆頒獎禮 - 新城勁爆歌曲《開籠雀》 2010 - Sina Music Voting Index Awards "My favorite female singer" 2010 Music樂壇民意指數頒獎禮 - Sina Music我最喜愛女歌手 2010 - Sina Music Voting Index Awards "Top 20 songs with highest listening rate" 2010 Music樂壇民意指數頒獎禮 - Sina Music最高收聽率20大歌曲《開籠雀》 2010 - CASH Golden Sail Music Awards "Best singer performance" 2010 CASH金帆音樂獎 - 最佳女歌手演繹《小團圓》 2010 - CASH Golden Sail Music Awards "Best Choral Interpretation" 2010 CASH金帆音樂獎 - 最佳合唱演繹《高八度》 2010 - TVB JSG Seasonal (Second) 2010 勁歌金曲優秀選第二回 - 歌曲《開籠雀》 2010 - TOUCH ICON 2010 - JET ICON 2011 - The 31st Hong Kong Film Awards – Best Original Film Song (Movie “A Beautiful Life”)(Nomination)2011 第31屆香港電影金像獎 - 最佳原創電影歌曲獎提名《電影：不再讓你孤單》 2011 - Hong Kong Top Sales Music Award "Top 10 selling local album"《The Songbird Anthology》 2011 IFPI香港唱片銷量大獎 - 十大銷量本地唱片《The Songbird Anthology》 2011 - Ultimate Song Chart "Singer - Songwriter" Bronze Award 2011 商業電台叱咤樂壇流行榜頒獎典禮 - 叱咤樂壇唱作人銅獎 2011 - Ultimate Song Chart "Top 10 professional referrals" Sixth place 2011 商業電台叱咤樂壇流行榜頒獎典禮 - 專業推介叱咤十大第六位《末日》 2011 - TVB JSG Award - Asia-Pacific's most popular Hong Kong female singer 2011 TVB十大勁歌金曲頒獎典禮 - 亞太區最受歡迎香港女歌星 2011 - TVB JSG Award "Most Popular Singer-Songwriter" Silver Award 2011 十大勁歌金曲頒獎典禮 - 最受歡迎唱作歌星銀獎 2011 - TVB JSG Award - Top 10 Golden Songs 2011 TVB十大勁歌金曲頒獎典禮 - 十大金曲《水百合》 2011 - Metroshowbiz "Asian singer - Songwriter award" 2011 新城勁爆頒獎禮 - 新城勁爆亞洲創作歌手大獎 2011 - Metroshowbiz "Best Songs" 2011 新城勁爆頒獎禮 - 新城勁爆歌曲《末日》 2011 - 34th Top 10 Hong Kong Chinese Songs 2011 香港電台第34屆十大中文金曲頒獎禮 - 十大金曲《末日》 2011 - 34th Top 10 Hong Kong Chinese Songs - Composer Award 2011 香港電台第34屆十大中文金曲頒獎禮 - 作曲人大奬 2011 - Sina Music Voting Index Awards "My favorite singer-songwriter" 2011 Music樂壇民意指數頒獎禮 - Sina Music我最喜愛創作歌手 2011 - Sina Music Voting Index Awards "Top 20 songs with highest listening rate" 2011 Music樂壇民意指數頒獎禮 - Sina Music最高收聽率20大歌曲《末日》 2011 - Sina Music Voting Index Awards "My favorite concert" 2011 Sina Music樂壇民意指數頒獎禮 - Sina Music我最喜愛演唱會《“水．百合”演唱會》 2011 - Yahoo! Music Award - Song Award 2011 Yahoo! Music Award - 歌曲獎《末日》 2011 - Yahoo! Music Award - Concert Award 2011 Yahoo! Music Award - 演唱會獎《“水．百合”演唱會》 2011 - TVB8 Award - Song Award 2011 TVB8金曲榜頒獎禮 - 金曲獎《錯過了地址》 2011 - TVB8 Award - The most popular Cantonese songs 2011 TVB8金曲榜頒獎禮 - 最受歡迎粵語歌曲《末日》 2011 - TVB8 Award - The most popular singer-songwriter Silver Award 2011 TVB8金曲榜頒獎禮 - 最受歡迎唱作歌手銀獎 2011 - Sprite List Award - The best singer-songwriter(Hong Kong) 2011 雪碧榜頒獎禮 - 最優秀創作歌手(香港地區) 2011 - Sprite List Award - Most popular female singer(Hong Kong) 2011 雪碧榜頒獎禮 - 最受歡迎女歌手(香港地區) 2011 - TVB JSG Seasonal (Third) 2011 TVB勁歌金曲優秀選第三回 - 歌曲《水百合》 2011 - TVB JSG Seasonal (Second) 2011 TVB勁歌金曲優秀選第二回 - 歌曲《末日》 2011 - TVB JSG Seasonal (First) 2011 TVB勁歌金曲優秀選第一回 - 歌曲《最好的》 2012 - Ultimate Song Chart "Top 10 professional referrals" The third 2012 商業電台叱咤樂壇流行榜頒獎典禮 - 專業推介叱咤十大第三位《留白》 2012 - TVB JSG Award - Gold Medal 2012 TVB十大勁歌金曲頒獎典禮 - 金曲金獎《留白》 2012 - TVB JSG Award - Top 10 Golden Songs 2012 TVB十大勁歌金曲頒獎典禮 - 十大金曲《留白》 2012 - TVB JSG Award - Most popular choral songs Gold Award 2012 TVB十大勁歌金曲頒獎典禮 - 最受歡迎合唱歌曲金獎《生命之花》 2012 - 35th Top 10 Hong Kong Chinese Songs " Top 10 Elite Singers" 2012 香港電台第35屆十大中文金曲頒獎禮 - 十大優秀流行歌手大獎 2012 - 35th Top 10 Hong Kong Chinese Songs 2012 香港電台第35屆十大中文金曲頒獎禮 - 十大金曲《留白》 2012 - Metroshowbiz "Asian singer-Songwriter award" 2012 新城勁爆頒獎禮 - 新城勁爆亞洲創作歌手大獎 2012 - Metroshowbiz "Best Songs" 2012 新城勁爆頒獎禮 - 新城勁爆歌曲《留白》 2012 - TVB JSG Seasonal (Third) 2012 TVB勁歌金曲優秀選第三回 - 歌曲《留白》 2012 - TVB JSG Seasonal (First) 2012 TVB勁歌金曲優秀選第一回 - 歌曲《下次愛你》 2012 - Hong Kong Top Sales Music Award "Top 10 selling local singers" 2012 IFPI 香港唱片銷量大獎 - 十大銷量本地歌手 2013 - Hong Kong Top Sales Music Award "Top 10 selling local singers" 2013 IFPI 香港唱片銷量大獎 - 十大銷量本地歌手 2013 - Hong Kong Top Sales Music Award "Top 10 selling local album" 2013 IFPI香港唱片銷量大獎 - 十大銷量本地唱片《晴歌集》 2013 - Ultimate Song Chart "Female Singer " Bronze Award 2013 商業電台叱咤樂壇流行榜頒獎典禮 - 叱咤樂壇女歌手銅獎 2013 - 36th Top 10 Hong Kong Chinese Songs " Top 10 Elite Singers" 2013 香港電台第36屆十大中文金曲頒獎禮 - 優秀流行歌手大獎 2013 - 36th Top 10 Hong Kong Chinese Songs 2013 香港電台第36屆十大中文金曲頒獎禮 - 十大中文金曲《哥歌》 2013 - 36th Top 10 Hong Kong Chinese Songs - Composer Award 2013 香港電台第36屆十大中文金曲頒獎禮 - 作曲人獎 2013 - 36th Top 10 Hong Kong Chinese Songs - Lyricist Award 2013香港電台第36屆十大中文金曲頒獎禮 - 填詞人獎 2013 - Metroshowbiz "Asian singer-Songwriter award" 2013 新城勁爆頒獎禮 - 新城勁爆亞洲創作歌手大獎 2013 - Metroshowbiz "Best Songs" 2013 新城勁爆頒獎禮 - 新城勁爆歌曲《哥歌》 2013 - TVB JSG Seasonal - Golden Melody Award 2013 TVB勁歌金曲優秀選 - 金曲獎《哥歌》 2013 - TVB JSG Award 16th 2013 TVB勁歌金曲頒獎典禮 - 勁歌金曲第十七位《哥歌》 2013 - TVB JSG Award 17th 2013 TVB勁歌金曲頒獎典禮 - 勁歌金曲第十六位《妳的名字我的姓氏》 2013 - TOUCH ICON 2014 - Hong Kong Top Sales Music Award "Top 10 selling local singers" 2014 IFPI香港唱片銷量大獎 - 十大銷量本地歌手 2014 - Hong Kong Top Sales Music Award "Produced by the best-selling local live recording audiovisual" 2014 香港唱片銷量大獎 - 最暢銷本地現場錄制音像出品《菀之論王菀之2014演唱會》 2014 - Ultimate Song Chart "Singer - Songwriter" Gold Award 2014 商業電台叱咤樂壇流行榜頒獎典禮 - 叱咤樂壇唱作人金獎 2014 - 37th Top 10 Hong Kong Chinese Songs " Top 10 Elite Singers" 2014 香港電台第37屆十大中文金曲頒獎禮 - 優秀流行歌手大獎 2014 - 37th Top 10 Hong Kong Chinese Songs " CASH best singer- songwriter" 2014 香港電台第37屆十大中文金曲頒獎禮 - CASH最佳創作歌手大獎 2014 - CASH Golden Sail Music Awards "Best singer performance" 2014 CASH金帆音樂獎 - 最佳女歌手演繹《天堂有路》 2014 - Metroshowbiz "Best Songs" 2014 新城勁爆頒獎禮 - 新城勁爆歌曲《好時辰》 2014 - Metroshowbiz "Digital music most appreciates fmale singers" 2014 新城勁爆頒獎禮 - 新城數碼音樂台最欣賞女歌手 2014 - TVB JSG Seasonal 2014 勁歌金曲優秀選 - 得獎歌曲《天堂有路》 2015 – 34th Hong Kong Film Award "Best Supporting Actress and Best New Performer" 2015 第三十四屆香港電影金像獎「最佳女配角獎」及「最佳新演員獎」 2015 - CASH Golden Sail Music Awards "Best melody" 2015 CASH金帆音樂獎 - 最佳旋律《我們他們》 2015 - IFPI Music Video Awards - 《小手術》 2015 - Ultimate Song Chart "Female Singer " Silver Award 2015 商業電台叱咤樂壇流行榜頒獎典禮 - 叱咤樂壇女歌手銀獎 2015 - Ultimate Song Chart "Singer - Songwriter" Silver Award 2015 商業電台叱咤樂壇流行榜頒獎典禮 - 叱咤樂壇唱作人銀獎 2015 - 38th Top 10 Hong Kong Chinese Songs " Top 10 Elite Singers" 2015 香港電台第38屆十大中文金曲頒獎禮 - 優秀流行歌手大獎 2015 - 38th Top 10 Hong Kong Chinese Songs " CASH best singer- songwriter" 2015 香港電台第38屆十大中文金曲頒獎禮 - CASH最佳創作歌手大獎 2016 - Hong Kong Top Sales Music Award "Produced by the best-selling local live recording audiovisual" 2016 IFPI香港唱片銷量大獎 - 最暢銷本地現場錄製音像出品《Fragrance of Music with Alex Fung & Hong Kong Philharmonic Orchestra Live》 2017 - 40th Top 10 Hong Kong Chinese Songs " Top 10 Elite Singers" 2017 第四十屆十大中文金曲頒獎典禮 - 優秀流行歌手大獎 2017 - Metroshowbiz "Best Songs" 2017 新城勁爆頒獎禮 - 勁爆歌曲《突然一生人》 2017 - Metroshowbiz "Singer - Songwriter" 2017 新城勁爆頒獎禮 - 勁爆唱作人 2017 - Metroshowbiz "Female singer" 2017 新城勁爆頒獎禮 - 勁爆女歌手 2017 - Ultimate Song Chart "Singer - Songwriter" Silver Award 2017 叱咤樂壇流行榜頒獎典禮 - 叱咤樂壇唱作人銀獎 2017 - Ultimate Song Chart "Female Singer " Bronze Award 2017 叱咤樂壇流行榜頒獎典禮 - 叱咤樂壇女歌手銅獎 2018 - Ultimate Song Chart "Top 10 professional referrals" Tenth place 2018 叱咤樂壇流行榜頒獎典禮 - 專業推介叱咤十大第十位《沉默的士高》 Acting awards & nominations 2011 -The 20th Hong Kong Drama Awards – Best Original Music (Drama “Octave”) (Nomination) 2012 -The 21st Hong Kong Drama Awards – Best Supporting Actress (Drama “I Love You Because”)(Nomination) 2012 -The 31st Hong Kong Film Awards – Best Original Film Song (Movie “A Beautiful Life”)(Nomination) 2015 -The 9th Asian Film Awards – Best Newcomer (Movie “Golden Chicken SSS”) (Nomination) 2015 -The 34th Hong Kong Film Awards – Best Supporting Actress (Movie “Golden Chicken SSS”) 2015 -The 34th Hong Kong Film Awards – Best Newcomer (Movie “Golden Chicken SSS”) 2015 -Hong Kong Film Directors’ Guild – Best Newcomer (Movie “Golden Chicken SSS”) 2015 -The 15th Chinese Film Media Awards – Most Outstanding Performance Award (Movie “Golden Chicken SSS”) 2015 -Singapore Asian Television Award – Best Actress in Comedy (TVB Drama “Come On Cousin”) 2015 -The 34th Hong Kong Film Awards – Best Newcomer (Movie “Delete My Love”) (Nomination) 2015 -The 34th Hong Kong Film Awards – Best Newcomer (Movie “Break Up 100”) (Nomination) 2015 -The 34th Hong Kong Film Awards – Best Original Film Song (Movie “Break Up 100”)(Nomination) 2019 -The 29th Hong Kong Drama Awards – Best Actress (Drama “First Date”) (Nomination) 2023 -The 41st Hong Kong Film Awards – Best Supporting Actress (Movie “Table for Six”) 2023 -The 41st Hong Kong Film Awards – Best Original Film Song (Movie “Table for Six”) (Nomination) Filmography Television series 2013 - Inbound Troubles 2014 - Come On, CousinFilms 2007 - The Simpsons Movie (voice acting as Lisa) 2008 - 10 Promises to My Dog (voice acting as Akari) 2014 - Temporary Family (guest role) (Director : Vincci Cheuk Wan Chi) 2014 - Break Up 100 (Director : Lawrence Cheng) 2014 - Delete My Love (Director : Patrick Kong) 2014 - Golden Chickensss (Director : Matt Chow) 2015 - The Little Prince (voice acting as The Little Girl) 2015 - Love Detective (Director : Patrick Kong) 2015 - Inside Out (voice acting as Sadness) 2015 - 12 Golden Ducks (Director : Matt Chow) 2016 - Show Me Your Love (Director : Ryon Lee) 2016 - Kidnap Ding Ding Don (Director : Wilson Chin) 2017 - Gold Buster (voice acting as A Ping) 2017 - Our Time Will Come (Director : Ann Hui) 2018 - A Lifetime Treasure (Director : Andrew Lam) 2018 - A Beautiful Moment (Director : Patrick Kong) 2019 - I Love You, You Are Perfect (Director : Wong Cho-lam) 2020 - The Grand Grandmaster (Director : Dayo Wong) 2020 - The Calling of a Bus Driver (Director : Patrick Kong) 2022 - Table for Six (Director : Sunny Chan) 2023 - Everything Under Control (Director : Ying Chi Wen) Concerts / musical dramas / dramas 2006 July -Ivana Wong x Hins Cheung 903 Music is Live Concert – HK 2006 December -Ivana Wong x Khalil Fong Moov Live Concert – HK 2007 January -TVB Live House Concert – HK 2007 March -Ivana Wong x Hins Cheung Charity Concert – Macau 2007 December -“You're My True Love” Concert – Taipei, Taiwan 2008 July -903 Music is Live Concert – EMAX Rotunda 2, HK 2008 September -“I Am From Mars” Concert – Star Hall HITEC, HK (2 shows) 2008 October -Moov Live Music Concert – Fringe Club, HK 2009 February -Caring For Children Foundation 15th Anniversary Music Concert – City Hall, HK 2009 November -Asianwave Concert – Richmond Hill Centre for the Performing Arts, Toronto, CAN 2009 December -Moov Ivana Wong Little Reunion Live Concert – Y Theatre, Youth Square, HK 2010 July -W Creation x East Asia Musical Drama “Octave” – Lyric Theatre, HKAPA, HK (19 shows) 2010 November -Ivana Wong x Khalil Fong x SodaGreen 903 Music is Live Concert – Hall 5BC, HKCEC, HK 2011 May -Windmill Grass Theatre Musical Drama “I Love You Because” – Shouson Theatre, Arts Centre, HK (14 shows) 2011 October -Ivana Wong “Water．Lily” Concert 2011 – HK Coliseum, HK (2 shows) 2012 March -Windmill Grass Theatre Musical Drama “I Love You Because” – Lyric Theatre, HKAPA, HK (11 shows) 2012 May -Strawberry Festival, Love Stage, Beijing, China 2012 May -Strawberry Festival, Love Stage, Shanghai, China 2012 October -Strawberry Festival, Main Stage, ZhenJiang, Shanghai, China 2012 November -Moov Idol Café Mini Live Concert – HK 2012 December -Ivana Wong x McDull x Hong Kong Sinfonietta “A Sentimental Little Christmas” – Concert Hall, City Hall, HK (4 shows) 2013 April -Strawberry Festival, Main Stage, Shanghai, China 2013 May -Strawberry Festival, Main Stage, Beijing, China 2013 May -Ivana Wong x Fiona Sit x Kary Ng x Eman Lam 903 Music is Live Concert – Hall 5BC, HKCEC, HK 2013 June -W Creation x Windmill Grass Theatre Drama “Little HK 4” – Kwai Tsing Theatre, HK (14 shows) 2013 September -Inbound Troubles in Genting Concert – Arena of Stars, Resorts World Genting, MY 2014 January -Brand's mini concert – Sun Yat-Sen Memorial Hall, Guangzhou, China 2014 May -Ivana Wong Concert 2014 – HK Coliseum, HK 2015 Jan -Ivana Wong Music Live Concert – Xinghai Concert Hall, Guangzhou, China 2015 July -W Creation x Windmill Grass Theatre Drama “Little HK 5” – Lyric Theatre, HKAPA, HK (21 shows) 2015 August -Ivana Wong Music Live Concert – Shenzhen Gymnasium, Shenzhen, China 2015 October -Ivana Wong Fragrance of Music with Hong Kong Philharmonic Orchestra – Concert Hall, Hong Kong Cultural Centre, HK (3 shows) 2015 November -Ivana Wong x Hins Cheung 903 Music is Live Concert – Hall 5BC, HKCEC, HK 2015 December -Ivana Wong x Louis Cheung Live Concert – Reno Ballroom, Reno Casino,Nevada, USA 2016 June -Kearen Pang Production x Media Asia Drama “45 mins Soulmate” – Lyric Theatre, HKAPA, HK (10 shows) 2017 February -Ivana Wong x Hins Cheung “The Magical Teeter Totter” Concert 2017 – HK Coliseum, HK (4 shows) 2017 July -W Creation x Windmill Grass Theatre x Media Asia Drama “Little HK 6” – Lyric Theatre, HKAPA, HK (21 shows) 2017 October - Ivana Wong x Hins Cheung “The Magical Teeter Totter” Concert 2017 – Macau 2018 January -Ivana Wong X MOOV 《Happiness is...》Concert – Macpherson Stadium 2018 May -Lungg “Laboratory” – HK Arts Centre (21 shows) 2018 August -Ivana Wong “Northern Lights in Shimokitazawa” Concert - Macpherson Stadium ( 2 shows) 2018 September -Dave Wang X Ivana Wong Live Concert – Thunder Vallery Casino Resort, California 2018 November -Ivana Wong Concert – Casino Rama, Canada Toronto 2019 May -Ivana Music Limited “First Date” - LyricTheatre, HKAPA, HK (13 shows) Commercial 2005 -Trend Coffee and Food Limited 2005 -Symantec Norton Save & Restore Software 2006 -Vita “Tsing Sum Zhan” Fruity Range 2006 -Motorola A732 2007 -Estee Lauder 2007 -Vita “Tsing Sum Zhan” 2007 -Mirinda (China) 2007-2008 -Parsons Music 2008 -Reenex 2010 -Parsons Music 2011 -Reenex 2011 -Lactacyd Feminine Hygiene Products 2011 -Converse Jack Purcell Smile Campaign 2012-2014 -Carrera Polygon Homes (Vancouver, Canada) 2013 -Giordano x Hong Kong Designers “Pass the Torch, Play it Forward” Series 2013 -The Body Shop “Tea Tree Generation” Campaign 2013-2014 -Reenex 2013-2015 -Hung Fook Tong 2014 -Longchamp 20th Anniversary Iconic Bag 2014-2015 -Cadbury GLOW 2015-2016 -TSL Jewellery Finger Language Campaign 2015-2016 -Pricerite 2015-2016 -Guerlain Makeup and Fragrance 2015-2016 -Brand's Essence of Chicken with TangKwei 2015-2016 -L’OCCITANE en Provence Reine Blanche Whitening promotion campaign 2016 -IITTALA “Bird and the City 2016” Campaign 2016 -Swarovski Christmas Campaign 2016 -Vidal Sassoon Academy 2016 -nextjourney.com.hk 2016 -Ngong Ping 360 Summer Campaign 2016 -Pizza Hut American Chunky BBQ Pizza 2016-2017 -Lion Top Laundry Powder 2016-2018 -AIA Vitality Campaign 2016-2018 -Nutriworks Flexi-Patch 2017 -Citibank Citi Jetco Pay App 2017-2018 -Fuze Tea 2018 -OLAY Online 2018 -Onitsuka Tiger Flagship store opening 2018 -Maltesers online 2018 -Mcdonalds online 2020 -AZ Severe Asthma Education Campaign 2020 -MPF- Direct your retirement Life Charity ambassador 2008-2010 -Orbis Student Ambassador 2010 -Oxfam Ambassador 2011 -Organic Day Ambassador 2012 -World Vision 30-Hour Famine Ambassador 2012 -Kiehl's Gives Event Ambassador 2012-2013 -Hong Kong Government Notifications Mobile Apps Ambassador 2012-2014 -Oxfam Unwrapped Ambassador 2013 -Concert in the Dark 2013 -Red Cross Blood Transfusion Service Ambassador 2013-2014 -Grand Parents Day Ambassador 2014 -Pink Dessert Ambassador 2014-2016 -Green Power 5-Min Shower Campaign Ambassador 2015 -Breast Cancer Foundation Promotion Ambassador 2015 -Staunton ”Play Me, I'm Yours” Street Piano Campaign 2016 -Tiffany & Co. Holiday Charity Campaign 2017 -Hong Kong Tourism Board “Old Town Central” Campaign 2018 -JCI Hong Kong Ambassador 2018 -Staunton Smart Fashion Runway 2018-2023 -World Vision (China) “End Violence Against Children” Campaign Ivana Wong's SeedMusic Website (Official) Ivana Wong's Blog (Official) Archived 28 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine BatGwa.com Interview with Ivana Facebook Weibo
MeatballWiki is a wiki dedicated to online communities, network culture, and hypermedia. According to founder Sunir Shah, it ran on "a hacked-up version of UseModWiki". In April 2013, after several spam attacks and a period of downtime, the site was made read-only. In March 2021, the site was de-spammed and reopened for editing as part of a rebuilding effort alongside Ward's Wiki and Community Wiki. Founding MeatballWiki was started in 2000 by Sunir Shah, a forum administrator from Ontario, Canada, on Clifford Adams's Internet domain usemod.com. MeatballWiki was created as a place for discussion about Ward Cunningham's WikiWikiWeb and its operation, which were beyond the scope of WikiWikiWeb. As Sunir Shah stated in the WikiWikiWeb page referring to MeatballWiki: "Community discussions about how to run the community itself should be left here. Abstract discussions, or objective analyses of community are encouraged on MeatballWiki." Shah created this site "as a friendly fork of WikiWikiWeb." About the Meatball project, the website says: "The web, and media like it, looks like a big bowl of meatball spaghetti. You've got content – the meatballs – linked together with the spaghetti." Relationship to wiki community The original intent of MeatballWiki was to offer observations and opinions about wikis and their online communities, with the intent of helping online communities, culture and hypermedia. Being a community about communities, MeatballWiki became the launching point for other wiki-based projects and a general resource for broader wiki concepts, reaching "cult status". It describes the general tendencies observed on wikis and other online communities, for example the life cycles of wikis and people's behavior on them. What differentiates MeatballWiki from many online meta-communities is that participants spend much of their time talking about sociology rather than technology, and when they do talk about technology, they do so in a social context. The MeatballWiki members created a "bus tour" through existing wikis.Barnstars – badges that wiki editors use to express appreciation for another editor's work – were invented on MeatballWiki and adopted by Wikipedia in 2003. See also History of wikis Online community Official website Official website as of March 31, 2014 web.archive.org
Grub is either another word for the larva of the beetle superfamily Scarabaeoidea or a slang term for food. It can also refer to: Places Grub, Appenzell Ausserrhoden, Switzerland Grub, St. Gallen, Switzerland Grub (Amerang), a hamlet in Bavaria, Germany Grub am Forst, a town in the district of Coburg in Bavaria, Germany Grub, Thuringia, a municipality in the district of Hildburghausen in Thuringia, Germany Science and technology Headless set screw, a British term GNU GRUB, the GNU project's bootloader software Grub (search engine), a distributed search crawler platform Other uses Grub Street, the former name of a London street, which became a metonym for hack writers Grubs, characters in Buzz Lightyear of Star Command, an American television series See also Grubb Grubbs (disambiguation)
A ball is a round object (usually spherical, but can sometimes be ovoid) with several uses. It is used in ball games, where the play of the game follows the state of the ball as it is hit, kicked or thrown by players. Balls can also be used for simpler activities, such as catch or juggling. Balls made from hard-wearing materials are used in engineering applications to provide very low friction bearings, known as ball bearings. Black-powder weapons use stone and metal balls as projectiles. Although many types of balls are today made from rubber, this form was unknown outside the Americas until after the voyages of Columbus. The Spanish were the first Europeans to see the bouncing rubber balls (although solid and not inflated) which were employed most notably in the Mesoamerican ballgame. Balls used in various sports in other parts of the world prior to Columbus were made from other materials such as animal bladders or skins, stuffed with various materials. As balls are one of the most familiar spherical objects to humans, the word "ball" may refer to or describe spherical or near-spherical objects. "Ball" is used metaphorically sometimes to denote something spherical or spheroid, e.g., armadillos and human beings curl up into a ball, making a fist into a ball. Etymology The first known use of the word ball in English in the sense of a globular body that is played with was in 1205 in Laȝamon's Brut, or Chronicle of Britain in the phrase, "Summe heo driuen balles wide ȝeond Þa feldes." The word came from the Middle English bal (inflected as ball-e, -es, in turn from Old Norse böllr (pronounced [bɔlːr]; compare Old Swedish baller, and Swedish boll) from Proto-Germanic ballu-z (whence probably Middle High German bal, ball-es, Middle Dutch bal), a cognate with Old High German ballo, pallo, Middle High German balle from Proto-Germanic ballon (weak masculine), and Old High German ballâ, pallâ, Middle High German balle, Proto-Germanic ballôn (weak feminine). No Old English representative of any of these is known. (The answering forms in Old English would have been beallu, -a, -e—compare bealluc, ballock.) If ball- was native in Germanic, it may have been a cognate with the Latin foll-is in sense of a "thing blown up or inflated." In the later Middle English spelling balle the word coincided graphically with the French balle "ball" and "bale" which has hence been erroneously assumed to be its source. French balle (but not boule) is assumed to be of Germanic origin, itself, however. In Ancient Greek the word πάλλα (palla) for "ball" is attested besides the word σφαίρα (sfaíra), sphere. History A ball, as the essential feature in many forms of gameplay requiring physical exertion, must date from the very earliest times. A rolling object appeals not only to a human baby, but to a kitten and a puppy. Some form of game with a ball is found portrayed on Egyptian monuments. In Homer, Nausicaa was playing at ball with her maidens when Odysseus first saw her in the land of the Phaeacians (Od. vi. 100). And Halios and Laodamas performed before Alcinous and Odysseus with ball play, accompanied with dancing (Od. viii. 370). The most ancient balls in Eurasia have been discovered in Karasahr, China and are 3.000 years old. They were made of hair-filled leather. Ancient Greeks Among the ancient Greeks, games with balls (σφαῖραι) were regarded as a useful subsidiary to the more violent athletic exercises, as a means of keeping the body supple, and rendering it graceful, but were generally left to boys and girls. Of regular rules for the playing of ball games, little trace remains, if there were any such. The names in Greek for various forms, which have come down to us in such works as the Ὀνομαστικόν of Julius Pollux, imply little or nothing of such; thus, ἀπόρραξις (aporraxis) only means the putting of the ball on the ground with the open hand, οὐρανία (ourania), the flinging of the ball in the air to be caught by two or more players; φαινίνδα (phaininda) would seem to be a game of catch played by two or more, where feinting is used as a test of quickness and skill. Pollux (i. x. 104) mentions a game called episkyros (ἐπίσκυρος), which has often been looked on as the origin of football. It seems to have been played by two sides, arranged in lines; how far there was any form of "goal" seems uncertain. It was impossible to produce a ball that was perfectly spherical; children usually made their own balls by inflating pig's bladders and heating them in the ashes of a fire to make them rounder, although Plato (fl. 420s BC – 340s BC) described "balls which have leather coverings in twelve pieces". Ancient Romans Among the Romans, ball games were looked upon as an adjunct to the bath, and were graduated to the age and health of the bathers, and usually a place (sphaeristerium) was set apart for them in the baths (thermae). There appear to have been three types or sizes of ball, the pila, or small ball, used in catching games, the paganica, a heavy ball stuffed with feathers, and the follis, a leather ball filled with air, the largest of the three. This was struck from player to player, who wore a kind of gauntlet on the arm. There was a game known as trigon, played by three players standing in the form of a triangle, and played with the follis, and also one known as harpastum, which seems to imply a "scrimmage" among several players for the ball. These games are known to us through the Romans, though the names are Greek. Modern ball games The various modern games played with a ball or balls and subject to rules are treated under their various names, such as polo, cricket, football, etc. Physics In sports, many modern balls are pressurized. Some are pressurized at the factory (e.g. tennis, squash) and others are pressurized by users (e.g. volleyball, basketball, football). Almost all pressurized balls gradually leak air. If the ball is factory pressurized, there is usually a rule about whether the ball retains sufficient pressure to remain playable. Depressurized balls lack bounce and are often termed "dead". In extreme cases a dead ball becomes flaccid. If the ball is pressured on use, there are generally rules about how the ball is pressurized before the match, and when (or whether) the ball can be repressurized or replaced. Due to the ideal gas law, ball pressure is a function of temperature, generally tracking ambient conditions. Softer balls that are struck hard (especially squash balls) increase in temperature due to inelastic collision. In outdoor sports, wet balls play differently than dry balls. In indoor sports, balls may become damp due to hand sweat. Any form of humidity or dampness will affect a ball's surface friction, which will alter a player's ability to impart spin on the ball. The action required to apply spin to a ball is governed by the physics of angular momentum. Spinning balls travelling through air (technically a fluid) will experience the Magnus effect, which can produce lateral deflections in addition to the normal up-down curvature induced by a combination of wind resistance and gravity. Round balls Prolate spheroid balls Several sports use a ball in the shape of a prolate spheroid: See also Ball (mathematics) Buckminster Fullerene "Bucky balls" Football (ball) Hockey puck, can also spin, bounce, and roll Kickball Marbles Penny floater Prisoner Ball Shuttlecock Super Ball The dictionary definition of ball at Wiktionary
The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. It is a massive, hot ball of plasma, inflated and heated by nuclear fusion reactions at its core. Part of this internal energy is emitted from its surface as light, ultraviolet, and infrared radiation, providing most of the energy for life on Earth. The Sun's radius is about 695,000 kilometers (432,000 miles), or 109 times that of Earth. Its mass is about 330,000 times that of Earth, making up about 99.86% of the total mass of the Solar System. Roughly three-quarters of the Sun's mass consists of hydrogen (~73%); the rest is mostly helium (~25%), with much smaller quantities of heavier elements, including oxygen, carbon, neon, and iron.The Sun is a G-type main-sequence star (G2V), informally called a yellow dwarf, though its light is actually white. It formed approximately 4.6 billion years ago from the gravitational collapse of matter within a region of a large molecular cloud. Most of this matter gathered in the center, whereas the rest flattened into an orbiting disk that became the Solar System. The central mass became so hot and dense that it eventually initiated nuclear fusion in its core. It is thought that almost all stars form by this process. Every second, the Sun's core fuses about 600 million tons of hydrogen into helium, and in the process converts 4 million tons of matter into energy. This energy, which can take between 10,000 and 170,000 years to escape the core, is the source of the Sun's light and heat. Far in the future, when hydrogen fusion in the Sun's core diminishes to the point where the Sun is no longer in hydrostatic equilibrium, its core will undergo a marked increase in density and temperature which will push its outer layers to expand, eventually transforming the Sun into a red giant. This process will make the Sun large enough to render Earth uninhabitable approximately five billion years from the present. After this, the Sun will shed its outer layers and become a dense type of cooling star (a white dwarf), and no longer produce energy by fusion, but still glow and give off heat from its previous fusion. The enormous effect of the Sun on Earth has been recognized since prehistoric times and was thought of by some cultures as a deity. The synodic rotation of Earth and its orbit around the Sun are the basis of some solar calendars. The predominant calendar in use today is the Gregorian calendar which is based upon the standard 16th-century interpretation of the Sun's observed movement as actual movement. Etymology The English word sun developed from Old English sunne. Cognates appear in other Germanic languages, including West Frisian sinne, Dutch zon, Low German Sünn, Standard German Sonne, Bavarian Sunna, Old Norse sunna, and Gothic sunnō. All these words stem from Proto-Germanic sunnōn. This is ultimately related to the word for sun in other branches of the Indo-European language family, though in most cases a nominative stem with an l is found, rather than the genitive stem in n, as for example in Latin sōl, ancient Greek ἥλιος (hēlios), Welsh haul and Czech slunce, as well as (with l > r) Sanskrit स्वर (svár) and Persian خور (xvar). Indeed, the l-stem survived in Proto-Germanic as well, as sōwelan, which gave rise to Gothic sauil (alongside sunnō) and Old Norse prosaic sól (alongside poetic sunna), and through it the words for sun in the modern Scandinavian languages: Swedish and Danish sol, Icelandic sól, etc.The principal adjectives for the Sun in English are sunny for sunlight and, in technical contexts, solar (), from Latin sol – the latter found in terms such as solar day, solar eclipse and Solar System. From the Greek helios comes the rare adjective heliac (). In English, the Greek and Latin words occur in poetry as personifications of the Sun, Heliosand Sol (), while in science fiction Sol may be used to distinguish the Sun from other stars. The term sol with a lower-case s is used by planetary astronomers for the duration of a solar day on another planet such as Mars.The English weekday name Sunday stems from Old English Sunnandæg "sun's day", a Germanic interpretation of the Latin phrase diēs sōlis, itself a translation of the ancient Greek ἡμέρα ἡλίου (hēmera hēliou) 'day of the sun'. The astronomical symbol for the Sun is a circle with a center dot, . It is used for such units as M☉ (Solar mass), R☉ (Solar radius) and L☉ (Solar luminosity). General characteristics The Sun is a G-type main-sequence star that makes up about 99.86% of the mass of the Solar System. The Sun has an absolute magnitude of +4.83, estimated to be brighter than about 85% of the stars in the Milky Way, most of which are red dwarfs. The Sun is a Population I, or heavy-element-rich, star. Its formation may have been triggered by shockwaves from one or more nearby supernovae. This is suggested by a high abundance of heavy elements in the Solar System, such as gold and uranium, relative to the abundances of these elements in so-called Population II, heavy-element-poor, stars. The heavy elements could most plausibly have been produced by endothermic nuclear reactions during a supernova, or by transmutation through neutron absorption within a massive second-generation star.The Sun is by far the brightest object in the Earth's sky, with an apparent magnitude of −26.74. This is about 13 billion times brighter than the next brightest star, Sirius, which has an apparent magnitude of −1.46. One astronomical unit (about 150,000,000 km; 93,000,000 mi) is defined as the mean distance of the Sun's center to Earth's center, though the distance varies (by about +/- 2.5 million km or 1.55 million miles) as Earth moves from perihelion on about 3 January to aphelion on about 4 July. The distances can vary between 147,098,074 km (perihelion) and 152,097,701 km (aphelion), and extreme values can range from 147,083,346 km to 152,112,126 km. At its average distance, light travels from the Sun's horizon to Earth's horizon in about 8 minutes and 20 seconds, while light from the closest points of the Sun and Earth takes about two seconds less. The energy of this sunlight supports almost all life on Earth by photosynthesis, and drives Earth's climate and weather. The Sun does not have a definite boundary, but its density decreases exponentially with increasing height above the photosphere. For the purpose of measurement, the Sun's radius is considered to be the distance from its center to the edge of the photosphere, the apparent visible surface of the Sun. By this measure, the Sun is a near-perfect sphere with an oblateness estimated at 9 millionths, which means that its polar diameter differs from its equatorial diameter by only 10 kilometers (6.2 mi). The tidal effect of the planets is weak and does not significantly affect the shape of the Sun. The Sun rotates faster at its equator than at its poles. This differential rotation is caused by convective motion due to heat transport and the Coriolis force due to the Sun's rotation. In a frame of reference defined by the stars, the rotational period is approximately 25.6 days at the equator and 33.5 days at the poles. Viewed from Earth as it orbits the Sun, the apparent rotational period of the Sun at its equator is about 28 days. Viewed from a vantage point above its north pole, the Sun rotates counterclockwise around its axis of spin.From NASA's fact sheet. Composition The Sun consists primarily of the chemical elements hydrogen and helium. At this time in the Sun's life, they account for 74.9% and 23.8%, respectively, of the mass of the Sun in the photosphere. All heavier elements, called metals in astronomy, account for less than 2% of the mass, with oxygen (roughly 1% of the Sun's mass), carbon (0.3%), neon (0.2%), and iron (0.2%) being the most abundant.In solar research it is more common to express the abundance of each element in dex, which is a scaled logarithmic unit. A(e) = 12+log10(ne/nH), with 'e' being the element in question and nH as 10^12 hydrogen atoms. By definition hydrogen has an abundance of 12, the helium abundance varies between roughly 10.3 and 10.5 depending on the phase of the Solar cycle, Carbon is 8.47, Neon is 8.29, Oxygen is 7.69 and iron is 7.62. The Sun's original chemical composition was inherited from the interstellar medium out of which it formed. Originally it would have contained about 71.1% hydrogen, 27.4% helium, and 1.5% heavier elements. The hydrogen and most of the helium in the Sun would have been produced by Big Bang nucleosynthesis in the first 20 minutes of the universe, and the heavier elements were produced by previous generations of stars before the Sun was formed, and spread into the interstellar medium during the final stages of stellar life and by events such as supernovae.Since the Sun formed, the main fusion process has involved fusing hydrogen into helium. Over the past 4.6 billion years, the amount of helium and its location within the Sun has gradually changed. Within the core, the proportion of helium has increased from about 24% to about 60% due to fusion, and some of the helium and heavy elements have settled from the photosphere towards the center of the Sun because of gravity. The proportions of heavier elements are unchanged. Heat is transferred outward from the Sun's core by radiation rather than by convection (see Radiative zone below), so the fusion products are not lifted outward by heat; they remain in the core and gradually an inner core of helium has begun to form that cannot be fused because presently the Sun's core is not hot or dense enough to fuse helium. In the current photosphere, the helium fraction is reduced, and the metallicity is only 84% of what it was in the protostellar phase (before nuclear fusion in the core started). In the future, helium will continue to accumulate in the core, and in about 5 billion years this gradual build-up will eventually cause the Sun to exit the main sequence and become a red giant.The chemical composition of the photosphere is normally considered representative of the composition of the primordial Solar System. The solar heavy-element abundances described above are typically measured both using spectroscopy of the Sun's photosphere and by measuring abundances in meteorites that have never been heated to melting temperatures. These meteorites are thought to retain the composition of the protostellar Sun and are thus not affected by the settling of heavy elements. The two methods generally agree well. Structure and fusion Core The core of the Sun extends from the center to about 20–25% of the solar radius. It has a density of up to 150 g/cm3 (about 150 times the density of water) and a temperature of close to 15.7 million Kelvin (K). By contrast, the Sun's surface temperature is approximately 5800 K. Recent analysis of SOHO mission data favors a faster rotation rate in the core than in the radiative zone above. Through most of the Sun's life, energy has been produced by nuclear fusion in the core region through the proton–proton chain; this process converts hydrogen into helium. Currently, only 0.8% of the energy generated in the Sun comes from another sequence of fusion reactions called the CNO cycle, though this proportion is expected to increase as the Sun becomes older and more luminous.The core is the only region on the Sun that produces an appreciable amount of thermal energy through fusion; 99% of the power is generated within 24% of the Sun's radius, and by 30% of the radius, fusion has stopped nearly entirely. The remainder of the Sun is heated by this energy as it is transferred outwards through many successive layers, finally to the solar photosphere where it escapes into space through radiation (photons) or advection (massive particles). The proton–proton chain occurs around 9.2×1037 times each second in the core, converting about 3.7×1038 protons into alpha particles (helium nuclei) every second (out of a total of ~8.9×1056 free protons in the Sun), or about 6.2×1011 kg/s. However, each proton (on average) takes around 9 billion years to fuse with one another using the PP chain. Fusing four free protons (hydrogen nuclei) into a single alpha particle (helium nucleus) releases around 0.7% of the fused mass as energy, so the Sun releases energy at the mass–energy conversion rate of 4.26 million metric tons per second (which requires 600 metric megatons of hydrogen), for 384.6 yottawatts (3.846×1026 W), or 9.192×1010 megatons of TNT per second. The large power output of the Sun is mainly due to the huge size and density of its core (compared to Earth and objects on Earth), with only a fairly small amount of power being generated per cubic metre. Theoretical models of the Sun's interior indicate a maximum power density, or energy production, of approximately 276.5 watts per cubic metre at the center of the core, which, according to Karl Kruszelnicki, is about the same power density inside a compost pile.The fusion rate in the core is in a self-correcting equilibrium: a slightly higher rate of fusion would cause the core to heat up more and expand slightly against the weight of the outer layers, reducing the density and hence the fusion rate and correcting the perturbation; and a slightly lower rate would cause the core to cool and shrink slightly, increasing the density and increasing the fusion rate and again reverting it to its present rate. Radiative zone The radiative zone is the thickest layer of the sun, at 0.45 solar radii. From the core out to about 0.7 solar radii, thermal radiation is the primary means of energy transfer. The temperature drops from approximately 7 million to 2 million kelvins with increasing distance from the core. This temperature gradient is less than the value of the adiabatic lapse rate and hence cannot drive convection, which explains why the transfer of energy through this zone is by radiation instead of thermal convection. Ions of hydrogen and helium emit photons, which travel only a brief distance before being reabsorbed by other ions. The density drops a hundredfold (from 20 000 kg/m3 to 200 kg/m3) between 0.25 solar radii and 0.7 radii, the top of the radiative zone. Tachocline The radiative zone and the convective zone are separated by a transition layer, the tachocline. This is a region where the sharp regime change between the uniform rotation of the radiative zone and the differential rotation of the convection zone results in a large shear between the two—a condition where successive horizontal layers slide past one another. Presently, it is hypothesized (see Solar dynamo) that a magnetic dynamo within this layer generates the Sun's magnetic field. Convective zone The Sun's convection zone extends from 0.7 solar radii (500,000 km) to near the surface. In this layer, the solar plasma is not dense or hot enough to transfer the heat energy of the interior outward via radiation. Instead, the density of the plasma is low enough to allow convective currents to develop and move the Sun's energy outward towards its surface. Material heated at the tachocline picks up heat and expands, thereby reducing its density and allowing it to rise. As a result, an orderly motion of the mass develops into thermal cells that carry most of the heat outward to the Sun's photosphere above. Once the material diffusively and radiatively cools just beneath the photospheric surface, its density increases, and it sinks to the base of the convection zone, where it again picks up heat from the top of the radiative zone and the convective cycle continues. At the photosphere, the temperature has dropped to 5,700 K (350-fold) and the density to only 0.2 g/m3 (about 1/10,000 the density of air at sea level, and 1 millionth that of the inner layer of the convective zone).The thermal columns of the convection zone form an imprint on the surface of the Sun giving it a granular appearance called the solar granulation at the smallest scale and supergranulation at larger scales. Turbulent convection in this outer part of the solar interior sustains "small-scale" dynamo action over the near-surface volume of the Sun. The Sun's thermal columns are Bénard cells and take the shape of roughly hexagonal prisms. Photosphere The visible surface of the Sun, the photosphere, is the layer below which the Sun becomes opaque to visible light. Photons produced in this layer escape the Sun through the transparent solar atmosphere above it and become solar radiation, sunlight. The change in opacity is due to the decreasing amount of H− ions, which absorb visible light easily. Conversely, the visible light we see is produced as electrons react with hydrogen atoms to produce H− ions.The photosphere is tens to hundreds of kilometers thick, and is slightly less opaque than air on Earth. Because the upper part of the photosphere is cooler than the lower part, an image of the Sun appears brighter in the center than on the edge or limb of the solar disk, in a phenomenon known as limb darkening. The spectrum of sunlight has approximately the spectrum of a black-body radiating at 5,777 K (5,504 °C; 9,939 °F), interspersed with atomic absorption lines from the tenuous layers above the photosphere. The photosphere has a particle density of ~1023 m−3 (about 0.37% of the particle number per volume of Earth's atmosphere at sea level). The photosphere is not fully ionized—the extent of ionization is about 3%, leaving almost all of the hydrogen in atomic form.During early studies of the optical spectrum of the photosphere, some absorption lines were found that did not correspond to any chemical elements then known on Earth. In 1868, Norman Lockyer hypothesized that these absorption lines were caused by a new element that he dubbed helium, after the Greek Sun god Helios. Twenty-five years later, helium was isolated on Earth. Atmosphere The Sun's atmosphere is composed of four parts: the photosphere (visible under normal conditions), the chromosphere, the transition region, the corona and the heliosphere. During a total solar eclipse, the photosphere is blocked, making the corona visible.The coolest layer of the Sun is a temperature minimum region extending to about 500 km above the photosphere, and has a temperature of about 4,100 K. This part of the Sun is cool enough to allow for the existence of simple molecules such as carbon monoxide and water, which can be detected via their absorption spectra. The chromosphere, transition region, and corona are much hotter than the surface of the Sun. The reason is not well understood, but evidence suggests that Alfvén waves may have enough energy to heat the corona. Above the temperature minimum layer is a layer about 2,000 km thick, dominated by a spectrum of emission and absorption lines. It is called the chromosphere from the Greek root chroma, meaning color, because the chromosphere is visible as a colored flash at the beginning and end of total solar eclipses. The temperature of the chromosphere increases gradually with altitude, ranging up to around 20,000 K near the top. In the upper part of the chromosphere helium becomes partially ionized. Above the chromosphere, in a thin (about 200 km) transition region, the temperature rises rapidly from around 20,000 K in the upper chromosphere to coronal temperatures closer to 1,000,000 K. The temperature increase is facilitated by the full ionization of helium in the transition region, which significantly reduces radiative cooling of the plasma. The transition region does not occur at a well-defined altitude. Rather, it forms a kind of nimbus around chromospheric features such as spicules and filaments, and is in constant, chaotic motion. The transition region is not easily visible from Earth's surface, but is readily observable from space by instruments sensitive to the extreme ultraviolet portion of the spectrum.The corona is the next layer of the Sun. The low corona, near the surface of the Sun, has a particle density around 1015 m−3 to 1016 m−3. The average temperature of the corona and solar wind is about 1,000,000–2,000,000 K; however, in the hottest regions it is 8,000,000–20,000,000 K. Although no complete theory yet exists to account for the temperature of the corona, at least some of its heat is known to be from magnetic reconnection. The corona is the extended atmosphere of the Sun, which has a volume much larger than the volume enclosed by the Sun's photosphere. A flow of plasma outward from the Sun into interplanetary space is the solar wind.The heliosphere, the tenuous outermost atmosphere of the Sun, is filled with solar wind plasma. This outermost layer of the Sun is defined to begin at the distance where the flow of the solar wind becomes superalfvénic—that is, where the flow becomes faster than the speed of Alfvén waves, at approximately 20 solar radii (0.1 AU). Turbulence and dynamic forces in the heliosphere cannot affect the shape of the solar corona within, because the information can only travel at the speed of Alfvén waves. The solar wind travels outward continuously through the heliosphere, forming the solar magnetic field into a spiral shape, until it impacts the heliopause more than 50 AU from the Sun. In December 2004, the Voyager 1 probe passed through a shock front that is thought to be part of the heliopause. In late 2012 Voyager 1 recorded a marked increase in cosmic ray collisions and a sharp drop in lower energy particles from the solar wind, which suggested that the probe had passed through the heliopause and entered the interstellar medium, and indeed did so August 25, 2012 at approximately 122 astronomical units (18 Tm) from the Sun. The heliosphere has a heliotail which stretches out behind it due to the Sun's movement.On April 28, 2021, during its eighth flyby of the Sun, NASA's Parker Solar Probe encountered the specific magnetic and particle conditions at 18.8 solar radii that indicated that it penetrated the Alfvén surface, the boundary separating the corona from the solar wind defined as where the coronal plasma's Alfvén speed and the large-scale solar wind speed are equal. The probe measured the solar wind plasma environment with its FIELDS and SWEAP instruments. This event was described by NASA as "touching the Sun". During the flyby, Parker Solar Probe passed into and out of the corona several times. This proved the predictions that the Alfvén critical surface is not shaped like a smooth ball, but has spikes and valleys that wrinkle its surface. Sunlight and neutrinos The Sun emits light across the visible spectrum, so its color is white, with a CIE color-space index near (0.3, 0.3), when viewed from space or when the Sun is high in the sky. The Solar radiance per wavelength peaks in the green portion of the spectrum when viewed from space. When the Sun is very low in the sky, atmospheric scattering renders the Sun yellow, red, orange, or magenta, and in rare occasions even green or blue. Despite its typical whiteness (white sunrays, white ambient light, white illumination of the Moon, etc.), some cultures mentally picture the Sun as yellow and some even red; the reasons for this are cultural and exact ones are the subject of debate. The Sun is a G2V star, with G2 indicating its surface temperature of approximately 5,778 K (5,505 °C; 9,941 °F), and V that it, like most stars, is a main-sequence star.The solar constant is the amount of power that the Sun deposits per unit area that is directly exposed to sunlight. The solar constant is equal to approximately 1,368 W/m2 (watts per square meter) at a distance of one astronomical unit (AU) from the Sun (that is, on or near Earth). Sunlight on the surface of Earth is attenuated by Earth's atmosphere, so that less power arrives at the surface (closer to 1,000 W/m2) in clear conditions when the Sun is near the zenith. Sunlight at the top of Earth's atmosphere is composed (by total energy) of about 50% infrared light, 40% visible light, and 10% ultraviolet light. The atmosphere in particular filters out over 70% of solar ultraviolet, especially at the shorter wavelengths. Solar ultraviolet radiation ionizes Earth's dayside upper atmosphere, creating the electrically conducting ionosphere. Ultraviolet light from the Sun has antiseptic properties and can be used to sanitize tools and water. It also causes sunburn, and has other biological effects such as the production of vitamin D and sun tanning. It is also the main cause of skin cancer. Ultraviolet light is strongly attenuated by Earth's ozone layer, so that the amount of UV varies greatly with latitude and has been partially responsible for many biological adaptations, including variations in human skin color in different regions of the Earth.High-energy gamma ray photons initially released with fusion reactions in the core are almost immediately absorbed by the solar plasma of the radiative zone, usually after traveling only a few millimeters. Re-emission happens in a random direction and usually at slightly lower energy. With this sequence of emissions and absorptions, it takes a long time for radiation to reach the Sun's surface. Estimates of the photon travel time range between 10,000 and 170,000 years. In contrast, it takes only 2.3 seconds for neutrinos, which account for about 2% of the total energy production of the Sun, to reach the surface. Because energy transport in the Sun is a process that involves photons in thermodynamic equilibrium with matter, the time scale of energy transport in the Sun is longer, on the order of 30,000,000 years. This is the time it would take the Sun to return to a stable state if the rate of energy generation in its core were suddenly changed.Neutrinos are also released by fusion reactions in the core, but, unlike photons, they rarely interact with matter, so almost all are able to escape the Sun immediately. For many years, measurements of the number of neutrinos produced in the Sun were lower than theories predicted by a factor of 3. This discrepancy was resolved in 2001 through the discovery of the effects of neutrino oscillation: the Sun emits the number of neutrinos predicted by the theory, but neutrino detectors were missing 2⁄3 of them because the neutrinos had changed flavor by the time they were detected. Magnetic activity The Sun has a stellar magnetic field that varies across its surface. Its polar field is 1–2 gauss (0.0001–0.0002 T), whereas the field is typically 3,000 gauss (0.3 T) in features on the Sun called sunspots and 10–100 gauss (0.001–0.01 T) in solar prominences. The magnetic field varies in time and location. The quasi-periodic 11-year solar cycle is the most prominent variation in which the number and size of sunspots waxes and wanes.The solar magnetic field extends well beyond the Sun itself. The electrically conducting solar wind plasma carries the Sun's magnetic field into space, forming what is called the interplanetary magnetic field. In an approximation known as ideal magnetohydrodynamics, plasma particles only move along magnetic field lines. As a result, the outward-flowing solar wind stretches the interplanetary magnetic field outward, forcing it into a roughly radial structure. For a simple dipolar solar magnetic field, with opposite hemispherical polarities on either side of the solar magnetic equator, a thin current sheet is formed in the solar wind.At great distances, the rotation of the Sun twists the dipolar magnetic field and corresponding current sheet into an Archimedean spiral structure called the Parker spiral. The interplanetary magnetic field is much stronger than the dipole component of the solar magnetic field. The Sun's dipole magnetic field of 50–400 μT (at the photosphere) reduces with the inverse-cube of the distance, leading to a predicted magnetic field of 0.1 nT at the distance of Earth. However, according to spacecraft observations the interplanetary field at Earth's location is around 5 nT, about a hundred times greater. The difference is due to magnetic fields generated by electrical currents in the plasma surrounding the Sun. Sunspot Sunspots are visible as dark patches on the Sun's photosphere and correspond to concentrations of magnetic field where the convective transport of heat is inhibited from the solar interior to the surface. As a result, sunspots are slightly cooler than the surrounding photosphere, so they appear dark. At a typical solar minimum, few sunspots are visible, and occasionally none can be seen at all. Those that do appear are at high solar latitudes. As the solar cycle progresses towards its maximum, sunspots tend to form closer to the solar equator, a phenomenon known as Spörer's law. The largest sunspots can be tens of thousands of kilometers across.An 11-year sunspot cycle is half of a 22-year Babcock–Leighton dynamo cycle, which corresponds to an oscillatory exchange of energy between toroidal and poloidal solar magnetic fields. At solar-cycle maximum, the external poloidal dipolar magnetic field is near its dynamo-cycle minimum strength, but an internal toroidal quadrupolar field, generated through differential rotation within the tachocline, is near its maximum strength. At this point in the dynamo cycle, buoyant upwelling within the convective zone forces emergence of the toroidal magnetic field through the photosphere, giving rise to pairs of sunspots, roughly aligned east–west and having footprints with opposite magnetic polarities. The magnetic polarity of sunspot pairs alternates every solar cycle, a phenomenon described by Hale's law.During the solar cycle's declining phase, energy shifts from the internal toroidal magnetic field to the external poloidal field, and sunspots diminish in number and size. At solar-cycle minimum, the toroidal field is, correspondingly, at minimum strength, sunspots are relatively rare, and the poloidal field is at its maximum strength. With the rise of the next 11-year sunspot cycle, differential rotation shifts magnetic energy back from the poloidal to the toroidal field, but with a polarity that is opposite to the previous cycle. The process carries on continuously, and in an idealized, simplified scenario, each 11-year sunspot cycle corresponds to a change, then, in the overall polarity of the Sun's large-scale magnetic field. Solar activity The Sun's magnetic field leads to many effects that are collectively called solar activity. Solar flares and coronal-mass ejections tend to occur at sunspot groups. Slowly changing high-speed streams of solar wind are emitted from coronal holes at the photospheric surface. Both coronal-mass ejections and high-speed streams of solar wind carry plasma and the interplanetary magnetic field outward into the Solar System. The effects of solar activity on Earth include auroras at moderate to high latitudes and the disruption of radio communications and electric power. Solar activity is thought to have played a large role in the formation and evolution of the Solar System. Long-term secular change in sunspot number is thought, by some scientists, to be correlated with long-term change in solar irradiance, which, in turn, might influence Earth's long-term climate. The solar cycle influences space weather conditions, including those surrounding Earth. For example, in the 17th century, the solar cycle appeared to have stopped entirely for several decades; few sunspots were observed during a period known as the Maunder minimum. This coincided in time with the era of the Little Ice Age, when Europe experienced unusually cold temperatures. Earlier extended minima have been discovered through analysis of tree rings and appear to have coincided with lower-than-average global temperatures.In December 2019, a new type of solar magnetic explosion was observed, known as forced magnetic reconnection. Previously, in a process called spontaneous magnetic reconnection, it was observed that the solar magnetic field lines diverge explosively and then converge again instantaneously. Forced Magnetic Reconnection was similar, but it was triggered by an explosion in the corona. Life phases The Sun today is roughly halfway through the most stable part of its life. It has not changed dramatically in over four billion years and will remain fairly stable for more than five billion more. However, after hydrogen fusion in its core has stopped, the Sun will undergo dramatic changes, both internally and externally. It is more massive than 71 of 75 other stars within 5 pc, or in the top ~5 percent. Formation The Sun formed about 4.6 billion years ago from the collapse of part of a giant molecular cloud that consisted mostly of hydrogen and helium and that probably gave birth to many other stars. This age is estimated using computer models of stellar evolution and through nucleocosmochronology. The result is consistent with the radiometric date of the oldest Solar System material, at 4.567 billion years ago. Studies of ancient meteorites reveal traces of stable daughter nuclei of short-lived isotopes, such as iron-60, that form only in exploding, short-lived stars. This indicates that one or more supernovae must have occurred near the location where the Sun formed. A shock wave from a nearby supernova would have triggered the formation of the Sun by compressing the matter within the molecular cloud and causing certain regions to collapse under their own gravity. As one fragment of the cloud collapsed it also began to rotate due to conservation of angular momentum and heat up with the increasing pressure. Much of the mass became concentrated in the center, whereas the rest flattened out into a disk that would become the planets and other Solar System bodies. Gravity and pressure within the core of the cloud generated a lot of heat as it accumulated more matter from the surrounding disk, eventually triggering nuclear fusion.The stars HD 162826 and HD 186302 share similarities with the Sun and are thus hypothesized to be its stellar siblings, formed in the same molecular cloud. Main sequence The Sun is about halfway through its main-sequence stage, during which nuclear fusion reactions in its core fuse hydrogen into helium. Each second, more than four million tonnes of matter are converted into energy within the Sun's core, producing neutrinos and solar radiation. At this rate, the Sun has so far converted around 100 times the mass of Earth into energy, about 0.03% of the total mass of the Sun. The Sun will spend a total of approximately 10 to 11 billion years as a main-sequence star before the red giant phase of the sun. At the 8 billion year mark, the sun will be at its hottest point according to the ESA's Gaia space observatory mission in 2022.The Sun is gradually becoming hotter in its core, hotter at the surface, larger in radius, and more luminous during its time on the main sequence: since the beginning of its main sequence life, it has expanded in radius by 15% and the surface has increased in temperature from 5,620 K (5,350 °C; 9,660 °F) to 5,777 K (5,504 °C; 9,939 °F), resulting in a 48% increase in luminosity from 0.677 solar luminosities to its present-day 1.0 solar luminosity. This occurs because the helium atoms in the core have a higher mean molecular weight than the hydrogen atoms that were fused, resulting in less thermal pressure. The core is therefore shrinking, allowing the outer layers of the Sun to move closer to the center, releasing gravitational potential energy. According to the virial theorem, half of this released gravitational energy goes into heating, which leads to a gradual increase in the rate at which fusion occurs and thus an increase in the luminosity. This process speeds up as the core gradually becomes denser. At present, it is increasing in brightness by about 1% every 100 million years. It will take at least 1 billion years from now to deplete liquid water from the Earth from such increase. After that, the Earth will cease to be able to support complex, multicellular life and the last remaining multicellular organisms on the planet will suffer a final, complete mass extinction. After core hydrogen exhaustion The Sun does not have enough mass to explode as a supernova. Instead, when it runs out of hydrogen in the core in approximately 5 billion years, core hydrogen fusion will stop, and there will be nothing to prevent the core from contracting. The release of gravitational potential energy will cause the luminosity of the Sun to increase, ending the main sequence phase and leading the Sun to expand over the next billion years: first into a subgiant, and then into a red giant. The heating due to gravitational contraction will also lead to expansion of the Sun and hydrogen fusion in a shell just outside the core, where unfused hydrogen remains, contributing to the increased luminosity, which will eventually reach more than 1,000 times its present luminosity. When the Sun enters its red-giant branch (RGB) phase, it will engulf Mercury and (likely) Venus, reaching about 0.75 AU (110 million km; 70 million mi). The Sun will spend around a billion years in the RGB and lose around a third of its mass.After the red-giant branch, the Sun has approximately 120 million years of active life left, but much happens. First, the core (full of degenerate helium) ignites violently in the helium flash; it is estimated that 6% of the core—itself 40% of the Sun's mass—will be converted into carbon within a matter of minutes through the triple-alpha process. The Sun then shrinks to around 10 times its current size and 50 times the luminosity, with a temperature a little lower than today. It will then have reached the red clump or horizontal branch, but a star of the Sun's metallicity does not evolve blueward along the horizontal branch. Instead, it just becomes moderately larger and more luminous over about 100 million years as it continues to react helium in the core.When the helium is exhausted, the Sun will repeat the expansion it followed when the hydrogen in the core was exhausted. This time, however, it all happens faster, and the Sun becomes larger and more luminous, engulfing Venus if it has not already. This is the asymptotic-giant-branch phase, and the Sun is alternately reacting hydrogen in a shell or helium in a deeper shell. After about 20 million years on the early asymptotic giant branch, the Sun becomes increasingly unstable, with rapid mass loss and thermal pulses that increase the size and luminosity for a few hundred years every 100,000 years or so. The thermal pulses become larger each time, with the later pulses pushing the luminosity to as much as 5,000 times the current level and the radius to over 1 AU (150 million km; 93 million mi).According to a 2008 model, Earth's orbit will have initially expanded to at most 1.5 AU (220 million km; 140 million mi) due to the Sun's loss of mass as a red giant. However, Earth's orbit will later start shrinking due to tidal forces (and, eventually, drag from the lower chromosphere) so that it is engulfed by the Sun during the tip of the red-giant branch phase, 3.8 and 1 million years after Mercury and Venus have respectively suffered the same fate. Models vary depending on the rate and timing of mass loss. Models that have higher mass loss on the red-giant branch produce smaller, less luminous stars at the tip of the asymptotic giant branch, perhaps only 2,000 times the luminosity and less than 200 times the radius. For the Sun, four thermal pulses are predicted before it completely loses its outer envelope and starts to make a planetary nebula. By the end of that phase—lasting approximately 500,000 years—the Sun will only have about half of its current mass. The post-asymptotic-giant-branch evolution is even faster. The luminosity stays approximately constant as the temperature increases, with the ejected half of the Sun's mass becoming ionized into a planetary nebula as the exposed core reaches 30,000 K (29,700 °C; 53,500 °F), as if it is in a sort of blue loop. The final naked core, a white dwarf, will have a temperature of over 100,000 K (100,000 °C; 180,000 °F), and contain an estimated 54.05% of the Sun's present-day mass. The planetary nebula will disperse in about 10,000 years, but the white dwarf will survive for trillions of years before fading to a hypothetical black dwarf. Motion and location Solar System The Sun has eight known planets orbiting it. This includes four terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars), two gas giants (Jupiter and Saturn), and two ice giants (Uranus and Neptune). The Solar System also has nine bodies generally considered as dwarf planets and some more candidates, an asteroid belt, numerous comets, and a large number of icy bodies which lie beyond the orbit of Neptune. Six of the planets and many smaller bodies also have their own natural satellites: in particular, the satellite systems of Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus are in some ways like miniature versions of the Sun's system.The Sun is moved by the gravitational pull of the planets. The center of the Sun is always within 2.2 solar radii of the barycenter. This motion of the Sun is mainly due to the four large planets. Each planet in the series Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune, Uranus has about twice as much effect (moment of inertia) as the next. For some periods of several decades (when Neptune and Uranus are in opposition) the motion is rather regular, forming a trefoil pattern, whereas between these periods it appears more chaotic. After 179 years (nine times the synodic period of Jupiter and Saturn), the pattern more or less repeats, but rotates by about 24°. The orbits of the inner planets, including those of the Earth, are similarly displaced by the same gravitational forces, so the movement of the Sun has little effect on the relative positions of the Earth and the Sun or on solar irradiance on the Earth as a function of time. Celestial neighborhood Galactic context Observational history Early understanding The Sun has been an object of veneration in many cultures throughout human history. Humanity's most fundamental understanding of the Sun is as the luminous disk in the sky, whose presence above the horizon causes day and whose absence causes night. In many prehistoric and ancient cultures, the Sun was thought to be a solar deity or other supernatural entity. The Sun has played an important part in many world religions, as described in a later section. In the early first millennium BC, Babylonian astronomers observed that the Sun's motion along the ecliptic is not uniform, though they did not know why; it is today known that this is due to the movement of Earth in an elliptic orbit around the Sun, with Earth moving faster when it is nearer to the Sun at perihelion and moving slower when it is farther away at aphelion.One of the first people to offer a scientific or philosophical explanation for the Sun was the Greek philosopher Anaxagoras. He reasoned that it was not the chariot of Helios, but instead a giant flaming ball of metal even larger than the land of the Peloponnesus and that the Moon reflected the light of the Sun. For teaching this heresy, he was imprisoned by the authorities and sentenced to death, though he was later released through the intervention of Pericles. Eratosthenes estimated the distance between Earth and the Sun in the third century BC as "of stadia myriads 400 and 80000", the translation of which is ambiguous, implying either 4,080,000 stadia (755,000 km) or 804,000,000 stadia (148 to 153 million kilometers or 0.99 to 1.02 AU); the latter value is correct to within a few percent. In the first century AD, Ptolemy estimated the distance as 1,210 times the radius of Earth, approximately 7.71 million kilometers (0.0515 AU).The theory that the Sun is the center around which the planets orbit was first proposed by the ancient Greek Aristarchus of Samos in the third century BC, and later adopted by Seleucus of Seleucia (see Heliocentrism). This view was developed in a more detailed mathematical model of a heliocentric system in the 16th century by Nicolaus Copernicus. Development of scientific understanding Observations of sunspots were recorded during the Han Dynasty (206 BC–AD 220) by Chinese astronomers, who maintained records of these observations for centuries. Averroes also provided a description of sunspots in the 12th century. The invention of the telescope in the early 17th century permitted detailed observations of sunspots by Thomas Harriot, Galileo Galilei and other astronomers. Galileo posited that sunspots were on the surface of the Sun rather than small objects passing between Earth and the Sun.Arabic astronomical contributions include Al-Battani's discovery that the direction of the Sun's apogee (the place in the Sun's orbit against the fixed stars where it seems to be moving slowest) is changing. (In modern heliocentric terms, this is caused by a gradual motion of the aphelion of the Earth's orbit). Ibn Yunus observed more than 10,000 entries for the Sun's position for many years using a large astrolabe. From an observation of a transit of Venus in 1032, the Persian astronomer and polymath Ibn Sina concluded that Venus was closer to Earth than the Sun. In 1672 Giovanni Cassini and Jean Richer determined the distance to Mars and were thereby able to calculate the distance to the Sun. In 1666, Isaac Newton observed the Sun's light using a prism, and showed that it is made up of light of many colors. In 1800, William Herschel discovered infrared radiation beyond the red part of the solar spectrum. The 19th century saw advancement in spectroscopic studies of the Sun; Joseph von Fraunhofer recorded more than 600 absorption lines in the spectrum, the strongest of which are still often referred to as Fraunhofer lines. The 20th century brought about several specialized systems for observing the sun, especially at different narrowband wavelengths, such as those using Calcium H (396.9 nm), K (393.37 nm) and Hydrogen-alpha (656.46 nm) filtering. In the early years of the modern scientific era, the source of the Sun's energy was a significant puzzle. Lord Kelvin suggested that the Sun is a gradually cooling liquid body that is radiating an internal store of heat. Kelvin and Hermann von Helmholtz then proposed a gravitational contraction mechanism to explain the energy output, but the resulting age estimate was only 20 million years, well short of the time span of at least 300 million years suggested by some geological discoveries of that time. In 1890 Joseph Lockyer, who discovered helium in the solar spectrum, proposed a meteoritic hypothesis for the formation and evolution of the Sun.Not until 1904 was a documented solution offered. Ernest Rutherford suggested that the Sun's output could be maintained by an internal source of heat, and suggested radioactive decay as the source. However, it would be Albert Einstein who would provide the essential clue to the source of the Sun's energy output with his mass–energy equivalence relation E = mc2. In 1920, Sir Arthur Eddington proposed that the pressures and temperatures at the core of the Sun could produce a nuclear fusion reaction that merged hydrogen (protons) into helium nuclei, resulting in a production of energy from the net change in mass. The preponderance of hydrogen in the Sun was confirmed in 1925 by Cecilia Payne using the ionization theory developed by Meghnad Saha. The theoretical concept of fusion was developed in the 1930s by the astrophysicists Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar and Hans Bethe. Hans Bethe calculated the details of the two main energy-producing nuclear reactions that power the Sun. In 1957, Margaret Burbidge, Geoffrey Burbidge, William Fowler and Fred Hoyle showed that most of the elements in the universe have been synthesized by nuclear reactions inside stars, some like the Sun. Solar space missions The first satellites designed for long term observation of the Sun from interplanetary space were NASA's Pioneers 6, 7, 8 and 9, which were launched between 1959 and 1968. These probes orbited the Sun at a distance similar to that of Earth, and made the first detailed measurements of the solar wind and the solar magnetic field. Pioneer 9 operated for a particularly long time, transmitting data until May 1983.In the 1970s, two Helios spacecraft and the Skylab Apollo Telescope Mount provided scientists with significant new data on solar wind and the solar corona. The Helios 1 and 2 probes were U.S.–German collaborations that studied the solar wind from an orbit carrying the spacecraft inside Mercury's orbit at perihelion. The Skylab space station, launched by NASA in 1973, included a solar observatory module called the Apollo Telescope Mount that was operated by astronauts resident on the station. Skylab made the first time-resolved observations of the solar transition region and of ultraviolet emissions from the solar corona. Discoveries included the first observations of coronal mass ejections, then called "coronal transients", and of coronal holes, now known to be intimately associated with the solar wind.In the 1970s, much research focused on the abundances of iron-group elements in the Sun. Although significant research was done, until 1978 it was difficult to determine the abundances of some iron-group elements (e.g. cobalt and manganese) via spectrography because of their hyperfine structures. The first largely complete set of oscillator strengths of singly ionized iron-group elements were made available in the 1960s, and these were subsequently improved. In 1978, the abundances of singly ionized elements of the iron group were derived. Various authors have considered the existence of a gradient in the isotopic compositions of solar and planetary noble gases, e.g. correlations between isotopic compositions of neon and xenon in the Sun and on the planets. Prior to 1983, it was thought that the whole Sun has the same composition as the solar atmosphere. In 1983, it was claimed that it was fractionation in the Sun itself that caused the isotopic-composition relationship between the planetary and solar-wind-implanted noble gases. In 1980, the Solar Maximum Mission probes were launched by NASA. This spacecraft was designed to observe gamma rays, X-rays and UV radiation from solar flares during a time of high solar activity and solar luminosity. Just a few months after launch, however, an electronics failure caused the probe to go into standby mode, and it spent the next three years in this inactive state. In 1984, Space Shuttle Challenger mission STS-41C retrieved the satellite and repaired its electronics before re-releasing it into orbit. The Solar Maximum Mission subsequently acquired thousands of images of the solar corona before re-entering Earth's atmosphere in June 1989.Launched in 1991, Japan's Yohkoh (Sunbeam) satellite observed solar flares at X-ray wavelengths. Mission data allowed scientists to identify several different types of flares and demonstrated that the corona away from regions of peak activity was much more dynamic and active than had previously been supposed. Yohkoh observed an entire solar cycle but went into standby mode when an annular eclipse in 2001 caused it to lose its lock on the Sun. It was destroyed by atmospheric re-entry in 2005.One of the most important solar missions to date has been the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, jointly built by the European Space Agency and NASA and launched on 2 December 1995. Originally intended to serve a two-year mission, a mission extension through 2012 was approved in October 2009. It has proven so useful that a follow-on mission, the Solar Dynamics Observatory, was launched in February 2010. Situated at the Lagrangian point between Earth and the Sun (at which the gravitational pull from both is equal), SOHO has provided a constant view of the Sun at many wavelengths since its launch. Besides its direct solar observation, SOHO has enabled the discovery of a large number of comets, mostly tiny sungrazing comets that incinerate as they pass the Sun. All these satellites have observed the Sun from the plane of the ecliptic, and so have only observed its equatorial regions in detail. The Ulysses probe was launched in 1990 to study the Sun's polar regions. It first traveled to Jupiter, to "slingshot" into an orbit that would take it far above the plane of the ecliptic. Once Ulysses was in its scheduled orbit, it began observing the solar wind and magnetic field strength at high solar latitudes, finding that the solar wind from high latitudes was moving at about 750 km/s, which was slower than expected, and that there were large magnetic waves emerging from high latitudes that scattered galactic cosmic rays.Elemental abundances in the photosphere are well known from spectroscopic studies, but the composition of the interior of the Sun is more poorly understood. A solar wind sample return mission, Genesis, was designed to allow astronomers to directly measure the composition of solar material. Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory (STEREO) mission was launched in October 2006. Two identical spacecraft were launched into orbits that caused them to (respectively) pull further ahead of and fall gradually behind Earth. This enables stereoscopic imaging of the Sun and solar phenomena, such as coronal mass ejections. Parker Solar Probe was launched in 2018 aboard a Delta IV Heavy rocket and will reach a perihelion of 0.046 AU in 2025, making it the closest-orbiting manmade satellite as the first spacecraft to fly low into the solar corona. Solar Orbiter mission (SolO) was launched in 2020 and will reach a minimum perihelion of 0.28 AU, making it the closest satellite with sun-facing cameras. CubeSat for Solar Particles (CuSP) was launched as a rideshare on Artemis 1 on 16 November 2022 to study particles and magnetic fields. Indian Space Research Organisation has launched a 100 kg satellite named Aditya-L1 on 2 September 2023. Its main instrument will be a coronagraph for studying the dynamics of the solar corona. Unsolved problems Coronal heating The temperature of the photosphere is approximately 6,000 K, whereas the temperature of the corona reaches 1,000,000–2,000,000 K. The high temperature of the corona shows that it is heated by something other than direct heat conduction from the photosphere.It is thought that the energy necessary to heat the corona is provided by turbulent motion in the convection zone below the photosphere, and two main mechanisms have been proposed to explain coronal heating. The first is wave heating, in which sound, gravitational or magnetohydrodynamic waves are produced by turbulence in the convection zone. These waves travel upward and dissipate in the corona, depositing their energy in the ambient matter in the form of heat. The other is magnetic heating, in which magnetic energy is continuously built up by photospheric motion and released through magnetic reconnection in the form of large solar flares and myriad similar but smaller events—nanoflares.Currently, it is unclear whether waves are an efficient heating mechanism. All waves except Alfvén waves have been found to dissipate or refract before reaching the corona. In addition, Alfvén waves do not easily dissipate in the corona. Current research focus has therefore shifted towards flare heating mechanisms. Faint young Sun Theoretical models of the Sun's development suggest that 3.8 to 2.5 billion years ago, during the Archean eon, the Sun was only about 75% as bright as it is today. Such a weak star would not have been able to sustain liquid water on Earth's surface, and thus life should not have been able to develop. However, the geological record demonstrates that Earth has remained at a fairly constant temperature throughout its history and that the young Earth was somewhat warmer than it is today. One theory among scientists is that the atmosphere of the young Earth contained much larger quantities of greenhouse gases (such as carbon dioxide, methane) than are present today, which trapped enough heat to compensate for the smaller amount of solar energy reaching it.However, examination of Archaean sediments appears inconsistent with the hypothesis of high greenhouse concentrations. Instead, the moderate temperature range may be explained by a lower surface albedo brought about by less continental area and the lack of biologically induced cloud condensation nuclei. This would have led to increased absorption of solar energy, thereby compensating for the lower solar output. Observation by eyes The brightness of the Sun can cause pain from looking at it with the naked eye; however, doing so for brief periods is not hazardous for normal non-dilated eyes. Looking directly at the Sun (sungazing) causes phosphene visual artifacts and temporary partial blindness. It also delivers about 4 milliwatts of sunlight to the retina, slightly heating it and potentially causing damage in eyes that cannot respond properly to the brightness. Viewing of the direct Sun with the naked eye can cause UV-induced, sunburn-like lesions on the retina beginning after about 100 seconds, particularly under conditions where the UV light from the Sun is intense and well focused.Viewing the Sun through light-concentrating optics such as binoculars may result in permanent damage to the retina without an appropriate filter that blocks UV and substantially dims the sunlight. When using an attenuating filter to view the Sun, the viewer is cautioned to use a filter specifically designed for that use. Some improvised filters that pass UV or IR rays, can actually harm the eye at high brightness levels. Brief glances at the midday Sun through an unfiltered telescope can cause permanent damage.During sunrise and sunset, sunlight is attenuated because of Rayleigh scattering and Mie scattering from a particularly long passage through Earth's atmosphere, and the Sun is sometimes faint enough to be viewed comfortably with the naked eye or safely with optics (provided there is no risk of bright sunlight suddenly appearing through a break between clouds). Hazy conditions, atmospheric dust, and high humidity contribute to this atmospheric attenuation.An optical phenomenon, known as a green flash, can sometimes be seen shortly after sunset or before sunrise. The flash is caused by light from the Sun just below the horizon being bent (usually through a temperature inversion) towards the observer. Light of shorter wavelengths (violet, blue, green) is bent more than that of longer wavelengths (yellow, orange, red) but the violet and blue light is scattered more, leaving light that is perceived as green. Religious aspects Solar deities play a major role in many world religions and mythologies. Worship of the Sun was central to civilizations such as the ancient Egyptians, the Inca of South America and the Aztecs of what is now Mexico. In religions such as Hinduism, the Sun is still considered a god, he is known as Surya. Many ancient monuments were constructed with solar phenomena in mind; for example, stone megaliths accurately mark the summer or winter solstice (some of the most prominent megaliths are located in Nabta Playa, Egypt; Mnajdra, Malta and at Stonehenge, England); Newgrange, a prehistoric human-built mount in Ireland, was designed to detect the winter solstice; the pyramid of El Castillo at Chichén Itzá in Mexico is designed to cast shadows in the shape of serpents climbing the pyramid at the vernal and autumnal equinoxes. The ancient Sumerians believed that the Sun was Utu, the god of justice and twin brother of Inanna, the Queen of Heaven, who was identified as the planet Venus. Later, Utu was identified with the East Semitic god Shamash. Utu was regarded as a helper-deity, who aided those in distress, and, in iconography, he is usually portrayed with a long beard and clutching a saw, which represented his role as the dispenser of justice. From at least the Fourth Dynasty of Ancient Egypt, the Sun was worshipped as the god Ra, portrayed as a falcon-headed divinity surmounted by the solar disk, and surrounded by a serpent. In the New Empire period, the Sun became identified with the dung beetle. In the form of the sun disc Aten, the Sun had a brief resurgence during the Amarna Period when it again became the preeminent, if not only, divinity for the Pharaoh Akhenaton.The Egyptians portrayed the god Ra as being carried across the sky in a solar barque, accompanied by lesser gods, and to the Greeks, he was Helios, carried by a chariot drawn by fiery horses. From the reign of Elagabalus in the late Roman Empire the Sun's birthday was a holiday celebrated as Sol Invictus (literally "Unconquered Sun") soon after the winter solstice, which may have been an antecedent to Christmas. Regarding the fixed stars, the Sun appears from Earth to revolve once a year along the ecliptic through the zodiac, and so Greek astronomers categorized it as one of the seven planets (Greek planetes, "wanderer"); the naming of the days of the weeks after the seven planets dates to the Roman era.In Proto-Indo-European religion, the Sun was personified as the goddess Seh2ul. Derivatives of this goddess in Indo-European languages include the Old Norse Sól, Sanskrit Surya, Gaulish Sulis, Lithuanian Saulė, and Slavic Solntse. In ancient Greek religion, the sun deity was the male god Helios, who in later times was syncretized with Apollo.In the Bible, Malachi 4:2 mentions the "Sun of Righteousness" (sometimes translated as the "Sun of Justice"), which some Christians have interpreted as a reference to the Messiah (Christ). In ancient Roman culture, Sunday was the day of the sun god. It was adopted as the Sabbath day by Christians who did not have a Jewish background. The symbol of light was a pagan device adopted by Christians, and perhaps the most important one that did not come from Jewish traditions. In paganism, the Sun was a source of life, giving warmth and illumination to mankind. It was the center of a popular cult among Romans, who would stand at dawn to catch the first rays of sunshine as they prayed. The celebration of the winter solstice (which influenced Christmas) was part of the Roman cult of the unconquered Sun (Sol Invictus). Christian churches were built with an orientation so that the congregation faced toward the sunrise in the East.Tonatiuh, the Aztec god of the sun, was usually depicted holding arrows and a shield and was closely associated with the practice of human sacrifice. The sun goddess Amaterasu is the most important deity in the Shinto religion, and she is believed to be the direct ancestor of all Japanese emperors. See also Further reading Cohen, Richard (2010). Chasing the Sun: The Epic Story of the Star That Gives Us Life. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4000-6875-3. Hudson, Hugh (2008). "Solar Activity". Scholarpedia. 3 (3): 3967. Bibcode:2008SchpJ...3.3967H. doi:10.4249/scholarpedia.3967. Thompson, M.J. (August 2004). "Solar interior: Helioseismology and the Sun's interior". Astronomy & Geophysics. 45 (4): 21–25. Bibcode:2004A&G....45d..21T. doi:10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.45421.x. Astronomy Cast: The Sun Satellite observations of solar luminosity Animation – The Future of the Sun "Thermonuclear Art – The Sun In Ultra-HD" \| Goddard Space Flight Center "A Decade of Sun" \| Goddard Space Flight Center
East Asia is the easternmost region of Asia, which is defined in both geographical and ethno-cultural terms. The modern states of East Asia include China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan. Hong Kong and Macau, two small coastal quasi-dependent territories located in the south of China, are officially highly autonomous but are under Chinese sovereignty. Japan, Taiwan, South Korea, Mainland China, Hong Kong, and Macau are some of the world's largest and most prosperous economies. East Asia borders Siberia and the Russian Far East to the north, Southeast Asia to the south, South Asia to the southwest, and Central Asia to the west. To the east is the Pacific Ocean and to the southeast is Micronesia (a Pacific Ocean island group that is classified as part of Oceania). East Asia, especially Chinese civilization, is regarded as one of the earliest cradles of civilization. Other ancient civilizations in East Asia that still exist as independent countries in the present day include the Japanese, Korean and Mongolian civilizations. Various other civilizations existed as independent polities in East Asia in the past but have since been absorbed into neighbouring civilizations in the present day, such as Tibet, Baiyue, Khitan, Manchuria, Ryukyu (Okinawa) and Ainu, among many others. Taiwan has a relatively young history in the region after the prehistoric era; originally, it was a major site of Austronesian civilization prior to colonisation by European colonial powers and China from the 17th century onward. For thousands of years, China was the leading civilization in the region, exerting influence on its neighbours. Historically, societies in East Asia have fallen within the Chinese sphere of influence, and East Asian vocabularies and scripts are often derived from Classical Chinese and Chinese script. The Chinese calendar serves as the root from which many other East Asian calendars are derived. Major religions in East Asia include Buddhism (mostly Mahayana), Confucianism and Neo-Confucianism, Taoism, ancestral worship, and Chinese folk religion in Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan, Shinto in Japan, and Christianity, and Musok in Korea. Tengerism and Tibetan Buddhism are prevalent among Mongols and Tibetans while other religions such as Shamanism are widespread among the indigenous populations of northeastern China such as the Manchus. Major languages in East Asia include Mandarin Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. Major ethnic groups of East Asia include the Han (mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan), Yamato (Japan) and Koreans (North Korea, South Korea). Mongols, although not as populous as the previous three ethnic groups, constitute the majority of Mongolia's population. There are 76 officially-recognised minority or indigenous ethnic groups in East Asia; 55 native to mainland China (including Hui, Manchus, Chinese Mongols, Tibetans, Uyghurs and Zhuang in the frontier regions), 16 native to the island of Taiwan (collectively known as Taiwanese indigenous peoples), one native to the major Japanese island of Hokkaido (the Ainu) and four native to Mongolia (Turkic peoples). Ryukyuan people are an unrecognised ethnic group indigenous to the Ryukyu Islands in southern Japan, which stretch from Kyushu Island (Japan) to Taiwan. There are also several unrecognised indigenous ethnic groups in mainland China and Taiwan. East Asian people comprise around 1.7 billion people, making up about 33% of the population in Continental Asia and 20% of the global population. The region is home to major world metropolises such as Beijing, Hong Kong, Osaka, Seoul, Shanghai, and Tokyo. Although the coastal and riparian areas of the region form one of the world's most populated places, the population in Mongolia and Western China, both landlocked areas, is very sparsely distributed, with Mongolia having the lowest population density of a sovereign state. The overall population density of the region is 133 inhabitants per square kilometre (340/sq mi), about three times the world average of 45/km2 (120/sq mi). History China was the first region settled in East Asia and was undoubtedly the core of East Asian civilization from where other parts of East Asia were formed. The various other regions in East Asia were selective in the Chinese influences they adopted into their local customs. Historian Ping-ti Ho famously labeled Chinese civilization as the "Cradle of Eastern Civilization", in parallel with the "Cradle of Middle Eastern Civilization" along the Fertile Crescent encompassing Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt as well as the Cradle of Western Civilization encompassing Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. Chinese civilization existed for about 1500 years before other East Asian civilizations emerged into history, Imperial China would exert much of its cultural, economic, technological, and political muscle onto its neighbours. Succeeding Chinese dynasties exerted enormous influence across East Asia culturally, economically, politically and militarily for over two millennia. The Imperial Chinese tributary system shaped much of East Asia's history for over two millennia due to Imperial China's economic and cultural influence over the region, and thus played a huge role in the history of East Asia in particular. Imperial China's cultural preeminence not only led the country to become East Asia's first literate nation in the entire region, it also supplied Japan and Korea with Chinese loanwords and linguistic influences rooted in their writing systems.Under Emperor Wu of Han, the Han dynasty made China the regional power in East Asia, projecting much of its imperial power on its neighbours. Han China hosted the largest unified population in East Asia, the most literate and urbanised as well as being the most economically developed, as well as the most technologically and culturally advanced civilization in the region at the time. Cultural and religious interaction between the Chinese and other regional East Asian dynasties and kingdoms occurred. China's impact and influence on Korea began with the Han dynasty's northeastern expansion in 108 BC when the Han Chinese conquered the northern part of the Korean peninsula and established a province called Lelang. Chinese influence would soon take root in Korea through the inclusion of the Chinese writing system, monetary system, rice culture, and Confucian political institutions. Jomon society in ancient Japan incorporated wet-rice cultivation and metallurgy through its contact with Korea. Starting from the fourth century AD, Japan incorporated the Chinese writing system which evolved into Kanji by the fifth century AD and has become a significant part of the Japanese writing system. Utilizing the Chinese writing system allowed the Japanese to conduct their daily activities, maintain historical records and give form to various ideas, thoughts, and philosophies. During the Tang dynasty, China exerted its greatest influence on East Asia as various aspects of Chinese culture spread to Japan and Korea. The establishment of the medieval Tang dynasty rekindled the impetus of Chinese expansionism across the geopolitical confines of East Asia. Similar to its Han predecessor, Tang China asserted itself as the center of East Asian geopolitical influence during the early medieval period which spearheaded and marked another golden age in Chinese history. During the Tang dynasty, China exerted its greatest influence on East Asia as various aspects of Chinese culture spread to Japan and Korea. In addition, Tang China also managed to maintain control over northern Vietnam and Korea.As full-fledged medieval East Asian states were established, Korea by the fourth century AD and Japan by the seventh century AD, Japan and Korea actively began to incorporate Chinese influences such as Confucianism, the use of written Han characters, Chinese style architecture, state institutions, political philosophies, religion, urban planning, and various scientific and technological methods into their culture and society through direct contacts with Tang China and succeeding Chinese dynasties. Drawing inspiration from the Tang political system, Prince Naka no oe launched the Taika Reform in 645 AD where he radically transformed Japan's political bureaucracy into a more centralised bureaucratic empire. The Japanese also adopted Mahayana Buddhism, Chinese style architecture, and the imperial court's rituals and ceremonies, including the orchestral music and state dances had Tang influences. Written Chinese gained prestige and aspects of Tang culture such as poetry, calligraphy, and landscape painting became widespread. During the Nara period, Japan began to aggressively import Chinese culture and styles of government which included Confucian protocol that served as a foundation for Japanese culture as well as political and social philosophy. The Japanese also created laws adopted from the Chinese legal system that was used to govern in addition to the kimono, which was inspired from the Chinese robe (hanfu) during the eighth century AD. For many centuries, most notably from the 7th to the 14th centuries, China stood as East Asia's most advanced civilization and foremost military and economic power, exerting its influence as the transmission of advanced Chinese cultural practices and ways of thinking greatly shaped the region up until the nineteenth century.As East Asia's connections with Europe and the Western world strengthened during the late nineteenth century, China's power began to decline. By the mid-nineteenth century, the weakening Qing dynasty became fraught with political corruption, obstacles and stagnation that was incapable of rejuvenating itself as a world power in contrast to the industrializing Imperial European colonial powers and a rapidly modernizing Japan. The U.S. Commodore Matthew C. Perry would open Japan to Western ways, and the country would expand in earnest after the 1860s. Around the same time, Japan with its rush to modernity transformed itself from an isolated feudal samurai state into East Asia's first industrialised nation in the modern era. The modern and militarily powerful Japan would galvanise its position in the Orient as East Asia's greatest power with a global mission poised to advance to lead the entire world. By the early 1900s, the Japanese empire succeeded in asserting itself as East Asia's most dominant power. With its newly found international status, Japan would begin to challenge the European colonial powers and inextricably took on a more active geopolitical position in East Asia and world affairs at large. Flexing its nascent political and military might, Japan soundly defeated the stagnant Qing dynasty during the First Sino-Japanese War as well as vanquishing imperial rival Russia in 1905; the first major military victory in the modern era of an East Asian power over a European one. Its hegemony was the heart of an empire that would include Taiwan and Korea. During World War II, Japanese expansionism with its imperialist aspirations through the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere would incorporate Korea, Taiwan, much of eastern China and Manchuria, Hong Kong, and Southeast Asia under its control establishing itself as a maritime colonial power in East Asia. After a century of exploitation by the European and Japanese colonialists, post-colonial East Asia saw the defeat and occupation of Japan by the victorious Allies as well as the division of China and Korea during the Cold War. The Korean peninsula became independent but then it was divided into two rival states, while Taiwan became the main territory of de facto state Republic of China after the latter lost Mainland China to the People's Republic of China in the Chinese Civil War. During the latter half of the twentieth century, the region would see the post war economic miracle of Japan, which ushered in three decades of unprecedented growth, only to experience an economic slowdown during the 1990s, but nonetheless Japan continues to remain a global economic power. East Asia would also see the economic rise of Hong Kong, South Korea and Taiwan, and the integration of Mainland China into the global economy through its entry in the World Trade Organization while enhancing its emerging international status as a potential world power. Although there have been no wars in East Asia for decades, the stability of the region remains fragile because of North Korea's nuclear program in addition to Chinese geopolitical encroachment and provocations within Taiwanese waters sprung from the rifts between Mainland China and Taiwan surrounding the former's attempts to reunify with Mainland China against the latter's independence and geopolitical status quo. Definitions and boundaries Definitions In common usage, the term "East Asia" typically refers to a region including Greater China, Japan, Korea and Mongolia.China, Japan, and Korea represent the three core countries and civilizations of traditional East Asia - as they once shared a common written language, culture, as well as sharing Confucian philosophical tenets and the Confucian societal value system once instituted by Imperial China. Other usages define Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Japan, North Korea, South Korea and Taiwan as countries that constitute East Asia based on their geographic proximity as well as historical and modern cultural and economic ties, particularly with Japan and Korea having strong cultural influences that originated from China. Some scholars include Vietnam as part of East Asia as it has been considered part of the greater Chinese sphere of influence. Though Confucianism continues to play an important role in Vietnamese culture, Chinese characters are no longer used in its written language and many scholarly organizations classify Vietnam as a Southeast Asian country. Mongolia is geographically north of Mainland China yet Confucianism and the Chinese writing system and culture had no impact in Mongolian society. Thus, Mongolia is sometimes grouped with Central Asian countries such as Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Kazakhstan.Broader and looser definitions by international organisations such as the World Bank refer to East Asia as the "three major Northeast Asian economies, i.e. Mainland China, Japan, and South Korea", as well as Mongolia, North Korea, the Russian Far East, and Siberia. The Council on Foreign Relations includes the Russia Far East, Mongolia, and Nepal. The World Bank also acknowledges the roles of Chinese special administrative regions Hong Kong and Macau, as well as Taiwan, a country with limited recognition. The Economic Research Institute for Northeast Asia defines the region as "China, Japan, the Koreas, Nepal, Mongolia, and eastern regions of the Russian Federation". The UNSD definition of East Asia is based on statistical convenience, but others commonly use the same definition of Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, Taiwan, and Japan.Certain Japanese islands are associated with Oceania due to non-continental geology, distance from mainland Asia or biogeographical similarities with Micronesia. Some groups, such as the World Health Organization, categorize China, Japan and Korea with Australia and the rest of Oceania. The World Health Organization label this region the "Western Pacific", with East Asia not being used in their concept of major world regions. Their definition of this region further includes Mongolia and the adjacent area of Cambodia, as well as the countries of the South East Asia Archipelago (excluding East Timor and Indonesia). Alternative definitions In business and economics, "East Asia" is sometimes used to refer to the geographical area covering ten Southeast Asian countries in ASEAN, Greater China, Japan and Korea. However, in this context, the term "Far East" is used by the Europeans to cover ASEAN countries and the countries in East Asia. However, being a Eurocentric term, Far East describes the region's geographical position in relation to Europe rather than its location within Asia. Alternatively, the term "Asia Pacific Region" is often used in describing East Asia, Southeast Asia as well as Oceania. On rare occasion, the term is also sometimes taken to include India and other South Asian countries not within the bounds of the Pacific, although the term Indo-Pacific is more commonly used for such a definition.Observers preferring a broader definition of "East Asia" often use the term Northeast Asia to refer to China, the Korean Peninsula, and Japan, with Southeast Asia covering the ten ASEAN countries. This usage, which is seen in economic and diplomatic discussions, is at odds with the historical meanings of both "East Asia" and "Northeast Asia". The Council on Foreign Relations of the United States defines Northeast Asia as Japan and Korea. Economy Territorial and regional data China, North Korea, South Korea and Taiwan are all unrecognised by at least one other East Asian state because of severe ongoing political tensions in the region. Etymology Demographics Ethnic groups Note: The order of states/territories follows the population ranking of each ethnicity, within East Asia only. East Asian culture Overview The culture of East Asia has largely been influenced by China, as it was the civilization that had the most dominant influence in the region throughout the ages that ultimately laid the foundation for East Asian civilization. The vast knowledge and ingenuity of Chinese civilization and the classics of Chinese literature and culture were seen as the foundations for a civilised life in East Asia. Imperial China served as a vehicle through which the adoption of Confucian ethical philosophy, Chinese calendar system, political and legal systems, architectural style, diet, terminology, institutions, religious beliefs, imperial examinations that emphasised a knowledge of Chinese classics, political philosophy and cultural value systems, as well as historically sharing a common writing system reflected in the histories of Japan and Korea. The Imperial Chinese tributary system was the bedrock of network of trade and foreign relations between China and its East Asian tributaries, which helped to shape much of East Asian affairs during the ancient and medieval eras. Through the tributary system, the various dynasties of Imperial China facilitated frequent economic and cultural exchange that influenced the cultures of Japan and Korea and drew them into a Chinese international order. The Imperial Chinese tributary system shaped much of East Asia's foreign policy and trade for over two millennia due to Imperial China's economic and cultural dominance over the region, and thus played a huge role in the history of East Asia in particular. The relationship between China and its cultural influence on East Asia has been compared to the historical influence of Greco-Roman civilization on Europe and the Western World. Religions Festivals Japan switched the date to the Gregorian calendar after the Meiji Restoration. Not always on that Gregorian date, sometimes April 4. Collaboration East Asian Youth Games Formerly the East Asian Games, it is a multi-sport event organised by the East Asian Games Association (EAGA) and held every four years since 2019 among athletes from East Asian countries and territories of the Olympic Council of Asia (OCA), as well as the Pacific island of Guam, which is a member of the Oceania National Olympic Committees. It is one of five Regional Games of the OCA. The others are the Central Asian Games, the Southeast Asian Games (SEA Games), the South Asian Games and the West Asian Games. Free trade agreements Military alliances Major cities See also China–Japan–South Korea trilateral summit East Asia Summit East Asia–United States relations East Asian Community East Asian languages East Asian studies East Asian cultural sphere Further reading Church, Peter. A short history of South-East Asia (John Wiley & Sons, 2017). Chung, Eunbin. Pride, Not Prejudice: National Identity as a Pacifying Force in East Asia (University of Michigan Press, 2022) online reviews by six scholars Clyde, Paul H., and Burton F. Beers. The Far East: A History of Western Impacts and Eastern Responses, 1830–1975 (1975) online 3rd edition 1958 Crofts, Alfred. A history of the Far East (1958) online free to borrow Dennett, Tyler. Americans in Eastern Asia (1922) online free Ebrey, Patricia Buckley, and Anne Walthall. East Asia: A cultural, social, and political history (Cengage Learning, 2013). Embree, Ainslie T., ed. Encyclopedia of Asian history (1988) vol. 1 online; vol 2 online; vol 3 online; vol 4 online Fairbank, John K., Edwin Reischauer, and Albert M. Craig. East Asia: The great tradition and East Asia: The modern transformation (1960) [2 vol 1960] online free to borrow, famous textbook. Flynn, Matthew J. China Contested: Western Powers in East Asia (2006), for secondary schools Gelber, Harry. The dragon and the foreign devils: China and the world, 1100 BC to the present (2011). Green, Michael J. By more than providence: grand strategy and American power in the Asia Pacific since 1783 (2017) a major scholarly survey excerpt Hall, D.G.E. History of South East Asia (Macmillan International Higher Education, 1981). Holcombe, Charles. A History of East Asia (2d ed. Cambridge UP, 2017). excerpt Iriye, Akira. After Imperialism; The Search for a New Order in the Far East 1921–1931. (1965). Jensen, Richard, Jon Davidann, and Yoneyuki Sugita, eds. Trans-Pacific Relations: America, Europe, and Asia in the Twentieth Century (Praeger, 2003), 304 pp online review Keay, John. Empire's End: A History of the Far East from High Colonialism to Hong Kong (Scribner, 1997). online free to borrow Levinson, David, and Karen Christensen, eds. Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. (6 vol. Charles Scribner's Sons, 2002). Mackerras, Colin. Eastern Asia: an introductory history (Melbourne: Longman Cheshire, 1992). Macnair, Harley F. & Donald Lach. Modern Far Eastern International Relations. (2nd ed 1955) 1950 edition online free, 780pp; focus on 1900–1950. Miller, David Y. Modern East Asia: An Introductory History (Routledge, 2007) Murphey, Rhoads. East Asia: A New History (1996) Norman, Henry. The Peoples and Politics of the Far East: Travels and studies in the British, French, Spanish and Portuguese colonies, Siberia, China, Japan, Korea, Siam and Malaya (1904) online Paine, S. C. M. The Wars for Asia, 1911–1949 (2014) excerpt Prescott, Anne. East Asia in the World: An Introduction (Routledge, 2015) Ring, George C. Religions of the Far East: Their History to the Present Day (Kessinger Publishing, 2006). Szpilman, Christopher W. A., Sven Saaler. "Japan and Asia" in Routledge Handbook of Modern Japanese History (2017) online Steiger, G. Nye. A history of the Far East (1936). Vinacke, Harold M. A History of the Far East in Modern Times (1964) online free Vogel, Ezra. China and Japan: Facing History (2019) excerpt Woodcock, George. The British in the Far East (1969) online High resolution map of East Asian region
Ap Lei Chau or Aberdeen Island is an island of Hong Kong, located off Hong Kong Island next to Aberdeen Harbour and Aberdeen Channel. It has an area of 1.30 square kilometres (0.50 sq mi) after land reclamation. Administratively it is part of the Southern District. Ap Lei Chau is one of the most densely populated islands on earth, as well as the most densely populated island with a population of over 10,000. In the 2000s on their website the Guinness World Records called it the world's most densely populated island. History Before the First Opium War, Ap Lei Chau was a small fishing village, with its harbour forming an excellent natural typhoon shelter. The island appears on a Ming-era map with its primary settlement labelled "Fragrant Harbour Village". This is the probable origin of the name for Hong Kong, although the town eventually took the name of its island. Under the terms of the 1841 Treaty of Nanking, it was ceded to the British together with Hong Kong Island. It was sometimes known as Taplichan, Taplishan, &c. from an alternative name for the island. The island had a largely uneventful history under British rule. In 1968, Hongkong Electric opened a power station on Ap Lei Chau to provide electricity for the whole of Hong Kong Island. In 1980 and 1994, a bridge was constructed to connect the island to the Hong Kong Island, and this created momentum for rapid economic development. Public housing estates were built to accommodate people, including some who had suffered in a fire in the Aberdeen typhoon shelter. In 1989, the generators of the power station were relocated to Lamma Island, and the old power station was demolished. The site was re-developed into the South Horizons residential area, with the addition of some land reclaimed from the sea. Geography and demographics Ap Lei Chau was named after the shape of the island, which resembles the tongue of a duck. Ap means duck, Lei means tongue, and Chau means island. The northern part has the highest population, while the southern part of the island is less densely populated. The highest point on the island is Yuk Kwai Shan (玉桂山; aka. Mount Johnston), with an altitude of 196 metres (643 ft). It comprises four main residential areas — Lei Tung Estate, Ap Lei Chau Main Street, South Horizons and Ap Lei Chau Estate, each of which comprises several highrise towers. There is an industrial estate on the southern tip of the island. The population of Ap Lei Chau is 79,727. The sum of the population in constituency areas D02 to D07 and its area is 1.30 square kilometres (0.50 square miles), giving it a population density of 61,328 inhabitants per square kilometre (158,840/sq mi) and making it the fourth most densely populated island in the world. Ap Lei Chau also lends its name to the Ap Lei Chau geologic formation, which covers most of Hong Kong Island. Places of interest The Hung Shing Temple located on Hung Shing Street, off Main Street, Ap Lei Chau, is a notable site. Dating back to 1773, it is the oldest temple in the Aberdeen and Ap Lei Chau areas and is a declared monument. The Shui Yuet Temple aka. Kwun Yum Temple is located at No. 181 Main Street, Ap Lei Chau. Dedicated to Kwun Yum, it was built at the end of the 19th century and is a Grade III historic building. The temple site is adjacent to the site of the former Aberdeen Police Station. Clearly chosen for its fung shui, the superior dragons were seen as being protection from the 'threat of the tiger's jaw' from the police station. Although the police station has now been demolished, the dragons are still present and seen as enduring feng shui guards. Apart from Kwun Yum, the temple also houses Kwan Tai, Tin Hau, Chai Kung and Wong Tai Sin. Transport Ap Lei Chau and Hong Kong Island are connected by the four-lane Ap Lei Chau Bridges. Opened in 1983, it originally only had two lanes, and was widened to four in 1994 with a duplicated bridge to the northwest of the original one. Buses are the main form of transport for the residents in Ap Lei Chau. Bus routes depart from the six bus termini on the island to various places on Hong Kong Island and in Kowloon: Ap Lei Chau Estate Ap Lei Chau (Lee Lok Street) and Ap Lei Chau (Lee King Street) in the industrial area Ap Lei Chau Main Street Lei Tung Estate South HorizonsGreen minibuses and taxis are available. Red minibuses are prohibited from entering the island. There is a regular sampan service running between Ap Lei Chau Main Street and Aberdeen. (Service hours: 6am-12am) The MTR South Island line opened on 28 December 2016 links Admiralty of Hong Kong Island to Ap Lei Chau by the Aberdeen Channel Bridge, to the southeast of the Ap Lei Chau Bridges. There are two stations on the island: Lei Tung (for Lei Tung Estate and Ap Lei Chau Main Street) and South Horizons (for South Horizons, Ap Lei Chau Estate and Ap Lei Chau Industrial Estate) serving the development of the same name. Education Ap Lei Chau is in Primary One Admission (POA) School Net 18. Within the school net are multiple aided schools (operated independently but funded with government money) and Hong Kong Southern District Government Primary School. Community issues Since Ap Lei Chau is currently the fourth most densely populated island in the world, public space is highly insufficient. In 2016, the Hong Kong Government reallocated the waterfront land of the former Hong Kong Driving School on Lee Nam Road for building luxury apartments, ignoring the suggestion of the locals and intensified the problem of insufficient land use. In February 2017, it was reported that the land, measuring 11,761 square metres (126,590 sq ft), had been sold by tender for a record price of HK$16.86 billion (US$2.17 billion) to a venture between KWG Property and Logan Property Holdings. See also Ap Lei Pai List of places in Hong Kong List of islands and peninsulas of Hong Kong Shek Pai Wan Magazine Island Further reading Hayes, James (1971). "Rope-making and Dyeing/Calendering on Ap Lei Chau, Hong Kong" (PDF). Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. Vol. 11. Hong Kong. pp. 199–200. Retrieved 15 September 2014. History and Memories of Ap Lei Chau
Shit is an English-language profanity. As a noun, it refers to fecal matter, and as a verb it means to defecate; in the plural ("the shits"), it means diarrhea. Shite is a common variant in British and Irish English. As a slang term, shit has many meanings, including: nonsense, foolishness, something of little value or quality, trivial and usually boastful or inaccurate talk or a contemptible person. It could also be used to refer to any other noun in general or as an expression of annoyance, surprise or anger. Etymology The word is likely derived from Old English, having the nouns scite (dung, attested only in place names) and scitte (diarrhoea) and the verb scītan (to defecate, attested only in bescītan, to cover with excrement); eventually it morphed into Middle English schītte (excrement), schyt (diarrhoea) and shiten (to defecate), and it is virtually certain that it was used in some form by preliterate Germanic tribes at the time of the Roman Empire. The word may be further traced to Proto-Germanic skit-, and ultimately to Proto-Indo-European skheid- "cut, separate", the same root believed to have become the word shed. The word has several cognates in modern Germanic languages, such as German Scheiße, Dutch schijt, Swedish skit, Icelandic skítur, Norwegian skitt etc. Ancient Greek had 'skōr' (gen. 'skatos' hence 'scato-'), from Proto-Indo-European *sker-, which is likely unrelated. Usage The word shit (also shite in British and Hiberno-English) is considered profanity and is usually avoided in formal speech. Minced oath substitutes for the word shit in English include shoot, shucks, sugar, and the euphemistic backronym, Sugar, Honey, Ice(d) Tea.In the word's literal sense, it has a rather small range of common usages. An unspecified or collective occurrence of feces is generally shit or some shit; a single deposit of feces is sometimes a shit or a piece of shit; and to defecate is to shit or to take a shit. While it is common to speak of shit as existing in a pile, a load, a hunk, and other quantities and configurations, such expressions flourish most strongly in the figurative. When uttered as an exclamation or interjection, shit may convey astonishment or a feeling of being favorably impressed or disgusted. Similar utterances might be damn!, wow! or yuck!. Piece of shit may also be used figuratively to describe a particularly loathsome individual, or an object that is of poor quality ("this car is a piece of shit", often abbreviated to "P.O.S."). One study published in 2017 argued that "shit studies" is a cross-disciplinary meta-field of rhetorical inquiry about human communication and reasoning. The authors explained, "rhetorical studies has theorized 'shit' in terms of the communication of transformation, style, and textual relations," particularly in relation to claims of expertise to topics such as "anti-semitism" and "wine-tasting." They conclude that bullshit speech is one-sided discourse that is difficult to penetrate because it contains "ideological barriers to the expectation of mutuality," working to deflect critical responses. Vague noun Shit can be used as a generic mass noun similar to stuff; for instance, This show is funny (as) shit or This test is hard (as) shit, or That was stupid shit. These three usages (with funny, hard, and stupid or another synonym of stupid) are heard most commonly in the United States. Using "as" denotes a subtle change in the meaning of the expression; however, the overall intent is basically the same. In the expression Get your shit together! the word shit can refer either to one's wits or composure or to one's things, gear, etc. He doesn't have his shit together means that his affairs are disordered, reflecting not bad luck or forces beyond his control, but his personal shortcomings. To shoot the shit is to have a friendly but pointless conversation, as in "Come by my place some time and we'll shoot the shit." A shithole is any unpleasant place to be, much like a hellhole. This usage originates from a reference to a pit toilet. A crock of shit is something (a situation, explanation, argument, etc.) that is nonsense or fabricated as a deception or evasion; i.e. bullshit. Often abbreviated simply as crock. Example: "You expect me to believe that ?? What a crock!" The phrase built like a brick shithouse is used in the United States to compliment a curvaceous woman, but in other English-speaking countries to compliment men with athletic physiques. This meaning originates from the observation that most shithouses are rather ramshackle affairs constructed of plywood or scrap sheets of steel. The shitter is a slang term for a toilet, and can be used like the phrase ... down the toilet to suggest that something has been wasted. Example: "This CD player quit working one friggin' week after I bought it, and I lost the receipt! Twenty bucks right down the shitter!" Shit on a shingle is U.S. military slang for creamed chipped beef on toast. In polite company this can be abbreviated as SOS. Trouble Shit can be used to denote trouble, by saying one is in a lot of shit or deep shit (a common euphemism is deep doo-doo). A shitstorm would be quite a lot of trouble happening all in one place at one time. It's common for someone to refer to an unpleasant thing as hard shit (You got a speeding ticket? Man, that's some hard shit), but the phrase tough shit is used as an unsympathetic way of saying too bad to whoever is having problems (You got arrested? Tough shit, man!) or as a way of expressing to someone that they need to stop complaining about something and cope with it instead (Billy: I got arrested because of you! Tommy: Tough shit, dude, you knew you might get arrested when you chose to come with me.) Note that in this case, as in many cases with the term, tough shit is often said as a way of pointing out someone's fault in his/her own current problem. It's also common to express annoyance by simply saying Shit. A shitload of something is a large quantity, especially something unpleasant or disgusting. The boss dumped a shitload of extra work for me this week. A shit sandwich is something (like a situation or state of affairs) unpleasant made triflingly more palatable by packaging it in things less unpleasant, as rotten meat sandwiched in bread. The term shit sandwich originates from an old joke that goes: "Life is a shit sandwich. The more bread (money) you got, the less shit you have to eat." Up shit creek or especially Up shit creek without a paddle describes a situation in which one is in severe difficulties with no apparent means of solution (this is simply a profane version of the older saying "up the creek without a paddle", profanity added for emphasis or humor). Shit happens means that bad happenings in life are inevitable. This is usually spoken with a sigh or a shrug, but can be spoken derisively to someone who complains too often about his ill fortunes, or in an irritating manner. When the shit hits the fan is usually used to refer to a specific time of confrontation or trouble, which requires decisive action. This is often used in reference to combat situations and the action scenes in movies, but can also be used for everyday instances that one might be apprehensive about. I don't want to be here when the shit hits the fan! indicates that the speaker is dreading this moment (which can be anything from an enemy attack to confronting an angry parent or friend). In polite society, it is often reduced to "when it hits the fan". He's the one to turn to when the shit hits the fan is an indication that the person being talked about is dependable and will not run from trouble or abandon their allies in tough situations. The concept of this phrase is simple enough, as the actual substance striking the rotating blades of a fan would cause a messy and unpleasant situation (much like being in the presence of a manure spreader). Whether or not this has actually happened, or if the concept is simply feasible enough for most people to imagine the result without needing it to be demonstrated, is unknown. Another example might be the saying shit rolls downhill, a metaphor suggesting that trouble for a manager may be transferred to the subordinates. There are a number of anecdotes and jokes about such situations, as the imagery of these situations is considered to be funny. This is generally tied-in with the concept that disgusting and messy substances spilled onto someone else are humorous. For someone to be described as shitfaced means that person is essentially incapacitated by alcoholic intoxication (i.e. in a thoroughly drunken state). Displeasure Shit can comfortably stand in for the terms bad and anything in many instances (Dinner was good, but the movie was shit. You're all mad at me, but I didn't do shit!). A comparison can also be used, as in Those pants look like shit, or This stuff tastes like shit. Many usages are idiomatic. I'm shit out of luck usually refers to someone who is at the end of their wits or who has no remaining viable options. In polite company the acronym SOL is commonly substituted for this. That little shit shot me in the ass, suggests a mischievous or contemptuous person. Euphemisms such as crap are not usually used in this context. The exclamations oh shit! and aw shit! are used to express displeasure or embarrassment (sometimes facetiously) with oneself when one makes a mistake, especially a stupid or avoidable mistake. When used to comment on the actions of someone else, they can take on a more humorous quality if the mistake does not result in serious consequences. The term piece of shit is generally used to classify a product or service as being sufficiently below the writer's understanding of generally accepted quality standards to be of negligible and perhaps even negative value. The term piece of shit has greater precision than shit or shitty in that piece of shit identifies the low quality of a specific component or output of a process without applying a derogatory slant to the entire process. For example, if one said "The youth orchestra has been a remarkably successful initiative. The fact that the orchestra's recent rendition of Tchaikovsky's Manfred Symphony in B minor was pretty much a piece of shit should not in any way detract from this." The substitution of shit or shitty for pretty much a piece of shit would imply irony and would therefore undermine the strength of the statement. The phrase "(I don't) give a shit" can be used when one does not care about something, or has a passive attitude toward said thing, as it denotes indifference. In context, one can say: "You're offended? Well, I don't give a shit!" or "You're telling me? Go find somebody who gives a shit." President Richard Nixon said to aide H.R. Haldeman while being tape recorded in the Oval Office, "I don't give a shit about the lira." He meant he was too busy managing the Watergate affair to consider a crisis in the Italian monetary system.The shit list is a category of people who are in ill favor with some individual or group of people, perhaps as the managers of a company, and likely to be the targets of special treatment. The phrase "take shit" means to receive bad or frivolous treatment from someone. Such an abused person might say "I'm not taking any more of your shit!" to indicate that they will no longer tolerate such treatment. Whale shit is sometimes used to describe a person who inspires displeasure or disgust, as in: "You're lower than whale shit at the bottom of the ocean!" “You can’t polish shit” is a popular aphorism roughly equivalent to "putting Lipstick on a pig" (although "a turd" is more commonly used). However, the TV show Mythbusters showed you can, in fact, polish a turd. Dominance Shit can also be used to establish social superiority over someone else. The most common gibe is eat shit! (cf coprophagy) expressing contempt. Some other personal word may be added such as eat my shit implying truly personal connotations. As an aside, the above is actually a contraction of the phrase eat shit and die!. It is often said without commas as a curse; they command the other party to perform exactly those actions in that order. However, the term was originally Eat, Shit, and Die naming the three most basic things humans have to do, and it is common among soldiers.The phrase You ain't shit, expresses an air of intimidation over the addressee, expressing that they mean nothing or are worthless. Hot shit can be a reference to a matter or thing of supreme importance or urgency ("This report is really hot shit!"). It can be used in adjectival form: "This memo's shit-hot!". Hot shit can also refer to a person who either overestimates his own worth or ability, or is highly estimated by others ("He thinks he's some hot shit!" or "He's one hot shit!"). In polite company the euphemism hotshot may be substituted when referring to a person. A speaker may show dominance through arrogance using the phrase His shit don't stink. Its grammatical incorrectness highlights the self-importance of the referent relative to the speaker; though His shit does not stink may come across as being more emphatic due to the mixed diction between its grammatical correctness and the vulgarity of shit. This phrase conveys the haughtiness of the referent and that he considers himself beyond reproach. For example: "Those pompous assholes in Finance are the ones who ruined the company – their shit don't even stink!" A variation on this theme might be: "Everything he shits smells just like roses!" The expression shitkicker can be used as a pejorative for a menial worker or other low class person. `within the world of (ii) a performer or fan of country-and-western music. The term shitkicker may be substituted with the less vulgar "chipkicker", as in Lyle Lovett's song "Give back my heart" on Pontiac, where a girl in a "cowboy-looking bar" is described as a "chipkicker-redneck woman". The word shithead is a commonly heard insult. A shithead may also be referred to as a shit-for-brains. Another word for a spectacularly stupid (or contemptible) person is dipshit. Shithead is also the name of a card game. Positive attitude In North American slang, prefixing the article the to shit gives it a completely opposite definition, meaning the best, as in, for example "Altered Beast is the shit". Other slang words of the same meaning, such as crap, are not used in such locutions. To wear a shit-eating grin means the person wearing it may be displaying self-satisfaction, smugness, embarrassment, or mischief. It may also be a playful evasion, as a response to the query "I'll bet you drank the whole bottle of booze yourself, didn't you?" Shortening of bullshit The expression no shit? (a contraction of no bullshit?) is used in response to a statement that is extraordinary or hard to believe. Alternatively the maker of the hard-to-believe statement may add no shit to reinforce the sincerity or truthfulness of their statement, particularly in response to someone expressing disbelief at their statement. No shit is also used sarcastically in response to a statement of the obvious, as in no shit, Sherlock. In this form the word can also be used in phrases such as don't give me that shit or you're full of shit. The term full of shit is often used as an exclamation to charge someone who is believed to be prone to dishonesty, exaggeration or is thought to be "phoney" with an accusation. For example: "Oh, I'm sorry I forgot to invite you to the party, it was a complete accident ... but you really didn't miss anything anyway." "You're full of shit! You had dozens of opportunities to invite me. If you have a problem with me, why not just say it!"The word bullshit also denotes false or insincere discourse. (Horseshit is roughly equivalent, while chickenshit means cowardly, batshit indicates a person is crazy, and going apeshit indicates a person is entering a state of high excitement or unbridled rage.) Are you shitting me?! is a question sometimes given in response to an incredible assertion. An answer that reasserts the veracity of the claim is, I shit you not. Emphasis Perhaps the only constant connotation that shit reliably carries is that its referent holds some degree of emotional intensity for the speaker. Whether offense is taken at hearing the word varies greatly according to listener and situation, and is related to age and social class: elderly speakers and those of (or aspiring to) higher socioeconomic strata tend to use it more privately and selectively than younger and more blue-collar speakers. Like the word fuck, shit is often used to add emphasis more than to add meaning, for example, shit! I was so shit-scared of that shithead that I shit-talked him into dropping out of the karate match! The term to shit-talk connotes bragging or exaggeration (whereas to talk shit primarily means to gossip [about someone in a damaging way] or to talk in a boastful way about things which are erroneous in nature), but in such constructions as the above, the word shit often functions as an interjection. The exclamation holy shit derives its force from the juxtaposition of the sacred with the profane. Unlike the word fuck, shit is not used emphatically with -ing or as an infix. For example; I lost the shitting karate match would be replaced with ...the fucking karate match. Similarly, while in-fucking-credible is generally acceptable, in-shitting-credible is not. The verb "to shit" The preterite and past participle of shit are attested as shat, shit, or shitted, depending on dialect and, sometimes, the rhythm of the sentence. In the prologue of The Canterbury Tales, shitten is used as the past participle; however this form is not used in modern English. In American English shit as a past participle is often correct, while shat is generally acceptable and shitted is uncommon and missing from the Random House and American Heritage dictionaries. "to shitcan" To shitcan someone or something is to dismiss or dispose of casually or unceremoniously, as into a waste basket. Shitcan can also be used as a noun: Don't bother; a report like this is gonna go directly into the shitcan. It can also refer to being fired from a job: "The boss is gonna shitcan you if you keep showing up late." Backronyms The backronym form "S.H.I.T." often figures into jokes, like Special High Intensity Training (a well-known joke used in job applications), Special Hot Interdiction Team (a mockery on SWAT), and any college name that begins with an S-H (like South Harmon Institute of Technology in the film Accepted (2006) or Store High In Transit in the film Kenny (2006)). South Hudson Institute of Technology has sometimes been used to describe the United States Military Academy at West Point.In polite company, sometimes backronyms such as Sugar Honey in Tea or Sugar Honey Ice(d) Tea are used. Usage in classical poetry Satirist Jonathan Swift wrote a controversial poem "The Lady's Dressing Room" containing the following lines (115 through 118): Usage on television Canada In Canada, "shit" is one of the words considered by the Canadian Broadcast Standards Council to be "coarse, offensive language intended for adults", acceptable for broadcast only after 9:00 p.m.On the Canadian Showcase television show Trailer Park Boys, characters frequently use the term "shit". For example, the fictional trailer park supervisor James "Jim" Lahey employs many metaphors with the negative slang "shit" bizarrely worked in; in one episode, Mr. Lahey likens Ricky's growing ignorance to that of a "shit tsunami", while in another episode, Mr. Lahey tells Bubbles the "shit hawks are swooping in low" due to his deplorable behavior and company. The term "shit" is also used in the titles of that show's episodes, themselves, e.g., "The Winds of Shit", "A Shit Leopard Can't Change Its Spots", and "Never Cry Shitwolf". United Kingdom The first person to say "shit" on British TV was John Cleese of the Monty Python comedy troupe, in the late 1960s, according to his own eulogy for Graham Chapman. However, this is not independently verified. The phrase "thick as pigshit" is used in the 1969 BBC play The Big Flame. The word shit also appears in the British film Cul-de-sac (1966), which might pre-date John Cleese's use. United States The word has become increasingly acceptable on American cable television and satellite radio, which are not subject to FCC regulation. In other English-speaking countries, such as Canada, the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, Australia, and New Zealand, the word is allowed to be used in broadcast television by the regulative councils of each area, as long as it is used in late hours when young people are not expected to be watching. It has appeared on ABC News' 20/20."Shit" was one of the original "Seven Words You Can Never Say On TV", a comedy routine by the American comedian George Carlin. In the United States, although the use of the word is censored on broadcast network television (while its synonym crap is not usually subject to censorship), the FCC permitted some exceptions. For example: The 14 October 1999 episode of Chicago Hope is the first show (excluding documentaries) on U.S. network television to contain the word shit in uncensored form. The word also is used in a later ER episode, "On the Beach" by Dr. Mark Greene, while experiencing the final stages of a deadly brain tumor. Although the episode was originally aired uncensored, the "shit" utterance has since been edited out in syndicated reruns.An episode of South Park, "It Hits the Fan" (original airdate 20 June 2001), parodied the hype over the Chicago Hope episode. In it, "shit" is used 162 times, and a counter in the corner of the screen tallies the repetitions (excluding the 38 instances of the word's use in written forms, the raising the total to an even 200). South Park airs on American cable networks, which are outside the FCC's regulatory jurisdiction and whose censorship of vulgar dialogue is at the discretion of the cable operators.Since that episode, the word (as well as many on-screen depictions of feces, as well as defecation) has become a mainstay of South Park. Various episodes also feature a character, Mr. Hankey, who is a sentient turd. Other Comedy Central series, along with programming on other cable networks including FX, TBS, and as of March 2014, Adult Swim, also regularly employ the word shit. Episodes of Graceland, on the USA Network, do also. Usage in radio United States Unlike satellite radio, American terrestrial radio stations must abide by FCC guidelines on obscenity to avoid punitive fines. These guidelines do not define exactly what constitutes obscenity, but it has been interpreted by some commissioners as including any form of words like shit and fuck, for whatever use.Despite this, the word has been featured in popular songs that have appeared on broadcast radio in cases where the usage of the word is not audibly clear to the casual listener, or on live television. For example: In the song "Man in the Box" by Alice in Chains, the line "Buried in my shit" was played unedited over most rock radio stations. The 1973 Pink Floyd song "Money" from the album The Dark Side of the Moon contains the line "Don't give me that do goody good bullshit", and has frequently been broadcast unedited on US radio. The 1980 hit album Hi Infidelity by REO Speedwagon contained the song "Tough Guys" which had the line "she thinks they're full of shit", that was played on broadcast radio. On 3 December 1994, Green Day performed "Geek Stink Breath", on Saturday Night Live, shit was not edited from tape delay live broadcast. The band did not appear on the show again until 9 April 2005.Some notable instances of censorship of the word from broadcast television and radio include: Steve Miller's "Jet Airliner". Although radio stations have sometimes played an unedited version containing the line "funky shit going down in the city." The song was also released with a "radio edit" version, replacing the "funky shit" with "funky kicks". Another version of "Jet Airliner" exists in which the word "shit" is faded out. Likewise, the Bob Dylan song "Hurricane" has a line about having no idea "what kind of shit was about to go down," and has a radio edit version without the word. Gwen Stefani's "Hollaback Girl" video had the original album's use of the word censored in its video. The music video title "...on the Radio (Remember the Days)" by Nelly Furtado replaced the original title "Shit on the Radio (Remember the Days)". This also happened to "That's That Shit" by Snoop Dogg featuring R. Kelly, which became "That's That". In Avril Lavigne's song "My Happy Ending", the Radio Disney edit of the song replaces "all the shit that you do" with "all the stuff that you do". Likewise, in the song "London Bridge" by the Black Eyed Peas member Fergie, the phrase "Oh Shit" is repeatedly used as a background line. A radio edit of this song replaced "Oh Shit" with "Oh Snap". Maroon 5's "Payphone" replaces the line "All these fairy tales are full of shit" with "All these fairy tales are full of it". Likewise, Icona Pop's "I Love It (I Don't Care)" uses "I threw your stuff into the bag ..." in place of "I threw your shit into the bag ..." Usage in campaigns Sanitation promotion Using the term "shit" (or other locally used crude words) – rather than feces or excreta – during campaigns and triggering events is a deliberate aspect of the community-led total sanitation approach which aims to stop open defecation, a massive public health problem in developing countries. See also Artist's Shit Bowel movement Outhouse also known as "shithouse" Profanity
JavaScript (), often abbreviated as JS, is a programming language that is one of the core technologies of the World Wide Web, alongside HTML and CSS. As of 2023, 98.7% of websites use JavaScript on the client side for webpage behavior, often incorporating third-party libraries. All major web browsers have a dedicated JavaScript engine to execute the code on users' devices. JavaScript is a high-level, often just-in-time compiled language that conforms to the ECMAScript standard. It has dynamic typing, prototype-based object-orientation, and first-class functions. It is multi-paradigm, supporting event-driven, functional, and imperative programming styles. It has application programming interfaces (APIs) for working with text, dates, regular expressions, standard data structures, and the Document Object Model (DOM). The ECMAScript standard does not include any input/output (I/O), such as networking, storage, or graphics facilities. In practice, the web browser or other runtime system provides JavaScript APIs for I/O. JavaScript engines were originally used only in web browsers, but are now core components of some servers and a variety of applications. The most popular runtime system for this usage is Node.js. Although Java and JavaScript are similar in name, syntax, and respective standard libraries, the two languages are distinct and differ greatly in design. History Creation at Netscape The first popular web browser with a graphical user interface, Mosaic, was released in 1993. Accessible to non-technical people, it played a prominent role in the rapid growth of the nascent World Wide Web. The lead developers of Mosaic then founded the Netscape corporation, which released a more polished browser, Netscape Navigator, in 1994. This quickly became the most-used.During these formative years of the Web, web pages could only be static, lacking the capability for dynamic behavior after the page was loaded in the browser. There was a desire in the flourishing web development scene to remove this limitation, so in 1995, Netscape decided to add a scripting language to Navigator. They pursued two routes to achieve this: collaborating with Sun Microsystems to embed the Java programming language, while also hiring Brendan Eich to embed the Scheme language.Netscape management soon decided that the best option was for Eich to devise a new language, with syntax similar to Java and less like Scheme or other extant scripting languages. Although the new language and its interpreter implementation were called LiveScript when first shipped as part of a Navigator beta in September 1995, the name was changed to JavaScript for the official release in December.The choice of the JavaScript name has caused confusion, implying that it is directly related to Java. At the time, the dot-com boom had begun and Java was the hot new language, so Eich considered the JavaScript name a marketing ploy by Netscape. Adoption by Microsoft Microsoft debuted Internet Explorer in 1995, leading to a browser war with Netscape. On the JavaScript front, Microsoft reverse-engineered the Navigator interpreter to create its own, called JScript.JScript was first released in 1996, alongside initial support for CSS and extensions to HTML. Each of these implementations was noticeably different from their counterparts in Navigator. These differences made it difficult for developers to make their websites work well in both browsers, leading to widespread use of "best viewed in Netscape" and "best viewed in Internet Explorer" logos for several years. The rise of JScript In November 1996, Netscape submitted JavaScript to Ecma International, as the starting point for a standard specification that all browser vendors could conform to. This led to the official release of the first ECMAScript language specification in June 1997. The standards process continued for a few years, with the release of ECMAScript 2 in June 1998 and ECMAScript 3 in December 1999. Work on ECMAScript 4 began in 2000.Meanwhile, Microsoft gained an increasingly dominant position in the browser market. By the early 2000s, Internet Explorer's market share reached 95%. This meant that JScript became the de facto standard for client-side scripting on the Web. Microsoft initially participated in the standards process and implemented some proposals in its JScript language, but eventually it stopped collaborating on Ecma work. Thus ECMAScript 4 was mothballed. Growth and standardization During the period of Internet Explorer dominance in the early 2000s, client-side scripting was stagnant. This started to change in 2004, when the successor of Netscape, Mozilla, released the Firefox browser. Firefox was well received by many, taking significant market share from Internet Explorer.In 2005, Mozilla joined ECMA International, and work started on the ECMAScript for XML (E4X) standard. This led to Mozilla working jointly with Macromedia (later acquired by Adobe Systems), who were implementing E4X in their ActionScript 3 language, which was based on an ECMAScript 4 draft. The goal became standardizing ActionScript 3 as the new ECMAScript 4. To this end, Adobe Systems released the Tamarin implementation as an open source project. However, Tamarin and ActionScript 3 were too different from established client-side scripting, and without cooperation from Microsoft, ECMAScript 4 never reached fruition. Meanwhile, very important developments were occurring in open-source communities not affiliated with ECMA work. In 2005, Jesse James Garrett released a white paper in which he coined the term Ajax and described a set of technologies, of which JavaScript was the backbone, to create web applications where data can be loaded in the background, avoiding the need for full page reloads. This sparked a renaissance period of JavaScript, spearheaded by open-source libraries and the communities that formed around them. Many new libraries were created, including jQuery, Prototype, Dojo Toolkit, and MooTools. Google debuted its Chrome browser in 2008, with the V8 JavaScript engine that was faster than its competition. The key innovation was just-in-time compilation (JIT), so other browser vendors needed to overhaul their engines for JIT.In July 2008, these disparate parties came together for a conference in Oslo. This led to the eventual agreement in early 2009 to combine all relevant work and drive the language forward. The result was the ECMAScript 5 standard, released in December 2009. Reaching maturity Ambitious work on the language continued for several years, culminating in an extensive collection of additions and refinements being formalized with the publication of ECMAScript 6 in 2015.The creation of Node.js in 2009 by Ryan Dahl sparked a significant increase in the usage of JavaScript outside of web browsers. Node combines the V8 engine, an event loop, and I/O APIs, thereby providing a stand-alone JavaScript runtime system. As of 2018, Node had been used by millions of developers, and npm had the most modules of any package manager in the world.The ECMAScript draft specification is currently maintained openly on GitHub, and editions are produced via regular annual snapshots. Potential revisions to the language are vetted through a comprehensive proposal process. Now, instead of edition numbers, developers check the status of upcoming features individually.The current JavaScript ecosystem has many libraries and frameworks, established programming practices, and substantial usage of JavaScript outside of web browsers. Plus, with the rise of single-page applications and other JavaScript-heavy websites, several transpilers have been created to aid the development process. Trademark "JavaScript" is a trademark of Oracle Corporation in the United States. The trademark was originally issued to Sun Microsystems on 6 May 1997, and was transferred to Oracle when they acquired Sun in 2009. Website client-side usage JavaScript is the dominant client-side scripting language of the Web, with 98% of all websites (mid–2022) using it for this purpose. Scripts are embedded in or included from HTML documents and interact with the DOM. All major web browsers have a built-in JavaScript engine that executes the code on the user's device. Examples of scripted behavior Loading new web page content without reloading the page, via Ajax or a WebSocket. For example, users of social media can send and receive messages without leaving the current page. Web page animations, such as fading objects in and out, resizing, and moving them. Playing browser games. Controlling the playback of streaming media. Generating pop-up ads or alert boxes. Validating input values of a web form before the data is sent to a web server. Logging data about the user's behavior then sending it to a server. The website owner can use this data for analytics, ad tracking, and personalization. Redirecting a user to another page. Storing and retrieving data on the user's device, via the storage or IndexedDB standards. Web libraries and frameworks Over 80% of websites use a third-party JavaScript library or web framework for their client-side scripting. jQuery jQuery is by far the most popular client-side library, used by over 75% of websites. React Angular Vanilla JS In contrast, the term "Vanilla JS" has been coined for websites not using any libraries or frameworks, instead relying entirely on standard JavaScript functionality. Other usage The use of JavaScript has expanded beyond its web browser roots. JavaScript engines are now embedded in a variety of other software systems, both for server-side website deployments and non-browser applications. Initial attempts at promoting server-side JavaScript usage were Netscape Enterprise Server and Microsoft's Internet Information Services, but they were small niches. Server-side usage eventually started to grow in the late 2000s, with the creation of Node.js and other approaches.Electron, Cordova, React Native, and other application frameworks have been used to create many applications with behavior implemented in JavaScript. Other non-browser applications include Adobe Acrobat support for scripting PDF documents and GNOME Shell extensions written in JavaScript.JavaScript has recently begun to appear in some embedded systems, usually by leveraging Node.js. Execution system Just-in-time compilation JavaScript engine Run-time environment JavaScript typically relies on a run-time environment (e.g., a web browser) to provide objects and methods by which scripts can interact with the environment (e.g., a web page DOM). These environments are single-threaded. JavaScript also relies on the run-time environment to provide the ability to include/import scripts (e.g., HTML <script> elements). This is not a language feature per se, but it is common in most JavaScript implementations. JavaScript processes messages from a queue one at a time. JavaScript calls a function associated with each new message, creating a call stack frame with the function's arguments and local variables. The call stack shrinks and grows based on the function's needs. When the call stack is empty upon function completion, JavaScript proceeds to the next message in the queue. This is called the event loop, described as "run to completion" because each message is fully processed before the next message is considered. However, the language's concurrency model describes the event loop as non-blocking: program input/output is performed using events and callback functions. This means, for instance, that JavaScript can process a mouse click while waiting for a database query to return information. Examples Node.js Deno Features The following features are common to all conforming ECMAScript implementations unless explicitly specified otherwise. Imperative and structured JavaScript supports much of the structured programming syntax from C (e.g., if statements, while loops, switch statements, do while loops, etc.). One partial exception is scoping: originally JavaScript only had function scoping with var; block scoping was added in ECMAScript 2015 with the keywords let and const. Like C, JavaScript makes a distinction between expressions and statements. One syntactic difference from C is automatic semicolon insertion, which allow semicolons (which terminate statements) to be omitted. Weakly typed JavaScript is weakly typed, which means certain types are implicitly cast depending on the operation used. The binary + operator casts both operands to a string unless both operands are numbers. This is because the addition operator doubles as a concatenation operator The binary - operator always casts both operands to a number Both unary operators (+, -) always cast the operand to a numberValues are cast to strings like the following: Strings are left as-is Numbers are converted to their string representation Arrays have their elements cast to strings after which they are joined by commas (,) Other objects are converted to the string [object Object] where Object is the name of the constructor of the objectValues are cast to numbers by casting to strings and then casting the strings to numbers. These processes can be modified by defining toString and valueOf functions on the prototype for string and number casting respectively. JavaScript has received criticism for the way it implements these conversions as the complexity of the rules can be mistaken for inconsistency. For example, when adding a number to a string, the number will be cast to a string before performing concatenation, but when subtracting a number from a string, the string is cast to a number before performing subtraction. Often also mentioned is {} + [] resulting in 0 (number). This is misleading: the {} is interpreted as an empty code block instead of an empty object, and the empty array is cast to a number by the remaining unary + operator. If you wrap the expression in parentheses ({} + []) the curly brackets are interpreted as an empty object and the result of the expression is "[object Object]" as expected. Dynamic Typing JavaScript is dynamically typed like most other scripting languages. A type is associated with a value rather than an expression. For example, a variable initially bound to a number may be reassigned to a string. JavaScript supports various ways to test the type of objects, including duck typing. Run-time evaluation JavaScript includes an eval function that can execute statements provided as strings at run-time. Object-orientation (prototype-based) Prototypal inheritance in JavaScript is described by Douglas Crockford as: You make prototype objects, and then ... make new instances. Objects are mutable in JavaScript, so we can augment the new instances, giving them new fields and methods. These can then act as prototypes for even newer objects. We don't need classes to make lots of similar objects... Objects inherit from objects. What could be more object oriented than that? In JavaScript, an object is an associative array, augmented with a prototype (see below); each key provides the name for an object property, and there are two syntactical ways to specify such a name: dot notation (obj.x = 10) and bracket notation (obj['x'] = 10). A property may be added, rebound, or deleted at run-time. Most properties of an object (and any property that belongs to an object's prototype inheritance chain) can be enumerated using a for...in loop. Prototypes JavaScript uses prototypes where many other object-oriented languages use classes for inheritance. It is possible to simulate many class-based features with prototypes in JavaScript. Functions as object constructors Functions double as object constructors, along with their typical role. Prefixing a function call with new will create an instance of a prototype, inheriting properties and methods from the constructor (including properties from the Object prototype). ECMAScript 5 offers the Object.create method, allowing explicit creation of an instance without automatically inheriting from the Object prototype (older environments can assign the prototype to null). The constructor's prototype property determines the object used for the new object's internal prototype. New methods can be added by modifying the prototype of the function used as a constructor. JavaScript's built-in constructors, such as Array or Object, also have prototypes that can be modified. While it is possible to modify the Object prototype, it is generally considered bad practice because most objects in JavaScript will inherit methods and properties from the Object prototype, and they may not expect the prototype to be modified. Functions as methods Unlike many object-oriented languages, there is no distinction between a function definition and a method definition. Rather, the distinction occurs during function calling. When a function is called as a method of an object, the function's local this keyword is bound to that object for that invocation. Functional JavaScript functions are first-class; a function is considered to be an object. As such, a function may have properties and methods, such as .call() and .bind(). Lexical closure A nested function is a function defined within another function. It is created each time the outer function is invoked. In addition, each nested function forms a lexical closure: the lexical scope of the outer function (including any constant, local variable, or argument value) becomes part of the internal state of each inner function object, even after execution of the outer function concludes. Anonymous function JavaScript also supports anonymous functions. Delegative JavaScript supports implicit and explicit delegation. Functions as roles (Traits and Mixins) JavaScript natively supports various function-based implementations of Role patterns like Traits and Mixins. Such a function defines additional behavior by at least one method bound to the this keyword within its function body. A Role then has to be delegated explicitly via call or apply to objects that need to feature additional behavior that is not shared via the prototype chain. Object composition and inheritance Whereas explicit function-based delegation does cover composition in JavaScript, implicit delegation already happens every time the prototype chain is walked in order to, e.g., find a method that might be related to but is not directly owned by an object. Once the method is found it gets called within this object's context. Thus inheritance in JavaScript is covered by a delegation automatism that is bound to the prototype property of constructor functions. Miscellaneous Zero-based numbering JavaScript is a zero-index language. Variadic functions An indefinite number of parameters can be passed to a function. The function can access them through formal parameters and also through the local arguments object. Variadic functions can also be created by using the bind method. Array and object literals Like many scripting languages, arrays and objects (associative arrays in other languages) can each be created with a succinct shortcut syntax. In fact, these literals form the basis of the JSON data format. Regular expressions JavaScript also supports regular expressions in a manner similar to Perl, which provide a concise and powerful syntax for text manipulation that is more sophisticated than the built-in string functions. Promises and Async/await JavaScript supports promises and Async/await for handling asynchronous operations. Promises A built-in Promise object provides functionality for handling promises and associating handlers with an asynchronous action's eventual result. Recently, combinator methods were introduced in the JavaScript specification, which allows developers to combine multiple JavaScript promises and do operations based on different scenarios. The methods introduced are: Promise.race, Promise.all, Promise.allSettled and Promise.any. Async/await Async/await allows an asynchronous, non-blocking function to be structured in a way similar to an ordinary synchronous function. Asynchronous, non-blocking code can be written, with minimal overhead, structured similar to traditional synchronous, blocking code. Vendor-specific extensions Historically, some JavaScript engines supported these non-standard features: conditional catch clauses (like Java) array comprehensions and generator expressions (like Python) concise function expressions (function(args) expr; this experimental syntax predated arrow functions) ECMAScript for XML (E4X), an extension that adds native XML support to ECMAScript (unsupported in Firefox since version 21) Syntax Simple examples Variables in JavaScript can be defined using either the var, let or const keywords. Variables defined without keywords will be defined at the global scope. Note the comments in the example above, all of which were preceded with two forward slashes. There is no built-in Input/output functionality in JavaScript, instead it is provided by the run-time environment. The ECMAScript specification in edition 5.1 mentions that "there are no provisions in this specification for input of external data or output of computed results". However, most runtime environments have a console object that can be used to print output. Here is a minimalist Hello World program in JavaScript in a runtime environment with a console object: In HTML documents, a program like this is required for an output: A simple recursive function to calculate the factorial of a natural number: An anonymous function (or lambda): This example shows that, in JavaScript, function closures capture their non-local variables by reference. Arrow functions were first introduced in 6th Edition - ECMAScript 2015. They shorten the syntax for writing functions in JavaScript. Arrow functions are anonymous, so a variable is needed to refer to them in order to invoke them after their creation, unless surrounded by parenthesis and executed immediately. Example of arrow function: In JavaScript, objects can be created as instances of a class. Object class example: In JavaScript, objects can be instantiated directly from a function. Object functional example: Variadic function demonstration (arguments is a special variable): Immediately-invoked function expressions are often used to create closures. Closures allow gathering properties and methods in a namespace and making some of them private: Generator objects (in the form of generator functions) provide a function which can be called, exited, and re-entered while maintaining internal context (statefulness). JavaScript can export and import from modules:Export example: Import example: More advanced example This sample code displays various JavaScript features. The following output should be displayed in the browser window. Security JavaScript and the DOM provide the potential for malicious authors to deliver scripts to run on a client computer via the Web. Browser authors minimize this risk using two restrictions. First, scripts run in a sandbox in which they can only perform Web-related actions, not general-purpose programming tasks like creating files. Second, scripts are constrained by the same-origin policy: scripts from one Website do not have access to information such as usernames, passwords, or cookies sent to another site. Most JavaScript-related security bugs are breaches of either the same origin policy or the sandbox. There are subsets of general JavaScript—ADsafe, Secure ECMAScript (SES)—that provide greater levels of security, especially on code created by third parties (such as advertisements). Closure Toolkit is another project for safe embedding and isolation of third-party JavaScript and HTML.Content Security Policy is the main intended method of ensuring that only trusted code is executed on a Web page. Cross-site vulnerabilities Cross-site scripting A common JavaScript-related security problem is cross-site scripting (XSS), a violation of the same-origin policy. XSS vulnerabilities occur when an attacker can cause a target Website, such as an online banking website, to include a malicious script in the webpage presented to a victim. The script in this example can then access the banking application with the privileges of the victim, potentially disclosing secret information or transferring money without the victim's authorization. A solution to XSS vulnerabilities is to use HTML escaping whenever displaying untrusted data. Some browsers include partial protection against reflected XSS attacks, in which the attacker provides a URL including malicious script. However, even users of those browsers are vulnerable to other XSS attacks, such as those where the malicious code is stored in a database. Only correct design of Web applications on the server-side can fully prevent XSS. XSS vulnerabilities can also occur because of implementation mistakes by browser authors. Cross-site request forgery Another cross-site vulnerability is cross-site request forgery (CSRF). In CSRF, code on an attacker's site tricks the victim's browser into taking actions the user did not intend at a target site (like transferring money at a bank). When target sites rely solely on cookies for request authentication, requests originating from code on the attacker's site can carry the same valid login credentials of the initiating user. In general, the solution to CSRF is to require an authentication value in a hidden form field, and not only in the cookies, to authenticate any request that might have lasting effects. Checking the HTTP Referrer header can also help. "JavaScript hijacking" is a type of CSRF attack in which a <script> tag on an attacker's site exploits a page on the victim's site that returns private information such as JSON or JavaScript. Possible solutions include: requiring an authentication token in the POST and GET parameters for any response that returns private information. Misplaced trust in the client Developers of client-server applications must recognize that untrusted clients may be under the control of attackers. The application author cannot assume that their JavaScript code will run as intended (or at all) because any secret embedded in the code could be extracted by a determined adversary. Some implications are: Website authors cannot perfectly conceal how their JavaScript operates because the raw source code must be sent to the client. The code can be obfuscated, but obfuscation can be reverse-engineered. JavaScript form validation only provides convenience for users, not security. If a site verifies that the user agreed to its terms of service, or filters invalid characters out of fields that should only contain numbers, it must do so on the server, not only the client. Scripts can be selectively disabled, so JavaScript cannot be relied on to prevent operations such as right-clicking on an image to save it. It is considered very bad practice to embed sensitive information such as passwords in JavaScript because it can be extracted by an attacker. Misplaced trust in developers Package management systems such as npm and Bower are popular with JavaScript developers. Such systems allow a developer to easily manage their program's dependencies upon other developers' program libraries. Developers trust that the maintainers of the libraries will keep them secure and up to date, but that is not always the case. A vulnerability has emerged because of this blind trust. Relied-upon libraries can have new releases that cause bugs or vulnerabilities to appear in all programs that rely upon the libraries. Inversely, a library can go unpatched with known vulnerabilities out in the wild. In a study done looking over a sample of 133,000 websites, researchers found 37% of the websites included a library with at least one known vulnerability. "The median lag between the oldest library version used on each website and the newest available version of that library is 1,177 days in ALEXA, and development of some libraries still in active use ceased years ago." Another possibility is that the maintainer of a library may remove the library entirely. This occurred in March 2016 when Azer Koçulu removed his repository from npm. This caused tens of thousands of programs and websites depending upon his libraries to break. Browser and plugin coding errors JavaScript provides an interface to a wide range of browser capabilities, some of which may have flaws such as buffer overflows. These flaws can allow attackers to write scripts that would run any code they wish on the user's system. This code is not by any means limited to another JavaScript application. For example, a buffer overrun exploit can allow an attacker to gain access to the operating system's API with superuser privileges. These flaws have affected major browsers including Firefox, Internet Explorer, and Safari.Plugins, such as video players, Adobe Flash, and the wide range of ActiveX controls enabled by default in Microsoft Internet Explorer, may also have flaws exploitable via JavaScript (such flaws have been exploited in the past).In Windows Vista, Microsoft has attempted to contain the risks of bugs such as buffer overflows by running the Internet Explorer process with limited privileges. Google Chrome similarly confines its page renderers to their own "sandbox". Sandbox implementation errors Web browsers are capable of running JavaScript outside the sandbox, with the privileges necessary to, for example, create or delete files. Such privileges are not intended to be granted to code from the Web. Incorrectly granting privileges to JavaScript from the Web has played a role in vulnerabilities in both Internet Explorer and Firefox. In Windows XP Service Pack 2, Microsoft demoted JScript's privileges in Internet Explorer.Microsoft Windows allows JavaScript source files on a computer's hard drive to be launched as general-purpose, non-sandboxed programs (see: Windows Script Host). This makes JavaScript (like VBScript) a theoretically viable vector for a Trojan horse, although JavaScript Trojan horses are uncommon in practice. Hardware vulnerabilities In 2015, a JavaScript-based proof-of-concept implementation of a rowhammer attack was described in a paper by security researchers.In 2017, a JavaScript-based attack via browser was demonstrated that could bypass ASLR. It is called "ASLR⊕Cache" or AnC.In 2018, the paper that announced the Spectre attacks against Speculative Execution in Intel and other processors included a JavaScript implementation. Development tools Important tools have evolved with the language. Every major web browser has built-in web development tools, including a JavaScript debugger. Static program analysis tools, such as ESLint and JSLint, scan JavaScript code for conformance to a set of standards and guidelines. Some browsers have built-in profilers. Stand-alone profiling libraries have also been created, such as benchmark.js and jsbench. Many text editors have syntax highlighting support for JavaScript code. Static program analysis ESLint JSLint Related technologies Java A common misconception is that JavaScript is the same as Java. Both indeed have a C-like syntax (the C language being their most immediate common ancestor language). They are also typically sandboxed (when used inside a browser), and JavaScript was designed with Java's syntax and standard library in mind. In particular, all Java keywords were reserved in original JavaScript, JavaScript's standard library follows Java's naming conventions, and JavaScript's Math and Date objects are based on classes from Java 1.0.Java and JavaScript both first appeared in 1995, but Java was developed by James Gosling of Sun Microsystems and JavaScript by Brendan Eich of Netscape Communications. The differences between the two languages are more prominent than their similarities. Java has static typing, while JavaScript's typing is dynamic. Java is loaded from compiled bytecode, while JavaScript is loaded as human-readable source code. Java's objects are class-based, while JavaScript's are prototype-based. Finally, Java did not support functional programming until Java 8, while JavaScript has done so from the beginning, being influenced by Scheme. JSON TypeScript TypeScript (TS) is a strictly-typed variant of JavaScript. TS differs by introducing type annotations to variables and functions, and introducing a type language to describe the types within JS. Otherwise TS shares much the same featureset as JS, to allow it to be easily transpiled to JS for running client-side, and to interoperate with other JS code. WebAssembly Since 2017, web browsers have supported WebAssembly, a binary format that enables a JavaScript engine to execute performance-critical portions of web page scripts close to native speed. WebAssembly code runs in the same sandbox as regular JavaScript code. asm.js is a subset of JavaScript that served as the forerunner of WebAssembly. Transpilers JavaScript is the dominant client-side language of the Web, and many websites are script-heavy. Thus transpilers have been created to convert code written in other languages, which can aid the development process. Ajax Dere, Mohan (2017-12-21). "How to integrate create-react-app with all the libraries you need to make a great app". freeCodeCamp. Retrieved 2018-06-14. Panchal, Krunal (2022-04-26). "Angular vs React Detailed Comparison". Groovy Web. Retrieved 2023-06-05. Further reading Flanagan, David. JavaScript: The Definitive Guide. 7th edition. Sebastopol, California: O'Reilly, 2020. Haverbeke, Marijn. Eloquent JavaScript. 3rd edition. No Starch Press, 2018. 472 pages. ISBN 978-1593279509.(download) Zakas, Nicholas. Principles of Object-Oriented JavaScript, 1st edition. No Starch Press, 2014. 120 pages. ISBN 978-1593275402. JavaScript at Curlie "JavaScript: The First 20 Years". Retrieved 2022-02-06.
Google Earth is a computer program that renders a 3D representation of Earth based primarily on satellite imagery. The program maps the Earth by superimposing satellite images, aerial photography, and GIS data onto a 3D globe, allowing users to see cities and landscapes from various angles. Users can explore the globe by entering addresses and coordinates, or by using a keyboard or mouse. The program can also be downloaded on a smartphone or tablet, using a touch screen or stylus to navigate. Users may use the program to add their own data using Keyhole Markup Language and upload them through various sources, such as forums or blogs. Google Earth is able to show various kinds of images overlaid on the surface of the earth and is also a Web Map Service client. In 2019, Google revealed that Google Earth now covers more than 97 percent of the world, and has captured 10 million miles of Street View imagery.In addition to Earth navigation, Google Earth provides a series of other tools through the desktop application, including a measure distance tool. Additional globes for the Moon and Mars are available, as well as a tool for viewing the night sky. A flight simulator game is also included. Other features allow users to view photos from various places uploaded to Panoramio, information provided by Wikipedia on some locations, and Street View imagery. The web-based version of Google Earth also includes Voyager, a feature that periodically adds in-program tours, often presented by scientists and documentarians. Google Earth has been viewed by some as a threat to privacy and national security, leading to the program being banned in multiple countries. Some countries have requested that certain areas be obscured in Google's satellite images, usually areas containing military facilities. History The core technology behind Google Earth was originally developed at TerraVision in the late 1990s at Berlin, Germany. At the time, the company was developing 3D gaming software libraries. As a demo of their 3D software, they created a spinning globe that could be zoomed into, similar to the Powers of Ten film. The demo was popular, but the board of Intrinsic wanted to remain focused on gaming, so in 1999, they created Keyhole, Inc., headed by John Hanke. Keyhole then developed a way to stream large databases of mapping data over the internet to client software, a key part of the technology, and acquired patchworks of mapping data from governments and other sources. The product, called "Keyhole EarthViewer", was sold on CDs for use in fields such as real estate, urban planning, defense, and intelligence; users paid a yearly fee for the service. Despite making a number of capital deals with Nvidia and Sony, the small company was struggling to pay and retain employees.Fortunes for the company changed in early 2003 during the 2003 invasion of Iraq, when Dave Lorenzini (Director at Keyhole) enticed CNN, ABC, CBS and other major news networks to use their sophisticated 3D flyby imagery to illustrate Baghdad Activities, in exchange for on-air attribution. During the invasion, It was used extensively by Miles O'Brien and other on-air broadcasters, allowing CNN and millions of viewers to follow the progress of the war in a way that had never been seen before. Public interest in the software exploded and Keyhole servers were not able to keep up with demand. Keyhole was soon contacted by the Central Intelligence Agency's venture capital firm, In-Q-Tel, and the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, for use with defense mapping databases, which gave Keyhole a much-needed cash infusion. Intrinsic Graphics was sold in 2003 to Vicarious Visions after its gaming libraries did not sell well, and its core group of engineers and management including Brian McClendon and Michael Jones transitioned to Keyhole with Hanke remaining at the head.At the time, Google was finding that over 25% of its searches were of a geospatial character, including searches for maps and directions. In October 2004, Google acquired Keyhole as part of a strategy to better serve its users.In 2021, Google replaced its layers feature with a new one on its Google Earth software. This replacement consolidated some layers, but also removed some layers and features. Imagery Google Earth's imagery is displayed on a digital globe, which displays the planet's surface using a single composited image from a far distance. After zooming in far enough, the imagery transitions into different imagery of the same area with finer detail, which varies in date and time from one area to the next. The imagery is retrieved from satellites or aircraft. Before the launch of NASA and the USGS's Landsat 8 satellite, Google relied partially on imagery from Landsat 7, which suffered from a hardware malfunction that left diagonal gaps in images. In 2013, Google used datamining to remedy the issue, providing what was described as a successor to the Blue Marble image of Earth, with a single large image of the entire planet. This was achieved by combining multiple sets of imagery taken from Landsat 7 to eliminate clouds and diagonal gaps, creating a single "mosaic" image. Google now uses a myriad of sources to provide imagery in a higher quality and with greater frequency. Imagery is hosted on Google's servers, which are contacted by the application when opened, requiring an Internet connection. Imagery resolution ranges from 15 meters of resolution to 15 centimeters. For much of the Earth, Google Earth uses digital elevation model data collected by NASA's Shuttle Radar Topography Mission. This creates the impression of three-dimensional terrain, even where the imagery is only two-dimensional. Google asserts that every image created from Google Earth using satellite data provided by Google Earth is a copyrighted map. Any derivative from Google Earth is made from data on which Google claims copyright under United States Copyright Law. Google grants licenses in this data allowing, among other things, non-commercial personal use of the images (e.g., on a personal website or blog) as long as copyrights and attributions are preserved. By contrast, images created with NASA's globe software WorldWind use The Blue Marble, Landsat, or USGS imagery, each of which is in the public domain. In version 5.0, Google introduced Historical Imagery, allowing users to view earlier imagery. Clicking the clock icon in the toolbar opens a time slider, which marks the time of available imagery from the past. This feature allows for observation of an area's changes over time. Utilizing the timelapse feature allows for the ability to view a zoomable video as far back as 32 years. 3D imagery Google Earth shows 3D building models in some cities, including photorealistic 3D imagery made using photogrammetry. The first 3D buildings in Google Earth were created using 3D modeling applications such as SketchUp and, beginning in 2009, Building Maker, and were uploaded to Google Earth via the 3D Warehouse. In June 2012, Google announced that it would be replacing user-generated 3D buildings with an auto-generated 3D mesh. This would be phased in, starting with select larger cities, with the notable exception of cities such as London and Toronto which required more time to process detailed imagery of their vast number of buildings. The reason given is to have greater uniformity in 3D buildings and to compete with Nokia Here and Apple Maps, which were already using this technology. The coverage began that year in 21 cities in four countries. By early 2016, 3D imagery had been expanded to hundreds of cities in over 40 countries, including every U.S. state and encompassing every continent except Antarctica. In 2009, in a collaboration between Google and the Museo del Prado in Madrid, the museum selected 14 of its paintings to be photographed and displayed at the resolution of 14,000 megapixels inside the 3D version of the Prado in Google Earth and Google Maps. Street View On April 15, 2008, with version 4.3, Google fully integrated Street View into Google Earth. Street View displays 360° panoramic street-level photos of select cities and their surroundings. The photos were taken by cameras mounted on automobiles, can be viewed at different scales and from many angles, and are navigable by arrow icons imposed on them. Using Street View on Google Earth, users can visit and explore 30 UNESCO World Heritage Sites with historical context and pins for each. The sites include the Great Pyramid, the Taj Mahal, Sagrada Família, the Dolomites, the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and the Great Sphinx.In 2019, Walt Disney World partnered with Google to create Pixar Street View. A unique activation that enabled viewers to search for hidden Pixar Easter eggs in Toy Story Land at Disney's Hollywood Studios through street view. This creative collaboration elevated Pixar's iconic tradition of hiding Easter eggs in films and introduced it to an immersive new platform. Water and ocean Introduced in Google Earth 5.0 in 2009, the Google Ocean feature allows users to zoom below the surface of the ocean and view the 3D bathymetry. Supporting over 20 content layers, it contains information from leading scientists and oceanographers. On April 14, 2009, Google added bathymetric data for the Great Lakes.In June 2011, Google increased the resolution of some deep ocean floor areas from 1-kilometer grids to 100 meters. The high-resolution features were developed by oceanographers at Columbia University's Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory from scientific data collected on research cruises. The sharper focus is available for about 5 percent of the oceans. This can be seen in the Hudson off New York City, the Wini Seamount near Hawaii, and the Mendocino Ridge off the U.S. Pacific coast. Outer space Google has programs and features, including within Google Earth, allowing exploration of Mars, the Moon, the view of the sky from Earth and outer space, including the surfaces of various objects in the Solar System. Google Sky Google Sky is a feature that was introduced in Google Earth 4.2 on August 22, 2007, in a browser-based application on March 13, 2008, and to Android smartphones, with augmented reality features. Google Sky allows users to view stars and other celestial bodies. It was produced by Google through a partnership with the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) in Baltimore, the science operations center for the Hubble Space Telescope. Dr. Alberto Conti and his co-developer Dr. Carol Christian of STScI planned to add the public images from 2007, as well as color images of all of the archived data from Hubble's Advanced Camera for Surveys. Then-newly released Hubble pictures were added to the Google Sky program as soon as they were issued. New features such as multi-wavelength data, positions of major satellites and their orbits as well as educational resources are provided to the Google Earth community and also through Christian and Conti's website for Sky. Also visible on Sky mode are constellations, stars, galaxies, and animations depicting the planets in their orbits. A real-time Google Sky mashup of recent astronomical transients, using the VOEvent protocol, is provided by the VOEventNet collaboration. Other programs similar to Google Sky include Microsoft WorldWide Telescope and Stellarium. Google Mars Google Mars is an application within Google Earth that is a version of the program for imagery of the planet Mars. Google also operates a browser-based version, although the maps are of a much higher resolution within Google Earth, and include 3D terrain, as well as infrared imagery and elevation data. There are also some extremely high-resolution images from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter's HiRISE camera that are of a similar resolution to those of the cities on Earth. Finally, there are many high-resolution panoramic images from various Mars landers, such as the Mars Exploration Rovers, Spirit and Opportunity, that can be viewed in a similar way to Google Street View. Mars also has a small application found near the face on Mars. It is called Meliza, a robot character the user can speak with. Google Moon Originally a browser application, Google Moon is a feature that allows exploration of the Moon. Google brought the feature to Google Earth for the 40th anniversary of the Apollo 11 mission on July 20, 2009. It was announced and demonstrated to a group of invited guests by Google along with Buzz Aldrin at the Newseum in Washington, D.C. Google Moon includes several tours, including one for the Apollo missions, incorporating maps, videos, and Street View-style panoramas, all provided by NASA. Other features Google Earth has numerous features that allow the user to learn about specific places. These are called "layers", and include different forms of media, including photo and video. Some layers include tours, which guide the user between specific places in a set order. Layers are created using the Keyhole Markup Language, or KML, which users can also use to create customized layers. Locations can be marked with placemarks and organized in folders; For example, a user can use placemarks to list interesting landmarks around the globe, then provide a description with photos and videos, which can be viewed by clicking on the placemarks while viewing the new layer in the application. In December 2006, Google Earth added a new integration with Wikipedia and Panoramio. For the Wikipedia layer, entries are scraped for coordinates via the Coord templates. There is also a community layer from the project Wikipedia-World. More coordinates are used, different types are in the display, and different languages are supported than the built-in Wikipedia layer. The Panoramio layer features pictures uploaded by Panoramio users, placed in Google Earth based on user-provided location data. In addition to flat images, Google Earth also includes a layer for user-submitted panoramic photos, navigable in a similar way to Street View. Google Earth includes multiple features that allow the user to monitor current events. In 2007, Google began offering users the ability to monitor traffic data provided by Google Traffic in real-time, based on information crowdsourced from the GPS-identified locations of cell phone users. Flight simulators In Google Earth 4.2, a flight simulator was added to the application. It was originally a hidden feature when introduced in 2007, but starting with 4.3, it was given a labeled option in the menu. In addition to keyboard control, the simulator can be controlled with a mouse or joystick. The simulator also runs with animation, allowing objects such as planes to animate while on the simulator.Another flight simulator, GeoFS, was created under the name GEFS-Online using the Google Earth Plug-in API to operate within a web browser. As of September 1, 2015, the program now uses the open-source program CesiumJS, due to the Google Earth Plug-in being discontinued. Liquid Galaxy Liquid Galaxy is a cluster of computers running Google Earth creating an immersive experience. On September 30, 2010, Google made the configuration and schematics for their rigs public, placing code and setup guides on the Liquid Galaxy wiki. Liquid Galaxy has also been used as a panoramic photo viewer using KRpano, as well as a Google Street View viewer using Peruse-a-Rue Peruse-a-Rue is a method for synchronizing multiple Maps API clients. Versions Google Earth has been released on macOS, Linux, iOS, and Android. The Linux version began with the version 4 beta of Google Earth, as a native port using the Qt toolkit. The Free Software Foundation considers the development of a free compatible client for Google Earth to be a High Priority Free Software Project. Google Earth was released for Android on February 22, 2010, and on iOS on October 27, 2008. The mobile versions of Google Earth can make use of multi-touch interfaces to move on the globe, zoom or rotate the view, and allow to select the current location. An automotive version of Google Earth was made available in the 2010 Audi A8. On February 27, 2020, Google opened up its web-based version of Earth to browsers like Firefox, Edge, and Opera. Google Earth Pro Google Earth Pro was originally the business-oriented upgrade to Google Earth, with features such as a movie maker and data importer. Up until late January 2015, it was available for $399/year, though Google decided to make it free to the public. Google Earth Pro is currently the standard version of the Google Earth desktop application as of version 7.3. The Pro version includes add-on software for movie making, advanced printing, and precise measurements, and is currently available for Windows, macOS, and Linux. Google Earth Plus Discontinued in December 2008, Google Earth Plus was a paid subscription upgrade to Google Earth that provided customers with the following features, most of which have become available in the free Google Earth. One such feature was GPS integration, which allowed users to read tracks and waypoints from a GPS device. A variety of third-party applications have been created which provide this functionality using the basic version of Google Earth by generating KML or KMZ files based on user-specified or user-recorded waypoints. Google Earth Enterprise Google Earth Enterprise is designed for use by organizations whose businesses could take advantage of the program's capabilities, for example by having a globe that holds company data available for anyone in that company. As of March 20, 2015, Google has retired the Google Earth Enterprise product, with support ended on March 22, 2017. Google Earth Enterprise allowed developers to create maps and 3D globes for private use, and host them through the platform. GEE Fusion, GEE Server, and GEE Portable Server source code was published on GitHub under the Apache2 license in March 2017. Google Earth Studio Google Earth Studio is a web-based version of Google Earth used for animations using Google Earth's 3D imagery. As of June 2021, it is preview-only and requires signing up to use it. It features keyframe animation, presets called "Quick-Start Projects", and 3D camera export. Google Earth 9 Google Earth 9 is a version of Google Earth first released on April 18, 2017, having been in development for two years. The main feature of this version was the launching of a new web version of Google Earth. This version added the "Voyager" feature, whereby users can view a portal page containing guided tours led by scientists and documentarians. The version also added an "I'm Feeling Lucky" button, represented by a die, which takes the user to a random location on Earth along with showing them a "Knowledge Card" containing a short excerpt from the location's Wikipedia article. Google Earth Plug-in The Google Earth API was a free beta service, allowing users to place a version of Google Earth into web pages. The API enabled sophisticated 3D map applications to be built. At its unveiling at Google's 2008 I/O developer conference, the company showcased potential applications such as a game where the player controlled a milktruck atop a Google Earth surface. The Google Earth API has been deprecated as of December 15, 2014, and remained supported until December 15, 2015. Google Chrome ended support for the Netscape Plugin API (which the Google Earth API relies on) by the end of 2016. Google Earth VR On November 16, 2016, Google released a virtual reality version of Google Earth for Valve's Steam computer gaming platform. Google Earth VR allows users to navigate using VR controllers, and is currently compatible with the Oculus Rift and HTC Vive virtual reality headsets. On September 14, 2017, as part of Google Earth VR's 1.4 update, Google added Street View support. Google Earth Outreach Google Earth Outreach is a charity program, through which Google promotes and donates to various non-profit organizations. Beginning in 2007, donations are often accompanied by layers featured in Google Earth, allowing users to view a non-profit's projects and goals by navigating to certain related locations. Google Earth Outreach offers online training on using Google Earth and Google Maps for public education on issues affecting local regions or the entire globe. In June 2008, training was given to 20 indigenous tribes in the Amazon rainforest, such as the Suruí, to help them preserve their culture and raise awareness for the problem of deforestation.Non-profit organizations featured in Google Earth via the Outreach program include Arkive, the Global Heritage Fund, WaterAid, and the World Wide Fund for Nature. Google Earth Engine Google Earth Engine is a cloud computing platform for processing satellite imagery and other geospatial and observation data. It provides access to a large database of satellite imagery and the computational power needed to analyze those images. Google Earth Engine allows observation of dynamic changes in agriculture, natural resources, and climate using geospatial data from the Landsat satellite program, which passes over the same places on the Earth every sixteen days. Google Earth Engine has become a platform that makes Landsat and Sentinel-2 data easily accessible to researchers in collaboration with the Google Cloud Storage. Google Earth Engine provides a data catalog along with computers for analysis; this allows scientists to collaborate using data, algorithms, and visualizations. The platform provides Python and JavaScript application programming interfaces for making requests to the servers, and includes a graphical user interface for developing applications. An early prototype of Earth Engine, based on the Carnegie Institute for Science's CLASlite system and Imazon's Sistema de Alerta de Desmatamento (SAD) was demonstrated in 2009 at COP15, and Earth Engine was officially launched in 2010 at COP16, along with maps of the water in the Congo basin and forests in Mexico produced by researchers using the tool. In 2013, researchers from University of Maryland produced the first high-resolution global forest cover and loss maps using Earth Engine, reporting an overall loss in global forest cover. Other early applications using Earth Engine spanned a diverse variety of topics, including: Tiger Habitat Monitoring, Malaria Risk Mapping, Global Surface Water, increases in vegetation around Mount Everest, and the annual Forest Landscape Integrity Index. Since then, Earth Engine has been used in the production of hundreds of scientific journal articles in many fields including: forestry and agriculture, hydrology, natural disaster monitoring and assessment, urban mapping, atmospheric and climate sciences and soil mapping.Earth Engine has been free for academic and research purposes since its launch, but commercial use has been prohibited until 2021, when Google announced a preview of Earth Engine as a commercial cloud offering and early adopters that included Unilever, USDA and Climate Engine. Controversy and criticism The software has been criticized by a number of special interest groups, including national officials, as being an invasion of privacy or posing a threat to national security. The typical argument is that the software provides information about military or other critical installations that could be used by terrorists. Google Earth has been blocked by Google in Iran and Sudan since 2007, due to United States government export restrictions. The program has also been blocked in Morocco since 2006 by Maroc Telecom, a major service provider in the country. In the academic realm, increasing attention has been devoted to both Google Earth and its place in the development of digital globes. In particular, the International Journal of Digital Earth features multiple articles evaluating and comparing the development of Google Earth and its differences when compared to other professional, scientific, and governmental platforms. Google Earth's role in the expansion of "Earth observing media" has been examined to understand how it is shaping a shared cultural consciousness regarding climate change and humanity's capacity to treat the Earth as an engineerable object. Defense In 2006, one user spotted a large topographical replica in a remote region of China. The model is a small-scale (1/500) version of the Karakoram Mountain Range, which is under the control of China but claimed by India. When later confirmed as a replica of this region, spectators began entertaining military implications. In July 2007, it was reported that a new Chinese Navy Jin-class nuclear ballistic missile submarine was photographed at the Xiaopingdao Submarine Base south of Dalian. Hamas and the al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades have reportedly used Google Earth to plan Qassam rocket attacks on Israel from Gaza. (See: Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel) On February 13, 2019, 3D imagery was launched in four of Taiwan's cities: Taipei, New Taipei, Taoyuan, and Taichung. This has caused concerns from Taiwanese officials, such as Taiwan's Defense Minister Yen Teh-fa, saying that the 3D imagery exposed some of its Patriot missile sites. Ten days later on February 23, Google confirmed that it would be removing all of its 3D imagery from Taiwan. National security Former President of India A. P. J. Abdul Kalam expressed concern over the availability of high-resolution pictures of sensitive locations in India. Google subsequently agreed to censor such sites. The Indian Space Research Organisation said Google Earth poses a security threat to India and seeks dialogue with Google officials. The South Korean government expressed concern that the software offers images of the presidential palace and various military installations that could possibly be used by its hostile neighbor North Korea. In 2006, Google Earth began offering detailed images of classified areas in Israel. The images showed Israel Defense Forces bases, including secret Israeli Air Force facilities, Israel's Arrow missile defense system, military headquarters and Defense Ministry compound in Tel Aviv, a top-secret power station near Ashkelon, and the Negev Nuclear Research Center. Also shown was the alleged headquarters of Mossad, Israel's foreign intelligence service, whose location is highly classified. As a result of pressure from the United States government, the residence of the Vice President at Number One Observatory Circle was obscured through pixelization in Google Earth and Google Maps in 2006, but this restriction has since been lifted. The usefulness of this downgrade is questionable, as high-resolution photos and aerial surveys of the property are readily available on the Internet elsewhere. Capitol Hill also used to be pixelized in this way. The Royal Stables in The Hague, Netherlands, also used to be pixelized. This is also true for airports in Greece. The lone surviving gunman involved in the 2008 Mumbai attacks admitted to using Google Earth to familiarise himself with the locations of buildings used in the attacks. Michael Finton, aka Talib Islam, used Google Earth in planning his attempted September 24, 2009, bombing of the Paul Findley Federal Building and the adjacent offices of Congressman Aaron Schock in Springfield, Illinois. Other concerns Operators of the Lucas Heights nuclear reactor in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, asked Google to censor high-resolution pictures of the facility. They later withdrew the request. In 2009, Google superimposed old woodblock prints of maps from 18th- and 19th-century Japan over Japan today. These maps marked areas inhabited by the burakumin caste, formerly known as eta (穢多), literally "abundance of defilement", who were considered "non-humans" for their "dirty" occupations, including leather tanning and butchery. Descendants of members of the burakumin caste still face discrimination today and many Japanese people feared that some would use these areas, labeled etamura (穢多村 "eta village"), to target current inhabitants of them. These maps are still visible on Google Earth, but with the label removed where necessary. Late 2000s versions of Google Earth require a software component running in the background that will automatically download and install updates. Several users expressed concerns that there is not an easy way to disable this updater, as it runs without the permission of the user. In February 2014, the Berlin-based ART+COM charged that Google Earth products infringe U.S. Patent No. RE44,550, entitled "Method and Device for Pictorial Representation of Space-related Data" and had remarkable similarity to Terravision which was developed by ART+COM in 1993 and patented in 1995. The court decided against Art+Com both at trial and on appeal because trial testimony showed that Art+Com was aware of an existing, substantially similar invention that it failed to mention as "prior art" in its patent application, thereby invalidating their patent. Stephen Lau, a former employee of federally funded, not-for-profit Stanford Research Institute ("SRI") testified that he helped develop SRI Terravision, an earth visualization application, and that he wrote 89% of the code. He further testified that he shared and discussed SRI Terravision code with Art+Com. Both systems used a multi-resolution pyramid of imagery to let users zoom from high to low altitudes, and both were called Terravision. Art+Com agreed to rename their product because SRI's came first. Stephen Lau died from COVID-19 in March 2020. In popular culture Google Earth is featured prominently in the 2021 German miniseries The Billion Dollar Code, which serves as a fictionalized account of a 2014 patent infringement lawsuit brought against Google by the German creators of Terravision. The series, which was shown on Netflix is prefaced by an episode of interviews with the ART+COM developers of Terravision and their legal representative.One of the co-founders of Keyhole has published a first-hand account claiming to debunk the origins, timelines and interpretations depicted in the fictionalized miniseries. See also Elevation Flyover (Apple Maps), similar 3D feature on Apple Maps Space flight simulation game List of space flight simulation games Planetarium software List of observatory software Orthophotomap, the type of aerial and satellite imagery present in Google Earth Virtual globe, the category of software that includes Google Earth Web mapping Official website Official Google Maps and Earth blog Google Earth Outreach Map of 3D-imagery coverage in Google Earth
Socket 940 is a 940-pin socket for 64-bit AMD Opteron server processors and AMD Athlon 64 FX consumer processors. It was one of the first sockets designed for AMD's AMD64 range of processors. This socket is entirely square in shape and pins are arranged in a grid with the exception of four key pins used to align the processor and the corners. AMD's Opteron and the older AMD Athlon 64 FX (FX-51) use Socket 940. Technical specifications Microprocessors designed for this socket were intended to be used in a server platform, and as such provide additional features to provide additional robustness. One such feature is the acceptance of only registered memory.While the more recent 940-pin socket AM2 is visually similar to this one, the two are electrically incompatible due to the integrated memory controller. Socket 940 CPUs integrate a DDR controller, whereas AM2 models use a DDR2 controller. See also List of AMD microprocessors AMD Product Information AMD Technical Details for Athlon64 and Athlon FX AMD Socket 940 Design Specification (rev 3.03) AMD 940 Pin Package Functional Data Sheet (rev 3.05)
Phenomis the 64-bit AMD desktop processor line based on the K10 microarchitecture, in what AMD calls family 10h (10 hex, i.e. 16 in normal decimal numbers) processors, sometimes incorrectly called "K10h". Triple-core versions (codenamed Toliman) belong to the Phenom 8000 series and quad cores (codenamed Agena) to the AMD Phenom X4 9000 series. The first processor in the family was released in 2007. Background AMD considers the quad core Phenoms to be the first "true" quad core design, as these processors are a monolithic multi-core design (all cores on the same silicon die), unlike Intel's Core 2 Quad series which are a multi-chip module (MCM) design. The processors are on the Socket AM2+ platform.Before Phenom's original release a flaw was discovered in the translation lookaside buffer (TLB) that could cause a system lock-up in rare circumstances; Phenom processors up to and including stepping "B2" and "BA" are affected by this bug. BIOS and software workarounds disable the TLB, and typically incur a performance penalty of at least 10%. This penalty was not accounted for in pre-release previews of Phenom, hence the performance of early Phenoms delivered to customers may have been less than the preview benchmarks. "B3" stepping Phenom processors were released March 27, 2008 without the TLB bug and with "xx50" model numbers.An AMD subsidiary released a patch for the Linux kernel, to overcome this bug by software emulation of accessed- and dirty-bits. This method causes less performance loss than previous workarounds. The program was said in December 2007 to have received "minimal functional testing."AMD launched several models of the Phenom processor in 2007 and 2008 and an upgraded Phenom II in late 2008. Features Model naming methodology The model numbers of the Phenom line of processors were changed from the PR system used in its predecessors, the AMD Athlon 64 processor family. The Phenom model numbering scheme, for-later released Athlon X2 processors, is a four-digit model number whose first digit is a family indicator. Energy Efficient products end with an “e” suffix (for example, "Phenom 9350e"). Some Sempron processors use the prefix LE (for example, "Sempron LE-1200") Cores Phenom X4 Agena (65 nm SOI) Four AMD K10 cores L1 cache: 64 KB + 64 KB (data + instructions) per core L2 cache: 512 KB per core, full-speed L3 cache: 2 MB shared among all cores Memory controller: dual channel DDR2-1066 MHz with unganging option MMX, Extended 3DNow!, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSE4a, AMD64, Cool'n'Quiet, NX bit, AMD-V Socket AM2+, HyperTransport with 1600 to 2000 MHz Power consumption (TDP): 65, 95, 125 and 140 Watt First release November 19, 2007 (B2 Stepping) March 27, 2008 (B3 Stepping) Clock rate: 1800 to 2600 MHz Models: Phenom X4 9100e to 9950 Phenom X3 Toliman (65 nm SOI) Three AMD K10 cores chip harvested from Agena with one core disabled L1 cache: 64 KB data and 64 KB instruction cache per core L2 cache: 512 KB per core, full-speed L3 cache: 2 MB shared between all cores Memory controller: dual channel DDR2-1066 MHz with unganging option MMX, Extended 3DNow!, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSE4a, AMD64, Cool'n'Quiet, NX bit, AMD-V Socket AM2+, HyperTransport with 1600 to 1800 MHz Power consumption (TDP): 65 and 95 Watt First release March 27, 2008 (B2 Stepping) April 23, 2008 (B3 Stepping) Clock rate: 2100 to 2500 MHz Models: Phenom X3 8250e to 8850 See also List of AMD Phenom processors List of AMD Athlon X2 processors AMD K10 AMD Phenom Processor Family