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K-On! (Japanese: けいおん!, Hepburn: Keion!) is a Japanese four-panel manga series written and illustrated by Kakifly serialized in Houbunsha's Manga Time Kirara magazine between the May 2007 and October 2010 issues, and also serialized in Houbunsha's Manga Time Kirara Carat magazine. The manga relaunched from April 2011 to June 2012 with two separate storylines published in Manga Time Kirara and Manga Time Kirara Carat. The manga is licensed in North America by Yen Press. A spin-off manga about a different band of high school girls, K-On! Shuffle, began serialization in July 2018.
A 13-episode anime television series adaptation by Kyoto Animation aired in Japan between April and June 2009. An additional original video animation (OVA) episode was released in January 2010. A 26-episode second season, titled K-On!! (with two exclamation marks), aired in Japan between April and September 2010, with an OVA episode released in March 2011. An anime film adaptation was released in Japan in December 2011. Bandai Entertainment had licensed the first season until their closure in 2012. Sentai Filmworks has since re-licensed the first season, in addition to acquiring the rights to the second season and film. K-On! has achieved strong sales in Japan, and by 2011 gross revenues had reached over ¥15 billion ($192 million) in merchandise sales.
Plot
In an unspecified part of Japan, four high school girls join the light music club of the all-girls private Sakuragaoka High School to try to save it from being disbanded. However, they are the only members of the club. At first, Yui Hirasawa has no experience playing musical instruments or reading sheet music, but she eventually becomes an excellent guitar player. From then on, Yui, along with bassist Mio Akiyama, drummer Ritsu Tainaka, and keyboardist Tsumugi Kotobuki spend their school days practicing, performing, and hanging out together. The club is overseen by music teacher Sawako Yamanaka who eventually becomes their homeroom teacher as well during their final year of high school. In their second year, the club welcomes another guitarist, underclassman Azusa Nakano. After Azusa joins they gain more structure and begin to practice more.
After their third year, Yui, Mio, Ritsu and Tsumugi graduate and enroll into a university. There they join its light music club alongside three other students: Akira Wada, Ayame Yoshida, and Sachi Hayashi. Meanwhile, Azusa continues to run the high school light music club alongside Yui's sister Ui, their classmate Jun Suzuki, and new members Sumire Saitō and Nao Okuda.
The spin-off manga K-On! Shuffle focuses on a new set of characters at a different school. After being inspired by the Sakuragaoka High School light music club, Yukari Sakuma and friend Kaede Shimizu seek to form their own club. Along with classmate Maho Sawabe, they discover the Light Music Appreciation Society, a club run by Riko Satou.
Characters
Main characters
Yui Hirasawa (平沢 唯, Hirasawa Yui)
Voiced by: Aki Toyosaki (Japanese); Stephanie Sheh (English)
Yui is the lead guitarist and split vocalist of the Light Music Club who plays a Heritage Cherry Sunburst Gibson Les Paul Standard electric guitar that she nicknames "Gīta" (ギー太). Before she learned how to play the electric guitar, the only instrument she knew how to play was the castanets. She does not get good grades in school (though when properly coached, she can achieve astounding results) and is easily distracted by trivialities (mainly those deemed cute and adorable). Yui is a kind and friendly girl, but also clumsy and easily spaces out most of the time; as a result, she can be forgetful and is sometimes oblivious to the situation around her. Yui has shoulder-length, brown hair (a little longer than Ritsu's) which she accessorizes with two yellow hair clips, and brown eyes. She takes a huge liking for any kind of food (though she never gains weight, which is greatly envied by Mugi, Mio, and Sawako). She has a younger sister named Ui, who is very mature and acts as the "older sister" of Yui, taking care of her while their parents are away on business trips. Yui works extremely hard to get better at playing guitar. During performances, Yui plays with amazing energy and joy which usually results in great response from the audience.
As a musician, Yui has absolute pitch—she can tune her guitar perfectly without a tuner, which greatly impresses Azusa, who has played the guitar much longer than Yui. She has a very easy-going nature, but has incredible focus and retention when she has a clear goal in sight; unfortunately, this is limited to only one subject at a time, and her other skills deteriorate quickly (for example, Yui is at one point pressed to make up failing test scores, and she quickly brings her math skills up to par at the expense of her guitar knowledge). Despite all of this, Yui is still devoted to her band and will always practice hard enough for the club. At school, she has become quite admired for her great voice. However, she is known to forget her lyrics mid-performance as well as overdoing things, making her unable to perform sometimes. Mio was the lead vocalist at first, since Yui could not play the guitar and sing at the same time. Yui is also known to write childish lyrics as Ui has assisted her in creating them.
Mio Akiyama (秋山 澪, Akiyama Mio)
Voiced by: Yōko Hikasa (Japanese); Cristina Vee (English)
Mio is the bassist, songwriter, and split vocalist for the light music club. She is a shy girl who is in the light music club. She plays a left-handed, 3-Color Sunburst Fender Jazz Bass with a tortoiseshell pickguard, though is shown playing a Fender Precision Bass in the first manga volume. She uses D'Addario EXL160M medium bass strings. Her bass is given the name Elizabeth (エリザベス, Erizabesu, or Elizabass) later in the anime. While she originally intended to join the literature club, she was forced into the light music club by her childhood friend and the club's president/drummer, Ritsu. She gets excellent grades in school, and while she's very kind and warm, she is also mature and can be strict, especially where Ritsu, who always teases her, is involved. Her weakness is the horrific; she is often incapacitated with fear when stories with disturbing topics come up. She also fears being in the spotlight, is easily embarrassed, and is often subject to teasing from Ritsu and Sawako, their club adviser and eventual third-year homeroom teacher. Mio has long, straight black hair and gray eyes (that are angled slightly more than the other characters). She cites that she chose bass since it is not the center of attention in the band, unlike the guitarist. Mio is more technical when it comes to music, and Yui often comes to her when she is in need of more guitar tutorials.
Mio is the split vocalist of the band, though given her dislike of being center stage, she tries to avoid taking the lead vocal if possible, generally singing if Yui is unable to. She writes most of the songs, although they usually have overly girlish lyrics like "Light and Fluffy Time". As she is left-handed, she becomes entranced whenever she sees left-handed instruments because of their rarity. After their first live performance, the attractive Mio gained a huge fan following (in no small part due to an unfortunate accident that occurred at the end of the show where she accidentally flashed her underwear, after tripping on her bass cable), led by an infatuated former student council president. Also resulting from her sudden popularity, most of her classmates voted that she portray Romeo in their class play. Mio comes to greatly enjoy her time at university as she encounters many new experiences. She is also able to overcome some of her shyness and make new friends such as Sachi and Ayame.
Ritsu Tainaka (田井中 律, Tainaka Ritsu)
Voiced by: Satomi Satō (Japanese); Cassandra Lee Morris (English)
Ritsu (or Ricchan (りっちゃん, Ritchan), as nicknamed by Yui) is the self-proclaimed president of the light music club and the leader of Hokago Tea Time who plays a yellow Rick Marotta Signature Yamaha Hipgig drum kit (with an add-on floor tom in the opening credits only) combined with a cymbal set from Avedis Zildjian, though is shown playing a white Yamaha Absolute Series drumkit in the anime's closing credits. She has an ambiguous yet upbeat personality, and is even more extroverted and hammy than Yui, but often has trouble remembering important club activities and announcements and gets constantly rebuked by Mio and Nodoka for forgetting to send in important forms concerning the club. Ritsu is cheerful, often likes making jokes and is sarcastic most of the time, but still shares the good heart of the other members. She is skilled at brainstorming ideas that earn money for the club. Ritsu has shoulder-length, brown hair, with her bangs pulled back with a yellow hairband, and gold-colored eyes. She wears her school jacket open. She says she chose to play the drums because they are "cool", but later admits that she has trouble playing instruments which involve intricate finger movements.
She is Mio's childhood friend and will often take the opportunity to tease her whenever Mio is cowering from something. She is also known to become easily jealous of Mio's other high school friends, even going as far as spying on Mio when on outings with them. Ritsu is always on the go and will stop at nothing for the success of the light music club. Despite her rough mannerisms and speech, she gets cast as Juliet by the majority of her classmates in their class play rendition of Romeo and Juliet and, in the end, manages to act like a proper girl. In the anime, she states her favorite drummer is Keith Moon of The Who. She is skilled at cooking. She has a younger brother named Satoshi (聡, Voiced by: Mika Itō (Japanese); Amanda C. Miller (English)).
Tsumugi Kotobuki (琴吹 紬, Kotobuki Tsumugi)
Voiced by: Minako Kotobuki (Japanese); Shelby Lindley (English)
Tsumugi, often referred to as Mugi (ムギ) by her friends, is a wealthy Kansai girl with a gentle and sweet personality who plays a Korg Triton Extreme 76-key keyboard, though she is also seen playing a Korg RK-100 keytar in the closing credits of the first season, and a Hammond organ in the closing credits of the second season. She originally intended to join the choir club, but joins the light music club instead after receiving an invitation and encouragement from both Mio and Ritsu. Tsumugi is considered a piano prodigy since she has been playing the piano since she was four and has experience in winning various piano contests. Tsumugi has written several songs for the light music club, as well as singing the back vocals in several other songs. She is a good student and has long, pale blonde hair, blue eyes, unusually large eyebrows that apparently run in her family, and a fair complexion that the other characters do not have, but she does not get sunburned. She however, has great difficulty playing electric guitar.
She is the daughter of a company president, and her family has several villas in various places around Japan (and even one in Finland). Since her father also owns a maid café, she often brings confectionery and an assortment of sweets and pastries to the club room, and she diligently makes tea with a tea set which is kept in their club room. Despite her wealth, she is fascinated by and finds joy in "normal" activities, such as ordering fast food, sharing french fries with her club mates, holding down part-time jobs and haggling over prices. Tsumugi displays a rebellious streak occasionally, diverting from her normally well-behaved and mature demeanor to the surprise of the others. She also displays a childlike eagerness from time to time, and possesses unusually high strength, being able to effortlessly carry around her own keyboard, Ritsu's drums, amplifiers, and at one point beating an arm-wrestling game in an arcade.
Tsumugi is often entranced by the sight of two girls interacting closely together, sometimes imagining something more risqué in her head. While a lot of things do not bother her, she is fairly conscious about her weight (just like Mio), and she gets a bit anxious when her family's staff start spoiling her friends during villa visits. She later begins learning how to play the guitar from Azusa. Tsumugi has a childhood friend several years younger than her named Sumire Saitō, who is a daughter of the family that serves the Kotobuki household. Tsumugi grew up home schooled, and therefore spent very little time in the outside world. Because of their close friendship, Sumire would purchase everyday items for Tsumugi, like manga that she was not normally allowed to see. Tsumugi was rather taken by some of the yuri manga she received, which may have influenced her later perceptions about relationships. When Sumire started high school, Tsumugi wanted her to experience the light music club on her own, but due to Sumire's shyness Tsumugi came up with the excuse of sending her to the club room to pick up the tea sets that had been left there and told Sawako when Sumire did join that it was okay to leave the tea sets there.
Azusa Nakano (中野 梓, Nakano Azusa)
Voiced by: Ayana Taketatsu (Japanese); Christine Marie Cabanos (English)
Azusa is a student in the same year and class as Yui's sister Ui, who joins the light music club and becomes the rhythm guitarist, playing a Fender Mustang electric guitar. She eventually names her guitar Muttan, as it is a Mustang. She is a self-proclaimed "novice" guitarist who has been playing the guitar since she was in the fourth grade, and her parents are working in a jazz band. She is more serious than the other girls, and is kind of a tsundere as she often does not like to admit her true feelings. She often finds herself bewildered by the tea parties and cosplaying aspects of the club, when she would rather just practice, and is curious about how the club is able to play so well despite their problems and lack of practice; still, she's ultimately as kind as the other girls. However, she has a certain weakness for cakes and can be calmed down rather easily, sometimes by just being petted. She is constantly a victim of Yui's physical affection and is nicknamed Azu-nyan (あずにゃん) after trying on a pair of cat ears and meowing ("nyan" being the equivalent of "meow" in the Japanese vocabulary). Despite this, Azusa is ironically not too good with caring for cats. Azusa has long black hair, which she wears in pigtails, and brown eyes. While Azusa is talented at the guitar, she has trouble singing while playing unlike Yui and Mio.
In the band, she looks up to Mio the most due to her maturity and the fact that she is an experienced bassist, even trying to give Mio chocolate on Valentine's Day. However, she sometimes unintentionally makes remarks concerning Mio's weaknesses, such as her weight. She also finds Mugi very beautiful, and envies her hair and large eyes, and later starts teaching her how to play guitar when the two are alone in the club room. Since joining, Yui comes to her for advice on playing guitar, as well as maintenance. She gets a tan extremely easily, once during their time at the beach and another during a music festival (even after applying sunscreen). As a result, she frequently gets sunburned as well. She gets lonely very easily, and often worries that everyone in the club will leave her, as they are one year older and will eventually graduate. Due to this, the rest of the girls buy her a turtle to look after, naming it Ton.
Outside of the band, she often hangs out with Ui and Jun whenever the other girls are busy. After the others graduate, she becomes the new light music club president alongside Ui and Jun, who decide to join her. Together with two new members, Sumire and Nao, they form a new band called "Wakaba Girls" (若葉ガールズ, Wakaba Gāruzu, lit. Fresh Leaf Girls). During the Wakaba Girls' first summer training camp, Azusa reveals to Sawako her belief that she is unable to act like a proper president for the light music club; however, Sawako suggests that there is no proper way to define what it means to be a president, and that Azusa will do just fine. While on that same training camp, Azusa is convinced by the others to become the band's vocalist despite her prior reservations on the issue.
Supporting characters
Sawako Yamanaka (山中 さわ子, Yamanaka Sawako)
Voiced by: Asami Sanada (Japanese); Karen Strassman (English)
Sawako is a music teacher who is the adviser for the wind instrument club at the girls' school. An alumna of the school and a member of the light music club in her student days, she does not want people to find out that she was formerly a member of a heavy metal band called Death Devil (of which she was both lead guitar and vocalist and went by the stage name of Catherine (キャサリン, Kyasarin)), thus she covers up by being mild and gentle to her coworkers and especially to students. She is forced to be the adviser of the light music club, as Ritsu blackmails her after the girls learn of her past. However, she is able to juggle being the adviser for the wind instrument club as well, even as the story progresses. Though she has a mature and gentle demeanor in the school, Sawako (affectionately addressed as Sawa-chan (さわちゃん, Sawa-chan) by both Ritsu and Yui) displays a totally different, completely authentic character when she is alone with the light music club. In reality, she is rather wild, lazy, and is quite an irresponsible teacher who enjoys dressing up the light music club in (sometimes embarrassing) cosplay costumes (like French maid uniforms), much to the dismay of Mio. She gets a thrill out of the rare moments where she is praised for her work.
She names the club band "Ho-kago Tea Time" after the members take too long deciding on a name themselves. In the anime, she once fills in for Yui with her white Epiphone "1958" Korina Flying V electric guitar. She becomes the girls' homeroom teacher in their third year, and puts Nodoka and all the band members (except Azusa, since she is a grade lower) in the same class, so she does not have to remember as many names. An episode in the second anime season reveals that she owned one of the first Gibson SG models (from around 1960 with a custom stoptail bridge) which is later sold. Due to her relation to the club members, the other students in her class start to call her Sawa-chan as well, ruining her image as a mild-mannered teacher. Her image is further ruined after Death Devil is temporarily reunited at a wedding reception for a high school alumnus. Regardless, her popularity with the students remains unchanged. In spite of her laziness, she still proves herself to be an able mentor, as shown by her willingness to coach Yui as the lead singer and attending their performances. Her music abilities apparently have not dulled over the years, as she is able to substitute for Yui at the school festival at almost no notice without the assistance of a music score, even without any prior practicing of the band's song. Sawako is also very perceptive: she immediately sees through Ui's disguise when she impersonates her sister and on several occasions boasts to the club that there is nothing she cannot see. Sawako is named after real-life Japanese rock musician Sawao Yamanaka from the band The Pillows.
Ui Hirasawa (平沢 憂, Hirasawa Ui)
Voiced by: Madoka Yonezawa (Japanese); Xanthe Huynh (English)
Ui is Yui's younger sister, who begins the story as a third-year junior high school student, but later enters Yui's high school the following year in the same class as Azusa. Unlike her older sister, Ui is mature, responsible, and handles household chores well. Despite these differences Ui shares a very strong relationship with Yui and has a great deal of love and admiration for her older sister that sometimes borders on a sister complex. She takes particularly good care of Yui and strives to look after her even at risk to her own health. Ui is considered to be the ultimate groupie for her sister's band and supports them with all her heart. She occasionally provides a narrative to the story. Despite being a year younger than Yui, she is nearly identical to her older sister with her hair down and is even able to fool members of the light music club on more than one occasion. However, Sawako Yamanaka can tell Yui and Ui apart easily, saying 'their bust sizes are completely different'. Ui is a fast learner, able to learn how to play the guitar after only a few days' practice. She is also able to play the organ if needed. She eventually joins the light music club along with Jun at the end of the series, becoming a guitarist like her sister, playing a Surf Green Fender Stratocaster electric guitar. Ui becomes fascinated with Sumire's sister-like relationship with Tsumugi upon learning of it, as Ui sees it as very similar to her feelings toward Yui.
Nodoka Manabe (真鍋 和, Manabe Nodoka)
Voiced by: Chika Fujitō (Japanese); Laura Bailey (English)
Nodoka is Yui's childhood friend and confidant who is a member of the school's student council. As a normal, well-mannered and intelligent girl, she is generally taken aback by the light music club's odd behavior, and easily gets annoyed with Ritsu whenever she forgets to fill in the club's application forms. She shares the same class as Mio in their second year, who appreciates her companionship tremendously, she being the only person Mio knows in her class. In her third year, she replaces Megumi Sokabe as the student council president and the Mio fan club president as well (after a while), the latter at Megumi's request. In her third year, she shares a class with the rest of Hokago Tea Time. Nodoka chooses to go to a national university as opposed to the same college as Yui and the others. Nodoka is named after guitarist Yoshiaki Manabe from the Japanese rock band The Pillows.
Jun Suzuki (鈴木 純, Suzuki Jun)
Voiced by: Yoriko Nagata (Japanese); Michelle Ann Dunphy (English)
Jun is an outgoing girl and a friend and classmate of both Azusa and Ui from before they joined the light music club. Ui at first tried to get Jun to join the light music club but ultimately failed due to a strange visit to the club room. Thanks to this experience, Jun stayed in the Jazz club instead. While there she played a Yamaha Sbv500 bass. Jun became one of Mio's admirers because they both play bass. Jun begins to regret not joining the light music club when she hears about all the activities they do and eventually joins the light music club at the end of the series. She attempted to play the guitar but she did not feel that it suited her. She has an older brother named Atsushi who also plays bass and regularly gives Jun lessons. Jun was embarrassed when the light music club found out that she was receiving these lessons because she felt it damaged her image as a person who could learn an instrument on their own. Jun owns a pet cat in the anime series.
Sumire Saitō (斉藤 菫, Saitō Sumire)
Sumire is a shy blonde girl who meets Azusa, Ui and Jun after Yui and the others graduate. She is a freshman, two years below the other light music club members. She is currently working in the Kotobuki household as a maid and originally came to the light music room to try to retrieve Tsumugi's teaset that was left behind after she graduated. After being scared off a few times by Sawako, she eventually agrees to join the light music club and eventually becomes its drummer. Similar to Tsumugi, she is quite talented at preparing tea, but feels inclined to keep her role as a maid a secret from the others due to the fear of being punished by Tsumugi. As her family, who came from Austria (Australia in the manga), were taken in by the Kotobuki household before she was born, Sumire grew up as Tsumugi's playmate, often regarding her as her older sister and inadvertently sparking Tsumugi's interest in yuri by introducing her to manga of that genre. As she grew up and learned the truth about the relation between the two families, Sumire felt she needed to regard Tsumugi with more respect while in public. Sawako reveals that Tsumugi asked that the tea sets be left in the club room. However, before the beginning of the new term Tsumugi had asked Sumire to remove the tea sets thereby ensuring that Sumire would encounter the other members of the light music club and would be invited to join. Sumire's situation is revealed to the surprise of the other members of the club by Sawako. Sumire uses her close ties with the Kotobuki family to reserve the use of their largest seaside villa for her first summer training camp with the light music club.
Nao Okuda (奥田 直, Okuda Nao)
Another freshman in the same class as Sumire. Generally poor at physical activities, Nao goes through several trial runs through various clubs before deciding to join the light music club, as she feels it is where she can try her best. Like the kanji in her name, she is overly honest about her shortcomings. After reading up on music theory, she ends up having an advanced knowledge of music but lacks the ability to physically play it. However, when she is introduced to music creation software, she decides to become the band's producer. She is the oldest among the five siblings in her family. When on her first training camp with the Wakaba Girls, Nao writes the lyrics for the band's first song, titled "Answer". She wrote the song to reflect Azusa's misgivings about her role as president of the light music club. Okuda remarks that she keeps track of all her band mate's conversations and behaviors by entering her observations into her computer, therefore she was able to describe Azusa's exact feelings in her lyrics.
Akira Wada (和田 晶, Wada Akira)
A new character introduced in the restarted manga who is in a band called OnNaGumi (恩那組, On Na-gumi, "Gang of Girls") with her friends Ayame and Sachi. Akira joins the university's light music club alongside Yui and her friends. She has short black hair and often looks intimidating whenever her hair is messy. She studies in the Education department along with Yui. She is easily irritated to a degree but finds herself in a similar position to Azusa from high school as Yui seems to enjoy hugging her. She originally had longer hair in high school, but when a boy she admired accused her band of only being popular because of their cuteness, she decided to cut off her hair and vowed to become popular through talent. She plays an ebony Gibson Les Paul Custom electric guitar which she nicknames "Rosalie".
Sachi Hayashi (林 幸, Hayashi Sachi)
One of Akira's friends, who has long hair. She is OnNaGumi's bassist and is in the same department as Mio. She is taller than Mio, and easily becomes embarrassed about her height if anyone mentions it.
Ayame Yoshida (吉田 菖, Yoshida Ayame)
Another one of Akira's friends, who has short blonde hair. She is OnNaGumi's drummer and is in the same department as Ritsu. Due to their similarities, Ayame and Ritsu become friends very quickly. Ayame tends to follow the latest fashion trends, and has done so since high school.
Kana Yoshii
The president of J. Women's University's light music club who has a sweet appearance, but is generally obsessed over things such as money and looking youthful and can put out a threatening aura when she gets passionate about either one. She was once in a popular band with Hirose though retired upon entering university since wearing school uniforms would be considered silly at their age. However, Kana is still obsessed with school uniforms.
Chiyo Hirose
An upperclassman in the light music club who was once in a band with Kana.
Megumi Sokabe (曽我部 恵, Sokabe Megumi)
Voiced by: Asumi Kodama (Japanese); Amanda C. Miller (English)
Megumi is the former student council president and founder of the Mio Fan Club (with Nodoka becoming her successor in both positions). She stalks Mio during her last few days in high school because she wanted to see Mio one more time. The band offers her a song as a graduation gift. Megumi becomes a good friend of Ritsu through unspecified circumstances much to Mio’s surprise. She also helps Ritsu and Yui with the university entrance exams by giving them her old exam workbooks. She goes to the same woman's university in which Yui and her friends later enroll and lives in the same dorm as them.
Shuffle characters
Yukari Sakuma (佐久間 紫, Sakuma Yukari)
The protagonist of K-On! Shuffle, Yukari is a first-year student and aspiring drummer who decides to get involved in a music club after watching the light music club at Sakuragaoka High School. She elects to play the drums as she enjoys the loud noises. Yukari has a sister Kurumi, who attends a different school.
Kaede Shimizu (清水 楓, Shimizu Kaede)
Yukari's childhood friend. She decides to play the bass after seeing Mio's wardrobe malfunction at the Sakuragaoka High School's light music club performance.
Maho Sawabe (澤部 真帆, Sawabe Maho)
Yukari and Kaede's classmate who sits between them and is part of the Basketball Club. Against her will, she is dragged into the Light Music Appreciation Society; despite being a member of another club, Yukari points out school rules allow for students to be in both a club and an appreciation society. She is the appreciation society's guitarist.
Riko Satō (佐藤 莉子, Satō Riko)
A second-year, Riko is the lone member of the Light Music Appreciation Society after the previous members had graduated or left. Although she claims to have never played an instrument, she is proficient in playing technique and music theory.
Media
Manga
K-On! began as a four-panel comic-strip manga written and illustrated by Kakifly. The manga was originally serialized in Houbunsha's Manga Time Kirara manga magazine between the May 2007 and October 2010 issues, ending on September 9, 2010. The manga also appeared as a guest bimonthly serialization in Manga Time Kirara's sister magazine Manga Time Kirara Carat starting with the October 2008 issue. The manga relaunched from April 2011 to June 2012 in two separate magazines. Chapters published in Manga Times Kirara, from the May 2011 issue released on April 8, 2011, to the July 2012 issue released on June 9, 2012, focus on the main cast as they attend college. Chapters published in Manga Time Kirara Carat, from the June 2011 issue released on April 28, 2011, to the August 2012 issue released on June 28, 2012, focus on Azusa, Ui, and Jun as they continue the light music club.Four tankōbon volumes were released between April 26, 2008 and September 27, 2010. The manga was licensed by Yen Press for English release, with the first volume released in North America on November 30, 2010. The college arc of the second manga run, titled K-On! College (けいおん! college), was released on September 27, 2012, and the high school arc, titled K-On! Highschool (けいおん! highschool), was released on October 27, 2012. Yen Press have also licensed these volumes in North America. In Indonesia, the series is licensed by Elex Media Komputindo. An anthology entitled Minna de Untan! (みんなでうん☆たん, Everybody's Untan!), which features several guest strips from various artists, was released in September 2009. An official anthology series, K-On! Anthology Comic (けいおん!アンソロジーコミック, Keion! Ansorojī Komikku), began sale from November 27, 2009, with five volumes released as of October 12, 2011, and two "Story Anthology Comics" were released on November 26, 2011. An illustration book with official art and fan art from well known dōjin artists was released on January 27, 2010.
A spin-off manga by Kakifly, titled K-On! Shuffle, began serialization in Manga Time Kirara on July 9, 2018. At Anime Expo 2022, Yen Press announced that they licensed K-On! Shuffle for English publication.
Anime series
A 13-episode anime adaptation directed by Naoko Yamada, written by Reiko Yoshida, and produced by Kyoto Animation aired between April 3 and June 26, 2009 on TBS in Japan. The episodes began airing on subsequent networks at later dates which include BS-TBS, MBS, and CBC. The TBS airings are in 4:3 ratio, and the series began airing in widescreen on BS-TBS on April 25, 2009. Seven BD/DVD compilation volumes were released by Pony Canyon between July 29, 2009, and January 20, 2010. An additional original video animation (OVA) episode was released with the final BD/DVD volumes on January 20, 2010. The BD/DVD volumes contained extra short anime titled Ura-On!.
The series later began airing on Japan's Disney Channel from April 2011. Animax has aired the anime in Hong Kong, Thailand, and Taiwan. Both an English-subtitled and English-dubbed version by Red Angel Media began airing on March 16, 2010, on Animax Asia. At their industry panel at Anime Expo 2010, anime distributor Bandai Entertainment announced that they have acquired K-On! for a DVD and Blu-ray Disc release, with Bang Zoom! Entertainment producing an English dub for the show. The series was released over four volumes in standard and limited editions for each format starting on April 26, 2011. Bandai released the full first season on DVD under their "Anime Legends" line on February 7, 2012. Manga Entertainment released the series in the UK in individual DVD volumes during 2011, and in a complete DVD of the first season on April 30, 2012. A planned BD box set release in 2012 was cancelled. Sentai Filmworks has licensed the first season and re-released the series on DVD on September 23, 2014. Sentai also re-released the series on Blu-ray on September 1, 2015.It was displayed on screen at the Let's Go live concert in Yokohama, Japan on December 30, 2009, that a second season would be produced. The second season, titled K-On!! (with two exclamation marks), aired with 26 episodes on TBS in Japan between April 7 and September 28, 2010. An additional OVA episode was released with the final BD/DVD volumes on March 16, 2011. As with the first season, the BD/DVD volumes contained extra short anime titled Ura-On!!. This season has also aired on Animax Asia starting October 20, 2010. Sentai Filmworks licensed the second season and released the series on DVD and Blu-ray in two boxsets released on June 19, 2012, and August 28, 2012 respectively. The original English dub cast reprised their roles for this season.The anime was broadcast on ABC Me in Australia, with episodes being hosted on ABC iview.Netflix licensed the series and movie in the United States and Canada between November 2019 and November 2021.
Film
A film adaptation of K-On! was released in Japan on December 3, 2011. It follows the girls as they travel to London to celebrate their graduation. Developed as an original story, it was produced by Kyoto Animation with Naoko Yamada as the director. The film features the two songs "Ichiban Ippai" and "Unmei wa Endless" by Aki Toyosaki. The ending theme is "Singing" by Yōko Hikasa. The film opened at #2 with a gross of ¥317,287,427 (US$4,070,919) from 137 theaters, and has earned a total of ¥1,639,685,078 (US$21,419,792) by the end of its run.The film features a London cafe inspired by the Troubadour Cafe in Earl's Court, and K-On! fans often visit the cafe. The film was released on BD and DVD on July 18, 2012. Sentai Filmworks released the film on BD/DVD in North America on May 21, 2013. Madman Entertainment released the film in Australia on BD/DVD.
Music
The first season anime's opening theme is "Cagayake! Girls" by Aki Toyosaki with Yōko Hikasa, Satomi Satō and Minako Kotobuki. The ending theme is "Don't Say 'Lazy'" by Hikasa with Toyosaki, Satō and Kotobuki. The opening and ending theme singles were released on April 22, 2009. A single containing the insert song "Fuwa Fuwa Time" (ふわふわ時間, Light and Fluffy Time) used in episode six was released on May 20, 2009. A series of character song singles have been released containing songs sung by the voice actresses of the five main characters. The singles for Yui (by Toyosaki) and Mio (by Hikasa) were released on June 17, 2009. The singles for Ritsu (by Satō) and Tsumugi (by Kotobuki) were delayed, but later released together with the single for Azusa (by Ayana Taketatsu) on August 26, 2009. The singles for Ui Hirasawa (by Madoka Yonezawa) and Nodoka Manabe (by Chika Fujitō) were released on October 21, 2009. The anime's original soundtrack, largely composed by Hajime Hyakkoku, was released on June 3, 2009. The four songs highlighted in episode eight of the anime were released on the mini album Ho-kago Tea Time (放課後ティータイム, After School Tea Time) on July 22, 2009. The single "Maddy Candy" by Sawako's band Death Devil (sung by Asami Sanada) was released on August 12, 2009.The second season anime's first opening theme is "Go! Go! Maniac" and the first ending theme is "Listen!!"; both songs are sung by Toyosaki, Hikasa, Satō, Kotobuki, and Taketatsu. The singles containing the songs were released on April 28, 2010. From episode 14 onwards, the respective opening and ending themes are "Utauyo!! Miracle" and "No, Thank You!", both by Toyosaki, Hikasa, Satō, Kotobuki, and Taketatsu. The singles containing these songs were released on August 4, 2010. The single "Pure Pure Heart" also sung by Toyosaki, Hikasa, Satō, Kotobuki, and Taketatsu was released on June 2, 2010. Another single, "Love", by Sawako's band Death Devil (sung by Sanada) was released on June 23, 2010. A single sung by Toyosaki, "Gohan wa Okazu/U&I", was released on September 8, 2010. The composer Bice who wrote the song "Gohan wa Okazu" died on July 26, 2010, of a heart attack; the song was their final work. A second set of character song singles were released, starting with the singles for Yui (by Toyosaki) and Mio (by Hikasa) on September 21, 2010. The show's second album, Ho-kago Tea Time II, was released on both normal double CD and limited edition that came with a cassette tape on October 27, 2010. The second set of singles for Ritsu (by Satō), Tsumugi (by Kotobuki), and Azusa (by Taketatsu) were released on November 17, 2010. The set of singles for Jun (by Yoriko Nagata), Ui (by Yonezawa), and Nodoka (by Fujitō) were released on January 19, 2011. The singles and albums were released by Pony Canyon. A limited edition music box, K-ON! 7inch Vinyl "Donuts" BOX, was released at the Canime Summer Festival on August 11, 2012.
Video games
A rhythm video game titled K-On! Hōkago Live!! (けいおん! 放課後ライブ!!, Keion! Hōkago Raibu!!), developed by Sega for the PlayStation Portable, was released on September 30, 2010. The gameplay involves the player matching button presses in time with music featured in the anime. The game supports local multiplayer for up to five PSPs. The game features 19 songs from the first anime season and first set of character song CDs. The player can customize the clothing, hair style and accessories of the characters, plus customization of the light music room and Yui's bedroom. There is also a custom track maker. A remastered HD port of the game was released for the PlayStation 3 on June 21, 2012.An arcade game developed by Atlus, K-On! Hōkago Rhythm Time (けいおん!放課後リズムタイム, Keion! Hōkago Rizumu Taimu), was released in Japanese arcades in spring 2013. The game features rhythm gameplay and also awards trading cards that can be used to read songs into the game. A second arcade game by Sega titled K-On! Hōkago Rhythm Selection (けいおん！放課後リズムセレクション, Keion! Hōkago Rizumu Serekushon) was released on November 13, 2014.
Characters from the series also appear alongside the other Manga Time Kirara characters in the mobile RPG, Kirara Fantasia in 2018.
Reception
The first manga volume of K-On! was the 30th highest-selling manga volume in Japan for the week of April 27 and May 3, 2009, having sold over 26,500 volumes that week. The following week, the first and second manga volumes were the 19th and 20th highest-selling manga volumes in Japan, having sold 23,200 and 22,500 volumes each the week of May 4 and May 10, 2009. As of May 2009, the first two manga volumes each sold about 136,000 copies each. The third volume sold over 120,000 copies the week of December 14–20, 2009, and became the 46th top-selling manga in the first half of 2010 in Japan (ending May 23), selling over 328,000 copies.The single for the first anime's opening theme, "Cagayake! Girls", debuted at fourth in the ranking on the Oricon weekly singles chart, selling approximately 62,000 copies. The ending theme "Don't Say 'Lazy'" debuted at second in the ranking, selling 67,000 copies. It was also awarded Best Theme Song at the 2009 (14th) Animation Kobe Awards. Additionally, "Cagayake! Girls" and "Don't Say 'Lazy'" were certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ) for 250,000 full-track ringtone digital music downloads (Chaku Uta Full), respectively. The mini album Ho-kago Tea Time debuted at No. 1 on the Oricon weekly CD albums charts selling 67,000 copies, making it the first image song album credited to fictional anime characters that reached the highest position. The second anime's opening theme "Go! Go! Maniac" and ending theme "Listen!!" debuted at No. 1 and No. 2 in their first week of release on the Oricon singles chart, selling over 83,000 and 76,000 copies, respectively. "Go! Go! Maniac" became the first anime image song to ever top the singles chart and the band also became the first female vocalists to occupy the top two spots on the singles chart in 26 years since Seiko Matsuda in 1983. The season's second ending and opening themes, "No, Thank You!" and "Utauyo! Miracle" respectively, sold 87,000 and 85,000 in their first week and ranked at No. 2 and No. 3 in the Oricon charts respectively, only being beaten by SMAP's single, "This is Love". "No, Thank You!" and "Utauyo! Miracle" were certified Gold by the RIAJ in August 2010 for 100,000 copies shipped. The single "Gohan wa Okazu"/"U&I" debuted at No. 3 on the Oricon singles chart, selling 53,000 in its first week. The album Ho-kago Tea Time II debuted at No. 1 on the Oricon weekly CD albums charts selling 127,000 copies.
The first Japanese DVD volume of the anime series sold around 8,000 copies to debut seventh in the ranking on the Oricon charts for the week of July 29, 2009. The Blu-ray Disc release of the first volume sold about 33,000 copies in the same week, to top the Oricon BD charts. In August 2009, the first volume of K-On! was the top-selling anime television Blu-ray Disc in Japan, having surpassed the previous record holder Macross Frontier, which sold approximately 22,000 copies of its first volume. It was the second best-selling Blu-ray Disc in Japan, trailing only Evangelion: 1.0 You Are (Not) Alone, with around 49,000 copies. However, in October 2009, the first volume of Bakemonogatari surpassed K-On!'s previous record, having sold 37,000 copies at that time. Later, with the release of K-On!! volume 3, total BD sales for the series have outsold Bakemonogatari. Both series have sold a combined total of over 520,000 BD copies as of February 20, 2011.K-On! received a Best TV Animation Award at the 2010 Tokyo Anime Awards, with K-On!! receiving the same award in 2011. K-On!! also won the Best Television award at the 2010 (15th) Animation Kobe Awards. In 2012, the film was nominated for the 35th Japan Academy Prize for Animation of the Year award, and won the Best Film award in the 2nd Newtype Anime Awards. The film also won the Theatrical Film Award at the 17th Animation Kobe Awards.At the beginning of September 2010, the Kyoto prefectural government began using K-On!! to promote the census and encourage people to be counted. In 2011, Sharp and Bandai announced plans to jointly launch a calculator with designs of the characters from K-On!. K-On! has influenced a string of tourism for the rural town of Toyosato, related to the phenomenon of the anime pilgrimage, home to the elementary school that was used as a model for the high school in the anime. The school has opened portions of itself to the public as an exhibit for the series. Matthew Li of Anime Tourist described the exhibit as, "A place that genuinely understands its fanbase and carries all the sentimental props one can remember from the show and more; housing items seen in the school, like a museum." The anime has also inspired real-life musicians. Hiroto, the bassist of The Sixth Lie, joined a band that was influenced by K-On! when he was in junior high school.
Further reading
Creamer, Nick (December 2, 2015). "What Makes Kyoto Animation So Special?". Anime News Network. Retrieved December 2, 2015. An analysis of Kyoto Animation's work through the lens of K-On!.
Harding, Daryl (May 26, 2020). "How K-ON! Helped Preserve the Small Town of Toyosato". Crunchyroll. Retrieved May 27, 2020. A look into how K-On! changed the small town of Toyosato.
Anime official website (in Japanese)
K-On! Hōkago Live!! at Sega (in Japanese)
K-On! Archived 2015-11-05 at the Wayback Machine at Yen Press
K-On! The Movie at IMDb
K-On! (manga) at Anime News Network's encyclopedia |
Access may refer to:
Companies and organizations
ACCESS (Australia), an Australian youth network
Access (credit card), a former credit card in the United Kingdom
Access Co., a Japanese software company
Access Healthcare, an Indian BPO services provider
Access International Advisors, a hedge fund
AirCraft Casualty Emotional Support Services
Arab Community Center for Economic and Social Services
Access, the Alphabet division containing Google Fiber
Access, the Southwest Ohio Regional Transit Authority's paratransit service
Sailing
Access 2.3, a sailing keelboat
Access 303, a sailing keelboat
Access Liberty, a sailing keelboat
Television
Access Hollywood, formerly Access, an American entertainment newsmagazine
Access (British TV programme), a British entertainment television programme
Access (Canadian TV series), a Canadian television series (1974–1982)
Access TV, a former Canadian educational television channel (1973–2011)
Access Television Network, an American infomercial channel
"Access" (The West Wing), an episode of The West Wing
Other uses
Access (EP), a 2022 EP by Acid Angel from Asia
Access (group), a Japanese pop duo
"Access" (song), a 2018 song by Martin Garrix
Access 5, a NASA program
Access Linux Platform, an operating system for mobile devices
Access network, the process of signing onto a network
Access Virus, a German musical device
Experimental Assembly of Structures in EVA and Assembly Concept for Construction of Erectable Space Structures (EASE and ACCESS), a pair of space shuttle flight experiments
Internet access, the hardware and connections needed to use the internet
Microsoft Access, a database program which is part of the Office suite
See also
Accessibility
AccessNow.org, a U.S.-based non-profit organization
Advanced Civil Speed Enforcement System (ACSES)
Axes (disambiguation)
Axess (disambiguation)
Axxess (disambiguation)
Computer data storage
Coverage (disambiguation)
File system permissions
Public, educational, and government access, American public, educational and government (PEG) access cable TV channels |
Kathrin Schmidt (born 12 March 1958 in Gotha, Bezirk Erfurt), is a German writer. She is known both for her poetry and prose.
Life and work
Kathrin Schmidt grew up in Gotha and from 1964 in Waltershausen. After graduating from high school, she studied psychology at the University of Jena from 1976 to 1981. After completing her studies (diploma), she worked as a research assistant at the University of Leipzig from 1981 to 1982, and then as a child psychologist at the Rüdersdorf District Hospital and at the Berlin-Marzahn Child and Youth Health Protection Center.
In 1986/1987, she completed special studies at the Johannes R. Becher Institute of Literature in Leipzig. After the fall of the Berlin Wall, she worked at the Round Table in East Berlin. In 1990/1991 she was editor of the feminist women's magazine Ypsilon and worked as a research assistant at the Berlin Institute for Comparative Social Research until 1993. She has been a freelance writer since 1994. She is a member of the PEN Center Germany.
Kathrin Schmidt began writing as a teenager and initially published poetry. The poems are characterized by strict metre, powerful, sensual language and frequent use of puns. The novels, sometimes classified as magical realism due to the baroque fullness of the stories, also show Kathrin Schmidt as a powerful author with an exuberant imagination, who has been compared by critics to the early Günter Grass and Irmtraud Morgner.
To date, her greatest literary success is the autobiographically tinged novel Du stirbst nicht. In it, the author describes the illness and recovery story of the writer Helene, who is confronted with the lack of control over her body after a stroke and must relearn language. The book sold 150,000 copies and was awarded the German Book Prize in 2009.Kathrin Schmidt raised five children with her husband and lives in Berlin-Mahlsdorf.
Selected works
Poetry books
Kathrin Schmidt. Poetry album (poetry series), 179th edition. Berlin 1982.
An angel flies through the wallpaper factory. Neues Leben, Berlin 1987, ISBN 3-355-00382-4.
River Picture with Angel. Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 1995, ISBN 3-518-11931-1; Lyrikedition 2000, Munich 2000, ISBN 3-935284-14-4.
Go-In the Belladonnas. Kiepenheuer & Witsch, Cologne 2000, ISBN 3-462-02933-9.
Dances of the Dead. With Karl-Georg Hirsch. Leipzig 2001.
Blind Bees. Kiepenheuer & Witsch, Cologne 2010, ISBN 978-3-462-04193-4.
washing place of cool things. Kiepenheuer & Witsch, Cologne 2018, ISBN 978-3-462-31812-8.
sommerschaums ernte. Kiepenheuer & Witsch, Cologne 2020, ISBN 978-3-462-05390-6.
Novels
The Gunnar Lennefsen Expedition. Kiepenheuer & Witsch, Cologne 1998, ISBN 978-3-442-73583-9.
Koenig's Children. Kiepenheuer & Witsch, Cologne 2002, ISBN 3-462-03129-5.
Seebach's Black Cats. Kiepenheuer & Witsch, Cologne 2005, ISBN 3-462-03612-2.
You Don't Die. Kiepenheuer & Witsch, Cologne 2009, ISBN 978-3-462-04098-2.
Kapok's Sisters. Kiepenheuer & Witsch, Cologne 2016, ISBN 978-3-462-04924-4.
Tales
Sticky ends. Science fiction novella. Eichborn, Frankfurt am Main 2000, ISBN 3-8218-0682-6.
Three carp blue. Short prose. Berliner Handpresse, Berlin 2000.
Finito. Schwamm drüber. Short stories. Kiepenheuer & Witsch, Cologne 2011, ISBN 978-3-462-04317-4.
Tiefer Schafsee and other stories. With three color etchings by Madeleine Heublein. Leipzig Bibliophile Evening 2016.
Edition
Poetry Seminar 1989. 1990.
Yearbook of Poetry 2011, with Christoph Buchwald. Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Munich 2011.
Awards
1988 Anna Seghers-Preis
1993 Leonce-und-Lena-Preis
1994: Merano Poetry Prize
1994: Working scholarship of the German Literature Fund
1997: Town writer of Berlin-Hellersdorf
1998: Prize of the Province of Carinthia at the Ingeborg Bachmann Competition in Klagenfurt
1998: Working scholarship of the German Literature Fund
1998: Sponsorship award for the Heimito von Doderer Literature Prize
1998: GEDOK Literature Promotion Prize
2000: Working scholarship of the German Literature Fund
2001: German cultural prize
2003: Droste Prize of the city of Meersburg
2005: Art Prize for Literature of the Land Brandenburg Lotto
2009: Preis der SWR-Bestenliste
2009 German Book Prize for Du stirbst nicht
2017 Thüringer Literaturpreis |
About may refer to:
About (surname)
About.com, an online source for original information and advice
about.me, a personal web hosting service
abOUT, a Canadian LGBT online magazine
About Magazine, a Texas-based digital platform covering LGBT news
About URI scheme, an internal URI scheme
About box, a dialog box that displays information related to a computer software
About equal sign, symbol used to indicate values are approximately equal
See also
About Face (disambiguation)
About Last Night (disambiguation)
About Time (disambiguation)
About us (disambiguation)
About You (disambiguation)
about to, one of the future constructions in English grammar
All pages with titles beginning with about |
Christine Loh Kung-wai, SBS, OBE, JP, Chevalier de l’Ordre National du Mérite (born 1 February 1956), is a former Hong Kong Legislative Councillor, founder and CEO of Civic Exchange, founder of the Citizens Party, and founder of Hong Kong Human Rights Monitor. From 2012 to 2017, she was Under Secretary for the Environment in the government of CY Leung. From April 2019 to March 2020, she was Special Consultant to the HKSAR Chief Executive of Ecological Civilization and the Greater Bay Area, attached to the Policy Innovation and Co-ordination Office.
Until her appointment as Undersecretary for the Environment, Loh was CEO of Civic Exchange, the Hong Kong think tank that she co-founded in 2000. She received many awards, including "Stars of Asia" in 1998 and again in 2000 by BusinessWeek, "Hero of the Environment 2007" by Time and "Woman Who Makes a Difference 2009" by RBS Coutts/FT in Women of Asia Awards. She has worked in many areas, including law, business, politics, media and the non-profit sector, but is best known as a leading voice in public policy in Hong Kong, particularly in environmental protection, sustainable finance, and governance reform.
In 2017, following the end of her official role, she became an adjunct professor in the Division of Environment and Sustainability at the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, and is also Chief Development Strategist at its Institute for the Environment. In 2019 Loh released the second edition of her book Underground Front: The Chinese Communist Party in Hong Kong, first published in 2010.Starting in 2018, Loh has been teaching a course on non market risks at the Anderson School of Management at the University of California, Los Angeles.
Education and professional career
Loh attended St. Paul's Convent School in Causeway Bay, and later Island School in Mid-levels, Hong Kong. She then went to Bedford High School in the UK. She later attended the University of Hull, and City University of Hong Kong (Masters of Law in Chinese & Comparative Law) and the University of Hull (Doctor of Law, honoris causa).
Loh worked for 12 years as a commodities trader (1980–1991), rising to become managing director at Philipp Brothers and Phibro Energy — the physical commodities trading arms of US multinational Salomon, Inc. (now Citicorp) — before joining a Hong Kong company (CIM Co.), where she headed the special projects division between 1992 and 1994. In April 2006, she was elected by shareholders of the Hong Kong Exchanges and Clearing (HKEx) to be a director of the company and served till 2009.
Political career
Loh was appointed to the Legislative Council (LegCo) in 1992. In 1995 Hong Kong legislative election and 1998 Hong Kong legislative election she ran in two direct elections and won by large margins. She co-founded, in 1995, the Society for Protection of the Harbour and was responsible for creating and sponsoring the historic Protection of the Harbour Ordinance. While part of the democratic camp in LegCo, she took a less confrontational approach than some, preferring to keep open lines of communication with all sides. She has been described as Hong Kong's "reasonable radical".In 2000, she and Lisa Hopkinson co-founded a Hong Kong-based non-profit think tank, Civic Exchange, and once again entered the political spotlight, but outside of the LegCo. She resigned as its chief executive on 11 September 2012 upon her appointment as Undersecretary for the Environment in the administration of CY Leung, taking up her new post the following day. At the same time, she resigned from all her positions in other non-profit organizations, academic affiliations, and non-executive directorships in commercial firms.
As Undersecretary for the Environment, Loh was responsible for drafting policy documents, including on air quality, energy, and climate change. She was responsible for stakeholder engagement in such matters as biodiversity and energy saving in buildings. Loh was also responsible for changing Hong Kong's shipping emissions regulation, which resulted in mainland China changing its policy, as well as playing a crucial role in ending the local trading of ivory. She left the government at the end of CY Leung's term, on 30 June 2017.
Other activities
From the 1980s, Loh is a published author of many academic and popular works, she hosted a public affairs radio program at one time, and is an Op-Ed writer and presenter and speaker on the environment, climate change, green finance, as well as geopolitics, such as US-China relations.
Affiliations
Chairperson, Hong Kong Observers, 1980s
Chairperson, Friends of the Earth (HK), 1991–1992; 1993–1994
Chairperson, Citizens Party (HK), 1997–2000
Chairperson, Society for Protection of the Harbour, 2003-200?
Council Member, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, 1999–2005
Honorary Research Fellow, Centre of Urban Planning and Environmental Management, University of Hong Kong, 2001–2005
Member, Advisory Committee, Securities and Futures Commission, 2001–2005
Chief Executive, Civic Exchange, 2000–2012
Chairperson, Society for Protection of the Harbour, 2003–2012
Co-Chair, Human Rights in China, 2005–2012
Publications
At the Epicentre: Hong Kong and the SARS Outbreak (book), Hong Kong University Press, 2004.
Underground Front: The Chinese Communist Party in Hong Kong (book), Hong Kong University Press, 2010, 1st edition; and 2nd edition (2018).
No Third Person: Rewriting the Hong Kong Story (book, co-written with Richard Cullen), Abbreviated Press, 2018. An extended version of the book (“Hong Kong in China” has been published in Chinese by City University of Hong Kong Press in 2021).
Awards
Outstanding Young Person’s Award 1988
Communicator of the Year, 1994
Stars of Asia, Businessweek, 1998
Stars of Asia, Businessweek, 2000
Entrepreneur of the Year (Women of Influence Award, The American Chamber of Commerce, Hong Kong, 2003)
Honorary degree from University of Exeter (15 July 2016), for her contribution to environmental protection
Silver Bauhinia Star by the Hong Kong SAR Government (1 July 2017)
Christine Loh's profile at Civic Exchange |
Harbin (; Manchu: ᡥᠠᡵᠪᡳᠨ, Möllendorff: Halbin; simplified Chinese: 哈尔滨; traditional Chinese: 哈爾濱; pinyin: ) is a sub-provincial city and the provincial capital and the largest city of Heilongjiang province, People's Republic of China, as well as the second largest city by urban population after Shenyang and largest city by metropolitan population (urban and rural together) in Northeast China. Harbin has direct jurisdiction over nine metropolitan districts, two county-level cities and seven counties, and is the eighth most populous Chinese city according to the 2020 census. The built-up area of Harbin (which consists of all districts except Shuangcheng and Acheng) had 5,841,929 inhabitants, while the total metropolitan population was up to 10,009,854, making it one of the 100 largest urban areas in the world.
Harbin, whose name was originally a Manchu word meaning "a place for drying fishing nets", grew from a small rural settlement on the Songhua River to become one of the largest cities in Northeast China. Founded in 1898 with the coming of the Chinese Eastern Railway, the city first prospered as a region inhabited by an overwhelming majority of immigrants from the Russian Empire. In the 1920s, the city was considered China's fashion capital since new designs from Paris and Moscow reached here first before arriving in Shanghai. From 1932 until 1945, Harbin was the largest city in the Imperial Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo.
Known for its bitterly cold winters, Harbin is heralded as the Ice City (冰城) for its winter tourism and recreations. Harbin is notable for its ice sculpture festival in the winter. Being well known for its historical Russian legacy and architecture—the city is famed for its European influence, and serves as an important gateway in Sino-Russian trade today. Harbin serves as a key political, economic, scientific, cultural and communications hub in Northeast China, as well as an important industrial base of the nation. The city was voted "China Top Tourist City" by the China National Tourism Administration in 2004.Harbin is one of the top 100 cities and metropolitan areas in the world by scientific research output as tracked by the Nature Index. The city hosts several major universities in Northeast China, including Harbin Engineering, Harbin Medical, Northeast Agricultural, Harbin University of Science and Technology, Harbin Normal, Northeast Forestry, and Heilongjiang. Notably, Harbin Institute of Technology is consistently ranked as one of the best universities in the world for engineering.
History
Early history
Human settlement in the Harbin area dates from at least 2200 BC during the late Stone Age. Wanyan Aguda, the founder and first emperor (reigned 1115–1123) of the Jin dynasty (1115–1234), was born in the Jurchen Wanyan tribes who resided near the Ashi River in this region. In AD 1115 Aguda established Jin's capital Shangjing (Upper Capital) Huining Prefecture in today's Acheng District of Harbin. After Aguda's death, the new emperor Wanyang Sheng ordered the construction of a new city on a uniform plan. The planning and construction emulated major Chinese cities, in particular Bianjing (Kaifeng), although the Jin capital was smaller than its Northern Song prototype. Huining Prefecture served as the first superior capital of the Jin Empire until Wanyan Liang (the fourth emperor of the Jin Dynasty) moved the capital to Yanjing (now Beijing) in 1153. Liang even went to destroy all palaces in his former capital in 1157. Wanyan Liang's successor Wanyan Yong (Emperor Shizong) restored the city and established it as a secondary capital in 1173. Ruins of the Shangjing Huining Prefecture were discovered and excavated about 2 km (1.2 mi) from present-day Acheng's central urban area. The site of the old Jin capital ruins is a national historic reserve, and includes the Jin Dynasty History Museum. The museum, open to the public, was renovated in late 2005. Mounted statues of Aguda and of his chief commander Wanyan Zonghan (also Nianhan) stand in the grounds of the museum.
Many of the artifacts found there are on display in nearby Harbin.
After the Mongol conquest of the Jin Empire (1211–1234), Huining Prefecture was abandoned. In the 17th century, the Manchus used building materials from Huining Prefecture to construct their new stronghold in Alchuka. The region of Harbin remained largely rural until the 19th century, with over ten villages and about 30,000 people in the city's present-day urban districts by the end of the 19th century.
International city
A small village in 1898 grew into the modern city of Harbin. Polish engineer Adam Szydłowski drew plans for the city following the construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway, which the Russian Empire had financed. The Russians selected Harbin as the base of their administration over this railway and the Chinese Eastern Railway zone. The railways were largely constructed by Russian engineers and indentured workers. The Chinese Eastern Railway extended the Trans-Siberian Railway, substantially reducing the distance from Chita to Vladivostok and also linking the new port city of Dalny (Dalian) and the Russian naval base of Port Arthur (Lüshun). The settlement founded by the Russian-owned Chinese Eastern Railway quickly turned into a boomtown, growing into a city within five years. The majority of settlers in Harbin came from southern Ukraine (Russian Empire). In addition to Ukrainians, there were many Russians, Poles, Georgians, and Tatars.The city was intended as a showcase for Russian imperialism in Asia and the American scholar Simon Karlinsky, who was born in Harbin in 1924 into a Russian family, wrote that in Harbin "the buildings, boulevards, and parks were planned—well before the October Revolution—by distinguished Russian architects and also by Swiss and Italian town planners", giving the city a very European appearance. Starting in the late 19th century, a mass influx of Han Chinese arrived in Manchuria, and taking advantage of the rich soils, founded farms that soon turned Manchuria into the "breadbasket of China" while others went to work in the mines and factories of Manchuria, which become one of the first regions of China to industrialize. Harbin became one of the main points through which food and industrial products were shipped out of Manchuria. A sign of Harbin's wealth was that a theater had established during its first decade and in 1907 the play K zvezdam by Leonid Andreyev had its premiere there.
During the Russo-Japanese War (1904–05), Russia used Harbin as its base for military operations in Manchuria. Following Russia's defeat, its influence declined. Several thousand nationals from 33 countries, including the United States, Germany, and France, moved to Harbin. Sixteen countries established consulates to serve their nationals, who established several hundred industrial, commercial and banking companies. Churches were rebuilt for Russian Orthodox, Lutheran/German Protestant, and Polish Catholic Christians. Chinese capitalists also established businesses, especially in brewing, food, and textiles. Harbin became the economic hub of northeastern China and an international metropolis.The rapid growth of the city challenged the public healthcare system. The worst-ever recorded outbreak of pneumonic plague∆ spread to Harbin through the Trans-Manchurian railway from the border trade port of Manzhouli. The plague lasted from late autumn of 1910 to spring 1911 and killed 1,500 Harbin residents (mostly ethnic Chinese), or about five percent of its population at the time. This turned out to be the beginning of the large so-called Manchurian plague pandemic, which ultimately claimed 60,000 victims. In the winter of 1910, Dr. Wu Lien-teh (later the founder of Harbin Medical University) was given instructions from the Foreign Office, Peking, to travel to Harbin to investigate the plague. Dr. Wu asked for imperial sanction to cremate plague victims, as cremation of these infected victims turned out to be the turning point of the epidemic. The suppression of this plague pandemic changed medical progress in China. Bronze statues of Dr. Wu Lien-teh were built in Harbin Medical University to remember his contributions in promoting public health, preventive medicine, and medical education.The first generation of Harbin Russians were mostly the builders and employees of the Chinese Eastern Railway. They moved to Harbin in order to work on the railroad. At the time Harbin was not an established city. The city was almost built from scratch by the builders and early settlers. Houses were constructed, furniture and personal items were brought in from Russia. After the Manchurian plague epidemic, Harbin's population continued to increase sharply, especially inside the Chinese Eastern Railway Zone. In 1913 the Chinese Eastern Railway census showed its ethnic composition as: Russians – 34,313, Chinese (that is, including Hans, Manchus etc.) – 23,537, Jews – 5,032, Poles – 2556, Japanese – 696, Germans – 564, Tatars – 234, Latvians – 218, Georgians – 183, Estonians – 172, Lithuanians – 142, Armenians – 124; there were also Karaims, Ukrainians, Bashkirs, and some Western Europeans. In total, 68,549 citizens of 53 nationalities, speaking 45 languages. Research shows that only 11.5 percent of all residents were born in Harbin. By 1917, Harbin's population exceeded 100,000, with over 40,000 of them being ethnic Russians.
After Russia's Great October Socialist Revolution in November 1917, more than 100,000 defeated Russian White Guards and refugees retreated to Harbin, which became a major center of White Russian émigrés and the largest Russian enclave outside the Soviet Union. Karlinsky noted that a major difference with the Russian émigrés who arrived in Harbin was: "Unlike the Russian émigrés who went to Paris or Prague or even to Shanghai, the new residents of Harbin were not a minority surrounded by a foreign population. They found themselves instead in an almost totally Russian city, populated mainly by people with roots in the south of European Russia." The city had a Russian school system, as well as publishers of Russian-language newspapers and journals. The Russian Harbintsy community numbered around 120,000 at its peak in the early 1920s. Many of Harbin's Russians were wealthy, which sometimes confused foreign visitors who expected them to be poor, with for instance the American writer Harry A. Franck in his 1923 book Wanderings in North China writing the Russian "ladies as well gowned as at the Paris races [who] strolled with men faultlessly garbed by European standards", leading him to wonder how they had achieved this "deceptive appearance".The Harbin Institute of Technology was established in 1920 as the Harbin Sino-Russian School for Industry to educate railway engineers via a Russian method of instruction. Students could select from two majors at the time: Railway Construction or Electric Mechanic Engineering. On 2 April 1922, the school was renamed the Sino-Russian Industrial University. The original two majors eventually developed into two major departments: the Railway Construction Department and the Electric Engineering Department. Between 1925 and 1928 the university's Rector was Leonid Ustrugov, the Russian Deputy Minister of Railways under Nicholas II before the Russian Revolution, Minister of Railways under Admiral Kolchak's government and a key figure in the development of the Chinese Eastern Railway.
The Russian community in Harbin made it their mission to preserve the pre-revolutionary culture of Russia. The city had numerous Russian language newspapers, journals, libraries, theaters, and two opera companies. One of the famous Russian poets in Harbin was Valery Pereleshin, who started publishing his intensely homoerotic poetry in 1937 and was also one of the few Russian writers in Harbin who learned Mandarin. The subject of Pereleshin's poetry caused problems with the Russian Fascist Party, and led Pereleshin to leave Harbin for Shanghai, and ultimately to the United States. Not all of the Russian newspapers were of high quality, with Karlinsky calling Nash put', the newspaper of the Russian Fascist Party "the lowest example of gutter journalism that Harbin had ever seen". Nikolai Baikov, a Russian writer in Harbin was known for his novels of exile life in that city together with his accounts of his travels across Manchuria and the folklore of its Manchu and Chinese population. Boris Yulsky, a young Russian writer who published his short stories in the newspaper Rubezh was considered to be a promising writer whose career was cut short when he gave up literature for activism in the Russian Fascist Party and cocaine addiction. Moya-tvoya (mine – yours), a pidgin language that was a combination of Russian and Mandarin Chinese that had developed in the 19th century when Chinese went to work in Siberia, was considered essential by the Chinese businesspeople of Harbin.In the early 1920s, according to Chinese scholars' recent studies, over 20,000 Jews lived in Harbin. After 1919, Dr. Abraham Kaufman played a leading role in Harbin's large Russian Jewish community. The Republic of China discontinued diplomatic relations with the Russian Republic in 1920, leaving many Russians stateless. When the Chinese Eastern Railway and government in Beijing announced in 1924 that they agreed the railroad would employ only Russian or Chinese nationals, the emigrés were forced to announce their ethnic and political allegiance. Most accepted Soviet citizenship.The Chinese warlord Zhang Xueliang, the "Young Marshal" seized the Chinese Eastern Railway in 1929. The Soviet military force quickly put an end to the crisis and forced the Nationalist Chinese to accept the restoration of joint Soviet-Chinese administration of the railway.
Japanese invasion period
Japan invaded Manchuria outright after the Mukden Incident in September 1931. After the Japanese captured Qiqihar in the Jiangqiao Campaign, the Japanese 4th Mixed Brigade moved toward Harbin, closing in from the west and south. Bombing and strafing by Japanese aircraft forced the Chinese army to retreat from Harbin. Within a few hours, the Japanese occupation of Harbin was complete.With the establishment of the puppet state of Manchukuo, the so-called "pacification of Manchukuo" began, as volunteer armies continued to fight the Japanese. Harbin became a major operations base for the infamous medical experimenters of Unit 731, who killed people of all ages and ethnicities. All these units were known collectively as the Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department of the Kwantung Army. The main facility of the Unit 731 was built in 1935 at Pingfang District, approximately 24 km (15 mi) south of Harbin urban area at that time. Between 3,000 and 12,000 citizens including men, women, and children—from which around 600 every year were provided by the Kempeitai—died during the human experimentation conducted by Unit 731 at the camp based in Pingfang alone, which does not include victims from other medical experimentation sites. Almost 70 percent of the victims who died in the Pingfang camp were Chinese, including both civilian and military. Close to 30 percent of the victims were Russian. The Russian Fascist Party had the task of capturing "unreliable" Russians living in Harbin to hand over to Unit 731 to serve as the unwilling subjects of the gruesome experiments. Some others were South East Asians and Pacific Islanders from then-colonies of the Empire of Japan, and a small number of the prisoners of war from the Allies of World War II (although many more Allied POWs were victims of Unit 731 at other sites). Prisoners of war were subjected to vivisection without anesthesia, after being infected with various diseases. Prisoners were injected with inoculations of disease, disguised as vaccinations, to study their effects. Unit 731 and its affiliated units (Unit 1644 and Unit 100 among others) were involved in research, development, and experimental deployment of epidemic-creating biowarfare weapons in assaults against the Chinese populace (both civilian and military) throughout World War II. Human targets were also used to test grenades positioned at various distances and in different positions. Flame throwers were tested on humans. Humans were tied to stakes and used as targets to test germ-releasing bombs, chemical weapons, and explosive bombs. Twelve Unit 731 members were found guilty in the Khabarovsk War Crime Trials but later repatriated; others received secret immunity by the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers Douglas MacArthur before the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal in exchange for biological warfare work in the Cold War for the American Force.
Chinese revolutionaries including Zhao Shangzhi, Yang Jingyu, Li Zhaolin, Zhao Yiman continued to struggle against the Japanese in Harbin and its administrative area, commanding the main anti-Japanese guerrilla army-Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army—which was originally organized by the Manchurian branch of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The army was supported by the Comintern after the CCP Manchurian Provincial Committee was dissolved in 1936.
Under the Manchukuo régime and Japanese occupation, Harbin Russians had a difficult time. In 1935, the Soviet Union sold the Chinese Eastern Railway (KVZhD) to the Japanese, and many Russian emigres left Harbin (48,133 of them were arrested during the Soviet Great Purge between 1936 and 1938 as "Japanese spies"). Most departing Russians returned to the Soviet Union, but a substantial number moved south to Shanghai or emigrated to the United States and Australia. By the end of the 1930s, the Russian population of Harbin had dropped to around 30,000.Many of Harbin's Jews (13,000 in 1929) fled after the Japanese occupation as the Japanese associated closely with militant anti-Soviet Russian Fascists, whose ideology of anti-Bolshevism and nationalism was laced with virulent anti-Semitism. The Kwantung Army-sponsored and financed the Russian Fascist Party, which after 1932 started to play an over-sized role in the Harbin's Russian community as its thugs began to harass and sometimes kill those opposed to it. Most Jews left for Shanghai, Tianjin, and the British Mandate of Palestine. In the late 1930s, some German Jews fleeing the Nazis moved to Harbin. Japanese officials later facilitated Jewish emigration to several cities in western Japan, notably Kobe, which came to have Japan's largest synagogue.
After World War II
The Soviet Army took the city on 20 August 1945 and Harbin never came under the control of the Nationalist Government, whose troops stopped 60 km (37 mi) short of the city. The city's administration was transferred by the departing Soviet Army to the Chinese People's Liberation Army in April 1946. On 28 April 1946, the communist government of Harbin was established, making the 700,000-citizen-city the first large city governed by the communists. During the short occupation of Harbin by the Soviet Army (August 1945 to April 1946), thousands of Russian emigres who had been identified as members of the Russian Fascist Party and fled communism after the Russian October Revolution, were forcibly deported to the Soviet Union. After 1952 the Soviet Union launched a second wave of immigration back to Russia. By 1964, the Russian population in Harbin had been reduced to 450. The rest of the European community (Russians, Germans, Poles, Greeks, etc.) emigrated from 1950 to 1954 to Australia, Brazil, Canada, Israel, and the US, or were repatriated to their home countries. By 1988 the original Russian community numbered just thirty, all of them elderly. Modern Russians living in Harbin mostly moved there in the 1990s and 2000s, and have no relation to the first wave of emigration.Harbin was one of the key construction cities of China during the First Five-Year Plan period from 1951 to 1956. 13 of the 156 key construction projects were aid-constructed by the Soviet Union in Harbin. This project made Harbin an important industrial base of China. During the Great Leap Forward from 1958 to 1961, Harbin experienced a very tortuous development course as several Sino-Soviet contracts were cancelled by the Soviet Union. During the Cultural Revolution many foreign and Christian things were uprooted. On 23 August 1966, Red Guards stormed into St. Nicholas Cathedral, burned its icons on the streets while chanting xenophobic slogans before destroying the church. As the normal economic and social order was seriously disrupted, Harbin's economy also suffered from serious setbacks. One of the main reasons of this setback is with its Soviet ties deteriorating and the Vietnam War escalating, China became concerned of a possible nuclear attack. Mao Zedong ordered an evacuation of military and other key state enterprises away from the northeastern frontier, with Harbin being the core zone of this region, bordering the Soviet Union. During this Third Front Development Era of China, several major factories of Harbin were relocated to Southwestern Provinces including Gansu, Sichuan, Hunan and Guizhou, where they would be strategically secure in the event of a possible war. Some major universities of China were also moved out of Harbin, including Harbin Military Academy of Engineering (predecessor of Changsha's National University of Defense Technology) and Harbin Institute of Technology (Moved to Chongqing in 1969 and relocated to Harbin in 1973).
National economy and social service have obtained significant achievements since the Chinese economic reform first introduced in 1979. Harbin holds the China Harbin International Economic and Trade Fair each year since 1990. Harbin once housed one of the largest Jewish communities in the Far East before World War II. It reached its peak in the mid-1920s when 25,000 European Jews lived in the city. Among them were the parents of Ehud Olmert, the former Prime Minister of Israel. In 2004, Olmert came to Harbin with an Israeli trade delegation to visit the grave of his grandfather in Huang Shan Jewish Cemetery, which had over 500 Jewish graves identified.On 5 October 1984, Harbin was designated a sub-provincial city by the Organization Department of the CCP Central Committee. The eight counties of Harbin originally formed part of Songhuajiang Prefecture whose seat was practically located inside the urban area of Harbin since 1972. The prefecture was officially merged into Harbin city on 11 August 1996, increasing Harbin's total population to 9.47 million.Harbin hosted the third Asian Winter Games in 1996. In 2009, Harbin held the XXIV Winter Universiade.
A memorial hall honoring Korean nationalist and independence activist Ahn Jung-geun was unveiled at Harbin Railway Station on 19 January 2014. Ahn assassinated four-time Prime Minister of Japan and former Resident-General of Korea Itō Hirobumi at No.1 platform of Harbin Railway Station on 26 October 1909, as Korea on the verge of annexation by Japan after the signing of the Eulsa Treaty. South Korean President Park Geun-Hye raised an idea of erecting a monument for Ahn while meeting with Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping during a visit to China in June 2013. After that China began to build a memorial hall honoring Ahn at Harbin Railway Station. As the hall was unveiled on 19 January 2014, the Japanese side soon lodged protest with China over the construction of Ahn's memorial hall.
Geography
Harbin, with a total land area of 53,068 km2 (20,490 sq mi), is located in southern Heilongjiang province and is the provincial capital. The prefecture is also located at the southeastern edge of the Songnen Plain, a major part of China's Northeastern Plain. The city center also sits on the southern bank of the middle Songhua River. Harbin received its nickname The pearl on the swan's neck, since the shape of Heilongjiang resembles a swan. Its administrative area is rather large with latitude spanning 44° 04′−46° 40′ N, and longitude 125° 42′−130° 10' E. Neighbouring prefecture-level cities are Yichun to the north, Jiamusi and Qitaihe to the northeast, Mudanjiang to the southeast, Daqing to the west, and Suihua to the northwest. On its southwestern boundary is Jilin province. The main terrain of the city is generally flat and low lying, with an average elevation of around 150 metres (490 ft). The territory that comprises the 10 county-level divisions in the eastern part of the municipality consists of mountains and uplands. The easternmost part of Harbin prefecture also has extensive wetlands, mainly in Yilan County, which is located at the southwestern edge of the Sanjiang Plain.
Climate
Under the Köppen climate classification, Harbin features a monsoon-influenced, humid continental climate (Dwa). Due to the Siberian high and its location above 45 degrees north latitude, the city is known for its cold weather and long winter. Its nickname Ice City is well-earned, as winters in the city are dry and freezing cold, with a 24-hour average in January of only −17.3 °C (0.9 °F), although the city sees little precipitation during the winter and is often sunny. Spring and autumn constitute brief transition periods with variable wind directions. Summers can be hot, with a July mean temperature of 23.7 °C (74.7 °F). Summer is also when most of the year's rainfall occurs, and more than half of the annual precipitation, at 539 millimetres (21.2 in), occurs in July and August alone. With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 45 percent in December to 60 percent in September, the city receives 2,340 hours of bright sunshine annually; on average precipitation falls 99 days out of the year. The annual mean temperature is 5.2 °C (41.4 °F), and extreme temperatures have ranged from −42.6 °C (−45 °F) to 39.2 °C (103 °F).
Administrative divisions
The sub-provincial city of Harbin has direct jurisdiction over 9 districts, 2 county-level cities and 7 counties.
Economy
Harbin has the largest economy in Heilongjiang province. In 2013, Harbin's GDP totaled RMB501.08 billion, an increase of 8.9 percent over the previous year. The proportion of the three industries to the aggregate of GDP was 11.1:36.1:52.8 in 2012. The total value for imports and exports by the end of 2012 was US$5,330 million. In 2012, the working population reached 3.147 million. In 2015, Harbin had a GDP of RMB 575.12 billion.The chernozem soil in Harbin is one of the most nutrient rich in all of China, making it valuable for cultivating food and textile-related crops. As a result, Harbin is China's base for the production of commodity grain and an ideal location for setting up agricultural businesses.
Harbin also has industries such as light industry, textile, medicine, food, aircraft, automobile, metallurgy, electronics, building materials, and chemicals that help to form a fairly comprehensive industrial system. Several major corporations are based in the city. Harbin Electric Company Limited, Harbin Aircraft Industry Group and Northeast Light Alloy Processing Factory are some of key enterprises. Power manufacturing is a main industry in Harbin; hydro and thermal power equipment manufactured here makes up one-third of the total installed capacity in China. According to Platts, in 2009-10 Harbin Electric was the second largest manufacturer of steam turbines by worldwide market share, tying Dongfang Electric and slightly behind Shanghai Electric. Harbin Pharmaceutical Group, which mainly focus on research, development, manufacture and sale of medical products, is China's second-biggest pharmaceutical company by market value.Harbin International Trade and Economic Fair has been held annually since 1990. This investment and trade fair cumulatively attracting more than 1.9 million exhibitors and visitors from more than 80 countries and regions to attend, resulting over US$100 billion contract volume concluded according to the statistics of 2013. Harbin is among major destinations of FDI in Northeast China, with utilized FDI totaling US$980 million in 2013. After the 18th regular meeting between Sino-Russian Prime Ministers between Li Keqiang and Dmitry Anatolyevich Medvedev in October 2013, two sides come to make an agreement that the Harbin International Trade and Economic Fair will be renamed "China-Russia EXPO" and be co-sponsored by the Chinese Ministry of Commerce, Heilongjiang Provincial government, the Russian Ministry of Economic Development and Russia's Ministry of Trade and Industry.
In the financial sector, Longjiang Bank and Harbin Bank are some of the largest banks in Northeast China, with headquarters in Harbin. The latter ranks fourth by competitiveness among Chinese city commercial banks in 2011.In commerce, there is Qiulin Group, which owns Harbin's largest department store.
Economic development zones and ports
Harbin Economic & Technology Development Zone (National), mainly focus on telecommunications equipment, chemicals production and processing, automobile production/assembly, electronics, textiles, medical equipment and supplies.
Harbin High and New Technological Development Zone, focus on optical-mechanical-electrical integration, biology, medicine, electronics and information technology.
Harbin Pingfang Automobile Industrial Zone (Provincial), mainly focus on automobile production/assembly, electronics assembly & manufacturing, heavy industry, instruments & industrial equipment production.
Harbin Limin Economic Development Zone (Provincial), mainly focus on trading and distribution, food/beverage processing, medical equipment and supplies, shipping/warehousing/logistics.
Harbin PortHarbin Songbei Economic Development ZoneSongbei Economic Development Zone is located in Songbei District of Harbin. The zone has a planned area of 5.53 square kilometers. Electronics assembly & manufacturing, food and beverage processing are the encouraged industries in the zone. Many regional and provincial headquarters of large enterprises such as the China Datang Corporation, China Netcom and China Telecom have joined in this district, preliminary constituting the economy concentration zone of the local headquarters. Regional Scientific research centers including Harbin Science and Technology Innovation Center and Harbin International Agricultural Science and Technology Innovation Center are also located in this development zone. Profit from these major research institutes, Harbin ranked ninth among 50 major Chinese cities in scientific and technological innovation ability in scientific and technological competitiveness ranking in 2006, as well as ranking sixth among Chinese cities in the amount of scientific and technological achievements.
Harbin Economic and Technological Development ZoneHarbin Economic and Technological Development Zone (HETDZ) is one of the 90 national economical development zones of China. It was set up in June 1991, and was approved by the State Council as a national development zone in April 1993. In December 2012, Harbin High Technology Development Zone was merged into HETDZ. In 2009, the hi-tech zone was separated from HETDZ again. The area now has a total area of 18.5 square-kilometers in the centralized parks, subdivided into Nangang and Haping Road Centralized Parks. The 12.2 square-kilometers Yingbin Road Hi-tech Centralized Park, which was formerly part of HETDZ, is currently under the administration of Harbin High and New Technology Industry Development Zone since 2009.
Nangang Centralized Park: designated for the incubation of high-tech projects and research and development base of enterprises as well as tertiary industries such as finance, insurance, services, catering, tourism, culture, recreation and entertainment, where the headquarters of large famous companies and their branches in Harbin are located.
Yingbin Road Centralized Park: mainly focus on high-tech incubation projects, high-tech industrial development.
Haping Road Centralized Park: designated for a comprehensive industrial basis for the investment projects of automobile and automobile parts manufacturing, medicines, foodstuffs, electronics, textile; Automobile production and assembly raw material processing are the encouraged industries in this region.Harbin High and New Technology Industry Development ZoneHarbin High and New Technology Industry Development Zone is one of the 56 national High and New Technology Industry Development Zones of China. The zone was first set up as a provincial level development zone in 1988, and was approved by the State Council as a national development zone in 1991 respectively. It has 23.9 square-kilometers of built-area totally, and subdivided into two parts: Science and Technology Innovation Town and High-tech Industrial Development Zone.
Demographics
Population
The 2010 census revealed total population in Harbin was 10,635,971, representing a 12.99 percent increase over the previous decade. The built-up area, made up of all urban districts but Acheng and Shuangcheng not urbanized yet, had a population of 5,282,083 people. The encompassing metropolitan area was estimated by the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) to have, as of 2010, a population of 10.5 million.The demographic profile for the Harbin metropolitan area in general is relatively old: 10.95 percent are under the age of 14, while 8.04 percent are over 65, compared to the national average of 16.6% and 8.87 percent, respectively. Harbin has a higher percentage of males (50.85 percent) than females (49.15 percent). Harbin currently has a lower birth rate than other parts of China, with 6.95 births per 1,000 inhabitants, compared to the Chinese average of 12.13 births.
Ethnic groups
Most of Harbin's residents belong to the Han Chinese majority (93.45 percent). Ethnic minorities include the Manchu, Hui, and Mongol. In 2000, 616,749 residents belonged to minority ethnicities, among which the vast majority (433,340) were Manchu, contributing 70.26 percent to the minority population. The second and third largest minority groups were Koreans (119,883) and Hui nationalities (39,995).
Religion
The Catholic minority is pastorally served by the Apostolic Administration of Harbin, a missionary pre-diocesan jurisdiction. It also has the Eastern Catholic former cathedral of the Russian Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Harbin. The badly damaged Church of the Iver Icon of the Mother of God was previously used by Russian soldiers of the Outer Amur Military Region, then garrisoned in Harbin. A small percentage of the city's population consists of Muslims. Daowai Mosque is located in Harbin and is the largest mosque in Heilongjiang province. Harbin had a small Jewish community centered on Zhongyang Main Street, which was home to many European Jewish refugees.
Culture
The Harbin local culture is based on Han culture, combined with Manchu culture and Russian culture. This combination of cultures influences the local architecture style, food, music, and customs. The city of Harbin was appointed a UNESCO City of Music on 22 June 2010 as part of the Creative Cities Network.
Cuisine
Harbin is renowned for its culinary tradition. The cuisine of Harbin consists of European dishes and Northern Chinese dishes mainly typified by heavy sauce and deep-frying.One of the most famous dishes in Northeastern Chinese cuisine is Guo Bao Rou, a form of sweet and sour pork. It is a classic dish from Harbin that originated in the early 20th century in Daotai Fu (pinyin: Dàotái Fǔ). It consists of a bite-sized pieces of pork in a potato starch batter, deep-fried until crispy. They are then lightly coated in a variation of a sweet and sour sauce, made from freshly prepared syrup, rice vinegar, sugar, flavoured with ginger, cilantro, sliced carrot and garlic. The Harbin Guobaorou is distinct from that of other areas of China, such as Liaoning, where the sauce may be made using either tomato ketchup or orange juice. Rather the Harbin style is dominated by the honey and ginger flavours and has a clear or honey yellow colour. Originally the taste was fresh and salty. In order to fete foreign guests, Zheng Xingwen, the chef of Daotai Fu, altered the dish into a sweet and sour taste. Usually, people prefer to go to several small or middle size restaurants to enjoy this dish, because it is difficult to handle the frying process at home.Demoli Stewed Live Fish is one among other notable dishes in Harbin, which is originated in a village named Demoli on the expressway from Harbin to Jiamusi. The village is now Demoli Service Area on Harbin-Tongjiang Expressway. Stewed Chicken with Mushrooms, Braised Pork with Vermicelli, and quick-boil pork with Chinese sauerkraut are also typical authentic local dishes.
Since Russia had a strong influence on Harbin's history, the local cuisine of Harbin also contains Russian-style dishes and flavor. There are several authentic Russian-style restaurants in Harbin, especially alongside the Zhongyang Street.
A popular regional specialty is Harbin-style smoked savory red sausage. This product, which is similar to mild Lithuanian and German sausages, tend to be much more of European flavours than other Chinese sausages. In 1900, Russian merchant Ivan Yakovlevich Churin founded a branch in Harbin, which was named Churin Foreign trading company (pinyin: Qiulin Yanghang; Russian: Цюлинь Янхан) selling imported clothes, leather boots, canned foods, vodka, etc., and began to expand sales network in other cities in Manchuria. The influx of Europeans through the Trans-Siberian Railway and Chinese Eastern Railway, increased demand of European flavor food. In 1909, Churin's Sausage Factory was founded, and first produced European flavor sausage with the manufacturing process of Lithuanian staff. Since then, European style sausage has become a specialty of the city.A Russian style large round bread 大列巴 dà liě ba, derived from the Russian word khleb for "bread" is also produced in Harbin's bakeries. Dalieba is a miche like sourdough bread. First introduced to the locals by a Russian baker, it has been sold in bakeries in Harbin for over a hundred years. Dalieba's sour and chewy taste is different from other traditional soft and fluffy Asian style breads in other parts of China.
Kvass, a Russia-originated fermented beverage made from black or regular rye bread, is also popular in Harbin.
Madier ("马迭尔", derived from "Modern") ice-cream provided in the Zhongyang Street is also well known in northern China. This ice cream is made from a specific traditional recipe and it tastes a little salty but more sweet and milky. Besides its headquarters in Harbin, it also has branches in other major Chinese cities including Beijing, Shanghai, etc.Manchu cuisine has mostly disappeared from Harbin.
Tourism
Harbin, the capital of Heilongjiang Province, is situated in the northeast of the Northeast China Plain. It is a Famous Historical and Cultural City with an infusion of foreign culture. It is also popular as a city universally prestigious for its snow and ice culture. Summer and winter are the best occasions to visit Harbin as it is a cool resort in the short lovely summer and a fascinating ice kingdom in the harsh cold and long winter.Harbin is known for its European-style structures, for example, the popular Saint Sophia Cathedral, the design on Central Street, and the Baroque compositional complex in Lao Daowai (Old Town). Harbin in winter shows a large number of ice figures and offers many ice and snow activities for sightseers.
Along with facilitating the world's greatest Ice and Snow Festival, Harbin flaunts the world's biggest indoor ski park, which is inside the Wanda Harbin Mall (counting six ski slants up to 500 meters in length).
Winter culture
Located in northern Northeast China, Harbin is the northernmost among major cities in China. Under the direct influence of the Siberian Anticyclone, the average daily temperature is −19.7 °C (−3.5 °F) in winter. Annual low temperatures below −25.0 °C (−13.0 °F) are not uncommon. Nicknamed "Ice City" due to its freezingly cold winter, Harbin is decorated by various styles of Ice and snow Sculptures from December to March every year.
The annual Harbin International Ice and Snow Sculpture Festival has been held since 1985. Although the official start date is 5 January each year, in practice, many of the sculptures can be seen before. While there are ice sculptures throughout the city, there are two main exhibition areas: enormous snow sculptures at Sun Island (Taiyang Dao, a AAAAA-rated recreational area on the opposite side of the Songhua River from the city) and the separate "Ice and Snow World" that operates each night with lights switched on, illuminating the sculptures from both inside and outside. Ice and Snow World features illuminated full-size buildings made from blocks of 2–3 feet thick crystal clear ice directly taken from the Songhua River, which passes through the city. The sculptures inside the exhibition ground takes 15,000 workers to work for 16 days. In early December, ice artisans cut 120,000 cubic metres (4.2 million cubic feet) of ice blocks from Songhua river's frozen surface as raw materials for the ice sculptures' show. Massive ice buildings, large-scale snow sculptures, ice slides, festival food and drinks can also be found in several parks and major avenues in the city. Winter activities in the festival include Yabuli Alpine Skiing, snow mobile driving, winter-swimming in Songhua River, and the traditional ice-lantern exhibition in Zhaolin Garden, which was first held in 1963. Snow carving and ice and snow recreations are famous nationwide, especially among Asian countries including Korea, Japan, Thailand and Singapore.The "Harbin International Ice and Snow Festival" is one of the four largest ice and snow festivals in the world, along with Japan's Sapporo Snow Festival, Canada's Quebec City Winter Carnival, and Norway's Holmenkollen Ski Festival.Every November, the city of Harbin sends teams of ice artisans to the United States to promote their unique art form. It takes more than 100 artisans to create ICE!, the annual display of indoor Christmas-themed ice carvings in National Harbor, Maryland; Nashville, Tennessee; Kissimmee, Florida; and Grapevine, Texas.
The Music City
Founded in 1908, the Harbin Symphony Orchestra was China's oldest symphony orchestra. Harbin No.1 Music School was also the first music school in China, which was founded in 1928. Nearly 100 famous musicians have studied at the school since its founding, said Liu Yantao, deputy chief of Harbin Cultural, Press and Publication Bureau.
Every year, thousands of youngsters start their music dreams in this city, and the "Harbin Summer Music Concert" serial activities that always be held in the every year's summer present the music passion of the locals.
UNESCO recognizes China's Harbin as "The Music City" as part of the Creative Cities Network in 2010.
Harbin Summer Music Concert
Harbin Summer Music Concert ('Concert' for short) is a national concert festival, which is held on 6 August every two years for a period of 10~11 days. During the concert, multiple evenings, concert, race and activities are held. The artists come from all over the world.
The 'Harbin Summer Music Month', which was then renamed as 'Harbin Summer Music Concert', was held in August 1958. The first formal Concert was held on 5 August 1961 in Harbin Youth Palace, and kept on every year until 1966 when the Cultural Revolution started in China. In 1979, the Concert was recovered and from 1994, it has been held every two years. As a part of 2006 Harbin Summer Music Concert's opening ceremony, a 1,001-piano concert was held in Harbin's Flood memorial square located at the north end of Central Street (Chinese: 中央大街; pinyin: Zhōngyāng Dàjiē) on 6 August 2006. Repertoires of the ensemble consisted of Triumphal March, Military March, Radetzky March and famous traditional local song On The Sun Island. This concert set a new Guinness World Record for largest piano ensemble, surpassing the previous record held by German artists in a 600-piano concert.
In 2008, the 29th Harbin Summer Music Concert was held on 6 August.
Media
Television and radio
Heilongjiang Television (HLJTV) serves as the media outlets of this region, broadcasts on seven channels as well as a satellite channel for other provinces.
Harbin Television (HRBTV) serves as a municipal station, which has five channels for specialized programming.
Long Guang, Dragon Broadcast, formerly Heilongjiang People's Broadcasting Station, the radio station group that serves the whole Heilongjiang region, providing seven channels including a Korean language broadcast station.
Harbin People's Broadcasting Station (HPBS), broadcasts music, news, traffic, economy and life in Harbin and adjacent areas including Daqing, Suihua and Fuyu.
Architecture
Harbin is notable for its combination of Chinese and European architecture styles. Many Russian and other European style buildings are protected by the government. The architecture in Harbin gives it the nicknames of "Oriental Moscow" and "Oriental Paris" in China.
Historical architecture
Central Street, one of the main business streets in Harbin, is a remnant of the bustling international business activities at the turn of the 20th century. First built in 1898, The 1.4 km (0.87 mi) long street is now a veritable museum of European architectural styles: Baroque and Byzantine façades, little Russian bakeries and French fashion houses, as well as non European architectural styles: American eateries, and Japanese restaurants.The Russian Orthodox church, Saint Sophia Cathedral, is also located in the central district of Daoli. Built in 1907 and expanded from 1923 to 1932, it was closed during the Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution periods. Following its designation in 1996 as a national cultural heritage site (First class Preserved Building), it was turned into a museum as a showcase of the history of Harbin city in 1997. The 53.35 m (175.0 ft)-tall Church, which covers an area of 721 square meters, is a typical representative of Byzantine architecture.
Many citizens believe that the Orthodox church damaged the local feng shui, so they donated money to build a Chinese Buddhist monastery in 1921, the Ji Le Temple. There were more than 15 Russian Orthodox churches and two cemeteries in Harbin until 1949. The Communist Revolution, and the subsequent Cultural Revolution, and the decrease in the ethnic Russian population, saw many of them abandoned or destroyed. Today, about 10 churches remain, while services are held only in the Church of the Intercession in Harbin.The Harbin Railway Administration, formerly known as the Middle East Railway Administration, commonly known as the "big stone house", was built in 1902, destroyed twice and rebuilt in 1904 and 1906.
Modern architecture
Harbin Grand Theatre is located in the cultural center of Songbei District, Harbin. It provides 1600- and 400-seat venues. The architecture uses the external design of the heterogeneous hyperbolic surface.The Harbin Grand Theatre is a landmark building in Harbin. It is built in accordance with the water and is consistent with the surrounding environment. It embodies the concept of the landscape and landscape of the north. As a public building facility, the theatre provides people and visitors with different spatial experiences from the theatre, landscape, square and stereoscopic platform. During the design process, architect Ma Yansong has set up a unique sightseeing corridor and viewing platform in the Grand Theatre. Visitors are able to overlook the surrounding wetland and enjoy the unique natural wetland scenery of Harbin.
After the completion of the Harbin Grand Theatre, the public can enjoy opera, symphony, ballet and drama performances in various function rooms.
Sports
As the center of winter sports in China, Harbin has hosted the 1996 Winter Asian Games and the 2009 Winter Universiade. Along these events, many famous winter sports athletes come from Harbin. Olympic medalists include short track star Wang Meng (six-time medalist); long track skater Zhang Hong (2014 Sochi, gold medal); and pairs figure skaters Shen Xue and Zhao Hongbo (2002 Salt Lake City, bronze medal; 2006 Turin, bronze medal; and 2010 Vancouver, gold medal), Zhang Dan and Zhang Hao (2006 Turin, silver medal), Pang Qing and Tong Jian (2010 Vancouver, silver medal), and Sui Wenjing and Han Cong (2022 Beijing, gold medal; 2018 Pyeongchang, silver medal).Harbin has an indoor speed skating arena, the Heilongjiang Indoor Rink. Opened in 1995, it is the oldest one of seven in China.
Mutual cooperation of the Far Eastern State Academy of Physical Culture and the Harbin Institute of Physical Education started an exchange of sports and cultural delegations, holding of sports, training of Chinese students in Khabarovsk, Russia and Harbin. Russian side started to have plans to introduce bandy to China while Harbin has good preconditions to become one of the strong points of this sport in China. The national team is based in Harbin, and it was confirmed in advance that they would play in the 2015 Bandy World Championship. The Chinese team came 16th in a field of 17 teams, edging out Somalia. Mr Zhu, president of the sport university, is a member of the Federation of International Bandy council. In December 2017, an international student tournament will be played. While Chinese bandy is still in its initial stages, it is expected that Harbin even more will become the driving force behind the domestic development, for example via opening the Federation of International Bandy office for development and promotion in Asia.Heilongjiang Ice City Football Club currently play their home soccer matches at Harbin International Conference Exhibition and Sports Center, a 50000-seater stadium. The team gained promotion to China's second tier for the 2018 season when they came first in the 2017 China League Two division.
KRS Heilongjiang are a professional ice hockey team based in the city. A member of the Russian-based Supreme Hockey League and one of two Chinese teams in the league. The team is affiliated with the Kontinental Hockey League side, also based in China, HC Kunlun Red Star.
An indoor ski resort opened in Harbin in 2017 and laid claim to be the world's largest of its kind. It will make it possible to enjoy down-hill skiing all year round.
Events
The 1996 Asian Winter Games were held in Harbin. While ice games were mainly held in Harbin city, the skiing events were held in Yabuli ski resort, Shangzhi City. In the frame of this campaign to assert its role on the world scene, Harbin hosted the 2009 Winter Universiade. Local Government spent 3.6 billion yuan for this event, with 2.63 billion used in construction and renovation of its sport infrastructure for this Universiade.Harbin hosted the Asian Basketball Confederation Championship in 2003, in which China won the championship on their home court for the thirteenth time.Harbin bid to host the 2010 Winter Olympics, which was ultimately awarded to Vancouver, Canada.The second China-Russia University Winter Sports Carnival was inaugurated 12 December 2017. This marked the first international bandy in Harbin. The Russian participation came from DVGAFK in Khabarovsk among men and IrGTU in Irkutsk among women.Being the national centre of bandy, Harbin organised Division B of the 2018 Bandy World Championship and China improved its placing to 12th from a total field of 16 teams.
Transport
Railway
Located at the junction of "T-style" mainline system, Harbin is an important railway hub of the Northeast China Region. Harbin Railway Bureau is the first Railway Bureau established by People's Republic of China Government, of which the railway density is the highest in China. Five conventional rail lines radiate from Harbin to: Beijing (Jingha Line), Suifenhe (Binsui Line), Manzhouli (Binzhou Line), Beian (Binbei Line) and Lalin (Labin Line). In addition, Harbin has a high-speed rail line linking Dalian, Northeast China's southernmost seaport. In 2009, construction began on the new Harbin West Railway Station with 18 platforms, located on the southwestern part of the city. In December 2012, the station was opened, as China unveiled its first high-speed rail running through regions with extremely low winter temperatures. with scheduled runs from Harbin to Dalian. The weather-proof CRH380B bullet trains serving the line can accommodate temperatures from minus 40 degrees Celsius to 40 degrees Celsius above zero.
China's most northerly high-speed railway, Harbin–Qiqihar Intercity Railway, opened for revenue service on 17 August 2015. The rail links three largest principal cities in Heilongjiang including Harbin, Daqing and Qiqihar. Harbin–Jiamusi and Harbin–Mudanjiang Intercity railways both opened for public service in 2018, connecting the provincial capital to major prefectural level cities Mudanjiang and Jiamusi.
The city's main railway stations are the Harbin Railway Station, which was first built in 1899 and expanded in 1989. The main station is rebuilt in 2017, and now is still under construction; the Harbin East Railway Station, which opened in 1934; and the Harbin West Railway Station, which was built into the city's high-speed railway station in 2012. Another main station, Harbin North Railway Station, opened for public service in 2015, along with new built Harbin-Qiqihar Passenger Railway.Direct passenger train service is available from Harbin Railway Station to large cities including Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, Guangzhou, Jinan, Nanjing and many other major cities in China. Direct high-speed railway service began operation between Harbin West and Shanghai Hongqiao stations on 28 December 2013, and shorten the journey time to 12 hours.
Harbin railway system
Road
As an important regional hub in Northeast China, Harbin has an advanced highway system. Major highways that pass through or terminate in Harbin include the Beijing–Harbin, Heihe–Dalian, Harbin–Tongjiang, Changchun–Harbin, and Manzhouli–Suifenhe highways.
G1 Beijing–Harbin Expressway
G10 Suifenhe–Manzhouli Expressway
G1001 Harbin Ring Expressway
G1011 Harbin–Tongjiang Expressway, a spur of G10 that extends west to Tongjiang, formerly part of China National Highway 010
G1111 Hegang–Harbin Expressway, a spur of G11 Hegang–Dalian Expressway
G1211 Jilin–Heihe Expressway, a spur of G12 Hunchun–Ulanhot Expressway that extends north to Heihe
China National Highway 102
China National Highway 202
China National Highway 221
China National Highway 222
China National Highway 301
Air
Harbin Taiping International Airport, which is 35 kilometres (22 miles) away from the urban area of Harbin, is the second largest international airport in Northeast China. The technical level of flight district is 4E, which allows all kinds of large and medium civil aircraft. There are flights to over thirty large cities including Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, Nanjing, Qingdao, Wenzhou, Xiamen, Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Shenyang, Dalian, Xi'an and Hong Kong. In addition there are also scheduled international flights between Harbin and Russia, Singapore, Malaysia and South Korea. In June 2015, The first LCC international air routes to Japan, specifically the city of Nagoya was to begin.
Because of the freight capability limitation, construction of the T2 Terminal began on 31 October 2014. The 160,000-square-meter T2 Terminal was scheduled to be finished in 2017, and will increase the freight capacity of the airport to three times of the previous. Harbin is also working on T3 which would be shaped like a snow flake, signifying Harbin as an ice city famous for their annual International Ice & Snow Sculpture Festival which places during the heavy winter season.
Metro
Construction of Harbin Metro started on 5 December 2006. The total investment for the first phase of Line 1 is RMB5.89 billion. Twenty stations were planned to be set on this 17.73 km (11.02 mi) long line starting from Harbin East Railway Station to the 2nd Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University in the west of the city. A metro depot, a command centre and two transformer substations will be built along the line. Most of the line's route follows the air defence evacuation tunnel left from the "7381" Project, which started in 1973 and ended in 1979. The 7381 project was intended to protect Harbin from the former Soviet Union's possible invasion or nuclear attack.
The Line 1 of Harbin Metro opened on 26 September 2013. It is oriented along the east–west axis of the urban area of Harbin: from north-east (Harbin East Railway Station) to south-west (2nd Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University). Line 2 and Line 3 are under construction. Line 2 runs from Songbei District to Xiangfang District and ringlike Line 3 runs through Daoli, Daowai, Nangang and Xiangfang Districts of Harbin. On 26 January 2017, Phase I of Line 3 opened for public service. Line 3 links Harbin West Railway Station to Yidaeryuan Station, the transfer station between Line 1 and Line 3. In the long term, the city plans to build nine radiating metro lines and a circle line in downtown and some suburban districts, which account for 340 km (211.3 mi) by 2025.Picture "7381" Project, a Civil Defense System in Harbin
Harbin Metro Map, Line 1
Ports and waterways
There are more than 1,900 rivers in Heilongjiang, including the Songhua River, Heilong River and Wusuli River, creating a convenient system of waterway transportation. Harbin harbor is one of eight inland ports in China and the largest of its type in Northeast China. Available from mid-April until the beginning of November, passenger ships sail from Harbin up the Songhua River to Qiqihar, or downstream to Jiamusi, Tongjiang, and Khabarovsk in Russia.
Education and research
Harbin is one of the top 100 cities and metropolitan areas in the world by scientific research output as tracked by the Nature Index. As Harbin serves as an important military industrial base after PRC's foundation, it is home to several key universities mainly focused on the science and technology service of national military and aerospace industry. Soviet experts played an important role in many education projects in this period. Due to the threat of possible war with the Soviet Union, however, several colleges were moved southwards to Changsha, Chongqing, and several other southern cities in China in the 1960s. Some of these colleges were returned to Harbin in the 1970s.
The city hosts several major universities in Northeast China, including Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin Engineering University, Harbin Medical University, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin University of Science and Technology, Harbin Normal University, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin University, Heilongjiang University of Science and Technology, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Harbin University of Commerce, Harbin Sport University, and Heilongjiang University.Notably, Harbin Institute of Technology is consistently ranked as one of the best universities in the world for engineering. HIT was ranked fifth globally in the Best Global Universities for Engineering by U.S. News in 2022. Founded in 1920 with strong support by the Russian diaspora connected with the Chinese Eastern Railway, the university has developed into an important research university mainly focusing on engineering (e.g. in space science and defense-related technologies, welding technology and engineering), with supporting faculties in the sciences, management, humanities and social sciences. The institute's faculty and students contributed to and invented China's first analog computer, the first intelligent chess computer, and the first arc-welding robot. In 2010, research funding from the government, industry, and business sectors surpassed RMB1.13 billion, the second highest of any university in China.
Military
Harbin is now headquarters of the 78th Group Army of the People's Liberation Army, one of the three group armies that comprise the Northern Theater Command responsible for defending China's northeastern borders with Russia, Mongolia and North Korea. 23rd Group Army of the PLA used to garrison in Harbin before it was disbanded in a cycle of reductions in 2003.
International relations
Harbin has town twinning and similar arrangements with approximately 30 places around the world, as well as some other cities within China. For a list, see List of twin towns and sister cities in China → H.
In 2009 Harbin opened an International Sister Cities museum. It has 1,048 exhibits in 28 rooms, with a total area of 1,800 square metres (19,375 square feet).On 3 September 2015, China and Russia signed an agreement to re-open the Russian consulate in Harbin, as the former Soviet consulate was closed in 1962 after the Sino-Soviet split. China will also establish a corresponding consulate in Vladivostok.
See also
Chinese Baroque Street
Dragon man
Harbin Ferris Wheel
Harbin Siberian Tiger Park
List of cities in the People's Republic of China by population
List of colleges and universities in Harbin
List of current and former capitals of subnational entities of China
List of universities and colleges in Heilongjiang
Further reading
Bakich, Olga. "A Russian City in China: Harbin before 1917". Canadian Slavonic Papers 28.2 (1986): 129–148.
Carter, James. "Struggle for the Soul of a City: Nationalism, Imperialism, and Racial Tension in 1920s Harbin". Modern China 27.1 (2001): 91–116.
Clausen, Søren, and Stig Thøgersen. The making of a Chinese city: history and historiography in Harbin (ME Sharpe, 1995).
Gamsa, Mark. "Harbin in comparative perspective". Urban History 37.1 (2010): 136–149.
Guins, George C. "Russians in Manchuria". Russian Review 2.2 (1943): 81–87. Online excerpt
Horn, Dara, People Love Dead Jews. New York: W. W. Norton. (2021) ISBN 978-0-393-53157-2. Chapter 2: Frozen Jews.
Lahusen, Thomas. "A place called Harbin: reflections on a centennial". China Quarterly 154 (1998): 400–410.
Meyer, Mike, "Manchuria Under Ice", Departures Magazine, Nov/Dec 2006, 292–297
Xie, Liou, et al. "Harbin: A rust belt city revival from its strategic position". Cities 58 (2016): 26–38. Online
Zissermann, Lenore Lamont, Mitya's Harbin; Majesty and Menace, Book Publishers Network, 2016, ISBN 978-1-940598-75-8
Harbin Government website
Harbin travel guide from Wikivoyage |
Yoko Hikasa (日笠 陽子, Hikasa Yōko, born July 16, 1985) is a Japanese voice actress and singer.
Biography
Hikasa became interested in acting while watching Sailor Moon and Neon Genesis Evangelion, which coinidentially featured Megumi Hayashibara who would also be in Shaman King. She attended Nihon Narration Engi Kenkyūjo, a voice actor training school. She formed a pop music group Ro-Kyu-Bu!, with Kana Hanazawa, Yuka Iguchi, Rina Hidaka and Yui Ogura. It takes the name for each characters for the anime series Ro-Kyu-Bu!. Their first single "Shoot!" was released on August 17, 2011 and was used as the opening theme for the series. The album Pure Elements was released on October 5, 2011. Hikasa has been married since 2015. In the K-On band, "Ho-Kago Tea Time", Hikasa learned to play the bass left-handed though she is right-handed.
On January 20, 2023, Hikasa announced that she will continue working as a freelance actor following her departure from I'm Enterprise.
Filmography
Television animation
2007Sketchbook ~full color'S~, Minamo Negishi2008Ghost Hound, Female Elementary School Student B (ep 12)
Monochrome Factor, Schoolgirl (ep 5)2009Asura Cryin', Ritsu Shioizumi
Asura Cryin' 2, Ritsu Shiozumi
Basquash!, Child B (ep 2), Nyapico (ep 1)
Birdy the Mighty Decode:02, Shrine Maiden (ep 12)
K-On!, Mio Akiyama
Modern Magic Made Simple, Mio Kisaragi (ep 2), Official (ep 4)
Nogizaka Haruka no Himitsu: Purezza, Iwai Hinasaki & Yayoi Kayahara
Toradora!, Schoolgirl (ep 18)
Umineko no Naku Koro ni, Satan2010The Betrayal Knows My Name, Cartoon-character Costume (ep 11), Rina, Schoolgirl 1 (ep 8)
Chu-Bra!!, Kiyono Amahara
Demon King Daimao, Junko Hattori
Heaven's Lost Property Forte, Hiyori Kazane
Kakko-Kawaii Sengen!, Kao-chan
K-On!!, Mio Akiyama
MonHun Nikki Girigiri Airū-mura Airū Kiki Ippatsu, Nyaster
Occult Academy, Maya Kumashiro
Panty & Stocking with Garterbelt, Woman (ep 8A)
The Qwaser of Stigmata, Hana Katsuragi
Seitokai Yakuindomo, Shino Amakusa
Sekirei: Pure Engagement, Yashima
Stitch!: Zutto Saikō no Tomodachi, Reika
Working!!, Izumi Takanashi
Yumeiro Pâtissière, Katie Capucine2011Beelzebub, Azusa Fujisaki
Dog Days, Brioche d'Arquien
Hanasaku Iroha, Enishi Shijima (young)
Infinite Stratos, Houki Shinonono
Is This a Zombie?, Seraphim
Nura: Rise of the Yokai Clan: Demon Capital, Kyōkotsu's Daughter
Manyū Hiken-chō, Oume
MonHun Nikki Girigiri Airū-mura G, Nyaster
Moshidora, Minami Kawashima
The Qwaser of Stigmata II, Hana Katsuragi
Rio: Rainbow Gate!, Linda (LINDA-R-2007)
Ro-Kyu-Bu!, Saki Nagatsuka
Working'!!, Izumi Takanashi2012Aesthetica of a Rogue Hero, Myuu Ōsawa
Bodacious Space Pirates, Lynn Lambretta
Btooom!, Hidemi Kinoshita
Campione!, Erica Blandelli
Code:Breaker, Sakura Sakurakōji
Daily Lives of High School Boys, Literature Girl
Dog Days', Brioche d'Arquien
Gokujyo., Aya Akabane
Hayate the Combat Butler: Can't Take My Eyes Off You, Kayura Tsurugino
High School DxD, Rias Gremory
Hyouka, Quiz Study Group Chairman
Inu × Boku SS, Nobara Yukinokōji
Kingdom, Kyō Kai
Love, Election and Chocolate, Kimika Haida
Is This a Zombie? of the Dead, Seraphim
Say "I love you.", Female Student
Sengoku Collection, Vengeful Fang Akechi Mitsuhide
Medaka Box Abnormal, Saki Sukinasaki
Muv-Luv Alternative: Total Eclipse, Niram Rawamunando
Phi-Brain - Puzzle of God: The Orpheus Order, Mizerka
Tanken Driland, Haruka2013Cuticle Detective Inaba, Gabriella
Danganronpa: The Animation, Kyōko Kirigiri
Encouragement of Climb, Kaede Saitō
The Devil Is a Part-Timer!, Emi Yusa/Emilia Justina
Flowers of Evil, Nanako Saeki
Free!, Rei Ryugazaki (Young)
Haganai NEXT, Hinata Hidaka
Hayate the Combat Butler! Cuties, Kayura Tsurugino
High School DxD New, Rias Gremory
Infinite Stratos 2, Houki Shinonono
Karneval, Tsubaki
Kingdom 2, Kyō Kai
Majestic Prince, Kei Kugimiya
Pokémon: Black & White: Rival Destinies, Ellie
Ro-Kyu-Bu! SS, Saki Nagatsuka
Samurai Bride, Musashi Miyamoto
The Severing Crime Edge, Ruka Shihoudou
Senki Zesshō Symphogear G, Maria Cadenzavna Eve
Tamako Market, Hinako Kitashirakawa, Mari Uotani
Tanken Driland -1000-nen no Mahou-, Haruka2014Bladedance of Elementalers, Restia Ashdoll
Daimidaler the Sound Robot, Kyōko Sonan
Dai-Shogun - Great Revolution, Hyōgo Asai
Encouragement of Climb: Second Season, Kaede Saitō
The File of Young Kindaichi Returns, Runa Mizuki
Gonna be the Twin-Tail!!, Isna
Girl Friend BETA, Risa Shinomiya
Hanamonogatari, Higasa
If Her Flag Breaks, Rin Eiyūzaki
M3 the dark metal, Emiru Hazaki
Mushishi: The Next Chapter, Teru
Nobunaga The Fool, Jeanne Kaguya d'Arc
No Game No Life, Stephanie Dola
Phi Brain - Kami no Puzzle, Mizerka
Pokémon XY, Nami
Saki - The Nationals, Satoha Tsujigaito
Seitokai Yakuindomo*, Shino Amakusa
Sword Art Online II, Endô
Terraformars, Grace
Trinity Seven, Mira Yamana
Z/X Ignition, Michael2015Attack on Titan: Junior High, Frieda Reiss
Bikini Warriors, Fighter
Chivalry of a Failed Knight, Kanata Totokuba
Dog Days, Brioche d'Arquien
Fate/kaleid liner Prisma Illya 2wei Herz!, Hibari Kurihara
Food Wars: Shokugeki no Soma, Natsume Sendawara, Orie Sendawara
Gate: Jieitai Kano Chi nite, Kaku Tatakaeri, Yao Haa Dusi
High School DxD BorN, Rias Gremory
Is It Wrong to Try to Pick Up Girls in a Dungeon?, Freya
Maria the Virgin Witch, Artemis
Mobile Suit Gundam: Iron-Blooded Orphans, Lafter Frankland
My Monster Secret, Tōko Shiragami
Rampo Kitan: Game of Laplace, Kuro Tokage
Rin-ne, Rina Mizuki
Rokka: Braves of the Six Flowers, Nachetanya
Seraph of the End: Vampire Reign, Horn Skuld, Tomoe Saotome
Seraph of the End: Battle in Nagoya, Horn Skuld
Sound! Euphonium, Aoi Saitō, Brass Band Member
Subete ga F ni Naru, Ayako Shimada
Senki Zesshō Symphogear GX, Maria Cadenzavna Eve
Yurikuma Arashi, Kaoru Harishima
Working!!!, Izumi Takanashi2016Bakuon!!, Tazuko
Berserk, Farnese
Bubuki Buranki, Mami Horino / Zetsubi Hazama
Bubuki Buranki: The Gentle Giants of the Galaxy, Zetsubi Hazama, Double de Vaire
Cheating Craft, Li Xing / Anri
Classicaloid, Kurage
Danganronpa 3: The End of Kibōgamine Gakuen, Kyoko Kirigiri
Dimension W, Cedric Morgan
Flip Flappers, Sayuri
Gate: Jieitai Kanochi nite, Kaku Tatakaeri - Enryuu-hen, Yao Haa Dusi
Hitori no Shita the outcast, Natsuka
Keijo!!!!!!!!, Miku Kobayakawa
Macross Delta, Claire Paddle
Magi: Adventure of Sinbad, Esra
Magical Girl Raising Project, Ruler / Sanae Mokuou
New Game!, Kō Yagami
Long Riders!, Saki Takamiya
Phantasy Star Online 2 The Animation, Echo
Please Tell Me! Galko-chan, Galko's older sister, Protagonist (ep 11)
Pokémon: XY & Z, Amelia
Re:Zero -Starting Life in Another World-, Insane woman (ep 22)
Regalia: The Three Sacred Stars, Ryu (ep 6)
Sweetness and Lightning, Mikio's mother
Sound! Euphonium 2, Aoi Saitō
The Great Passage, Midori Kishibe
The Morose Mononokean, Kōra
Undefeated Bahamut Chronicle, Relie Aingram
WWW.Working!!, Sayuri Muranushi2017Aho Girl, Yoshie Hanabatake
Aikatsu Stars!, Elza Forte
Altair: A Record of Battles, Shara
Berserk 2nd Season, Farnese
The Eccentric Family 2, Gyokuran
Fuuka, Tomomi-sensei
Hand Shakers, Bind
Interviews with Monster Girls, Sakie Satō
Juni Taisen: Zodiac War, Toshiko Inō/Boar
Little Witch Academia, Diana Cavendish
New Game!!, Kō Yagami
Piace: My Italian Cooking, Ruri Fujiki
Re:Creators, Alicetelia February
Sakura Quest, young Chitose Oribe
Seven Mortal Sins, Greed Demon Lord Mammon
Senki Zesshō Symphogear AXZ, Maria Cadenzavna Eve2018Attack on Titan Season 3, Frieda Reiss
BanG Dream! Girls Band Party! Pico, Tomoe Udagawa
Dances with the Dragons, Jivunya Lorezzo
Encouragement of Climb: Third Season, Kaede Saitō
Goblin Slayer, Witch
High School DxD Hero, Rias Gremory
Hinamatsuri, Utako
Hakyū Hoshin Engi, So Dakki
Junji Ito Collection, Riko
Layton Mystery Tanteisha: Katori no Nazotoki File, Olivia (Episode 2)
Pop Team Epic, Popuko (Episode 4-A)
Sword Art Online Alternative Gun Gale Online, Pitohui2019Aikatsu Friends!, Hibiki Tenshō
Arifureta: From Commonplace to World's Strongest, Tio Klarus
BanG Dream! 2nd Season, Tomoe Udagawa
Domestic Girlfriend, Hina Tachibana
Granbelm, Anna Fugo
Isekai Cheat Magician, Grami
Is It Wrong to Try to Pick Up Girls in a Dungeon? Season 2, Freya
Magical Girl Spec-Ops Asuka, Rau Peipei
Manaria Friends, Anne
No Guns Life, Olivier Juan de Belmer
Phantasy Star Online 2: Episode Oracle as Echo
Revisions, Chiharu Isurugi
Senki Zesshō Symphogear XV, Maria Cadenzavna Eve
To the Abandoned Sacred Beasts, Liza Runecastle
W'z, Yukine
Zoids Wild Zero, Jo Aysel2020BanG Dream! 3rd Season, Tomoe Udagawa
BanG Dream! Girls Band Party! Pico: Ohmori, Tomoe Udagawa
Case Closed episodes 990-991, An Oide
Dragon Quest: The Adventure of Dai, Zulbon
Dropout Idol Fruit Tart, Hoho Kajino
ID: Invaded, Keiko Kikuchi (ep 4)
Infinite Dendrogram, Marie Adler
Interspecies Reviewers, Aloe
Is It Wrong to Try to Pick Up Girls in a Dungeon? Season 3, Freya
Is the Order a Rabbit? BLOOM, Student Council President
Jujutsu Kaisen, Utahime Iori
Listeners, Stür Neubauten
Pocket Monsters 2019, Saitō (Bea)
Sorcerous Stabber Orphen, Azalie Cait Sith
The Irregular at Magic High School: Visitor Arc, Angelina Kudou Shields
The Millionaire Detective Balance: Unlimited, Yoko (ep 1)
Tower of God, Hwa Ryun / Karen
Wandering Witch: The Journey of Elaina, Sheila2021BanG Dream! Girls Band Party! Pico Fever!, Tomoe Udagawa
The Case Study of Vanitas, Veronica de Sade
Cells at Work! Code Black, White Blood Cell (Neutrophilc)
The Great Jahy Will Not Be Defeated!, Landlord
Life Lessons with Uramichi Oniisan, Mabui Daga
Moriarty the Patriot, Irene Adler/James Bond
Night Head 2041, Kimie Kobayashi
Redo of Healer, Keara
Shaman King, Yoh Asakura
Shadows House, Dorothy
The Fruit of Evolution, Louise Balze
The Vampire Dies in No Time, Maria
Vivy: Fluorite Eye's Song, Estella
Lupin the 3rd Part 6, Diner Waitress (Episode 4)2022A Couple of Cuckoos, Namie Umino
Arifureta: From Commonplace to World's Strongest 2nd Season, Tio Klarus
Arknights: Prelude to Dawn, Kal'tsit
Call of the Night, Kiyosumi Shirakawa
Encouragement of Climb: Next Summit, Kaede Saitō
Extreme Hearts, RiN
Fanfare of Adolescence, Akari Sumeragi
Love Live! Nijigasaki High School Idol Club 2nd Season, Kaoruko Mifune
Love of Kill, Mifa
My Stepmom's Daughter Is My Ex, Madoka Tanesato
Orient, Kuroko Usami
Princess Connect! Re:Dive Season 2, Nozomi
RPG Real Estate, Satona
RWBY: Ice Queendom, Weiss Schnee
Summer Time Rendering, Hizuru Minakata
The Devil Is a Part-Timer!!, Emi Yusa/Emilia Justina
The Eminence in Shadow, Iris Midgar
The Genius Prince's Guide to Raising a Nation Out of Debt, Fyshe Blundell2023A Galaxy Next Door, Momoka Morikuni
Giant Beasts of Ars, Romana
Goblin Slayer II, Witch
I'm in Love with the Villainess, Yu Bauer
Level 1 Demon Lord and One Room Hero, Zenia
Malevolent Spirits: Mononogatari, Karakasa no Tsukumogami
My Happy Marriage, Hazuki Kudō
Ron Kamonohashi: Deranged Detective, Amamiya
Shangri-La Frontier, Arthur Pencilgon/Towa Amane
Sweet Reincarnation, Brioche Salgret Mill Leteche
The Great Cleric, Cattleya
The Masterful Cat Is Depressed Again Today, Yume's Mother
The Vexations of a Shut-In Vampire Princess, Karen Helvetius
Yohane the Parhelion: Sunshine in the Mirror, Lailaps2024Atri: My Dear Moments, Catherine
Highspeed Etoile, Kanata Asakawa
Shaman King: Flowers, Hana AsakuraTBAArifureta: From Commonplace to World's Strongest 3rd Season, Tio Klarus
Drama CD
Wanna Be the Strongest in the World (2011), Elena Miyazawa
Watashi ni xx Shinasai! (2012), Yukina Himuro
Taiyō no Ie (2012), Chihiro
Last Game (2015–2016), Mikoto Kujō
A Terrified Teacher at Ghoul School, Beniko Zashiki
The Apothecary Diaries (2020), Gyokuyō
Original video animation (OVA)
Final Fantasy VII Advent Children Complete (2009), Edge Citizen
Code Geass: Akito the Exiled (2012), Kousaka Ayano
Yozakura Quartet: Tsuki ni Naku (2013), Nadeshiko Matsudaira
Yankee-kun na Yamada-kun to Megane-chan to Majo (2015), Hana Adachi
Original net animation (ONA)
Comical Psychosomatic Medicine (2015), Iyashi Kangoshi
Eyedrops (2016), Neostigmine Methylsulfate
Miru Tights (2019), Yua Nakabeni
7 Seeds (2019), Hana Sugurono
Vlad Love (2021), Jinko Sumida
High-Rise Invasion (2021), Yayoi Kusakabe
Bastard!! -Heavy Metal, Dark Fantasy- (2022), Arshes Nei
Junji Ito Maniac: Japanese Tales of the Macabre (2023), Chiemi
Romantic Killer (2022), Yukana Kishi
Pluto (2023), Atom
Theatrical animation
Keroro Gunso the Super Movie 3: Keroro vs. Keroro Great Sky Duel (2008), Woman C
Heaven's Lost Property the Movie: The Angeloid of Clockwork (2011), Hiyori Kazane
K-On! the Movie (2011), Mio Akiyama
Hayate the Combat Butler! Heaven Is a Place on Earth (2011), Kayura Tsurugino
Inazuma Eleven GO vs. Danbōru Senki W (2012), Fran
Hal (2013), Kurumi
A Certain Magical Index: The Movie – The Miracle of Endymion (2013), Shutaura Sequenzia
Little Witch Academia (2013), Diana Cavendish
Planetarian: Storyteller of the Stars (2016), Job
Majestic Prince: Genetic Awakening (2016), Kei Kugimiya
Trinity Seven the Movie: The Eternal Library and the Alchemist Girl (2017), Mira Yamana
Seitokai Yakuindomo: The Movie (2017), Shino Amakusa
The Irregular at Magic High School: The Movie – The Girl Who Summons the Stars (2017), Angelina Kudou Shields
No Game No Life: Zero (2017), Corounne Dola
Maquia: When the Promised Flower Blooms (2018), Tita
BanG Dream! Film Live (2019), Tomoe Udagawa
Trinity Seven: Heavens Library & Crimson Lord (2019), Mira Yamana
Goblin Slayer: Goblin's Crown (2020), Witch
BanG Dream! Episode of Roselia (2021), Tomoe Udagawa
BanG Dream! Film Live 2nd Stage (2021), Tomoe Udagawa
Seitokai Yakuindomo: The Movie 2 (2021), Shino Amakusa
Eien no 831 (2022), Akina
Rakudai Majo: Fūka to Yami no Majo (2023), Megaira
Sailor Moon Cosmos (2023), Sailor Lead Crow
Video games
Granado Espada (2006), Berroniff
Megazone 23: Aoi Garland (2007), Mami Nakagawa
Ken to Mahou to Gakuen Mono (2008), Female Gnome
K-On! Hōkago Live!! (2010), Mio Akiyama
Danganronpa: Trigger Happy Havoc (2010), Kyōko Kirigiri
Umineko no Naku koro ni: Majo to Suiri no Rondo (2010), Satan
L@ve once (2010), Meru Toritome
Black Rock Shooter: The Game (2011), Shizu
Umineko no Naku koro ni Chiru: Shinjitsu to Gensō no Nocturne (2011), Satan
Lollipop Chainsaw (2012), Juliet Starling (as default setting in PS3 Japanese version)
Phantasy Star Online 2 (2012), Echo
Senran Kagura Shinovi Versus (2013), Ryōbi
Super Heroine Chronicle (2014), Houki Shinonono
Granblue Fantasy (2014), Anne, Selfira
Makai Shin Trillion (2015), Faust
Senran Kagura: Estival Versus (2015), Ryōbi
Valkyrie Drive: Bhikkhuni (2015), Momo Kuzuryū
Lord of Vermilion Arena (2015), Yaiba
7th Dragon 2020 (2011)
7th Dragon 2020-II (2013)
7th Dragon III code:VFD (2016)
Dragon Quest Heroes II (2016), Minea
Fushigi no Gensokyo 3 (2014), Marisa Kirisame
Touhou Genso Wanderer (2015), Marisa Kirisame
The Alchemist Code (2016), Agatha Fushigi no Gensokyo TOD -RELOADED- (2016), Marisa Kirisame
Super Robot Wars OG: The Moon Dwellers (2016), Katia Grineal
Street Fighter V (2016), Laura Matsuda
Breath of Fire 6 (2016), Protagonist (Female)
Girls' Frontline (2016), K11, Lewis
World of Final Fantasy (2016), Refia
Senki Zesshō Symphogear XD Unlimited (2017), Maria Cadenzavna Eve
Kirara Fantasia (2017), Kanna
Infinite Stratos: Archetype Breaker (2017), Houki Shinonono
Fire Emblem Heroes (2017), Fir, Athena
BanG Dream! Girls Band Party! (2017), Tomoe Udagawa
Xenoblade Chronicles 2 (2017), Nyuutsu
BlazBlue: Cross Tag Battle (2018), Weiss Schnee
Azur Lane (2017), USS Honolulu, USS St. Louis
Sdorica (2018), Hyacinthus Folrey, Hyacinthus SP
Super Neptunia RPG (2018), Kukei
Dragalia Lost (2018), Celliera
Arknights (2019), Kal'tsit
Our World is Ended (2019), Yoko Ichinose
Pokémon Masters EX (2019), Elesa
Girls X Battle 2 – Fencer
Fate/Grand Order (2020), Kijyo Koyo
Another Eden (2020), Heena
Moe! Ninja Girls RPG (2020), Enju Saion-ji
Love Live! School Idol Festival All Stars (2020), Kaoruko Mifune
Persona 5 Strikers (2020), Kuon Ichinose
Atri: My Dear Moments (2020), Catherine
Magia Record (2021), Tsubaki Mikoto
The Legend of Heroes: Kuro no Kiseki (2021), Judith Ranster
Alchemy Stars (2021), Regina, Jona
Counter:Side (2021), Hilde
Fairy Fencer F: Refrain Chord (2022), Glace
The Legend of Heroes: Kuro no Kiseki II – Crimson Sin (2022), Judith Ranster
Star Ocean: The Divine Force (2022), Malkya Trathen
Echocalypse (2022), Niz
Goddess of Victory: Nikke (2022), Neve
Dragon Quest Treasures (2022), Bonnie, Monsters
Fire Emblem Engage (2023), Ivy
Cookie Run: Kingdom (2023), Blueberry Pie Cookie
Honkai Impact 3 (2023), Vita
Omega Strikers (2023), Estelle
Yohane the Parhelion: Blaze in the Deepblue (2023), Lailaps
Dubbing roles
Live-action
Against the Dark, Charlotte (Skye Bennett)
Alex Rider, Kyra Vashenko-Chao (Marli Siu)
Captain Marvel, Minn-Erva (Gemma Chan)
Cleveland Abduction, Gina DeJesus (Katie Sarife)
Escape Room: Tournament of Champions, Claire (Isabelle Fuhrman)
Ghostbusters: Afterlife, Lucky Domingo (Celeste O'Connor)
Good Sam, Dr. Lex Trulie (Skye P. Marshall)
Magadheera, Mithravinda / Indu (Kajal Aggarwal)
The Nevers, Mary Brighton (Eleanor Tomlinson)
Scream 4, Jill Roberts (Emma Roberts)
Animation
Chuggington, Piper
The Loud House, Lori and Lucy
RWBY, Weiss Schnee
Discography
Singles & albums
As the voice actor for Mio Akiyama in K-On!, she participated to four singles and two albums.
"Cagayake! Girls" ranked #2 on Japanese Oricon singles charts.
"Don't say 'lazy'" ranked #3 on Oricon singles charts, and was awarded Animation Kobe's "Best Song" award.
"Light and Fluffy Time" (ふわふわ時間) ranked #3 on Oricon singles charts.
"Mio Akiyama" (秋山澪) ranked #2 on Oricon singles charts.
Hōkago Teatime (放課後ティータイム) ranked #1 on Oricon albums charts.Below are singles under her own name."This Beautiful Cruel World" (美しき残酷な世界, Utsukushiki Zankoku na Sekai), used as the ending theme for the anime series Attack on Titan.
"Song That Doesn't End" (終わらない詩, Owaranai no Uta), used as the theme song for the anime movie Hal.
"SEEK DIAMONDS" (Shiiku Daiyamonzu), used as the ending theme for the anime series Diamond no Ace.
"EX:FUTURIZE" (Ekusu Fuyūcharaizu), used as the opening theme for the anime series Z/X Ignition.
"Rhythm Dimension" along with Shiina-Tactix.Below are albums under her own name.Glamorous Songs (July 17, 2013)
Couleur (September 3, 2014)
DVD/Blu-ray
Hikasa Yoko GLAMOROUS LIVE Blu-ray & DVD released date: April 16, 2014.
Hikasa Yoko Live Tour Le Tour de Couleur Blu-ray & DVD released date: March 18, 2015.
Official website (in Japanese)
Official agency profile (in Japanese)
Yoko Hikasa at Anime News Network's encyclopedia
Yoko Hikasa at IMDb |
Ayana Taketatsu (竹達 彩奈, Taketatsu Ayana, born June 23, 1989) is a Japanese voice actress and singer.
Biography
She attended Nihon Narration Engi Kenkyujo, a voice actor training school before becoming affiliated with then management company. She is now affiliated with Link Plan. Due to her sharp vocal tones, she often voices tsundere characters (although she has voiced other mysterious or flirtatious characters). Taketatsu formed a singing unit Petit Milady alongside Aoi Yūki in 2013. Taketatsu left the talent agency Assemble Heart for the agency Link Plan on January 1, 2017. On her 30th birthday, she announced on Twitter that she married Yuki Kaji. On June 30, 2022, she and Kaji announced that they were expecting their first child together. On November 3, 2022, the couple announced that they have a child.
Filmography
Anime series
Video games
2011
The Legend of Heroes: Trails to Azure – Shirley Orlando
2012
Kingdom Hearts 3D: Dream Drop Distance – Rhyme
Persona 4 Arena – Labrys
2013
Drakengard 3 – Four
Macross 30: The Voice that Connects the Galaxy – Mei Leeron, Mia Sakaki
Sword Art Online: Infinity Moment – Leafa
Super Danganronpa Another 2 – Iroha Nijiue
2014
Dengeki Bunko: Fighting Climax – Leafa, Kirino Kōsaka
Sword Art Online: Hollow Fragment – Leafa
2015
Deemo: The Last Recital – Little Girl / Alice
Dengeki Bunko: Fighting Climax Ignition – Leafa, Kousaka Kirino
Digimon Story: Cyber Sleuth – Tawa Reiko
Megadimension Neptunia VII – B-Sha
Sword Art Online: Lost Song – Leafa
2016
Accel World vs. Sword Art Online: Millennium Twilight – Leafa
Dragon Quest Heroes II – Jessica
World of Final Fantasy – Tama
Sword Art Online: Hollow Realization – Leafa
Alternative Girls – Miyaka Yuki
2017
Accel World vs. Sword Art Online: Millennium Twilight – Leafa
Project Tokyo Dolls – Aya
The Legend of Heroes: Trails of Cold Steel III – Shirley Orlando
Xenoblade Chronicles 2 – Zenobia
2018
BlazBlue: Cross Tag Battle – Labrys
Puella Magi Madoka Magica Side Story: Magia Record – Alina Gray
Sdorica – Alice, Masked Girl
Sword Art Online: Fatal Bullet – Leafa
Master of Eternity – Jeanie
Han-gyaku-Sei Million Arthur – Wildcat Arthur
Million Arthur: Arcana Blood – Wildcat Arthur
Dragalia Lost – Natalie
Shojo Kageki Revue Starlight: Re LIVE – Misora Kano
The Legend of Heroes: Trails of Cold Steel IV – Shirley Orlando (non-playable)
2019
Arknights — W
SoulWorker – Chii Aruel
2020
Another Eden – Altena
Bleach: Brave Souls – Bambietta Basterbine
2021
Shin Megami Tensei V – Nuwa
2022
Alchemy Stars – Nina
Armada Girls – Ghost Ship X
Goddess of Victory: Nikke – Privaty
Mobile Legends: Bang Bang - Melissa
2023
Sword Art Online: Last Recollection – Leafa
Unknown date
Honkai Impact 3rd – Frederika Nikola Tesla
Nora to Toki no Kōbō: Kiri no Mori no Majo – Nora Brundle
Ore no Imōto ga Konna ni Kawaii Wake ga Nai Portable – Kirino Kōsaka
Rune Factory 4 – Dolce
Pokémon Black 2 and White 2 – Bel/Bianca (Black 2 White 2 Animated Trailer)
Trinity Universe – Tsubaki
The Idolmaster Cinderella Girls – Sachiko Koshimizu
Call of Duty: Black Ops II – Anderson (Japanese Dub Version)
Kantai Collection – Yamato, Akigumo, Yūgumo, Makigumo, and Naganami
K-On! Hōkago Live!! – Azusa Nakano
Phantasy Star Online 2 – Io
Date A Live Rinne Utopia – Itsuka Kotori
Dragon Quest VIII and Dragon Quest: Heroes – Jessica Albert
High School DxD New Fight – Koneko Tōjo
The Legend of Heroes: Trails to Azure – Shirley Orlando
Mobile Suit Gundam Side Story: Missing Link – Annerose Rosenheim
Mobile Suit Gundam Extreme Vs Full Boost – Sthesia Awar
Mobile Suit Gundam Extreme Vs Maxi Boost – Sthesia Awar, Sthesia Awar Acht,Sthesia Awar Primo, Sthesia Awar Nono, Sthesia Awar Sesto
Little Noah – Noah
Figure Fantasy – Rinn
OVA/OAD
Kissxsis – Ako Suminoe
Tokusatsu
Kaitou Sentai Lupinranger VS Keisatsu Sentai Patranger (2018) – Goche Ru Medou (eps. 1 – 8, 10 – 48)
Kaitou Sentai Lupinranger VS Keisatsu Sentai Patranger en Film (2018) – Goche Ru Medou
Drama CD
Love DNA XX – Aoi
Ore no Imōto ga Konna ni Kawaii Wake ga Nai – Kirino Kōsaka
Tsuki Tsuki! – Nazuna Nanjō
Watashi ni xx Shinasai! – Mami Mizuno
Citrus – Yuzu Aihara
Mo Dao Zu Shi/Ma Dou So Shi – Jiang Yanli/Kou Enri
Anime films
Dubbing
Live-action
Genius, 10-year-old Hans Albert Einstein (Alice Edwards)
Jexi, Cate Finnegan (Alexandra Shipp)
Animation
The Angry Birds Movie 2, Silver
Others
Citrus (manga) – Yuzu Aihara (promotional videos)
Discography
Albums
Compilation albums
Singles
Music in anime
As the voice actor for Azusa Nakano in K-On!, she is a member of the band Hokago Tea Time, and has participated in seven singles and one album.
Hōkago Teatime (放課後ティータイム) ranked No. 1 on Oricon albums charts.
"Azusa Nakano" ("中野 梓") image song CD of the eponymous character, ranked No. 3 on Oricon singles charts.
"Go! Go! Maniac" ranked No. 1 on Oricon singles charts.
"Listen!!" ranked No. 2 on Oricon singles charts.
"Pure Pure Heart" (ぴゅあぴゅあはーと) ranked No. 4 on Oricon singles charts.
"Utauyo!! Miracle" ranked No. 3 on Oricon singles charts.
"No, Thank You!" ranked No. 2 on Oricon singles charts.
"Gohan wa Okazu/U&I" ranked No. 3 on Oricon singles charts.She additionally performed Hey! Calorie Queen (Hey!カロリーQueen), the ending theme for Dagashi Kashi. It was ranked No. 19 on Oricon singles charts.
Official website (in Japanese)
Official agency profile (in Japanese)
Ayana Taketatsu at Anime News Network's encyclopedia |
Ensign Bus Company Limited, trading as Ensignbus, is a bus and coach operator and bus dealer based in Purfleet, Essex. As of March 2023, it is a part of FirstGroup.
History
Ensignbus was formed in 1972 by Peter Newman, who remains involved today as chairman and his sons Ross and Steve as directors. Ensignbus commenced with a small number of bus contracts for the Port of London Authority and Lesney Products and later diversified into bus sales and operating open top bus tours.It was announced on 8 February 2023 that with the retirement of its owner Peter Newman and his sons Ross and Steve, Ensignbus was to be purchased by FirstGroup, with its bus dealer business and bus service operations remaining separate from the operations of First Essex. The company's heritage fleet operation was not included the sale and remains with the Newman family. The last day of independent operations was on 9 March 2023.
Bus sales
The company came to prominence in the UK when London Transport decided to dispose of its unpopular and poor performing Daimler Fleetlines from 1979. Ensignbus was the only company willing to bid for all these buses as one batch, numbering over 2,000 buses, as preferred by London Transport.As the vehicles arrived, Ensignbus moved to larger premises in Purfleet. While some were scrapped, Ensign sold many of these buses to operators around the country and abroad, with many ex-municipal companies and new operators requiring cheap re-inforcements for enhanced competition following the deregulation of bus services in 1986. Over 400 were sold to China Motor Bus in Hong Kong.During the London Pride Sightseeing operation, Ensignbus continued selling buses in smaller numbers from a site in Rainham. With the sale of London Pride, Ensignbus moved to another site in Purfleet, and grew its sales business.Ensignbus was involved in the sale of London's AEC Routemaster buses following their withdrawal from regular use. As of 2013, it was the largest used bus dealer in the UK.
Open top tour operations
In October 1985, Ensignbus purchased the London Pride Sightseeing open top bus tour business. Through links gained by selling open top buses to other operators around the world, Ensignbus expanded the concept to other cities setting up new tours. In January 1998, the open-top tour business was sold.Starting in 1998 with an operation in Seville, in 1999, Ensignbus launched the City Sightseeing global sightseeing bus brand with a worldwide franchise model, and proceeded to rapidly expand into several cities. In May 2002 City Sightseeing bought out its main rival Guide Friday.
In November 2000, Ensignbus reacquired the London Pride Sightseeing business but sold it in 2001 to The Original Tour. In June 2004, Ensignbus purchased Bath Bus Company and transferred its City Sightseeing operations in Cardiff, Eastbourne, and Windsor to the company.In February 2011, the Bath Bus Company business was sold to the RATP Group. In April 2011, Ensignbus sold City Sightseeing to Enrique Ybarra.
London tendered services
As a result of deregulation in the mid 1980s Ensignbus expanded into tendered London Buses work in East London. Starting with one or two routes, Ensignbus gained a network of routes, using several second hand vehicles and batches of new vehicles:
8 1989 built Alexander bodied Leyland Olympian double-deckers
5 1989 built Northern Counties bodied Leyland Olympian double-deckers
16 1988 built MCW Metrobus double-deckersIn July 1989, it purchased the business of Frontrunner South East from Stagecoach East Midlands with route 248 and 252. In December 1990, Ensignbus sold its London tendered bus services to Hong Kong company Citybus with the Dagenham depot and 87 buses. It was rebranded as Ensign Citybus and then Capital Citybus.Ensignbus briefly re-entered London tendered services in 1998, taking over routes 324 and 348 from First Capital who had bought Capital Citybus. Routes 325 and 509 were later added before Ensignbus once again sold its London services in December 1999, this time to Town & Country Buses.
Essex and Kent services
In 2004, Ensignbus commenced operating a 12-month rail replacement contract in Kent for South Eastern Trains while the Higham and Strood tunnels were closed to strengthening. To make use of the dead running from its Purfleet depot, route X80 Chafford Hundred to Gravesend via Lakeside and Bluewater Shopping Centres was introduced. It proved successful and hence was kept going after the rail contract finished, albeit being cut back to run between Chafford Hundred & Lakeside to Bluewater only. In 2006, Ensignbus commenced operating services under contract to Thurrock Council and began operating services in Thurrock in competition with Arriva Southend. As at October 2016, it operated 16 routes. In April 2017, Ensign took over two further routes in Thurrock from Amber Coaches.In June 2019, Jetlink X1, a night bus service between London Southend Airport and London Victoria via Lakeside Shopping Centre, Canning Town, and Embankment stations commenced. It was withdrawn after a few weeks due to Ensignbus being denied access to Southend Airport. It recommenced on 5 October 2019 but was withdrawn again in March 2020 due to the COVID-19 Pandemic.
On 17 June 2019, Ensignbus' services in Brentwood were taken over by NIBS Buses.
Today
Today, Ensignbus retains a small bus service network centred on Grays station and Lakeside Shopping Centre. It also regularly provides buses for rail replacement services to train operators including Abellio Greater Anglia, c2c, Southeastern, and Transport for London.
Ensignbus also operates a dealership selling used buses from several major UK and Irish operators. In 2016, it became a dealer for BCI products, starting with the BCI Enterprise high capacity integral double-decker. The company acts as a partner to Vantage Power, a firm developing technology to retrofit existing buses with diesel-electric hybrid engines.Ensignbus maintains a fleet of heritage buses with AEC Regent III, AEC Routemaster, Daimler Fleetline, Leyland Titan, MCW Metrobus, and Scania Metropolitans represented. As well as being available for charter, Ensignbus operate these at an annual running day on the first Saturday in December each year.
Fleet
As of February 2023, Ensignbus operates 55 single and double deck buses, which are a combination of new and second-hand purchases. Fleet livery is light blue and silver. The fleet includes six hybrid electric buses delivered in 2012.
See also
Capital Citybus
City Sightseeing
London Pride Sightseeing
Media related to Ensignbus at Wikimedia Commons
Company website |
The Dong-a Ilbo (Korean: 동아일보; Hanja: 東亞日報; lit. East Asia Daily) is a newspaper of record in Korea since 1920 with a daily circulation of more than 1.2 million and opinion leaders as its main readers. The Dong-a Ilbo is the parent company of Dong-a Media Group (DAMG), which is composed of 11 affiliates including Sports Dong-a, Dong-a Science, DUNet, and dongA.com, as well as Channel A, general service cable broadcasting company launched on 1 December 2011. It covers a variety of areas including news, drama, entertainment, sports, education, and movies.
The Dong-a Ilbo has partnered with international news companies such as The New York Times of the United States of America, The Asahi Shimbun of Japan and The People's Daily of China. It has correspondents stationed in five major cities worldwide including Washington D.C., New York, San Francisco, Beijing, Tokyo, Cairo and Paris. It also publishes global editions in 90 cities worldwide including New York, London, Paris and Frankfurt.
History
Dong-a Ilbo was established in 1920 with the motto of "For the people, democracy and culture." These ideas have transformed into what the company named "Dong-a DNA" which calls for critical view of authority, journalistic integrity in reporting the truth, humanism by sharing the pain of the neglected and being revolutionary by not fearing change.
1920-04-01: Published the first issue along with the civilization policy of Governor-General of Korea
1920-09-25: The first suspension for indefinite period of time: for printing the article "Discussing the Problems with Rituals" which were critical of three items sacred to Japan
1926-03-06: The second suspension for printing a message celebrating the March 1 protest
1930-04-16: The third suspension for printing "The Dong-a Ilbo Plays an Important Role in Chosun's Current Situation" which was a letter sent by a press in US in support of Korea
1931-03-21: Held the 1st Dong-a Marathon Games, Korea's first marathon race
1936-08-29: The fourth suspension: for erasing the Japanese flag from Korean born Olympic gold medalist
1940-08-10: Forced closure by the Japanese government
1945-12-01: Re-opening of Dong-a Ilbo
1961-03-15: Articles were printed criticizing the legitimacy of the May 15 election (lead to the April revolution)
1963-03-17: Published newspaper without editorials in protest to the continued military rule
1963-04-25: Opened Dong-a Broadcasting Station. The first media company to own print and broadcast media
1964-07-15: Establishment of Children's Dong-a
1967-01-28: Establishment of Dong-a Annual
1971-08-17: Staff reporters receive Korea Reporter's Award
1974-10-24: Announced the Free Press Declaration
1974-11-20: Awarded for efforts made in freedom of speech by US Freedom House
1974-12-20: Published blank advertisements in protest of the tyrannical military administration's advertisement oppression
1975-04-18: Dong-a Ilbo President Sang-man Kim receives Press Freedom Golden Pen award
1980-11-30: Dong-a Broadcasting Station closed due to the mandatory merger by the military government forces
1984-04-01: Establishment of Dong-a Music (magazine)
1986-01-01: Establishment of Dong-a Science
1987-01-16: Exclusively reported the torture and death of Park Jong-chul, which acted as a catalyst for the June democracy uprising
1993-04-01: Changed from an evening newspaper to a morning newspaper
1994-03-21: Established Ilmin (People's) Culture Foundation
1996-10-01: Began internet news service: DongA.com
1996-12-19: Ilmin Museum of Art opened in the former Dong-a Ilbo newspaper building
2000-01-01: Moves into Dong-a Media Centre in the Gwanghwamun area
2000-12-15: Newspaper museum "Presseum" opened
2001-07-01: World edition of paper printed in over 90 cities
2002-01-01: Starting of Dong-a Ilbo's mobile services
2002-01-04: The first Korean newspaper company to publish the weekend section, Weekend
2003-04-01: Introduced the Knowledge Management System (KMS), 'Genie'.
2005-07-15: On and Off-line Newsroom unifies
2005-08-17: Begins printing 32 pages of Dong-a Ilbo in color
Feminist movement
In 1933, Dong-a Ilbo launched The New Women (later to become Dong-a Women.) The publication held events such as cooking schools and wives’ picnic providing women a place to socialize outside of the home. Articles such as “The New Woman and Education”, “Liberation of Women and the Nuclear Family” and “Women and Career” were printed to stimulate women's participation in society and the development of women's rights. Dong-a Ilbo also hosted athletic events for women. “Women’s National Tennis Competition” is Korea's and Dong-a's oldest contest ever to be held.
Forced closure: Erasing of Japanese flag
In 1939 when World War II erupted, the Japanese government began a campaign to unify Korea and Japan as a culture. This meant the suppression of much of Korea's cultural identity.
After four attempts to close DongA Ilbo and other numerous occasions of inspection, censorship, seizure and deletion, the Japanese government succeeded in August 1940. The Dong-a Ilbo built Dong-a Broadcasting System. Under the Chun Doo-hwan regime, South Korea's media policy had changed. The regime had closed several radio and TV networks and DBS was forced to give most of its shares to the government. The Dong-a Ilbo gave up DBS in 1980.
The event that made forced closure possible was Dong-a Ilbo's deliberate obscuration of the Japanese flag in a photograph of the first ever Korean Olympic Gold medalist.
Sohn Kee-Chung won the gold medal in marathon at the 11th Summer Olympics in Berlin (1936); however, because Korea was under Japanese rule, his uniform featured the Japanese flag. The article showed pride for the Korean athlete and featured a smudged Japanese flag to promote nationalistic ideas. Lee Kil-yong (aged 37 at that time), a Dong-a Ilbo journalist who was in charge of athletics, Lee Sang-beom, a painter, photographers, and editors worked together to erase the Japanese flag on the chest of the uniform of Sohn Kee-jeong from the photograph of Sohn standing atop the honor platform for the Olympic medal ceremony. The morning after the picture was published in the newspaper, about 10 journalists of Dong-a Ilbo were hauled off to the police station where they were beaten and tortured.
Changes in disposition from liberal to conservative media
In the early days, the Dong-a Ilbo passively resisted Japanese colonialism and showed liberalism and Korean nationalism tendencies. In addition, since the establishment of the South Korean government in 1948, it has been a liberal media that disagrees with socialism and opposes Syngman Rhee or Park Chung-hee's far-right dictatorship.
The Dong-a Ilbo began the "Liberal Press Protection Fight" (Korean: 자유언론수호투쟁) in 1970. In December 1974, there was a "Dong-a Ilbo blank advertisement case" (Korean: 동아일보 백지 광고 사태). The Park Chung-hee administration suppressed the Dong-a Ilbo, which was very hostile to him, threatened companies to prevent them from posting advertisements in the Dong-a Ilbo, which caused the Dong-a Ilbo to suffer from severe financial difficulties. Eventually, Dong-a Ilbo's executives fired some of the anti-government journalists on March 8, 1975. At this time, journalists who were fired will launch Hankyoreh. Since then, the Dong-a Ilbo has changed its tone to a right-wing conservative media.
The paper is considered a newspaper of record in Korea.
Awards and recognition
Receives Korea's Best Brand Award (2006)
Dong-a Ilbo President Sang-man Kim receives Press Freedom Golden Pen award (1975)
Awarded for efforts made in freedom of speech by US Freedom House (1974)
Staff reporters receive Korea Reporter's Award (1971)
Company
Readership
Circulation: over 52 million
About 51% of the readers are in their 30s - 40s
Over 50% of the readers live in metropolitan area
55% of the readers are university educated or higher
International partnerships
Dong-a Ilbo has partnered with internationally acclaimed news companies such as the New York Times and Reuters. They share information including articles and video clips. Dong-a Ilbo also prints global editions in 90 cities such as Washington DC, London, Paris, Frankfurt, etc., and has 22 branches worldwide including LA, Vancouver, Osaka. It also has international correspondents stationed in 6 cities with New York, Tokyo, and Beijing among them. Also, the digital edition of the paper is available in English, Japanese and Chinese.
Partnership:
The Times (UK)
Asahi Shimbun (Japan)
People's Daily (China)
Izvestia (Russia)
Sydney Morning Herald (Australia)
Publishing
Dong-a Ilbo also has an active publishing sector which produces magazines and books. There are four monthly magazines, two weekly magazines and one annual magazine. The literature sector concentrates on translating and distributing foreign material and also creating domestic content. DongA Books has brought to Korea many international bestsellers and award-winning literature as well as creating million sellers on its own.
Magazines:
Shin Dong-a (Current events magazine)
Women's Dong-a (Women's magazine)
Dong-a Science (Popular science magazine)
Dong-a Science KIDS
Weekly Dong-a
Weekend
Dong-a Annual
Books
Interpreter of Maladies by Jhumpa Lahiri (a Pulitzer winning fiction)
A Walk in the Woods by Bill Bryson (an international bestseller)
Sponge series (Korean content) has sold over a million copies
New and multi-media services
Dong-a Ilbo has been investing in many ventures that integrate technology into the method of spreading the news. First was the establishment of DongA.com which is the online version of the paper with much more content. It provides space for discussion and submission by the readers. From the success of the on-line content, the company also started its mobile services allowing readers to seek out the news wherever and whenever they are. With recent partnership with Reuters, Dong-a aims to add multimedia services to its methods. With raw video feeds from Reuters which Dong-a has the right to edit for its own use, DongA.com aims to reach its readers through text, images and video.
Community service
Dong-a Ilbo has always recognized its responsibility as a public corporation. As stated in Dong-a DNA, humanism is a great part of Dong-a Ilbo.
It has a Culture & Sports Operations department (New Project Bureau) that works to raise awareness of different areas in arts and sports as well as promote healthy lifestyles.
The company also has many foundations and scholarships for the less fortunate students in the country.
Arts
Dong-a Ilbo holds annual competition of high quality as well as hosting many cultural exhibitions.
International Music Concours
Dong-a Theatre Awards
DongA-LG International Animations Competition
Rembrandt and 17th Century Netherland Painters Exhibition (2007)and more
Sports
Dong-a Ilbo hosts annual competitions for various sports of different levels. It first began its program to raise awareness and help promote areas in sports that were less popular.
Seoul International Marathon
High School Baseball Tournament
Dong-a Swim Meetand more
Education
Dong-a holds annual competitions to help the brightest students. Other sectors such as Dong-a Science has its own educational program which also holds competitions to award the talented.
National English Competition (University & high school division)
National Scientific Essay Contest (hosted by DongA Science)
Charity
Dong-a Ilbo has established many foundations and scholarships for students and children of less fortunate circumstances. It has also established a foundation which promotes peace and culture.
Dong-a Dream Tree's Foundation: Scholarship foundation
Inchon Foundation: Founded in celebration of Kim, Sung-soo. Scholarship foundation.
21st Century Peace Foundation: Promotes peace and harmony between North and South Korea through various means of communication and more
Criticism
See also
Presseum
Ilmin Museum of Art
List of newspapers in South Korea
Communications in South Korea
Channel A (Korea)
"New Digital Leader: The Dong-A Ilbo". Dong-A Ilbo. 2006. Retrieved 2007-08-09.
"Top 100 US Daily Newspapers" (PDF). Burrelles Luce. 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-11.
Official website (in English) |
Akishima (昭島市, Akishima-shi) is a city located in the western portion of Tokyo Metropolis, Japan. As of 1 April 2021, the city had an estimated population of 113,542, and a population density of 6500 persons per km². The total area of the city is 17.34 square kilometres (6.70 sq mi).
Geography
Akishima is located on the left bank of the Tama River, about 35 kilometers west of central Tokyo. The Tamagawa Aqueduct flows in the northern part of the city. The city area generally slopes gently from northwest to southeast toward the Tama River, which flows to the south of the city. The altitude of the city area is 170.72 meters above sea level at the highest point and 76.68 meters at the lowest point. With the JR East Ome Line running east to west through the city as a boundary, housing estates, industrial parks, golf courses, and the Showa Memorial Park occupy a large area in the north. In the south, residential areas occupy a large proportion of the city area.
Surrounding municipalities
Tokyo Metropolis
Tachikawa
Fussa
Hachiōji
Hino
Climate
Akishima has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) characterized by warm summers and cool winters with light to no snowfall. The average annual temperature in Akishima is 13.9 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1998 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 25.4 °C, and lowest in January, at around 2.5 °C.
Demographics
Per Japanese census data, the population of Akishima has increased steadily over the past century.
History
The area of present-day Akishima was part of ancient Musashi Province, and a center for sericulture. In the post–Meiji Restoration cadastral reform of July 22, 1878, the area became part of Kitatama District in Kanagawa Prefecture. Haiji, Nakagami, and Sotoyatsu villages were created on April 1, 1889, with the establishment of the modern municipalities system. The entire district was transferred to the control of Tokyo Metropolis on April 1, 1893. The latter two villages merged on January 1, 1928, to form Shōwa Village. Following the dedication of Tachikawa Airfield, which was established in 1922, the surrounding area developed in the 1930s with large-scale munitions factories for aircraft manufacturing for the Imperial Japanese Army.
Shōwa was elevated to town status on January 1, 1941, and through merger with the village of Haiji on May 1, 1954, became the city of Akishima. The name comes from the kun'yomi of the first kanji in the name of the former town of Shōwa, and the on'yomi of the second kanji in the name of the former village of Haijima.
Government
Akishima has a mayor-council form of government with a directly elected mayor and a unicameral city council of 22 members. Akishima contributes one member to the Tokyo Metropolitan Assembly. In terms of national politics, the city is part of Tokyo 25th district of the lower house of the Diet of Japan.
Economy
Akishima was developed as an industrial suburb of Tokyo, and still has large factories operated by Hoya Corporation, JEOL, Japan Aviation Electronics, Fostex, Shōwa Aircraft Industry Co., and others. The city is also a bedroom community for the Tokyo metropolitan area.
Education
Akishima has two public high schools operated by the Tokyo Metropolitan Board of Education.
Haijima High School
Showa High SchoolAkishima has 13 public elementary schools and six public junior high schools operated by the city government.
Municipal junior high schools:
Fukujima Junior High School (福島中学校)
Haijima Junior High School (拝島中学校)
Seisen Junior High School (清泉中学校)
Showa Junior High School (昭和中学校)
Tamabe Junior High School (多摩辺中学校)
Zuiun Junior High School (瑞雲中学校)Municipal elementary schools:
Azuma Elementary School (東小学校)
Fujimigaoka Elementary School (富士見丘小学校)
Hajima No. 1 Elementary School (拝島第一小学校)
Hajima No. 2 Elementary School (拝島第二小学校)
Hajima No. 3 Elementary School (拝島第三小学校)
Koka Elementary School (光華小学校)
Kyosei Elementary School (共成小学校)
Musashino Elementary School (武蔵野小学校)
Nakagami Elementary School (中神小学校)
Seirin Elementary School (成隣小学校)
Tamagawa Elementary School (玉川小学校)
Tanaka Elementary School (田中小学校)
Tsutsuji Gaoka Elementary School (つつじが丘小学校)Former municipal elementary schools:
Hajima No. 4 Elementary School (拝島第四小学校) - Merged into Hajima No. 1 in 2015 (Heisei 27)
Tsutsuji Gaoka Kita Elementary School (つつじが丘北小学校) - Merged into Tsutsuji Gaoka in 2016 (Heisei 28)
Tsutsuji Gaoka Minami Elementary School (つつじが丘南小学校) - Merged into Tsutsuji Gaoka in 2016 (Heisei 28)The city also has one combined private elementary, junior high, and high school: Keimei Gakuen.
Transportation
Railroads
JR East – Ōme Line
Higashi-Nakagami – Nakagami – Akishima – Haijima JR East – Hachikō Line
Haijima JR East – Itsukaichi Line
Haijima - Seibu Haijima Line
Haijima
Highway
National Route 16
Local attractions
Showa Memorial Park
Tamagawa Aqueduct
Hajima Daishi Buddhist temple
Notable people
Aja Kong, professional wrestler
Takao Koyama, screenwriter and novelist
Satoshi Koizumi, professional soccer player
Akishima City Official Website Archived 2008-09-13 at the Wayback Machine (in Japanese) |
Hachijō (八丈町, Hachijō-machi) is a town located in Hachijō Subprefecture, Tokyo Metropolis, Japan. As of 1 December 2022, the town had an estimated population of 7,056, and a population density of 97.7 persons per km2. Its total area is 72.24 square kilometres (27.89 sq mi). Electric power for the town is provided by a geothermal power station and by a wind farm.
Geography
Hachijō covers the islands of Hachijō-jima and Hachijō-kojima, two of the islands in the Izu archipelago in the Philippine Sea, 228 kilometres (142 mi) south of central Tokyo. Warmed by the Kuroshio Current, the town has a warmer and wetter climate than central Tokyo. All of the town's residents live on the island of Hachijō-jima.
Neighboring municipalities
Tokyo Metropolis
Aogashima, Tokyo
Mikurajima, Tokyo
Climate
Demographics
The population of Hachijō as of 2020 was 7,042, down from 7,613 in 2015.
History
During the Edo period, Hachijōjima was known as a place of exile for convicts. This practice ended in the Meiji period, and the island residents developed an economy based on fishing, sericulture, and agriculture. Hachijō Subprefecture was organized on April 1, 1908, and included the villages of Mitsune, Nakanogo, Kashitate, Sueyoshi and Ōkago. The villages of Toruchi and Utsuki on Hachijōkojima were organized on May 3, 1947. The five villages of Hachijōjima merged on October 1, 1954, to form the village of Hachijō. On April 1, 1955, the two villages of Hachijōkojima also merged with the village of Hachijō, which was promoted to town status. However, in March 1966, the residents of Hachijōkojima voted to abandon their island, citing the inaccessibility of basic public services and economic difficulties, and Hachijōkojima became a deserted island from June 1969.
Economy
Fishing and tourism are the mainstays of the economy of Hachijō.
Education
The town government operates three public elementary and three public junior high schools.Junior high schools:
Fuji Junior High School (富士中学校)
Mihara Junior High School (三原中学校)
Okago Junior High School (大賀郷中学校)Elementary schools:
Mihara Elementary School (三原小学校)
Mitsune Elementary School (三根小学校)
Okago Elementary School (大賀郷小学校)The Tōkyō Metropolitan Government Board of Education operates Hachijō High School.
Transportation
Hachijōjima is accessible both by aircraft and by ferry. A pedestrian ferry leaves Tōkyō once every day at 10 p.m., and arrives at Hachijōjima at 9:00 a.m. the following day. Air travel to Hachijojima Airport takes 45 minutes from Tōkyō International Airport (Haneda).
Sister city relations
- Maui County, Hawaii, United States
Gallery
See also
Runin: Banished, a 2004 film about convicts exiled to Hachijōjima, and their attempts to escape.
Battle Royale, a controversial 2000 film filmed on the neighbouring, uninhabited island, Hachijō-kojima, although not set there.
Hachijō Town Official Website (in Japanese)
The Anchor Pub in Hachijō Town |
Ogasawara (小笠原村, Ogasawara-mura) is a village in Ogasawara Subprefecture, Tokyo Metropolis, Japan, that governs the Bonin Islands, Volcano Islands, and three remote islands (Nishinoshima, Minamitorishima and Okinotorishima).
History
In 1940, five municipalities were created in the islands, which had been unincorporated before, two on Chichijima, two on Hahajima, and one on Iwojima.
Ōmura (大村) on Chichijima
Ōgimura-Fukurosawa (扇村袋沢村) on Chichijima
Kitamura (北村) on Hahajima
Okimura (沖村) on Hahajima
Iōtō (硫黄島村) on Iwojima (Iōtō), which includes all of the Volcano IslandsBoth villages of Kita Iwo Jima became part of the newly created Iwojima municipality in 1940:
Ishinomura (east)
Nishimura (west)Following World War II, the islands were administered by the United States. The islands were returned to Japanese control in 1968 and organized as Ogasawara Village.
Airport plan
In August 2020, the Tokyo Metropolitan Government held a council about a potential airport. It would be operational in 10 years at the earliest. The mayor of Ogasawara Village, Kazuo Morishita said ""The airport is the village's long-cherished wish. Governor Koike also said at a regular press conference that day, "(The new model plan) is an effective measure to secure the air routes necessary to protect the lives of the islanders."
Geography
The municipality consists of the following groups and single isolated islands:
Bonin Islands (小笠原群島, Ogasawara Guntō), 73.00 km2Mukōjima rettō (聟島列島), 6.57 km2
Chichijima rettō (父島列島), 38.89 km2
Hahajima rettō (母島列島), 27.54 km2
Volcano Islands (火山列島, Kazan-rettō) 29.71 km2Kita Iwojima (北硫黄島, Kita-Iōtō, lit. "North Sulphur Island") 5.57 km2
Iwojima (硫黄島, Iōtō, lit. "Sulphur Island") 20.60 km2
Minami Iwojima (南硫黄島, Minami-Iōtō, lit. "South Sulphur Island") 3.54 km2
Nishinoshima (西之島, lit. "Western Island"; also known as Rosario Island), a single isolated island west of Hahajima rettō and part of the Volcano Islands, 0.29 km2
Okinotorishima (沖ノ鳥島 or 沖鳥島, lit. "Remote Bird Island") 0.01 km2
Minamitorishima (南鳥島, lit. "Southern Bird Island"; also known as Marcus Island) 1.40 km2The southernmost (uninhabited) group is known as the Volcano Islands. 700 km further south is Okino Torishima, and 1,900 km further east is Minamitorishima.
The population of the municipality resides on Chichi-jima (pop. about 2300) and Haha-jima (pop. about 500). The administration and village hall is located in the village of Omura on Chichi-jima. In addition, there is an air base with 400 soldiers on Iwojima of the Volcano Islands.
Demographics
Per Japanese census data, the population of Ogasawara has remained relatively steady in recent decades.
Education
Ogasawara Village operates the islands' public elementary and junior high schools.
Ogasawara Village Municipal Ogasawara Elementary School (小笠原村立小笠原小学校) in Chichi-jima
Ogasawara Village Municipal Ogasawara Junior High School (小笠原村立小笠原中学校) in Chichi-jima
Ogasawara Village Municipal Haha-jima Elementary School and Junior High School (小笠原村立母島小中学校) on Haha-jimaThe Tokyo Metropolitan Government Board of Education operates Ogasawara High School on Chichi-jima.
See also
Tokyo portal
Ogasawara Village Official Website (in Japanese)
"Ogasawara subtropical moist forests". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. |
The Miao are a group of linguistically-related peoples living in Southern China and Southeast Asia, who are recognized by the government of China as one of the 56 official ethnic groups. The Miao live primarily in southern China's mountains, in the provinces of Guizhou, Yunnan, Sichuan, Hubei, Hunan, Guangxi, Guangdong, and Hainan. Some sub-groups of the Miao, most notably the Hmong people, have migrated out of China into Southeast Asia (Myanmar, Northern Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand). Following the communist takeover of Laos in 1975, a large group of Hmong refugees resettled in several Western nations, mainly in the United States, France, and Australia.
Miao is a Chinese term, while the component groups of people have their own autonyms, such as (with some variant spellings) Hmong, Hmu, Xong (Qo-Xiong), and A-Hmao. These people (except those in Hainan) speak Hmongic languages, a subfamily of the Hmong–Mien languages including many mutually unintelligible languages such as the Hmong, Hmub, Xong and A-Hmao.Not all speakers of the Hmongic languages belong to the Miao. For example, the speakers of the Bunu and Bahengic languages are designated as the Yao, and the speakers of the Sheic languages are designated as the She and the Yao.
The Kem Di Mun people in Hainan, despite being officially designated as Miao people, are linguistically and culturally identical to the Kim Mun people in continental China who are classified as a subgroup of the Yao.
Nomenclature: Miao or Hmong
The term "Miao" gained official status in 1949 as a minzu (ethnic group) encompassing a group of linguistically-related ethnic minorities in Southwest China. This was part of a larger effort to identify and classify minority groups to clarify their role in the national government, including establishing autonomous administrative divisions and allocating the seats for representatives in provincial and national government.Historically, the term "Miao" had been applied inconsistently to a variety of non-Han peoples. Early Chinese-based names use various transcriptions: Miao, Miao-tse, Miao-tsze, Meau, Meo, mo, Miao-tseu etc. In Southeast Asian contexts, words derived from the Chinese "Miao" took on a sense which was perceived as derogatory by the subgroups living in that region. The term re-appeared in the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), by which time it had taken on the connotation of "barbarian." Being a variation of Nanman, it was used to refer to the indigenous people in southern China who had not been assimilated into Han culture. During this time, references to "raw" (生 Sheng) and "cooked" (熟 Shu) Miao appear, referring to the level of assimilation and political cooperation of the two groups, making them easier to classify. Not until the Qing dynasty (1644–1911) do more finely grained distinctions appear in writing. Even then, discerning which ethnic groups are included in various classifications can be complex. There has been a historical tendency by the Hmong, who resisted assimilation and political cooperation, to group all Miao peoples together under the term Hmong because of the potential derogatory use of the term Miao. In modern China, however, the term continues to be used regarding the Miao people there.Though the Miao themselves use various self-designations, the Chinese traditionally classify them according to the most characteristic color of the women's clothes. The list below contains some of these self-designations, the color designations, and the main regions inhabited by the four major groups of Miao in China:
Ghao Xong/Qo Xiong; Xong; Red Miao; Qo Xiong Miao: West Hunan
Gha Ne/Ka Nao; Hmub; Black Miao; Mhub Miao: Southeast Guizhou
A-Hmao; Big Flowery Miao: West Guizhou and Northeast Yunnan
Gha-Mu; Hmong, Mong; White Miao, Green/Blue Miao, Small Flowery Miao; South and East Yunnan, South Sichuan and West Guizhou
Gender roles
Women's status
Compared to the Confucian principles traditionally exercised over women in some regions of China, the Miao culture is generally less strict in categorization of women's roles in society. Miao women exercise relatively more independence, mobility and social freedom. They are known to be strong willed and politically minded. They actively contribute to their communities in social welfare, education, arts and culture, and agricultural farming.
Miao women demonstrate great skill and artistry when making traditional clothing and handicrafts. They excel at embroidering, weaving, paper-cutting, batik, and intricate jewelry casting. From vests, coats, hats, collars and cuffs, to full skirts, and baby carriers, the patterns on their clothes are extremely complicated and colorful with clean lines. Girls of around seven will learn embroidering from mothers and sisters, and by the time they are teenagers, they are quite deft. Additionally, Miao silver jewelry is distinctive for its design, style and craftsmanship. Miao silver jewelry is completely handmade, carved with fine decorative patterns. It's not easy to make and there is not one final masterpiece exactly the same as another. The Miao embroidery and silver jewelry are highly valued, delicate and beautiful.
Silver jewelry is a highly valuable craftwork of the Miao people. Apart from being a cultural tradition, it also symbolises the wealth of Miao women. As a Miao saying goes, "decorated with no silver or embroidery, a girl is not a girl", Miao women are occasionally defined by the amount of silver jewelry she wears or owns. It is especially important to wear heavy and intricate silver headdresses and jewelry during significant occasions and festivals, notably during weddings, funerals and springtime celebration. Silver jewelry is an essential element of Miao marriages, particularly to the bride. Miao families would begin saving silver jewellery for the girls at an early age, wishing their daughters could marry well with the large amount of silver jewelry representing the wealth of the family. Although a growing Miao population is moving from rural Miao regions to cities, the new generation respects the families' silver heritage and is willing to pass on the practice as a cultural tradition more than a showcase of family wealth.
Workforce and income
Although Miao women are not strictly-governed, their social status is often seen as lower than that of men, as in most patriarchal societies. Be it in the subsistence economy or otherwise, men are the main economic force and provide the stable source of income for the family. Women are primarily involved in social welfare, domestic responsibilities, and additionally earn supplementary income.As tourism became a major economic activity to this ethnic group, Miao women gained more opportunities to join the labor force and earn an income. Women mostly take up jobs that require modern day customer service skills; for example, working as tour guides, selling craftwork and souvenirs, teaching tourists how to make flower wreaths, and even renting ethnic costumes. These jobs require soft skills and hospitality and more visibility in public, but provide a low income. On the contrary, Miao men take up jobs that require more physical strengths and less visibility in public, such as engineering roads, building hotels, boats and pavilions. These jobs generally provide a more stable and profitable source of income.The above example of unequal division of labor demonstrates, in spite of socioeconomic changes in China, men are still considered the financial backbone of the family.
Marriage and family
While the Miao people have had their own unique culture, the Confucian ideology exerted significant influences on this ethnic group. It is expected that men are the dominant figures and breadwinners of the family, while women occupy more domestic roles (like cooking and cleaning). There are strict social standards on women to be "virtuous wives and good mothers", and to abide by "three obediences and four virtues", which include cultural moral specifications of women's behavior.A Miao woman has some cultural freedom in marrying a man of her choice. However, like many other cultures in Asia, there are strict cultural practices on marriage, one being clan exogamy. It is a taboo to marry someone within the same family clan name, even when the couple are not blood related or from the same community.In contrast to the common practice of the right of succession belonging to the firstborn son, the Miao's inheritance descends to the youngest son. The older sons leave the family and build their own residences, usually in the same province and close to the family. The youngest son is responsible for living with and caring for the aging parents, even after marriage. He receives a larger share of the family's inheritance and his mother's silver jewelry collection, which is used as bridal wealth or dowry.Some imperially commissioned Han Chinese chieftaincies assimilated with the Miao. Those became the ancestors of a part of the Miao population in Guizhou.The Hmong Tian clan in Sizhou began in the seventh century as a migrant Han Chinese clan.The origin of the Tunbao people traces back to the Ming dynasty when the Hongwu Emperor sent 300,000 Han Chinese male soldiers in 1381 to conquer Yunnan, with some of the men marrying Yao and Miao women.The presence of women presiding over weddings was a feature noted in "Southeast Asian" marriages, such as in 1667 when a Miao woman in Yunnan married a Chinese official. Some Sinicization occurred, in Yunnan a Miao chief's daughter married a scholar in the 1600s who wrote that she could read, write, and listen in Chinese and read Chinese classics.
History
Legend of Chiyou and origins
According to a Tang dynasty Chinese legend, the Miao who descended from the Jiuli tribe led by Chiyou (Chinese: 蚩尤; pinyin: Chīyóu) were defeated at the Battle of Zhuolu (涿鹿; Zhuōlù, a defunct prefecture on the border of present provinces of Hebei and Liaoning) by the military coalition of Huang Di (黃帝; Huángdì) and Yan Di, leaders of the Huaxia (華夏; Huáxià) tribe as the two tribes struggled for supremacy of the Yellow River valley.
The San Miao, according to legend, are the descendants of the Jiuli Tribe. Chinese records record a San Miao (三苗, Three Miao) kingdom around Dongting Lake. It was defeated by Yu the Great. Another Miao kingdom may have emerged in Yunnan around 704 BC that was subjugated by the Chinese in the 3rd century BC. In 2002, the Chu language has been identified as perhaps having influence from Tai–Kam and Miao–Yao languages by researchers at University of Massachusetts Amherst.
Dispersal
The Miao were not mentioned again in Chinese records until the Tang dynasty (618–907). In the following period, the Miao migrated throughout southern China and Southeast Asia. They generally inhabited mountainous or marginal lands and took up swidden or slash-and-burn cultivation techniques to farm these lands.
During the Miao Rebellions of the Ming dynasty, thousands of Miao were killed by the imperial forces. Mass castrations of Miao boys also took place.
During the Qing Dynasty the Miao fought three wars against the empire. The issue was so serious that the Yongzheng emperor sent one of his most important officials, Ortai, to be the Viceroy of the provinces with significant Miao populations in 1726, and through 1731, he spent his time putting down rebellions. In 1735 in the southeastern province of Guizhou, the Miao rose up against the government's forced assimilation. Eight counties involving 1,224 villages fought until 1738 when the revolt ended. According to Xiangtan University Professor Wu half the Miao populations were affected by the war.
The second war (1795–1806) involved the provinces of Guizhou and Hunan. Shi Sanbao and Shi Liudeng led this second revolt. Again, it ended in failure, but it took 11 years to quell the uprising.The greatest of the three wars occurred from 1854 to 1873. Zhang Xiu-mei led this revolt in Guizhou until his capture and death in Changsha, Hunan. This revolt affected over one million people and all the neighbouring provinces. By the time the war ended Professor Wu said only 30 percent of the Miao were left in their home regions. This defeat led to the Hmong people migrating out of China into Laos and Vietnam.
During Qing times, more military garrisons were established in southwest China. Han Chinese soldiers moved into the Taijiang region of Guizhou, married Miao women, and the children were brought up as Miao. In spite of rebellion against the Han, Hmong leaders made allies with Han merchants.The imperial government had to rely on political means to bring in Hmong people into the government: they created multiple competing positions of substantial prestige for Miao people to participate and assimilate into the Qing government system. During the Ming and Qing times, the official position of Kiatong was created in Indochina. The Miao would employ the use of the Kiatong government structure until the 1900s when they entered into French colonial politics in Indochina.
20th century
During the founding of the People's Republic of China (PRC), the Miao played an important role in its birth when they helped Mao Zedong to escape the Kuomintang in the Long March with supplies and guides through their territory.
In Vietnam, a powerful Hmong named Vuong Chinh Duc, dubbed the king of the Hmong, aided Ho Chi Minh's nationalist move against the French, and thus secured the Hmong's position in Vietnam. In Điện Biên Phủ, Hmongs fought on the side of the communist Viet Minh against the pro-French Tai Dam aristocrats. During the Vietnam War, Miao fought on both sides, the Hmong in Laos primarily for the US, across the border in Vietnam for the North-Vietnam coalition, the Chinese-Miao for the Communists. However, after the war the Vietnamese were very aggressive towards the Hmong who suffered many years of reprisals. Most Hmong in Thailand also supported a brief Communist uprising during the war.
Miao clans with Han origins
Some of the origins of the Hmong and Miao clan names are a result of the marriage of Hmong women to Han Chinese men, with distinct Han Chinese-descended clans and lineages practicing Han Chinese burial customs. These clans were called "Han Chinese Hmong" ("Hmong Sua") in Sichuan, and were instructed in military tactics by fugitive Han Chinese rebels. Such Chinese "surname groups" are comparable to the patrilineal Hmong clans and also practice exogamy.Han Chinese male soldiers who fought against the Miao rebellions during the Qing and Ming dynasties were known to have married with non-Han women such as the Miao because Han women were less desirable. The Wang clan, founded among the Hmong in Gongxian county of Sichuan's Yibin district, is one such clan and can trace its origins to several such marriages around the time of the Ming dynasty suppression of the Ah rebels. Nicholas Tapp wrote that, according to The Story of the Ha Kings in the village, one such Han ancestor was Wang Wu. It is also noted that the Wang typically sided with the Chinese, being what Tapp calls "cooked" as opposed to the "raw" peoples who rebelled against the Chinese.Hmong women who married Han Chinese men founded a new Xem clan among Northern Thailand's Hmong. Fifty years later in Chiangmai two of their Hmong boy descendants were Catholics. A Hmong woman and Han Chinese man married and founded northern Thailand's Lau2, or Lauj, clan, , with another Han Chinese man of the family name Deng founding another Hmong clan. Some scholars believe this lends further credence to the idea that some or all of the present day Hmong clans were formed in this way.Jiangxi Han Chinese are claimed by some as the forefathers of the southeast Guizhou Miao, and Miao children were born to the many Miao women married Han Chinese soldiers in Taijiang in Guizhou before the second half of the 19th century.
Archaeology
According to André-Georges Haudricourt and David Strecker's claims based on limited secondary data, the Miao were among the first people to settle in present-day China. They claim that the Han borrowed a lot of words from the Miao in regard to rice farming. This indicated that the Miao were among the first rice farmers in China. In addition, some have connected the Miao to the Daxi Culture (5,300 – 6,000 years ago) in the middle Yangtze River region. The Daxi Culture has been credited with being amongst the first cultivators of rice in the Far East by Western scholars. However, in 2006 rice cultivation was found to have existed in the Shandong province even earlier than the Daxi Culture. Though the Yuezhuang culture has cultivated rice, it is more of collected wild rice and not actual cultivated and domesticated rice like that of the Daxi.
A western study mention that the Miao (especially the Miao-Hunan) has its origins in southern China but have some DNA from the Northeast people of China. Recent DNA samples of Miao males contradict this theory. The White Hmong have 25% C, 8% D, & 6% N(Tat) yet they have the least contact with the Han population.
Demographics
According to the 2000 census, the number of Miao in China was estimated to be about 9.6 million. Outside of China, members of the Miao sub-group or nations of the Hmong live in Thailand, Laos, Vietnam and Burma due to outward migrations starting in the 18th century. As a result of recent migrations in the aftermath of the Indochina and Vietnam Wars from 1949–75, many Hmong people now live in the United States, French Guiana, France and Australia. Altogether, there are approximately 10 million speakers in the Miao language family. This language family, which consists of 6 languages and around 35 dialects (some of which are mutually intelligible) belongs to the Hmong/Miao branch of the Hmong–Mien (Miao–Yao) language family.
A large population of the Hmong have emigrated to the northern mountainous reaches of Southeast Asia including Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and Burma. However, many continue to live in far Southwest China mostly in the provinces of Yunnan, Guangxi and to a very limited extent in Guizhou.
Note: The Miao areas of Sichuan province became part of the newly created Chongqing Municipality in 1997.Most Miao currently live in China. Miao population growth in China:
1953: 2,510,000
1964: 2,780,000
1982: 5,030,000
1990: 7,390,0003,600,000 Miao, about half of the entire Chinese Miao population, were in Guizhou in 1990. The Guizhou Miao and those in the following six provinces make up over 98% of all Chinese Miao:
Hunan: 1,550,000
Yunnan: 890,000
Sichuan: 530,000
Guangxi: 420,000
Hubei: 200,000
Hainan: 50,000 (known as Miao but ethnically Yao and Li)In the above provinces, there are 6 Miao autonomous prefectures (shared officially with one other ethnic minority):
Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture, Guizhou
Qiannan Buyei and Miao Autonomous Prefecture, Guizhou
Qianxinan Buyei and Miao Autonomous Prefecture, Guizhou
Xiangxi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture, Hunan
Wenshan Zhuang and Miao Autonomous Prefecture, Yunnan
Enshi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture, HubeiThere are in addition 23 Miao autonomous counties:
Hunan: Mayang, Jingzhou, Chengbu
Guizhou: Songtao, Yinjiang, Wuchuan, Daozhen, Zhenning, Ziyun, Guanling, Weining
Yunnan: Pingbian, Jinping, Luquan
Chongqing: Xiushan, Youyang, Qianjiang, Pengshui
Guangxi: Rongshui, Longsheng, Longlin (including Hmong)
Hainan: Qiongzhong and BaotingMost Miao reside in hills or on mountains, such as
Wuling Mountain by the Qianxiang River (湘黔川边的武陵山; Xiāngqián Chuān Biān Dí Wǔlíng Shān)
Miao Mountain (苗岭; Miáo Líng), Qiandongnan
Yueliang Mountain (月亮山; Yuèliàng Shān), Qiandongnan
Greater and Lesser Ma Mountain (大小麻山; Dà Xiǎo Má Shān), Qiannan
Greater Miao Mountain (大苗山; Dà Miáo Shān), Guangxi
Wumeng Mountain by the Tianqian River (滇黔川边的乌蒙山; Tiánqián Chuān Biān Dí Wūmēng Shān)Several thousands of Miao left their homeland to move to larger cities like Guangzhou and Beijing. There are 789,000 Hmong spread throughout northern Vietnam, Laos, Burma, and on other continents. 174,000 live in Thailand, where they are one of the six main hill tribes.
Distribution
By province
The 2000 Chinese census recorded 8,940,116 Miao in mainland China.
Provincial distribution of the Miao in mainland China
By county
County-level distribution of the Miao in mainland China(Only includes counties or county-equivalents containing >0.25% of mainland China's Miao population.)
Cuisine
Miao fish (苗鱼 miáo yǘ) is a dish made by steaming fish with a mixture of fresh herbs, green peppers, ginger slices and garlic.
Genetics
Huang et al. (2022) found that the most common Y-chromosome haplogroup among many Hmongic-speaking ethnic groups (including Miao and Pa-Hng from Hunan, and Thailand Hmong) is O2a2a2a1a2a1a2-N5 (a subclade of O2a2a-M188), with a frequency of 47.1% among the Guangxi Miao.
See also
Chiyou
Ethnic groups in Chinese history
Ethnic minorities in China
History of China
Hmong people
Hmong customs and culture
Hmong–Mien languages
Languages of China
List of Hmong/Miao People
Single bamboo drifting
Pole worship
Vang Pao
Further reading
Tomoko Torimaru(September 1, 2008), One Needle, One Thread: Miao (Hmong) embroidery and fabric piecework from Guizhou, China, University of Hawaii Art Galle
Ch'ien Lung (emperor of China) (1810). The conquest of the Miao-tse, an imperial poem ... entitled A choral song of harmony for the first part of the Spring [tr.] by S. Weston, from the Chinese. Translated by Stephen Weston. London: Printed & Sold by C. & R. Baldwin, New Bridge Street, Black Friars. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
Hmong Studies Internet Resource Center
HmongNet.org
An Album of the Miao Minority from 1786
Map share of ethnic by county of China |
The Shanghainese language, also known as the Shanghai dialect, or Hu language, is a variety of Wu Chinese spoken in the central districts of the City of Shanghai and its surrounding areas. It is classified as part of the Sino-Tibetan language family. Shanghainese, like the rest of the Wu language group, is mutually unintelligible with other varieties of Chinese, such as Mandarin.Shanghainese belongs to a separate group of the Taihu Wu subgroup. With nearly 14 million speakers, Shanghainese is also the largest single form of Wu Chinese. Since the late 19th century it has served as the lingua franca of the entire Yangtze River Delta region, but in recent decades its status has declined relative to Mandarin, which most Shanghainese speakers can also speak.Like other Wu varieties, Shanghainese is rich in vowels and consonants, with around twenty unique vowel qualities, twelve of which are phonemic. Similarly, Shanghainese also has voiced obstruent initials, which is rare outside of Wu and Xiang varieties. Shanghainese also has a low number of tones compared to other languages in Southern China and has a system of tone sandhi similar to Japanese pitch accent.
History
The speech of Shanghai had long been influenced by those spoken around Jiaxing, then Suzhou during the Qing Dynasty. Suzhounese literature, Chuanqi, Tanci, and folk songs all influenced early Shanghainese.
During the 1850s, the port of Shanghai was opened, and a large number of migrants entered the city. This led to many loanwords from both the West and the East, especially from Ningbonese, and like Cantonese in Hong Kong, English. In fact, "speakers of other Wu dialects traditionally treat the Shanghai vernacular somewhat contemptuously as a mixture of Suzhou and Ningbo dialects." This has led to Shanghainese becoming one of the fastest-developing languages of the Wu Chinese subgroup, undergoing rapid changes and quickly replacing Suzhounese as the prestige dialect of the Yangtze River Delta region. It underwent sustained growth that reached a peak in the 1930s during the Republican era, when migrants arrived in Shanghai and immersed themselves in the local tongue. Migrants from Shanghai also brought Shanghainese to many overseas Chinese communities. As of 2016, 83,400 people in Hong Kong are still able to speak Shanghainese. Shanghainese is sometimes viewed as a tool to discriminate against immigrants. Migrants who move from other Chinese cities to Shanghai have little ability to speak Shanghainese. Among the migrant people, some believe Shanghainese represents the superiority of native Shanghainese people. Some also believe that native residents intentionally speak Shanghainese in some places to discriminate against the immigrant population to transfer their anger to migrant workers, who take over their homeland and take advantage of housing, education, medical, and job resources.After the People's Republic of China's government imposed and promoted Standard Chinese as the official language of all of China, Shanghainese has started its decline. During the Chinese economic reform of 1978, Shanghainese has once again took in a large number of migrants. Due to the prominence of Standard Mandarin, learning Shanghainese was no longer necessary for migrants. However, Shanghainese remained a vital part of the city's culture and retained its prestige status within the local population. In the 1990s, it was still common for local radio and television broadcasts to be in Shanghainese. For example, in 1995, the TV series Sinful Debt featured extensive Shanghainese dialogue; when it was broadcast outside Shanghai (mainly in adjacent Wu-speaking areas) Mandarin subtitles were added. The Shanghainese TV series Lao Niang Jiu (老娘舅, "Old Uncle") was broadcast from 1995 to 2007 and was popular among Shanghainese residents. Shanghainese programming has since slowly declined amid regionalist-localist accusations. From 1992 onward, Shanghainese use was discouraged in schools, and many children native to Shanghai can no longer speak Shanghainese. In addition, Shanghai's emergence as a cosmopolitan global city consolidated the status of Mandarin as the standard language of business and services, at the expense of the local language.Since 2005, movements have emerged to protect Shanghainese. At municipal legislative discussions in 2005, former Shanghai opera actress Ma Lili moved to "protect" the language, stating that she was one of the few remaining Shanghai opera actresses who still retained authentic classic Shanghainese pronunciation in their performances. Shanghai's former party boss Chen Liangyu, a native Shanghainese himself, reportedly supported her proposal. Shanghainese has been reintegrated into pre-kindergarten education, with education of native folk songs and rhymes, as well as a Shanghainese-only day on Fridays in the Modern Baby Kindergarten. Professor Qian Nairong, linguist and head of the Chinese Department at Shanghai University, is working on efforts to save the language. In response to criticism, Qian reminds people that Shanghainese was once fashionable, saying, "the popularization of Mandarin doesn't equal the ban of dialects. It doesn't make Mandarin a more civilized language either. Promoting dialects is not a narrow-minded localism, as it has been labeled by some netizens". Qian has also urged for Shanghainese to be taught in other sectors of education, due to kindergarten and university courses being insufficient.
During the 2010s, many achievements have been made to preserve Shanghainese. In 2011, Hu Baotan wrote Longtang (弄堂, "Longtang"), the first ever Shanghainese novel. In June 2012, a new television program airing in Shanghainese was created. In 2013, buses in Shanghai started using Shanghainese broadcasts. In 2017, Apple's iOS 11 introduced Siri in Shanghainese, being only the third Sinitic language to be supported, after Standard Mandarin and Cantonese. In 2018, the Japanese-Chinese animated anthology drama film Flavors of Youth had a section set in Shanghai, with significant Shanghainese dialogue. In January 2019, singer Lin Bao released the first Shanghainese pop record Shanghai Yao (上海謠, "Shanghai Ballad"). In December 2021, the Shanghainese-language romantic comedy movie Myth of Love (愛情神話) was released. Its box office revenue was ¥260 million, and response was generally positive.Today, around half the population of Shanghai can converse in Shanghainese, and a further quarter can understand it. Though the number of speakers has been declining, a large number of people want to preserve it.
Status
Due to the large number of ethnic groups of China, efforts to establish a common language have been attempted many times. Therefore, the language issue has always been an important part of Beijing's rule. Other than the government language-management efforts, the rate of rural-to-urban migration in China has also accelerated the shift to Standard Chinese and the disappearance of native languages and dialects in the urban areas.As more people moved into Shanghai, the economic center of China, Shanghainese has been threatened despite it originally being a strong topolect of Wu Chinese. According to the Shanghai Municipal Statistics Bureau, the population of Shanghai was estimated to be 24.28 million in 2019, of whom 14.5 million are permanent residents and 9.77 million are migrant residents. To have better communication with foreign residents and develop a top-level financial center among the world, the promotion of the official language, Standard Mandarin, became very important. Therefore, the Shanghai Municipal Government banned the use of Shanghainese in public places, schools, and work. Around half of the city's population is unaware of these policies.A survey of students from the primary school in 2010 indicated that 52.3% of students believed Mandarin is easier than Shanghainese for communication, and 47.6% of the students choose to speak Mandarin because it is a mandatory language at school. Furthermore, 68.3% of the students are more willing to study Mandarin, but only 10.2% of the students are more willing to study Shanghainese. A survey in 2021 has shown that 15.22% of respondents under 18 would never use Shanghainese. The study also found that the percentage of people that would use Shanghainese with older family members has halved. The study also shows that around one third of people under the age of 30 can only understand Shanghainese, and 8.7% of respondents under 18 cannot even understand it. The number of people that are able to speak Shanghainese has also consistently decreased.Much of the youth can no longer speak Shanghainese fluently because they had no chance to practice it at school. Also, they were unwilling to communicate with their parents in Shanghainese, which has accelerated its decline. The survey in 2010 indicated that 62.6% of primary school students use Mandarin as the first language at home, but only 17.3% of them use Shanghainese to communicate with their parents.However, the same study from 2021 has shown that more than 90% of all age groups except 18-29 want to preserve Shanghainese. 87.06% of people have noted that the culture of Shanghai cannot live without its language, and around half of the respondents stated that a Shanghainese citizen should be able to speak Shanghainese. More than 85% of all participants also believe that they help Shanghainese revitalization, and it would be useful to announce station names in Shanghainese on buses.
Classification
Shanghainese macroscopically is spoken in Shanghai and parts of eastern Nantong, and constitutes the Shanghai subranch of the Northern Wu family of Wu Chinese. Some linguists group Shanghainese with nearby varieties, such as Huzhounese and Suzhounese, which has about 29%-30% lexical similarity with Standard Mandarin, into a branch known as Suhujia (蘇滬嘉小片), due to them sharing many phonological, lexical, and grammatical similarities. Newer varieties of Shanghainese, however, have been influenced by standard Chinese as well as Cantonese and other varieties, making the Shanghainese idiolects spoken by young people in the city different from that spoken by the older population. Also, the practice of inserting Mandarin into Shanghainese conversations is very common, at least for young people. Like most subdivisions of Chinese, it is easier for a local speaker to understand Mandarin than it is for a Mandarin speaker to understand the local language. It is also of note that Shanghainese, like other Northern Wu languages, is not mutually intelligible with Southern Wu languages like Taizhounese and Wenzhounese.
Shanghainese as a branch of Northern Wu can be further subdivided. The details are as follows:
Urban branch (市區片) – what “Shanghainese” tends to refer to. Occupies the city centre of Shanghai, generally on the west bank of the Huangpu River. This can also be further divided into Old, Middle, and New Periods, as well as an emerging Newest Period.The following are often collectively known as Bendihua (本地話, Shanghainese: 本地閒話, Wugniu: pen-di ghe-gho)
Jiading branch (嘉定片) – spoken in the most of Jiading and Baoshan.
Liantang branch (練塘片) – spoken in the southwestern ends of Qingpu.
Chongming branch (崇明片) – spoken in the islands of Hengsha, Changxing and Chongming, as well as the eastern parts of Nantong.
Songjiang branch (松江片) – spoken in all other parts of Shanghai, which can be further divided into the following:Pudong subbranch (浦東小片) – spoken in all parts of the east bank of the Huangpu River, taking up most of the Pudong district.Shanghai subbranch (上海小片) – spoken in the rest of the peripheral areas of the city center, namely southern Jiading and Baoshan, as well as northern Minhang.Songjiang subbranch (松江小片) – spoken in the rest of Shanghai. Named after the Songjiang district.
Phonology
Following conventions of Chinese syllable structure, Shanghainese syllables can be divided into initials and finals. The initial occupies the first part of the syllable. The final occupies the second part of the syllable and can be divided further into an optional medial and an obligatory rime (sometimes spelled rhyme). Tone is also a feature of the syllable in Shanghainese.: 6–16 Syllabic tone, which is typical to the other Sinitic languages, has largely become verbal tone in Shanghainese.
Initials
The following is a list of all initials in Middle Period Shanghainese, as well as the Wugniu romanisation and example characters.
Shanghainese has a set of tenuis, lenis and fortis plosives and affricates, as well as a set of voiceless and voiced fricatives. Alveolo-palatal initials are also present in Shanghainese.
Voiced stops are phonetically voiceless with slack voice phonation in stressed, word initial position. This phonation (often referred to as murmur) also occurs in zero onset syllables, syllables beginning with fricatives, and syllables beginning with sonorants. These consonants are true voiced in intervocalic position. Sonorants are also suggested to be glottalised in dark tones (i.e. tones 1, 5, 7).
Finals
Being a Wu language, Shanghainese has a large array of vowel sounds. The following is a list of all possible finals in Middle Period Shanghainese, as well as the Wugniu romanisation and example characters.
The transcriptions used above are broad and the following points are of note when pertaining to actual pronunciation:
/n/ is enunciated with any part of the tongue, and is therefore in free variation as [n ~ ŋ].
/ɑ̃/ is often rounded into [ɒ̃].
The /ɔ/ in /ɔ/ and /iɔ/ are often lowered to [ɔ̞], whereas the /o/ in /oʔ/ and /ioʔ/ are often lowered to [o̞].
/iɪʔ/ is only pronounced as [ɪʔ] after labials and alveolars. whereas it is [iɪʔ] after glottal and alveolo-palatal initials.
High vowels in front of /n/ can undergo breaking.
/yɪʔ/ can be merged into /ioʔ/, resulting in one fewer rime.
Rimes with final /ʔ/ is often simply realised as a shortened vowel nucleus when it is not utterance-final.
Lips are not significantly rounded in rounded vowels, and not significantly unrounded in unrounded ones.
/u, o/ are similar in pronunciation, differing slightly in lip rounding and height ([ɯ̽ᵝ, ʊ] respectively). /i, jɛ/ are also similar in pronunciation, differing slightly in vowel height ([i̞, i] respectively).
Medial /i/ is pronounced [ɥ] before rounded vowels.The Middle Chinese nasal rimes are all merged in Shanghainese. Middle Chinese /-p -t -k/ rimes have become glottal stops, /-ʔ/.
Tones
Shanghainese has five phonetically distinguishable tones for single syllables said in isolation. These tones are illustrated below in tone numbers. In terms of Middle Chinese tone designations, the dark tone category has three tones (dark rising and dark departing tones have merged into one tone), while the light category has two tones (the light level, rising and departing tones have merged into one tone).: 17
Numbers in this table are those used by the Wugniu romanisation scheme.
The conditioning factors which led to the yin–yang (light-dark) split still exist in Shanghainese, as they do in most other Wu lects: light tones are only found with voiced initials, namely [b d ɡ z v dʑ ʑ m n ɲ ŋ l ɦ], while the dark tones are only found with voiceless initials.The checked tones are shorter, and describe those rimes which end in a glottal stop /ʔ/. That is, both the yin–yang distinction and the checked tones are allophonic (dependent on syllabic structure). With this analysis, Shanghainese has only a two-way phonemic tone contrast, falling vs rising, and then only in open syllables with voiceless initials. Therefore, many romanisations of Shanghainese opt to only mark the dark level tone, usually with a diacritic such as an acute accent or grave accent.
Tone sandhi
Tone sandhi is a process whereby adjacent tones undergo dramatic alteration in connected speech. Similar to other Northern Wu dialects, Shanghainese is characterized by two forms of tone sandhi: a word tone sandhi and a phrasal tone sandhi.
Word tone sandhi in Shanghainese can be described as left-prominent and is characterized by a dominance of the first syllable over the contour of the entire tone domain. As a result, the underlying tones of syllables other than the leftmost syllable, have no effect on the tone contour of the domain. The pattern is generally described as tone spreading (1, 5, 6, 7) or tone shifting (8, except for 4-syllable compounds, which can undergo spreading or shifting). The table below illustrates possible tone combinations.
As an example, in isolation, the two syllables of the word 中國 (China) are pronounced with a dark level tone (tsón) and dark checked tone (koq): /tsoŋ⁵³/ and /koʔ⁵⁵/. However, when pronounced in combination, the dark level tone of 中 (tsón) spreads over the compound resulting in the following pattern /tsoŋ⁵⁵ koʔ²¹/. Similarly, the syllables in a common expression for 十三點 (zeq-sé-ti, "foolish") have the following underlying phonemic and tonal representations: /zəʔ¹²/ (zeq), /sɛ⁵³/ (sé), and /ti³³⁴/ (ti). However, the syllables in combination exhibit the light checked shifting pattern where the first-syllable light checked tone shifts to the last syllable in the domain: /zəʔ¹¹ sɛ²² ti²³/.: 38–46 Phrasal tone sandhi in Shanghainese can be described as right-prominent and is characterized by a right syllable retaining its underlying tone and a left syllable receiving a mid-level tone based on the underlying tone's register. The table below indicates possible left syllable tones in right-prominent compounds.: 46–47
For instance, when combined, 買 (ma, /ma¹¹³/, "to buy") and 酒 (cieu, /tɕiɤ³³⁴/, "wine") become /ma³³ tɕiɤ³³⁴/ ("to buy wine").
Sometimes meaning can change based on whether left-prominent or right-prominent sandhi is used. For example, 炒 (tshau, /tsʰɔ³³⁴/, "to fry") and 麪 (mi, /mi¹¹³/, "noodle") when pronounced /tsʰɔ³³ mi⁴⁴/ (i.e., with left-prominent sandhi) means "fried noodles". When pronounced /tsʰɔ⁴⁴ mi¹¹³/ (i.e., with right-prominent sandhi), it means "to fry noodles".: 35 Nouns and adjectives attached to nouns tend to start right-prominent sandhi chains, whereas left-prominent chains are triggered by verbs and adverbs. Grammatical particles cannot start chains of their own, but instead can be realised as a null tone (Chinese: 輕聲) or be part of another chain.
"I cannot find my red phone."
In the previous example sentence we see an adjective, noun and pronoun starting sandhi chains, the particles 勿, 到 and 個 being incorporated into other sandhi chains, and the particle 了 having a neutral tone.
Vocabulary
Note: Chinese characters for Shanghainese are not standardized and those chosen are those recommended in 上海话大词典. IPA transcription is for the Middle Period of modern Shanghainese (中派上海话), pronunciation of those between 20 and 60 years old.
Due to the large number of migrants into Shanghai, its lexicon is less noticeably Wu, though it still retains many defining features. However, many of these now lost features can be found in lects spoken in suburban Shanghai.
Its basic negator is 勿 (veq), which according to some linguists, is sufficient ground to classify it as Wu.Shanghainese also has a multitude of loan words from European languages, due to Shanghai's status as a major port in China. Most of these terms come from English, though there are some from other languages such as French. Some terms, such as 水門汀, have even entered mainstream and other Sinitic languages, such as Sichuanese.
Common words and phrases
For more terms, see Shanghainese Swadesh list on Wiktionary.
Literary and vernacular pronunciations
Like other Sinitic languages, Shanghainese exhibits a difference between expected vernacular pronunciations, and literary pronunciations taken from the Mandarinic lingua franca of the time, be it Nanjingnese, Hangzhounese, or Beijingnese.
These readings must be distinguished in vocabulary. Take for instance the following.
Some terms mix the two pronunciation types, such as 大學 (“university”), where 大 is literary (da) and 學 is colloquial (ghoq).
Evolution
Qian Nairong identified four distinct stages of the evolution of Shanghainese. The following sections explore the changes per stage.
Stage 1
Stage 1 lasts from 1853 to 1899. Most sources in this period are written by western linguists.
The /dz/ initial starts to merge with /z/
The loss of nasalization of xian and shan rimes (咸山攝)
The distinction between /n/ and /ŋ/ codas disappears
The merger of all checked rimes, including the allophonic /k/
Terms with light rising tone and a plosive or fricative initial merge with the light departing tone
Stage 2
Stage 2 lasts from 1900 to 1939. This period is often also known as Old Period.
Bilabial fricatives become labiodental
Palatalization of velars and /n/
/uo/ and parts of /ɔ/ merged into /o/
Xian and shan rimes with closed openness (合口) become /ø/
Checked rimes /œʔ/ and /eʔ/ merge with /aʔ/, /ʌʔ/ with /ɑʔ/
All non-checked light tones mergeThe following is a table of Old Period initials, as of the year 1915.
Stage 3
Stage 3 lasts from 1940 to 1969. This marks the start of the Middle Period and is often seen as the standard of Shanghainese.
The breathy voice phonation type begins to be lost
The /f h v ɦ/ initials become more distinct
“Sharp” /s z/ and “blunt” /ɕ ʑ/ initials merge in front of high vowels
The finals of lei, lai and lan (雷來蘭) merge
The /ie/ final becomes an alternative pronunciation; /i/ becomes dominant
/ɿ ʮ/ finals merge
/iəŋ/ and /iŋ/ merge
/yəŋ/ and /yɪʔ/ splits from /ioŋ/ and /ioʔ/
/ɔʔ/ merges into /oʔ/ and /iəʔ/ merges into /iɪʔ/
The dark rising and departing tones merge
Stage 4
Stage 4 lasts from 1970 to 1999. The end of this period coincides with the start of the New Period.
A /dʑ/ initial develops based on whether Standard Mandarin has an affricate
The yi initial (疑母) largely becomes /ɦ/
Terms with /h ɦ/ in Shanghainese become /f v/ if Standard Mandarin has it as /f/
Unsystematic devoicing of voiced initials
Xian and shan diphthong finals become monophthongs
/ie/ largely disappears
/ã/ and /ɑ̃/ merge. They are also sometimes pronounced /aŋ/ and /ɑŋ/
/aʔ/ and /oʔ/ merge into /əʔ/, /iaʔ/ merges into /iɪʔ/
/ioŋ/ merges into /yŋ/, /ioʔ/ merges into /yɪʔ/
A new /ei/ initial where Standard Mandarin has /ei/
/ɤ/ gets pronounced [ɤɯ]
/o/ and /u/ merge
Vocabulary
There are some recorded differences between Old Period Shanghainese and those more contemporary. The following is a selection of several.
Grammar
Old Shanghainese grammar differs from Middle Period greatly in terms of word order and grammatical particles. Take the following sentences for example:
In terms of New Period grammar, the word order is sometimes changed to be more similar to Mandarin. Take for example the following sentences, which all mean "come over to my place and play when you have time!":
Newest Period
Due to the decline of Shanghainese, and the increasing userbase of Standard Mandarin, Shanghainese has entered an emerging "Newest Period". The exact phonology generally varies from person to person. The following is a non-exhaustive list of phonological changes seen in Newest Period Shanghainese, and are heavily proscribed.Initials:
Voicing is lost in historical rising and departing tone words: 示 /zɿ/ → /sɿ/.
The /ŋ/ and some /ȵ/ initials are merged into the null, especially when pronouncing Written Standard Chinese (書面語): 元 /ȵyø/ → /ɦyø/.
The /ʑ/ initial is almost completely lost. They are distributed either to /dʑ/, such as 齊, or /ɕ/, such as 序.
Some words with /ȵ/ and /z/ initials change to the /l/, primarily in literary pronunciations: 染 /zø/ → /lø/.
The alveolo-palatal series /tɕ, tɕʰ, ɕ/ approach [ts, tsʰ, s].
The voiced initials merge with their unvoiced counterparts: 頭 /dɤ/ → /tɤ/.However, /ɦ/ gets merged into the null initial: 也 /ɦa/ → /a/.Finals:
Some words with the /u/ final create a new /ɜ/: 可 /kʰu/ → /kʰɜ/.
Some words with the /ã/ final merge into the /ən/ final: 朋 /bã/ → /pən/.
The /e/ final splits into /ei/, /e/ and /ɛ/: 雷 /lei/ ≠ 來 /le/ ≠ 蘭 /lɛ/.
Some words with the /ɿ/ final gets pronounced /u/: 豬 /tsɿ/ → /tsu/
The /ø/ final gets pronounced as [uø].
The /ɤ/ final gets pronounced as [ɤɯ].
The distinction between /ø/ and /e/ sometimes gets blurred: 難 /ne/ → /nø/, 半 /pø/ → /pe/.
The /ȵyø/ syllable merges into the /ɦyø/ syllable: 原 /ɦyø/ = 縣 /ɦyø/
The /u/ and /o/ finals merge: 巴 /pu/ = 波 /pu/
The syllabic nasals, /m/ and /ŋ/, are lost.Tones:
The two checked tones merge into the 55 contour.
Some light departing words becoming dark rising: 眠 /mi¹¹³/ → /mi³³⁴/.
4 or 5 syllable sandhi chains break into shorter 2 or 3 character chains.
Grammar
Like other Sinitic languages, Shanghainese is an isolating language that lacks marking for tense, person, case, number or gender. Similarly, there is no distinction for tense or person in verbs, with word order and particles generally expressing these grammatical characteristics. There are, however, three important derivational processes in Shanghainese. However, some analyses do suggest that one can analyse Shanghainese to have tenses.Although formal inflection is very rare in all varieties of Chinese, there does exist in Shanghainese a morpho-phonological tone sandhi that Zhu (2006) identifies as a form of inflection since it forms new words out of pre-existing phrases. This type of inflection is a distinguishing characteristic of all Northern Wu dialects.Affixation, generally (but not always) taking the form of suffixes, occurs rather frequently in Shanghainese, enough so that this feature contrasts even with other Wu varieties, although the line between suffix and particle is somewhat nebulous. Most affixation applies to adjectives. In the example below, the term 頭勢 (deu-sy) can be used to change an adjective to a noun.
Words can be reduplicated in order to express various differences in meaning. Nouns, for example, can be reduplicated to express collective or diminutive forms; adjectives so as to intensify or emphasize the associated description; and verbs in order to soften the degree of action. Below is an example of noun reduplication resulting in semantic alteration.
Word compounding is also very common in Shanghainese, a fact observed as far back as Edkins (1868), and is the most productive method of creating new words. Many recent borrowings in Shanghainese originating from European languages are di- or polysyllabic.
Word order
Shanghainese adheres generally to SVO word order. The placement of objects in Wu dialects is somewhat variable, with Southern Wu varieties positioning the direct object before the indirect object, and Northern varieties (especially in the speech of younger people) favoring the indirect object before the direct object. Owing to Mandarin influence, Shanghainese usually follows the latter model.Older speakers of Shanghainese tend to place adverbs after the verb, but younger people, again under heavy influence from Mandarin, favor pre-verbal placement of adverbs.The third person singular pronoun 伊 (yi) (he/she/it) or the derived phrase 伊講 (yi kaon) ("he says") can appear at the end of a sentence. This construction, which appears to be unique to Shanghainese, is commonly employed to project the speaker's differing expectation relative to the content of the phrase.
Nouns
Except for the limited derivational processes described above, Shanghainese nouns are isolating. There is no inflection for case or number, nor is there any overt gender marking. Although Shanghainese does lack overt grammatical number, the plural marker 拉 (la), when suffixed to a human denoting noun, can indicate a collective meaning.
There are no articles in Shanghainese, and thus, no marking for definiteness or indefiniteness of nouns. Certain determiners (a demonstrative pronoun or numeral classifier, for instance) can imply definite or indefinite qualities, as can word order. A noun absent any sort of determiner in the subject position is definite, whereas it is indefinite in the object position.
Classifiers
Shanghainese boasts numerous classifiers (also sometimes known as "counters" or "measure words"). Most classifiers in Shanghainese are used with nouns, although a small number are used with verbs. Some classifiers are based on standard measurements or containers. Classifiers can be paired with a preceding determiner (often a numeral) to form a compound that further specifies the meaning of the noun it modifies.
Classifiers can be reduplicated to mean "all" or "every", as in:
Verbs
Shanghainese verbs are analytic and as such do not undergo any sort of conjugation to express tense or person. However, the language does have a richly developed aspect system, expressed using various particles. This system has been argued to be a tense system.
Aspect
Some disagreement exists as to how many formal aspect categories exist in Shanghainese, and a variety of different particles can express the same aspect, with individual usage often reflecting generational divisions. Some linguists identify as few as four or six, and others up to twelve specific aspects. Zhu (2006) identifies six relatively uncontroversial aspects in Shanghainese.Progressive aspect expresses a continuous action. It is indicated by the particles 辣 (laq), 辣辣 (laq-laq) or 辣海 (laq-he), which occur pre-verbally.
The resultative aspect expresses the result of an action which was begun before a specifically referenced timeframe, and is also indicated by 辣 (laq), 辣辣 (laq-laq) or 辣海 (laq-he), except that these occur post-verbally.
Perfective aspect can be marked by 了 (leq), 仔 (tsy), 好 (hau) or 唻 (le). 仔 is seen as dated and younger speakers often use 了, likely through lenition and Mandarin influence.
Zhu (2006) identifies a future aspect, indicated by the particle 要 (iau).
Qian (1997) identifies a separate immediate future aspect, marked post-verbally by 快 (khua).
Experiential aspect expresses the completion of an action before a specifically referenced timeframe, marked post-verbally by the particle 過 (ku).
The durative aspect is marked post-verbally by 下去 (gho-chi), and expresses a continuous action.
In some cases, it is possible to combine two aspect markers into a larger verb phrase.
Mood and Voice
There is no overt marking for mood in Shanghainese, and Zhu (2006) goes so far as to suggest that the concept of grammatical mood does not exist in the language. There are, however, several modal auxiliaries (many of which have multiple variants) that collectively express concepts of desire, conditionality, potentiality and ability.
Shen (2016) argues for the existence of a type of passive voice in Shanghainese, governed by the particle 撥 (peq). This construction is superficially similar to by-phrases in English, and only transitive verbs can occur in this form of passive.
Pronouns
Personal pronouns in Shanghainese do not distinguish gender or case. Owing to its isolating grammatical structure, Shanghainese is not a pro-drop language.
There is some degree of flexibility concerning pronoun usage in Shanghainese. Older varieties of Shanghainese featured a different 1st person plural 我伲 (ngu-gni), whereas younger speakers tend to use 阿拉 (aq-laq), which originates from Ningbonese. While Zhu (2006) asserts that there is no inclusive 1st person plural pronoun, Hashimoto (1971) disagrees, identifying 阿拉 as being inclusive. There are generational and geographical distinctions in the usage of plural pronoun forms, as well as differences of pronunciation in the 1st person singular.Reflexive pronouns are formed by the addition of the particle 自家 (zy-ka), as in:
Possessive pronouns are formed via the pronominal suffix 個 (gheq), for instance, 我個 (ngu gheq). This pronunciation is a glottalised lenition of the expected pronunciation, ku.
Adjectives
Most basic Shanghainese adjectives are monosyllabic. Like other parts of speech, adjectives do not change to indicate number, gender or case. Adjectives can take semantic prefixes, which themselves can be reduplicated or repositioned as suffixes according to a complex system of derivation, in order to express degree of comparison or other changes in meaning. Thus:
冷 lan ("cold")
冰冷 pín-lan ("ice-cold"), where 冷 means ice
冰冰冷 pín-pín-lan ("cold as ice")
Interrogatives
The particle 𠲎 (vaq) is used to transform ordinary declarative statements into yes/no questions. This is the most common way of forming questions in Shanghainese.
Negation
Nouns and verbs can be negated by the verb 嘸沒 (m-meq), “to not have”, whereas 勿 veq is the basic negator.
Writing
Chinese characters are often used to write Shanghainese. Though there is no formal standardisations, there are characters recommended for use, mostly based on dictionaries. However, Shanghainese is often informally written using Shanghainese or even Standard Mandarin near-homophones. For instance "lemon" (níngméng), written 檸檬 in Standard Chinese, may be written 人門 (person-door; Pinyin: rénmén, Wugniu: gnin-men) in Shanghainese; and "yellow" (黄; huáng, Wugniu: waon) may be written 王 (meaning king; Pinyin: wáng, Wugniu: waon) rather than the standard character 黃 for yellow.
Some of the time, nonstandard characters are used even when trying to use etymologically correct characters, due to compatibility (such as 伐) or pronunciation shift (such as 辣海).
Romanization of Shanghainese was first developed by Protestant English and American Christian missionaries in the 19th century, including Joseph Edkins. Usage of this romanization system was mainly confined to translated Bibles for use by native Shanghainese, or English–Shanghainese dictionaries, some of which also contained characters, for foreign missionaries to learn Shanghainese. A system of phonetic symbols similar to Chinese characters called "New Phonetic Character" were also developed by in the 19th century by American missionary Tarleton Perry Crawford. Since the 21st century, online dictionaries such as the Wu MiniDict and Wugniu have introduced their own Romanization schemes. Nowadays, the MiniDict and Wugniu Romanizations are the most commonly used standardised ones.
Protestant missionaries in the 1800s created the Shanghainese Phonetic Symbols to write Shanghainese phonetically. The symbols are a syllabary similar to the Japanese kana system. The system has not been used and is only seen in a few historical books.
See also
Shanghainese people
Haipai
Wu Chinese
Suzhounese
Hangzhounese
Ningbonese
List of varieties of Chinese
Chinatown, Flushing
Lance Eccles, Shanghai dialect: an introduction to speaking the contemporary language. Dunwoody Press, 1993. ISBN 1-881265-11-0. 230 pp + cassette. (An introductory course in 29 units).
Xiaonong Zhu, A Grammar of Shanghai Wu. LINCOM Studies in Asian Linguistics 66, LINCOM Europa, Munich, 2006. ISBN 3-89586-900-7. 201+iv pp.
Further reading
Chen, Yiya & Gussenhoven, Carlos (2015). "Shanghai Chinese". Illustrations of the IPA. Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 45 (3): 321–327. doi:10.1017/S0025100315000043: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link), with supplementary sound recordings.John A. Silsby, Darrell Haug Davis (1907). Complete Shanghai syllabary with an index to Davis and Silsby's Shanghai vernacular dictionary and with the Mandarin pronunciation of each character. American Presbyterian Mission Press. p. 150. Retrieved May 15, 2011.
Joseph Edkins (1868). A grammar of colloquial Chinese: as exhibited in the Shanghai dialect (2 ed.). Presbyterian mission press. pp. 225. Retrieved May 15, 2011.
Shanghai Christian vernacular society (1891). Syllabary of the Shanghai vernacular: Prepared and published by the Shanghai Christian vernacular society. American Presbyterian mission press. pp. 94. Retrieved May 15, 2011.
Rev.John Macgowan (1868). Collection Of Phrases In The Shanghai Dialect (2 ed.). The London Missionary Society. p. 113. Archived from the original on April 15, 2010. Retrieved May 15, 2011.
Gilbert McIntosh (1908). Useful phrases in the Shanghai dialect: With index-vocabulary and other helps (2 ed.). American Presbyterian mission press. p. 113. Retrieved May 15, 2011.
Joseph Edkins (1869). A vocabulary of the Shanghai dialect. Presbyterian mission press. pp. 151. Retrieved May 15, 2011.
Charles Ho, George Foe (1940). Shanghai dialect in 4 weeks: with map of Shanghai. Chi Ming Book Co.press. p. 125. Retrieved May 15, 2011.
John Alfred Silsby (1911). Introduction to the study of the Shanghai vernacular. American Presbyterian Mission Press. p. 53. Retrieved May 15, 2011.
R. A. Parker (1923). Introduction Lessons in the Shanghai dialect: in romanized and character, with key to pronunciation. Shanghai. p. 265. Retrieved May 15, 2011.
Pott, F. L. Hawks (Francis Lister Hawks), 1864–1947 | The ...
Francis Lister Hawks Pott (1907). Lessons in the Shanghai dialect. Shanghai: Printed at the American Presbyterian mission press.
Francis Lister Hawks Pott; Frank Joseph Rawlinson (1915). 滬語開路 = Conversational exercises in the Shanghai dialect / Hu yu kai lu = Conversational exercises in the Shanghai dialect. Conversational exercises in the Shanghai dialect. Shanghai: Shanghai mei hua shu guan.
Francis Lister Hawks Pott (1924). Lessons in the Shanghai dialect (revised ed.). Printed at the Commercial Press. p. 174. Retrieved May 15, 2011.
Francis Lister Hawks Pott (1924). Lessons in the Shanghai dialect. Commercial Press.
An English-Chinese vocabulary of the Shanghai dialect (2 ed.). Printed at the American Presbyterian Mission Press. 1913. p. 593. Retrieved May 15, 2011.
"Shanghai steps up efforts to save local language" (Archive). CNN. March 31, 2011.
Shanghainese audio lesson series: Audio lessons with accompanying dialogue and vocabulary study tools
Shanghai Dialect: Resources on Shanghai dialect including a Web site (in Japanese) that gives common phrases with sound files
Wu Association
IAPSD | International Association for Preservation of the Shanghainese Dialect
Recordings of Shanghainese are available through Kaipuleohone, including talking about entertainment and food, and words and sentences |
Chang Chun-ha (장준하, 張俊河, August 27, 1918 in Uiju County – August 17, 1975 in Uijeongbu, Gyeonggi Province) was a Korean independence and democracy activist who later became a journalist in South Korea.
Military career
When Korea was under Japanese rule, he participated in education activities and voluntarily joined the Japanese army called Sugada but he escaped the army in 1944 when he was in Suzhou, Jiangsu. His joining of Sugada army was only nominally voluntarily as it was forced by the Japanese army for Korean males to join the army. He then was trained at China Central Officer School and became a warrant officer in the Chinese Central Army. In 1945, he visited Korean Liberation Army located in Suzhou and joined the army from the February as a commissioned officer. While serving the Korean liberation army, he participated activities with the Office of Strategic Services (OSS; the predecessor of the CIA). In November 1945, he came back to Korea via the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea.
In politics
After returning to Korea, Chang worked as a secretary of Kim Gu and participated in Lee Beom-seok's Chosun Ethnic Youth League. After the establishment of Republic of Korea, during the First Republic of South Korea, he worked for the government as a secretary. In 1950, he was in charge of citizen spirit reformation in the Ministry of Education and Culture (문교부). In 1952, he was the directing manager of national ideology research institution. He also worked in two more positions in the Ministry of Education and Culture and founded a periodical called Sasangge. He established the Dong-in Literary Award in 1956. Sasangge acrimoniously denounced the Liberal Party administration and became the starting fire of the 4.19 revolution. After the 4.19 revolution took place, he took positions in the Ministry of Munkyo during the second republic.
After the May 16 coup, he opposed the South Korea–Japan conference and the sending of troops to Vietnam War. During the 1967 South Korean presidential election, he made an issue out of the career of Yun Bo-seon on Park Chung-hee's pro-Japanese and Workers' Party of South Korea activities. He was then sent into prison for insulting the head of the state. After he came out of prison, he worked with Yun Bo-seon and New Democratic Party (South Korea) in the Korean National Party.
From 1975, when he was preparing to fight against the Park Chung-hee administration, he died mysteriously in Pocheon, Gyeonggi-do. The South Korean government announced that Chang's death had been caused by loss of footing while climbing down a mountain. However, after Chang's death, continuous doubts were raised whether it was a homicide by Park's government. To such doubts, the Park administration declared the state of national emergency and arrested anyone who mentioned the death of Chang Chun-ha. The death of Chang Chun-ha has been re-investigated, but there have not been any clear conclusions yet.
Awards
Chang was the first Korean to win the 1962 Ramon Magsaysay Award for Journalism, Literature, and the Creative Communication Arts.
See also
Kim Kyusik
Chang Myon
Kim Dae-jung
Kim Young-Sam
Chang Chun-ha Memorial |
New Taipei City is a special municipality located in northern Taiwan. The city is home to an estimated population of 4,004,367 as of January 2023, making it the most populous city of Taiwan, and also the second largest special municipality by area, behind Kaohsiung. New Taipei City borders Keelung to the northeast, Yilan County to the southeast, and Taoyuan to the southwest, and completely encloses the city of Taipei. Banqiao District is its municipal seat and biggest commercial area.
Before the Spanish and Dutch started arriving in Taiwan and set up small outposts in Tamsui in 1626, the area of present-day New Taipei City was mostly inhabited by Taiwanese indigenous peoples, mainly the Ketagalan people. From the late Qing era, the port of Tamsui was opened up to foreign traders as one of the treaty ports after the Qing dynasty of China signed the Treaty of Tientsin in June 1858. By the 1890s, the port of Tamsui accounted for 63 percent of the overall trade for entire Taiwan, port towns in the middle course of Tamsui River had also developed into bustling business and transportation centers. During the Japanese rule of Taiwan, the entire area of New Taipei City was organized as part of the Taihoku Prefecture. After the Republic of China took control of Taiwan in 1945, the present-day New Taipei City was designated on 7 January 1946 as Taipei County in Taiwan Province, which was constituted from the former Taihoku Prefecture, but not including present-day divisions of Taipei City, Keelung and Yilan County, the latter which became detached from Taipei County on 10 October 1950. Its county status remained until 25 December 2010 when it was promoted to special municipal status and renamed as "New Taipei City".
New Taipei City is a conurbation which was merged from numbers of regiopolis, suburban business districts or commuter towns to form one continuous polycentric urban area. Together with cities of Taipei and Keelung, New Taipei City constitutes most of the Taipei-Keelung metropolitan area which spans from the island's northern coastline to the mountainous Xueshan Range, and encompasses the entire Taipei Basin within its boundaries. The city is well-connected to other major cities in proximity or other parts of the island by various public transports such as Metro services, high-speed rail and an airport line commuting to Taoyuan International Airport, a major hub airport in northern Taiwan. The Port of Taipei, an artificial international seaport, is situated in the northwestern coast of the city in Bali District.
Name
New Taipei City was known as Taipei County before its promotion to special municipality status in 2010.
The name of the new municipality (新北市, literally "New Northern City") was at first rendered in English as Xinbei City via pinyin romanization, but both candidates for the city's first mayoral election opposed the name. Consequently, citing public opinion, the inaugural mayor, Eric Chu, requested and received approval from the Ministry of the Interior (MOI) to render the name in English as New Taipei City. This rendering became official on 31 December 2010.
History
Early history
Archeological records show that New Taipei City had been inhabited since the Neolithic period, with artifacts dug in Bali District having shown remains as early as 7000 to 4700 BC. The region around New Taipei City area was once inhabited by Ketagalan plains aborigines, and evidence shows that the Atayal had inhabited Wulai District. The earliest recorded migration by people from mainland China dated back as early as 1620, when the local tribes were driven into the mountain areas. Over the years, many of the aborigines have assimilated into the general population.
Qing dynasty
During the Qing Dynasty rule of Taiwan, the Han Chinese people began to settle in the area now designated as New Taipei City in 1694 and the number of immigrants from mainland China had further increased. After decades of development and prosperity, Tamsui had become an international commercial port by 1850. British consulate and stores were established in the region, which helped promote the local tea business, resulting in massive tea leaf exports to Europe. In 1875, Shen Baozhen called for the establishment of Taipeh Prefecture. Fujian-Taiwan-Province was declared in 1887 and the present-day New Taipei City area fell under the jurisdiction of Taipeh Prefecture.
Japanese rule
In 1895, Taiwan was ceded by the Qing dynasty to the Empire of Japan. During Japanese rule, the New Taipei City area was administered under Taihoku Prefecture together with modern-day Taipei, Keelung and Yilan County. Gold and other mineral deposits were discovered at Keelung Mountain, triggering a mining boom in the region. In October 1896, Japanese government divided the mining area around Keelung Mountain into two districts: an eastern district, designated as Kinkaseki, and a western district, designated as Kyūfun. Both districts are now parts of Ruifang District. They also issued regulations barring local Taiwanese mining companies from mining in the area, giving the mining rights to Japanese companies instead.
Republic of China
After the handover of Taiwan from Japan to the Republic of China in October 1945, from 25 December of the same year, the present New Taipei City area was administered as Taipei County with Banqiao City as the county seat. In July 1949, the size of Taipei County was reduced when Beitou and Shilin townships were put under the jurisdiction of the newly created Caoshan Administrative Bureau, which would later be renamed the Yangmingshan Administrative Bureau. The southeastern part of Taipei County, became Yilan County on 10 October 1950, while Taipei City was detached from Taipei County from a provincial city to a special municipality on 1 July 1967. On 1 July 1968, the size of Taipei County was further reduced by 205.16 km2 (79.21 sq mi) when Jingmei, Muzha, Nangang and Neihu townships, along with Beitou and Shilin, were merged into Taipei City.
The county afterward had ten county-administered cities (Banqiao, Luzhou, Sanchong, Shulin, Tucheng, Xizhi, Xindian, Yonghe, Zhonghe); four urban townships (Ruifang, Sanxia, Tamsui, Yingge); and fifteen rural townships (Bali, Gongliao, Jinshan, Linkou, Pinglin, Pingxi, Sanzhi, Shenkeng, Shiding, Shimen, Shuangxi, Taishan, Wanli, Wugu, Wulai). It was further divided into 1,017 villages and 21,683 neighborhoods. In August 1992, due to the adjustment of the demarcation line between Taipei City and Taipei County around Neigou and Daking Creeks, the area of Taipei County was decreased by 0.03 km2 (0.012 sq mi). On 25 December 2010, Taipei County was upgraded to a special municipality as New Taipei City consisting of 29 districts with the modern Banqiao District as the municipal seat.
Geography
New Taipei City is located at the northern tip of Taiwan Island. It covers a vast territory with a varied topology, including mountains, hills, plains and basins. In the northern part lies 120 km (75 mi) of coastline with gorgeous shorelines and beaches. The Tamsui River is the main river flowing through New Taipei City. Other large tributaries are the Xindian, Keelung and Dahan rivers, sections of which constitute riverside parks. The tallest peak in the city is Mount Zhuzi, standing at 1,094 m and located in the Sanzhi District.
Climate
The climate of the city is characterized as a humid subtropical climate with seasonal monsoons with ample rainfall evenly distributed throughout the year. Seasonal variations of temperatures are noticeable although temperatures typically varies from warm to hot throughout the year, except when cold fronts strikes during the winter months when temperatures can sometimes dip below 10 °C (50 °F). January is typically the coolest month and July is usually the warmest.
Cityscape
Government
New Taipei City is a special municipality directly under the central government of the Republic of China. The New Taipei City Government is headed by an elected mayor and is headquartered at the New Taipei City Hall at Banqiao District. The current mayor of New Taipei City is Hou Yu-ih of the Kuomintang.
Municipal administration
New Taipei City controls 28 districts (區; qū) and 1 mountain indigenous district (山地原住民區; shāndì yuánzhùmín qū). The sub-city entities consists of 1,017 villages (里; lǐ), which in turn are divided into 21,683 neighborhoods (鄰; lín). The municipal seat is located at Banqiao District.
Colors indicates the common languages status of Formosan languages within each division.
Central government
Many agencies of the central government are located in New Taipei City due to its proximity to the capital Taipei City. The Council of Indigenous Peoples, Hakka Affairs Council and Ministry of Culture are headquartered in Xinzhuang District at the Xinzhuang Joint Office Tower. The Architecture and Building Research Institute, Taiwan Transportation Safety Board and National Airborne Service Corps, National Fire Agency of the Ministry of the Interior and the National Science and Technology Center for Disaster Reduction of the Ministry of Science and Technology are located in Xindian District. Financial Supervisory Commission is located at Banqiao District. The Atomic Energy Council is located at Yonghe District. The National Academy for Educational Research of the Ministry of Education is located at Sanxia District.
Demographics and culture
Population
New Taipei City has an estimated population of around 4 million. Over 80% of New Taipei City's residents live in the 10 districts that were formerly county-administered cities (Banqiao, Luzhou, Sanchong, Shulin, Tucheng, Xizhi, Xindian, Xinzhuang, Yonghe and Zhonghe), which account for one-sixth of the area. 28.80% of the residents moved into the area from Taipei City. Around 70% of the population living in New Taipei City come from different parts of Taiwan, and there are around 73,000 foreigners residing in the city, making New Taipei City the third largest municipality in Taiwan in terms of foreign resident population.
Religion
The city is home to 952 registered temples and 120 churches, including 160 Buddhist-Taoist temples and more than 3,000 Taoist shrines. The city also houses five major Buddhist monasteries, such as the Dharma Drum Mountain in Jinshan District and Ling-jiou Mountain Monastery in Gongliao District. On average, there are two worship places in every square kilometer around the city. Xizhi District and Sanxia District have the highest number of registered temples, while Wulai District has the fewest. New Taipei City houses the Museum of World Religions in Yonghe District.
Sports
Taiwan's Chinese Professional Baseball League has a professional baseball team, Fubon Guardians, based in New Taipei City.New Taipei City also has two professional basketball teams, the New Taipei Kings of the T1 League and the New Taipei CTBC DEA of the P. League+.Below is a list of recent sporting events held by the city:
2010 BWF Super Series Finals
2013 World Baseball Classic – Qualifier 4
2016 International Children's Games: the first major international sports event held by New Taipei City.
2017 Asian Baseball Championship (Co-hosted with Taipei)
2018 AFC Futsal Championship (Co-hosted with Taipei)
2025 Summer World Masters Games: New Taipei City will co-host the international multi-sport event with Taipei.Recurring major sporting events held by the city:
New Taipei City Wan Jin Shi Marathon: the first and only IAAF Silver Label marathon race in Taiwan.
Mercuries Taiwan Masters
William Jones CupNew Taipei City is home to the Banqiao Stadium and Xinzhuang Baseball Stadium.
Economy
Due to its strategic location, New Taipei City is the second major city of business industries after Taipei, with over 250,000 privately owned companies (Including Acer Computers Inc.) and 20,000 factories scattered around five industrial parks with a total capital of NT$1.8 trillion. There are also many high technology industry, service industry and tourism industry, contributing a significant amount of GDP to Taiwan. The five major industries in the city are information technology (IT), telecommunications, digital contents, biotechnology and precision instruments. The city is among the top three cities in the global market in terms of IT product production volume, securing more than 50% of the global market share for products such as motherboards, notebooks, LCD monitors and CRT monitors.
Creative industries
New Taipei City is also filled with many cultural and creative industries, such as pottery in Yingge District, Liuli industry in Tamsui District, drum industry in Xinzhuang District, dye industry in Sanxia District, noble metal processing industry in Ruifang District, sky lantern industry in Pingxi District, etc. The Taiwan Film Culture Center is planned to be built in Xinzhuang District for the key resource of the development of film industries in Taiwan. The Knowledge Industry Park is also planned to be built in the same district to encourage the clustering and expansion of digital content companies and will help turn the city into a virtual digital entertainment park.
Logistic industries
The Port of Taipei located in Bali District has the capability of fitting container ships weighing up to 80,000 tons and transporting more than 2 million TEUs annually. The Tamsui Fisherman's Wharf in Tamsui District serves as the main port for fishing boats, as well as for sightseeing and leisure.
Manufacturing industries
Foxconn is based in New Taipei City. The company is the international major company for electronic OEM/ODM products. Foxconn produces iPhones for Apple.
New Taipei is also the hometown of Giant Bicycles. In the 1980s Fairly Cycle was founded in New Taipei. The company produces 450 to 550 bikes a day for brands like Felt, Canyon (Germany), Kona, Willier and others such as OEM.
Education
Education in New Taipei City is governed by the Education Department of New Taipei City Government. The city population is highly educated, with over 38% of the people received higher education.
Universities and colleges
There are currently 24 colleges and universities in New Taipei City. Fu Jen Catholic University is the representative university of New Taipei City by QS Most Affordable Cities for Students Ranking. The Mayor of New Taipei City once pointed out in 2021 that "Fu Jen is the core of talent, academics and medical care in New Taipei City".Some of the other universities and colleges in the city are Aletheia University, Asia Eastern University of Science and Technology, Cardinal Tien College of Healthcare and Management, Huafan University, HungKuo Delin University of Technology, Hwa Hsia University of Technology, Hsing Wu University, Lee-Ming Institute of Technology, Mackay Medical College, Ming Chi University of Technology, St. John's University, Taipei University of Marine Technology etc.
Public libraries
Founded in 1914, the National Taiwan Library, the oldest public library in Taiwan, is located in the city at Zhonghe District.
Education centers
Opened in January 2008, the Sustainable Development Education Center in Bali District is a center for wetland conservation education.
Energy
Power generation
New Taipei City houses one of Taiwan's current active nuclear power plants, the Kuosheng Nuclear Power Plant in Wanli District. The planned fourth nuclear power plant, Lungmen Nuclear Power Plant, located at Gongliao District has currently been halted due to public opposition. Other power generators in the city are the Linkou Coal-Fired Power Plant in Linkou District and Feitsui Hydroelectric Power Plant in Shiding District.
Green energy and energy saving
New Taipei City is developing to be a Green Future City. The city provides a Carbon Reduction Clinic for houses and businesses with general consultation and on-site inspections for greener equipment, in which it is helped by the low-carbon community subsidies. The city also implements the Assist Industries with Cleaner Production Plan to help businesses adapt to the efforts toward becoming green industries. The city government also actively promoting green energy industries and smart electric vehicles.In January 2016, New Taipei City was the top in terms of electricity saving in Taiwan, in which electricity consumption for the period April–November 2015 was cut down by 1.24%.
Tourist attractions
New Taipei City has a wide range of historical, natural and cultural attractions for tourists. Tourism-related industries in the city are governed by the Tourism and Travel Department of New Taipei City Government.
Historical
Historical attractions include Bitoujiao Lighthouse, Chin Pao San, Fort Santo Domingo, Hobe Fort, Ōgon Shrine, Tamsui Old Street, Lin Family Mansion and Garden, Fuguijiao Lighthouse, Cape San Diego Lighthouse, Wuzhi Mountain Military Cemetery and Qing dynasty remnants in Tamsui and the old mining towns of Jiufen, Jinguashi and Jingtong in the east. Sanxia houses the historic Sanxia Old Street.
Temples
Some of the most famous temples in the city are the Changfu Temple in Sanxia District, Gongbei Temple in Xizhi District and Temple of the Eighteen Lords in Shimen District. The international headquarter of Dharma Drum Mountain, one of the "Four Great Mountains" or four major Buddhist organizations of Taiwanese Buddhism, is situated in Jinshan District.
Museums and galleries
There are numerous notable museums and galleries, such as Drop of Water Memorial Hall, Gold Museum, Jing-Mei White Terror Memorial Park, Jingtong Mining Industry Museum, Ju Ming Museum, Li Mei-shu Memorial Gallery, Li Tien-lu Hand Puppet Historical Museum, Museum of World Religions, New Taipei City Hakka Museum, New Taipei City Yingge Ceramics Museum, Ping-Lin Tea Museum, Sanxia History Museum, Shihsanhang Museum of Archaeology, Taiwan Coal Mine Museum, Taiwan Nougat Creativity Museum, Tamkang University Maritime Museum, Tamsui Art Gallery, Teng Feng Fish Ball Museum, Wulai Atayal Museum, Wulai Forestry Life Museum and Xinzhuang Culture and Arts Center.
Natural
Natural attractions include the Golden, Lingjiao, Shifen and Wulai waterfalls, Bitan, Wulai Hot Spring, Stone Sculpture Park, Cape Santiago, Twin Candlestick Islets, Xinhai Constructed Wetland, hoodoo geological formations at the Yehliu seacoast, and hiking in Mount Guanyin, Wulai, Pingxi and the northeast coast. Tamsui Fisherman's Wharf along the Tamsui River is a popular place for leisure and sightseeing. Popular beaches include Fulong, Yanliao and Baisha Bay.
Theme parks and resorts
Theme parks and resorts in the city include Yehliu Ocean World, Yun Hsien Resort etc.
Night Markets
Famous night markets in the city are Lehua Night Market, Jingmei Night Market, and Nanya Night Market.
Festivals
New Taipei City regularly hosts around 5,000 annual art, music and cultural festivals, such as the Hohaiyan Rock Festival in Gongliao District. The Lantern Festival is held regularly in the city particularly in Pingxi District, where sky lanterns are made throughout the year for people to buy. Guests can also learn how to make their own lanterns, paint their hopes, dreams and wishes on them, then release them to the sky in the hopes that their prayers will be answered.Other festivals include the Yeliu Religious Festival, Cherry Blossom Season, Ching Shui Tsu Shih Rituals, Mazu Cultural Festival, Zhonghe Water Festival, Green Bamboo Shoot Festival, Tung Blossom Festival, Fulong Sand Sculpture Festival, Shimen International Kite Festival, Taishan Lion Dance Culture Festival, Color Play Asia etc.
Transportation
Rail
The area is served by Taiwan High Speed Rail through the Banqiao Station, which is an intermodal station with Taiwan Railways Administration (TRA) and Taipei Metro.
The TRA's Yilan Line runs through Gongliao, Shuangxi and Ruifang. The Western Line runs through Xizhi, Banqiao, Shulin and Yingge. The Pingxi Line connects Pingxi to Ruifang.
Wulai District houses the Wulai Scenic Train.
Metro
The Taipei Metro serves the area through the following 5 lines. Taipei Metro is the best way to access the city's northern, southern, and western sections.
Bannan Line
Tamsui-Xinyi Line
Songshan–Xindian Line
Zhonghe-Xinlu Line
Circular LineThe Taoyuan Metro also serves the area through the following line:
Taoyuan Airport MRT
Light rail
The government's New Taipei Metro operates the following light rail line:
Danhai Light Rail
Road
A famous bridge in New Taipei City is the Taipei Bridge, connecting New Taipei City with Taipei over the Tamsui River. Another famous bridge is the New Taipei Bridge.
Air
The area's air traffic is served by Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport in neighboring Taoyuan City and Songshan Airport in Taipei.
See also
Asteroid 200033 Newtaipei, named in honor of the city in 2018
List of cities in Taiwan
Words in native languages
Official website (in English)
Taipeipedia - a city wiki for foreigners
New Taipei City travel guide from Wikivoyage
Geographic data related to New Taipei City at OpenStreetMap |
Bao Zheng (包拯; Bāo Zhěng; 5 March 999 – 3 July 1062), commonly known as Bao Gong (包公; Bāo Gōng; 'Lord Bao'), was a Chinese politician during the reign of Emperor Renzong in China's Song Dynasty. During his twenty-five years in civil service, Bao was known for his honesty and uprightness, with actions such as impeaching an uncle of Emperor Renzong's favourite concubine and punishing powerful families. His appointment from 1057 to 1058 as the prefect of Song's capital Kaifeng, where he initiated a number of changes to better hear the grievances of the people, made him a legendary figure. During his years in office, he gained the honorific title Justice Bao (Chinese: 包青天; pinyin: Bāo qīngtiān) due to his ability to defend peasants and commoners against corruption or injustice. Bao Zheng is depicted as the incarnation of the Astral God of Civil Arts (Wenquxing, 文曲星), while another protagonist — famous Northern Song warrior Di Qing as the Astral God of Military Arts (Wuquxing, 武曲星).Bao Zheng today is honored as the cultural symbol of justice in Chinese society. His largely fictionalized gong'an and wuxia stories have appeared in a variety of different literary and dramatic mediums (beginning with The Seven Heroes and Five Gallants), and have enjoyed sustained popularity. In mainstream Chinese mythology, he is often portrayed wearing a judge's zhanjiao futou hat and a crescent moon on his forehead. Some Chinese provinces later deified Judge Bao, equating him to the benevolent war god Guan Gong.
Early life
Bao Zheng was born into a scholar family in Shenxian (慎县), Hefei, Luzhou (present day Feidong County near Hefei, Anhui). Bao's family was in the middle class, his father Bao Lingyi (包令仪) was a scholar and an official, while his grandfather Bao Shi Tong (包士通) was a commoner. Though Bao's parents could afford to send him to school, his mother had to climb up mountains to collect firewood just before she gave birth to him. As Bao grew up among low working class, he well understood people's hardships, hated corruption and strongly desired for justice.At the age of 29, Bao passed the highest-level imperial examination and became qualified as a Jinshi. Bao was appointed as magistrate of Jianchang County, but he deferred embarking on his official career for a decade in order to care for his elderly parents and faithfully observe proper mourning rites after their deaths.During the time Bao looked after his parents at home, Liu Yun (刘赟), Magistrate of Luzhou who was renowned as an excellent poetic and fair-minded officer, usually visited Bao. Because the two got along well, Bao obtained great influence from Liu Yun in respect of the love for people.
As magistrate of Tianchang
After the passing of his parents, Bao Zheng, then 39, was appointed magistrate of Tianchang County not far from his hometown. It was here that Bao first established his reputation as an astute judge. According to an anecdote, a man once reported that his ox's tongue had been sliced out. Bao told him to return and slaughter the ox for sale. Soon another man arrived in court and accused the first man of privately slaughtering a "beast of burden", an offense punishable by a year of penal servitude. Bao bellowed: "Why did you cut his ox's tongue and then accuse him?" In shock, the culprit had to confess.
As prefect of Duanzhou
In 1040, Bao Zheng was promoted to the prefect of Duanzhou (modern Zhaoqing) in the south, a prefecture famous for its high-quality inkstones, a certain number of which were presented annually to the imperial court. However, Bao discovered that previous prefects had collected far more inkstones from manufacturers than the required tribute—several dozens of times more—in order to bribe influential ministers with the extras. Bao abolished the practice by telling manufacturers to fill only the required quota.When his tenure was up in 1043, Bao left without a single inkstone in his possession. It was in Duanzhou that he wrote this poem:
As investigating censor
Bao Zheng returned to the capital and was named an investigating censor in 1044. For the next two years in this position, Bao submitted at least 13 memoranda to Emperor Renzong of Song on military, taxation, the examination system, and governmental dishonesty and incompetence.
In 1045, Bao was sent to the Liao dynasty as a messenger. During an audience, a Liao official accused the Song of violating the peace by installing a secret side door in the border prefecture of Xiongzhou, so as to solicit defectors from Liao for intelligence. Bao retorted: "Why is a side door required for intelligence?" The Liao subject could not respond.In the following years, Bao held the following positions:
Fiscal commissioner of Hebei
Vice Director of Ministry of Justice
Auxiliary in the Academy of Scholarly Worthies (直集賢院)
Vice Commissioner of Ministry of Revenue
Impeaching Zhang Yaozuo
Emperor Renzong's favourite consort had been Concubine Zhang, whom he had wanted to make empress but could not because of opposition by his (unknown to him, fake) mother, Empress Dowager Liu. Nevertheless, the concubine's uncle Zhang Yaozuo (張堯佐) was quickly promoted within a few years from minor local posts to high office, including the state finance commissioner (三司使). On July 12, 1050, Bao and two other censors together presented a memorandum, which in strong language accused Zhang of mediocrity and shamelessness, even attributing natural disasters to his appointments. Probably annoyed, Emperor Renzong not only did nothing to Zhang Yaozuo, he awarded Consort Zhang's sister with a title four days later. But Bao did not give up. In another memorandum submitted by himself alone, he wrote:
In all dynasties, family members of imperial consorts, even when talented, were not appointed office, to say nothing of a mediocre, talentless one... In prostration, your subject saw our nation-dynasty since its founders had always carefully selected intelligent ministers for appointments, even at times of overflowing treasuries... The current (financial) state is dire and dangerous from all directions, how could this man be appointed to that post and hold on to it, dashing the world's hopes and neglecting the world's matters? Your subject really and painfully feels sorry for your majesty.
Partly to appease protests by Bao and others, the emperor relieved Zhang Yaozuo as state finance commissioner, but instead appointed him a concurrent four-commission position: commissioner of palace attendants, military commissioner of Huainan, Qunmu military commissioner-in-chief (群牧製置使), and commissioner of Jingling Palace (景靈宮). In a memorandum dated December 26, Bao voiced his strong protest and wrote:
The situation right now is, if your majesty is determined to appoint Yaozuo, then expel this advisor; if your majesty is to listen to this advisor, then (your majesty) must remove Yaozuo.
In the next court meeting to confirm Yaozuo's appointments, there was a heated argument in court led by seven ministers including Bao, which resulted in the emperor deciding to strip the commission of palace attendants and commission of Jingling palace from Zhang's promotion.A few decades later, Zhu Bian (朱弁, 1085–1144) wrote a humorous account in his Anecdotes from Quwei (曲洧舊聞), which probably contributed to the development of future legends:
One day, when the emperor was about to hold audience, Wencheng (Concubine Zhang's posthumous name) sent him off all the way to the door of the palace court, caressed his back and said: "My husband, don't forget, commissioner of palace attendant today." The emperor said, "OK, OK." When he issued his edict, Bao Zheng asked to speak. Bao spoke at length on reasons to oppose, spoke hundreds of sentences repeatedly, his voice so loud and agitated that spittle spattered the emperor's face. The emperor, to stop him, gave up (on the edict). Wencheng, ... on receiving (the emperor), bowed and gave thanks. The emperor, wiping his face with his sleeve, said: "... All you know is ask for commissioner of palace attendant, commissioner of palace attendant. Don't you know that Bao Zheng is the vice censor-in-chief?"
During his years in the government service, Bao had thirty high officials demoted or dismissed for corruption, bribery, or dereliction of duty. In addition, as the imperial censor, Bao avoided punishment despite many other contemporary imperial censors having been punished for minor statements.
As prefect of Kaifeng
In 1057, Bao was appointed the magistrate of the capital city of Bian (present day Kaifeng). Bao held the position for a mere period of one year, but he initiated several material administrative reforms, including allowing the citizens to directly lodge complaints with the city administrators, thereby bypassing the city clerks who were believed to be corrupt and in the pay of local powerful families.Bao had also been the Minister of Finance. Despite his high rank in the government, Bao led a modest life like a commoner.Apart from his intolerance of injustice and corruption, Bao was well known for his filial piety and his stern demeanor. In his lifetime, Bao gained the name "Iron-Faced Judge" (鐵面判官) and it was also said among the public that his smile was "rarer than clear waters in the Yellow River".Due to his fame and the strength of his reputation, Bao's name became synonymous with the idealized "honest and upright official" (清官), and quickly became a popular subject of early vernacular drama and literature. Bao was also associated with the god Yanluo (Yama) and the "Infernal Bureaucracy" of the Eastern Marchmount, on account of his supposed ability to judge affairs in the afterlife as well as he judged them in the realm of the living.
Family
Bao Zheng had two wives, Lady Zhang (張氏) and Lady Dong (董氏). Bao had one son, Bao Yi, born 1033, and two daughters with Lady Dong. His only son Bao Yi died in 1053 at a relatively young age while being a government officer, two years after his marriage to Lady Cui (崔氏). Bao Yi's son, Bao Wenfu (包文辅), died prematurely at the age of five.However, when a young maid Lady Sun (孙氏) in Bao Zheng's family became pregnant, Bao dismissed her back to her hometown. Lady Cui, Bao Yi's wife, knowing that the maid was pregnant with her father-in-law's child, continued to send money and clothing to her home. Upon the birth of Lady Sun's son named Bao Yan (包𫄧) (1057 - 1105), Lady Cui secretly brought him to her house to foster him. The following year, she brought him back to his biological father, thus enabling the continuation of Bao's family line. Bao Zheng and his wife rejoiced, and they renamed their new son to Bao Shou.Bao Yi's wife Lady Cui was greatly praised in the official sources for her devotion to the protection of family line. This story was very influential to the formation of the legend that Bao Zheng was raised by his elder sister-in-law, whom he called "sister-in-law mother" (嫂娘).
Death
Bao died in the Capital City of Kaifeng (present day Kaifeng, Henan) in 1062. It was recorded that he left the following warning for his family:
Any of my descendants who commits bribery as an official shall not be allowed back home nor buried in the family burial site. He who shares not my values is not my descendant.
Bao was buried in Daxingji in 1063. His tomb was rebuilt by officials of the Huaixi Road in 1066. Lady Dong died in 1068 and was buried next to him.
Remains
Cultural Revolution period
During the Cultural Revolution, the Baogong Temple in Baohe Park of Hefei City was looted, and the Bao Zheng statue was ruined. The Bao Zheng portraits preserved by the generations of his descendants and the Baoshi Genealogy (包氏宗譜) were burned.
The relevant personnel set up a relic rescue effort "Bao Cemetery Clearing and Excavation Leading Group" (包公墓清理發掘領導小組) to excavate and clean up the cemetery. They unearthed Bao Zheng's remains and the two newly discovered tombstones with Chinese engravings in forms of (宋樞密副使贈禮部尚書孝肅包公墓銘) and (宋故永康郡夫人董氏墓誌銘). It was found that the tombstones of Bao Zheng and Lady Dong had been displaced due to destruction. In addition, the tomb of the eldest son and his wife, the tomb of the second son and his wife, and the tomb of the grandson Bao Yongnian (包永年) were also excavated and cleaned up. The excavation group handed back the remains of Bao Zheng and his family to their descendants.
One day in August 1973, the remains of Bao Zheng and his family were carried out in 11 wooden coffin boxes and transported back to Dabaocun (大包村), the hometown of Bao Zheng. However, the local commune secretary there would not allow their ancestors' remains to be buried on the grounds, otherwise they would be destroyed immediately.
Bao Zheng's descendants, in fear that the remains of Bao Zheng and his family would be destroyed, with the help of a fellow 34th generation descendant Bao Zunyuan (包遵元), secretly hid them elsewhere without knowing what to do. The remains, consisting of 34 Bao Zheng's bone fragments, would later be sent to Beijing for forensics research before they were returned to the newly reconstructed cemetery.
Reconstructed cemetery
The Bao Gong Cemetery (包公墓园) was reconstructed next to the Bao Gong Temple in Hefei in the forested area of Henan in 1985 and was completed in 1987 to preserve the remains of Bao Zheng and artifacts from the former tombs. The exact location of Bao Zheng and his family's remains however is unknown, known only to his descendants.
Notable descendants
8th generation: Bao Xun
9th generation: Bao Hui
27th generation: Bao Fang Wu (包方务)
28th generation: Pao Siu Loong
29th generation: Yue-Kong Pao, Yue-Shu Pao, Pao Teh-ming
30th generation: Anna Pao Sohmen, Bessie Pao Woo, Cissy Pao-Watari, Doreen Pao
32nd generation: Bao Zhenming
33rd generation: Bao Huacheng (包华成), Bao Huazhang (包华章), Bao Huabing (包华兵), Bao Huajun (包华军), Bao Huaxiu (包华秀), Bao Shengdong (包胜东), Run Bao, Anthony Bao, Tino Bao
34th generation: Bao Tingzheng, Bao Xi (包玺), Bao Dan (包丹), Bao Huifang (包慧芳), Bao Yong (包勇), Bao Zunyuan (包遵元), Bao Zunxin
Legends
Literary traditions
Bao Zheng's stories were retold and preserved particularly in the form of performance arts such as Chinese opera and pingshu. Written forms of his legend appeared in the Yuan Dynasty in the form of Qu. Vernacular fiction of Judge Bao was popular in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. A common protagonist of gong'an fiction, Judge Bao stories revolve around Bao, a magistrate, investigating and solving criminal cases. When Sherlock Holmes was first translated into Chinese in the Qing Dynasty, the Chinese called Sherlock “the English Judge Bao.”
In the Yuan Dynasty, many plays (in the forms of qu and zaju) have featured Bao Zheng as the central character. These plays include:
Rescriptor Bao Cleverly Investigates the Circle of Chalk (包待制智勘灰闌記) by Li Qianfu
Rescriptor Bao Thrice Investigates the Butterfly Dream (包待制三勘蝴蝶夢) by Guan Hanqing, English translation can be found in Yang & Yang 1958
Rescriptor Bao Cleverly Executes Court Official Lu (包待制智斬魯齋郎) by Guan Hanqing, English translation can be found in Yang & Yang 1958 (as The Wife-Snatcher)
Rescriptor Bao Sells Rice at Chenzhou (包待制陳州糶米), English translation can be found in Hayden 1978
Ding-ding Dong-dong: The Ghost of the Pot (玎玎當當盆兒鬼), English translation can be found in Hayden 1978
Rescriptor Bao Cleverly Investigates the Flower of the Back Courtyard (包待制智勘後庭花) by Zheng Tingyu, English translation can be found in Hayden 1978Also discovered from this period include some ballads which had been translated by Wilt L. Idema in 2010.The 16th-century novel Bao Gong An by An Yushi (安遇時) (partially translated by Leon Comber in 1964) increased his popularity and added a detective element to his legends.
The 19th-century novel The Seven Heroes and Five Gallants by the storyteller Shi Yukun (石玉昆) (partially translated by Song Shouquan in 1997 as well as Susan Blader in 1997) added a wuxia twist to his stories.
In Pavilion of Ten Thousand Flowers (萬花樓), Five Tigers Conquer the West (五虎平西), Five Tigers Conquer the South (五虎平南) and Five Tigers Conquer the North (五虎平北), four serial wuxia novels composed by Li Yutang (李雨堂) during Qing Dynasty, Bao Zheng, Di Qing and Yang Zongbao appear as main characters.In What the Master Would Not Discuss (子不語), a Qing Dynasty biji by Yuan Mei (袁枚), Bao Zheng as well as the belief that he was able to judge affairs of both human beings and supernatural beings is featured.
Stories
In opera or drama, he is often portrayed with a black face and a white crescent shaped birthmark on his forehead.
In legends, because he was born dark-skinned and extremely ugly, Bao Zheng was considered cursed and thrown away by his father right after birth. However, his virtuous elder sister-in-law, who just had an infant named Bao Mian (包勉), picked Bao Zheng up and raised him like her own son. As a result, Bao Zheng would refer to Bao Mian's mother as "sister-in-law mother".
In most dramatizations of his stories, he used a set of guillotines (鍘刀, "lever-knife"), given to him by the emperor, to execute criminals:
The one decorated with a dog's head (狗頭鍘 or 犬頭鍘) was used on commoners.
The one decorated with a tiger's head (虎頭鍘) was used on government officials.
The one decorated with a dragon's head (龍頭鍘 or 火龍鍘) was used on royal personages.He was granted a golden rod (金黄夏楚) by the previous emperor, with which he was authorized to chastise the current emperor. He was also granted an imperial sword (尚方寶劍) from the previous emperor; whenever it was exhibited to the persons surrounding, irrespective of their social classes, they must pay respect and compliance to the person exhibiting the sword as if they were the emperor (unless the person has an object of equal power). Each of Bao Zheng's guillotines were authorized to execute the corresponding social-ranked person without first obtaining approval from the emperor, though any interference from the emperor would stop the process.
He is famous for his uncompromising stance against corruption among the government officials at the time. He upheld justice and refused to yield to higher powers including the Emperor's Father-in-Law (國丈), who was also appointed as the Grand Tutor (太師) and was known as Grand Tutor Pang (龐太師). He is depicted to have treated Bao as an enemy. Although Grand Tutor Pang is often depicted in myth as an archetypical villain (arrogant, selfish, and cruel), the historical reasons for his bitter rivalry with Bao remain unclear.
Bao Zheng also managed to remain in favour by cultivating a long-standing friendship with one of Emperor Renzong's uncles, the Eighth Imperial Prince (八王爺) and Prime Minister Wang Yanling (王延齡).
In many stories Bao is usually accompanied by his skilled bodyguard Zhan Zhao (展昭) and personal secretary Gongsun Ce (公孙策). Zhan is a skilled martial artist while Gongsun is an intelligent adviser. When Sherlock Holmes was first translated into Chinese - Watson was compared to Gongsun Ce. There are also four enforcers named Wang Chao (王朝), Ma Han (馬漢), Zhang Long (張龍), and Zhao Hu (趙虎). All of these characters are presented as righteous and incorruptible.
Due to his strong sense of justice, he is very popular in China, especially among the peasants and the poor. He became the subject of literature and modern Chinese TV series in which his adventures and cases are featured.
Famous cases
All of these cases have been favorites in Chinese opera.
The Case of Executing Chen Shimei (鍘美案): Chen Shimei had two children with wife Qin Xianglian, when he left them behind in his hometown for the Imperial examination in the capital. After placing first, he lied about his marriage and became the emperor's new brother-in-law. Years later, a famine forced Qin and her children to move to the capital, where they learned what happened to Chen. Qin finally found a way to meet Chen and begged him to help at least his own children. Not only did Chen refuse, he sent his servant Han Qi to kill them in order to hide his secret, but Han helped the family escape and killed himself. Desperate, Qin brought her case to Bao Zheng, who tricked Chen to the court to have him arrested. The imperial family intervened with threats, but Bao executed him nonetheless.
Executing Bao Mian (鍘包勉): When Bao Zheng was an infant, he was raised by his elder sister-in-law, Wu, like a son. Years later, Wu's only son Bao Mian became a magistrate, and was convicted of bribery and malfeasance. Finding it impossible to fulfill both Confucian concepts of loyalty and filial piety, an emotional Bao Zheng was about to reluctantly execute his nephew. In the end, the real suspects were forced to confess and Bao Mian's sentence was commuted.
Civet Cat Exchanged for Crown Prince (狸貓換太子): Bao Zheng met a woman claiming to be the mother of the reigning Emperor Renzong. Dozens of years prior, she had been Consort Li, an imperial concubine of Emperor Zhenzong's, before falling out of favour for supposedly giving birth to a bloody (and dead) civet cat. In reality, the jealous Consort Liu had plotted with eunuch Guo Huai (郭槐) to secretly swap Li's infant with a skinned civet cat minutes after the birth and ordered palace maid Kou Zhu to kill the baby. However, Kou gave the baby to chief eunuch Chen Lin (陳琳), who secretly brought the child to the Eighth Prince, a younger brother of Emperor Zhenzong. Kou was later tortured to death by Guo when Consort Liu began to suspect that the infant had survived. The child was raised by the Eighth Prince as his own son and was subsequently selected to succeed Emperor Zhenzong, who had died heirless. Due to the passage of time, gathering evidence was a challenge. With the help of a woman dressed as Kou's ghost, Bao dressed himself as Yama, lord of Hell, to play on both Guo's fear of the supernatural and guilt, thereby extracting his confession. When the verdict was out, the emperor was reluctant to accept Consort Li. Bao then admonished the emperor and ordered that he be beaten for lack of filial piety. The emperor's Dragon Robe was beaten instead. Emperor Renzong eventually accepted his mother and elevated her as the new empress dowager.
The Case of Two Nails (雙釘記): Bao Zheng investigated a man's suspicious death whose cause had been ruled as natural. After an autopsy, his coroner confirmed the earlier report that there was no injury to the whole body. At home, the coroner discussed the case with his wife, who mentioned that someone could force long steel nails into the brain without injuring the body. The next day, the coroner indeed found a long nail, and the dead man's widow was arrested; she confessed to adultery and mariticide. Afterwards, Bao Zheng began to question the coroner's wife and learned that the coroner is her second husband, as her first husband had died. Bao ordered his guards to go to the cemetery and unearth her first husband's coffin. Sure enough, there was also a nail driven into the skull.
The Case of the Black Basin (烏盆記): A silk merchant by the name of Liu Shichang was on a trip home when he decided to ask for food and overnight lodging at the place of Zhao Da, the owner of a pottery kiln. Greedy for the riches carried by Liu, Zhao killed him by poisoning his dinner, burying his remains with clay in his kiln to make a black basin in order to destroy the evidence. An old man named Zhang Biegu, whom Zhao owed a debt to, soon took the basin from Zhao in lieu of cash payment. Zhang eventually encountered the Liu's ghost, who had been possessing the basin ever since his murder, and was told the story of the latter's cruel death at Zhao's hands. Determined to bring the suspect to justice, Zhang soon brought the black basin to Bao Zheng's court in Kaifeng and after several attempts, finally persuaded Liu's ghost to tell the judge everything. As a result, Zhao was finally arrested and executed for murder.
Modern references
Linguistic influence
In modern Chinese, "Bao Gong" or "Bao Qingtian" is invoked as a metaphor or symbol of justice. There is a chain of cafes selling baozi in Singapore called Bao Today (Bao Jin Tian), which is a pun on Bao Qingtian (Justice Bao).
In the Thai language, Than Pao (ท่านเปา; "Lord Bao") has become a colloquial term for a judge. The Royal Institute of Thailand recorded the term in the Dictionary of New Words, Volume 2, published in 2009. Furthermore, the word "Pao" is used colloquially by the sports media to mean a referee in a game, especially a football match.
Films
Redressing a Grievance (乌盆记), a 1927 Chinese silent film featuring Ling Wusi as Bao Zheng.
The Crimson Palm (血手印), a 1964 Shaw Brothers musical film features Cheng Miu as Bao Zheng, and is about a scholar who is framed for murder by his fiancée's father.
Inside the Forbidden City (宋宮秘史), a 1965 Shaw Brothers musical film stars Cheng Miu as Bao Zheng, and tells the story of the "Wild Cat for Crown Prince conspiracy" case.
The Mermaid (魚美人), a 1965 Shaw Brothers musical film features Cheng Miu as Bao Zheng, and is a fantasy about a carp spirit who is in love with a human scholar.
King Cat (七俠五義), a 1967 Shaw Brothers film features Cheng Miu as Bao Zheng.
The Wrongly Killed Girl (南俠展昭大破地獄門), a 1976 Hong Kong film stars Jen Hao as Bao Zheng and tells the Liu Jinchan murder.
Cat and Mouse (老鼠愛上貓), a 2003 Media Asia romantic comedy stars Anthony Wong as Bao Zheng.
Game of a Cat and Mouse (包青天之五鼠鬥御貓), a 2005 film stars Jin Chao-chun as Bao Zheng.
Hua Gu Di Wang (包青天之化骨帝王), a Mainland China film planned for 2013 release.Stephen Chow also made a spin-off movie based on Bao Zheng called Hail the Judge and titled Pale Face Bao Zheng Ting in Chinese. In the movie Chow plays a descendant of Bao Zheng called "Bao Sing" living during Qing Dynasty, whose family lost its once glorious prestige due to generations of incompetence and corruption.
Television
Some of the more prominent TV series include:
Justice Bao (包青天), a 1974–75 series produced by CTSTV totaling 350 episodes. Yi Ming portrayed Bao Zheng.
Justice Bao (包青天), a 1993–94 series produced by CTSTV with 41 cases totaling 236 episodes produced in one season. This would be the first series where Jin Chao-chun portrayed Bao Zheng.
Young Justice Bao (侠义包公), a 1994 series produced by SBC (now Mediacorp) and starring Chew Chor Meng as young Bao Zheng.
Justice Bao (包青天), a 1995 series produced by TVB and starring Ti Lung as Bao Zheng, with 16 cases totaling 80 episodes.
Justice Bao (新包青天), a 1995–1996 series produced by ATV and starring Jin Chao-chun as Bao Zheng, with 25 cases totaling 160 episodes.
Young Justice Bao (少年包青天), a 2000 Mainland Chinese series starring Zhou Jie as Young Bao Zheng, with 40 episodes divided into seven cases. This series is heavily inspired by mainstream crime fiction such as Sherlock Holmes and Detective Conan
Justice Bao (包青天), a 2008 Mainland Chinese series starring Jin Chao-chun as Bao Zheng, with five cases totaling 61 episodes.
Justice Bao (包青天), a 2010 Mainland Chinese series starring Jin Chao-chun as Bao Zheng. The first season airing in 2010, three seasons totaling 120 episodes have been shown as of 2012.
Justice Bao: The First Year (包青天再起風雲), a 2019 series produced by TVB and starring Shaun Tam as young Bao Zheng, totaling 30 episodes. His father Ti Lung played the titular role 24 years earlier.
Novels
Bao Zheng briefly appears in the novel Iron Arm, Golden Sabre and sponsors young Zhou Tong's entry into the military as an officer.In March 2012, Frederic Lenormand, author of 18 Judge Dee's New Cases (Fayard 2004–2011), published at Editions Philippe Picquier Un Thé chez Confucius (A Tea with Confucius), first novel of his new series, The Judge Bao Cases.
Video games
An unlicensed Nintendo side-scrolling/platform game for Famicom, entitled Bāo Qīngtián (Chinese: 包青天), also known as Justice Pao, was made in Taiwan by ex-Sachen developers and published by Ka Sheng in 1996.
Comics and manga
In the Marvel comic series New Universal, Young Judge Bao is one of the characters in an in-universe comic book.
"Les éditions Fei" also publishes a series of French-language comics about Bao Zheng. As of August 2010, two volumes have been printed.
A 16-volume Japanese manga series Hokusō Fūunden (北宋風雲伝), partly adapting the 1993 TV series, was serialized in the magazine Princess GOLD, published by Akita Shoten, from May 2000 to May 2008.
See also
Bao Gong An
Chinese crime fiction
Generals of the Yang Family
The Seven Heroes and Five Gallants
Zhan Zhao
Chang Fu-jui (1976). "Pao Cheng". In Franke, Herbert (ed.). Sung Biographies. Franz Steiner Verlag. pp. 823–832. ISBN 3-515-02412-3.
Chiba, Hiroshi (1976). "Chang Yao-tso". In Franke, Herbert (ed.). Sung Biographies. Translated by Julia Ching. Franz Steiner Verlag. pp. 43–45. ISBN 3-515-02412-3.
Toqto'a; et al., eds. (1345). Song Shi (宋史) [History of Song] (in Chinese).
Li Tao (1183). Xu Zizhi Tongjian Changbian (續資治通鑑長編) [Extended Continuation to Zizhi Tongjian] (in Chinese).
Further reading
Another biography
Media related to Bao Zheng at Wikimedia Commons |
The Apple Lisa is a desktop computer developed by Apple, released on January 19, 1983. It is generally considered the first freely available personal computer operable through a graphical user interface (GUI). In 1983, a machine like the Lisa was still so expensive that it was primarily marketed to individual and small and medium-size businesses, as a groundbreaking new alternative to much bigger, much more expensive (mainframe or "Mini") computers from firms like IBM, that either required additional, expensive consultancy from the supplier, hiring specially trained personnel, or at least, a much steeper learning curve to maintain and operate.
Development of project "LISA" began in 1978. It underwent many changes before shipping at US$9,995 (equivalent to $29,400 in 2022) with a five-megabyte hard drive. It was affected by its high price, insufficient software, unreliable Apple FileWare floppy disks, and the imminent release of the cheaper and faster Macintosh. Only 10,000 were sold in two years.
Considered a commercial failure (albeit one with technical acclaim), Lisa introduced a number of advanced features that reappeared on the Macintosh and eventually IBM PC compatibles. Among them is an operating system with protected memory and a document-oriented workflow. The hardware was more advanced overall than the forthcoming Macintosh 128K; the Lisa included hard disk drive support, capacity for up to 2 megabytes (MB) of random-access memory (RAM), expansion slots, and a larger, higher-resolution display.
The complexity of the Lisa operating system and its associated programs (most notably its office suite), as well as the ad hoc protected memory implementation (due to the lack of a Motorola MMU), placed a high demand on the CPU and, to some extent, the storage system. As a result of cost-cutting measures designed to bring it more into the consumer market, advanced software, and factors such as the delayed availability of the 68000 and its impact on the design process, many felt that the Lisa's user experience was sluggish overall. The workstation-tier price (albeit at the low end of the spectrum at the time) and lack of a technical software application library made it a difficult sell for much of the technical workstation market. Compounding matters, the runaway success of the IBM PC and Apple's decision to essentially compete with itself (via the lower-cost Macintosh) were further impediments to the Lisa's acceptance.
In 1982, after Steve Jobs was forced out of the Lisa project by Apple's board of directors, he appropriated the Macintosh project from Jef Raskin, who had originally conceived of a sub-$1,000 text-based appliance computer in 1979. Jobs immediately redefined Macintosh as a less expensive and more focused version of the graphical Lisa.
When Macintosh launched in January 1984, it quickly surpassed Lisa's underwhelming sales. Jobs then began assimilating increasing numbers of Lisa staff, as he had done with the Apple II division after assuming control over Raskin's project. Newer Lisa models were eventually introduced to address its shortcomings but, even after lowering the list price considerably, the platform failed to achieve favorable sales numbers compared to the much less expensive Mac. The final model, the Lisa 2/10, was rebranded as the Macintosh XL to become the high-end model in the Macintosh series.
History
Development
Name
Though the documentation shipped with the original Lisa only refers to it as "The Lisa", Apple officially stated that the name was an acronym for "Locally Integrated Software Architecture" or "LISA". Because Steve Jobs's first daughter was named Lisa Nicole Brennan (born in 1978), it was sometimes inferred that the name also had a personal association, and perhaps that the acronym was a backronym invented later to fit the name. Andy Hertzfeld states the acronym was reverse engineered from the name "Lisa" in late 1982 by the Apple marketing team, after they had hired a marketing consultancy firm to come up with names to replace "Lisa" and "Macintosh" (at the time considered by Jef Raskin to be merely internal project codenames) and then rejected all of the suggestions. Privately, Hertzfeld and the other software developers used "Lisa: Invented Stupid Acronym", a recursive backronym, while computer industry pundits coined the term "Let's Invent Some Acronym" to fit the Lisa's name. Decades later, Jobs would tell his biographer Walter Isaacson: "Obviously it was named for my daughter."
Research and design
The project began in 1978 as an effort to create a more modern version of the then-conventional design epitomized by the Apple II. A ten-person team occupied its first dedicated office, which was nicknamed "the Good Earth building" and located at 20863 Stevens Creek Boulevard next to the restaurant named Good Earth. Initial team leader Ken Rothmuller was soon replaced by John Couch, under whose direction the project evolved into the "window-and-mouse-driven" form of its eventual release. Trip Hawkins and Jef Raskin contributed to this change in design. Apple's cofounder Steve Jobs was involved in the concept.
At Xerox's Palo Alto Research Center, research had already been underway for several years to create a new humanized way to organize the computer screen, today known as the desktop metaphor. Steve Jobs visited Xerox PARC in 1979, and was absorbed and excited by the revolutionary mouse-driven GUI of the Xerox Alto. By late 1979, Jobs successfully negotiated a payment of Apple stock to Xerox, in exchange for his Lisa team receiving two demonstrations of ongoing research projects at Xerox PARC. When the Apple team saw the demonstration of the Alto computer, they were able to see in action the basic elements of what constituted a workable GUI. The Lisa team put a great deal of work into making the graphical interface a mainstream commercial product.
The Lisa was a major project at Apple, which reportedly spent more than $50 million on its development. More than 90 people participated in the design, plus more in the sales and marketing effort, to launch the machine. BYTE credited Wayne Rosing with being the most important person on the development of the computer's hardware until the machine went into production, at which point he became technical lead for the entire Lisa project. The hardware development team was headed by Robert Paratore. The industrial design, product design, and mechanical packaging were headed by Bill Dresselhaus, the Principal Product Designer of Lisa, with his team of internal product designers and contract product designers from the firm that eventually became IDEO. Bruce Daniels was in charge of applications development, and Larry Tesler was in charge of system software. The user interface was designed in a six-month period, after which the hardware, operating system, and applications were all created in parallel.
In 1982, after Steve Jobs was forced out of the Lisa project, he appropriated the existing Macintosh project, which Jef Raskin had conceived in 1979 and led to develop a text-based appliance computer. Jobs redefined Macintosh as a cheaper and more usable Lisa, leading the project in parallel and in secret, and substantially motivated to compete with the Lisa team.
In September 1981, below the announcement of the IBM PC, InfoWorld reported on Lisa, "McIntosh", and another Apple computer secretly under development "to be ready for release within a year". It described Lisa as having a 68000 and 128KB RAM, and "designed to compete with the new Xerox Star at a considerably lower price". In May 1982, the magazine reported that "Apple's yet-to-be-announced Lisa 68000 network work station is also widely rumored to have a mouse."
Launch
Lisa's low sales were quickly surpassed by the January 1984 launch of the Macintosh. Newer versions of the Lisa were introduced that addressed its faults and lowered its price considerably, but it failed to achieve favorable sales compared to the much less expensive Mac. The Macintosh project assimilated a lot more Lisa staff. The final revision of the Lisa, the Lisa 2/10, was modified and sold as the Macintosh XL.
Discontinuation
The high cost and the delays in its release date contributed to the Lisa's discontinuation although it was repackaged and sold at $4,995, as the Lisa 2. In 1986, the entire Lisa platform was discontinued.
In 1987, Sun Remarketing purchased about 5,000 Macintosh XLs and upgraded them. In 1989, with the help of Sun Remarketing, Apple disposed of approximately 2,700 unsold Lisas in a guarded landfill in Logan, Utah, in order to receive a tax write-off on the unsold inventory. Some leftover Lisa computers and spare parts were available until Cherokee Data (who purchased Sun Remarketing) went out of business.
Timeline of Lisa models
Overview
Hardware
The Lisa was first introduced on January 19, 1983. It is one of the first personal computer systems with a graphical user interface (GUI) to be sold commercially. It uses a Motorola 68000 CPU clocked at 5 MHz and has 1 MB of RAM. It can be upgraded to 2 MB and later shipped with as little as 512 kilobytes. The CPU speed and model was not changed from the release of the Lisa 1 to the repackaging of the hardware as Macintosh XL.
The real-time clock uses a 4-bit integer and the base year is defined as 1980; the software won't accept any value below 1981, so the only valid range is 1981–1995. The real-time clock depends on a 4 × AA-cell NiCd pack of batteries that only lasts for a few hours when main power is not present. Prone to failure over time, the battery packs could leak corrosive alkaline electrolyte and ruin the circuit boards.The integrated monochrome black-on-white monitor has 720 × 364 rectangular pixels on a 12-inch (30 cm) screen.
Among the printers supported by Lisa are the Apple Dot Matrix Printer, Apple Daisy Wheel Printer, the Apple ImageWriter dot matrix, and a Canon inkjet printer. Inkjet printing was quite new at the time. Despite having a monochromatic monitor, Apple enabled software to support some color printing, due to the existence of the Canon printer.
CPU
The use of the slowest-clocked version of Motorola's 68000 was a cost-cutting measure, as the 68000 was initially expensive. By the time the price had come down, Apple had already designed the Lisa software around the timing of the 5 MHz processor. Lisa had been in development for such a long time that it was not initially developed for the 68000 and much of its development was done on a pre-chip form of the 68000, which was much slower than the shipping CPU.
Lisa software was primarily coded in Pascal to save development time, given the high complexity of the software.
The sophistication of the Lisa software (which included a multitasking GUI requiring a hard disk), coupled with the slow speed of the CPU, RAM, lack of hardware graphics acceleration coprocessor, and protected memory implementation, led to the impression that the Lisa system was very slow. However, a productivity study done in 1984 rated the Lisa above the IBM PC and Macintosh, perhaps countering the high degree of focus on UI snappiness and other factors in perceived speed rather than actual productivity speed.
RAM
Lisa was designed to use slower (albeit more reliable) parity memory, and other features that reduced speed but increased stability and value. Lisa is able to operate when RAM chips failed on its memory boards, unlike later Macintosh systems, reducing the cost to owners by enabling the usage of partially-failed boards. The Lisa system isolates the failed chip or chips and uses the rest of the board's RAM. This was particularly important given the large number of individual RAM chips Lisa used in 1983 for a consumer system (at around $2,500 in cost to Apple per machine). RAM could be upgraded to 2 MB.
Drives
The original Lisa, later called the Lisa 1, has two Apple FileWare 5.25-inch double-sided variable-speed floppy disk drives, more commonly known by Apple's internal code name for the drive, "Twiggy". They had, for the time, a very high capacity of approximately 871 kB each, but proved to be unreliable and required nonstandard diskettes. Competing systems implementing that level of per-diskette data storage had to utilize much larger 8" floppy disks. These disks were seen as cumbersome and old-fashioned for a consumer system. Apple had worked hard to increase the storage capacity of the minifloppy-size disk by pioneering features that Sony perfected shortly after with its microfloppy drives. Although it used a Twiggy drive in the prototype stage, the first Macintosh was launched the following year with one of the Sony 400 KB 3.5" "microfloppy" disk drives. 1984 also saw the release of the first revision of Lisa, the Lisa 2, which also included a single Sony drive. Apple provided free upgrades for Lisa 1 owners to Lisa 2 hardware, including the replacement of the Twiggy drives with a single Sony drive. The Sony drive, being only single-sided, could not store nearly as much data as a single Twiggy, but did so with greater reliability. The IBM PC shipped with a minifloppy (5.25-inch) drive that stored even less data: 360 KB. It was also slower and did not have the protective shell of the Sony microfloppy drive diskettes, which improves reliability.
An optional external 5 MB or, later, a 10 MB Apple ProFile hard drive (originally designed and produced for the Apple III by a third party), was available. With the introduction of the Lisa 2/10, an optional 10 MB compact internal proprietary hard disk manufactured by Apple, known as the "Widget", was also offered. As with the Twiggy, the Widget developed a reputation for reliability problems. The ProFile, by contrast, was typically long-lived. The Widget was incompatible with earlier Lisa models.
In an effort to increase the reliability of the machine, Apple included, starting with Lisa 1, several mechanisms involved with disk storage that were innovative and not present on at least the early releases of the Macintosh, nor on the IBM PC. For example, block sparing was implemented, which would set aside bad blocks, even on floppy disks. Another feature was the redundant storage of critical operating system information, for recovery in case of corruption.
Lisa 2
The first hardware revision, the Lisa 2, was released in January 1984 and was priced between US$3,495 and $5,495. It was much less expensive than the original model and dropped the Twiggy floppy drives in favor of a single 400K Sony microfloppy. The Lisa 2 has as little as 512 KB of RAM. The Lisa 2/5 consists of a Lisa 2 bundled with an external 5- or 10-megabyte hard drive. In 1984, at the same time the Macintosh was officially announced, Apple offered free upgrades to the Lisa 2/5 to all Lisa 1 owners, by swapping the pair of Twiggy drives for a single 3.5-inch drive, and updating the boot ROM and I/O ROM. In addition, the Lisa 2's new front faceplate accommodates the reconfigured floppy disk drive, and it includes the new inlaid Apple logo and the first Snow White design language elements. The Lisa 2/10 has a 10MB internal hard drive (but no external parallel port) and a standard configuration of 1 MB of RAM.Developing early Macintosh software required a Lisa 2. There were relatively few third-party hardware offerings for the Lisa, as compared to the earlier Apple II—AST offered a 1.5 MB memory board which, when combined with the standard Apple 512 KB memory board, expanded the Lisa to a total of 2 MB of memory, the maximum amount that the MMU can address.
Late in the product life of the Lisa, there were third-party hard disk drives, SCSI controllers, and double-sided 3.5-inch floppy-disk upgrades. Unlike the original Macintosh, the Lisa has expansion slots. The Lisa 2 motherboard has a very basic backplane with virtually no electronic components, but plenty of edge connector sockets and slots. There are two RAM slots, one CPU upgrade slot, and one I/O slot, all in parallel placement to each other. At the other end, there are three "Lisa" slots in parallel.
Macintosh XL
In January 1985, following the Macintosh, the Lisa 2/10 (with integrated 10 MB hard drive) was rebranded as Macintosh XL. It was given a hardware and software kit, enabling it to reboot into Macintosh mode and positioning it as Apple's high-end Macintosh. The price was lowered yet again (to $4,000) and sales tripled, but CEO John Sculley said that Apple would have lost money increasing production to meet the new demand. Apple discontinued the Macintosh XL, leaving an eight-month void in Apple's high-end product line until the Macintosh Plus was introduced in 1986. The report that many Lisa machines were never sold and were disposed of by Apple is particularly interesting in light of Sculley's decision concerning the increased demand.
Software
Lisa OS
The Lisa operating system features protected memory, enabled by a crude hardware circuit compared to the Sun-1 workstation (c. 1982), which features a full memory management unit. Motorola did not have an MMU (memory-management unit) for the 68000 ready in time, so third parties such as Apple had to come up with their own solutions. Despite the sluggishness of Apple's solution, which was also the result of a cost-cutting compromise, the Lisa system differed from the Macintosh system which would not gain protected memory until Mac OS X, released eighteen years later. (Motorola's initial MMU also was disliked for its high cost and slow performance.) Based, in part, on elements from the Apple III SOS operating system released three years earlier, the Lisa's disk operating system also organizes its files in hierarchical directories, as do UNIX workstations of the time which were the main competition to Lisa in terms of price and hardware. File system directories correspond to GUI folders, as with previous Xerox PARC computers from which the Lisa borrowed heavily. Unlike the first Macintosh, whose operating system could not utilize a hard disk in its first versions, the Lisa system was designed around a hard disk being present.
Conceptually, the Lisa resembles the Xerox Star in the sense that it was envisioned as an office computing system. It also resembles Microsoft Office from a software standpoint, in that its software is designed to be an integrated "office suite". The Lisa's office software suite shipped long before the existence of Microsoft Office, although some of the constituent components differ (e.g. Lisa shipped with no presentation package and Office shipped without a project management package). Consequently, Lisa has two main user modes: the Lisa Office System and the Workshop. The Lisa Office System is the GUI environment for end users. The Workshop is a program development environment and is almost entirely text-based, though it uses a GUI text editor. The Lisa Office System was eventually renamed "7/7", in reference to the seven supplied application programs: LisaWrite, LisaCalc, LisaDraw, LisaGraph, LisaProject, LisaList, and LisaTerminal.
Apple's warranty said that this software works precisely as stated, and Apple refunded an unspecified number of users, in full, for their systems. These operating system frailties, and costly recalls, combined with the very high price point, led to the failure of the Lisa in the marketplace. NASA purchased Lisa machines, mainly to use the LisaProject program.
In 2018, the Computer History Museum announced it would be releasing the source code for Lisa OS, following a check by Apple to ensure this would not impact other intellectual property. For copyright reasons, this release did not include the American Heritage dictionary. For its 40th anniversary on January 19, 2023, Lisa OS Software version 3.1's source code is available under an Apple Academic License Agreement.
Task-oriented workflow
With Lisa, Apple presented users with what is generally, but imprecisely, known as a document-oriented paradigm. This is contrasted with program-centric design. The user focuses more on the task to be accomplished than on the tool used to accomplish it. Apple presents tasks, with Lisa, in the form of stationery. Rather than opening LisaWrite, for instance, to begin to do word processing, users initially "tear off stationery", visually, that represents the task of word processing. Either that, or they open an existing LisaWrite document that resembles that stationery. By contrast, the Macintosh and most other GUI systems focus primarily on the program that is used to accomplish a task — directing users to that first.
One benefit of task-based computing is that users have less of a need to memorize which program is associated with a particular task. That problem is compounded by the contemporary practice of naming programs with very unintuitive names, such as Chrome and Safari. A drawback of task-oriented design, when presented in document-oriented form, is that the naturalness of the process can be lacking. The most frequently cited example with Lisa is the use of LisaTerminal, in which a person tears off "terminal stationery" — a broken metaphor. However, task-based design does not necessarily require characterizing everything as a document, or as stationery specifically.
More recently, menus and tabs have been used, rather sparingly, to present more task-based workflows. A "power user" could have somewhat laboriously customized the Apple menu in many versions of Mac OS (prior to Mac OS X) to contain folders that are task-oriented. Tab systems are typically add-ons for contemporary operating systems and can be organized in a task-based manner — such as having a "web browsing" tab that contains various web browser programs. Task-oriented presentation is very helpful for systems that have many programs and a variety of users, such as a language-learning computer lab that caters to those learning a variety of languages. It is also helpful for computer users who have not yet memorized what program name, however unintuitive, is associated with a task. Some Linux desktop systems combine some unintuitive program names (e.g. Amarok) with task-based organization (menus that organize programs by task) — in the desire to make utilizing Linux desktop systems less of a challenge for those switching from the dominant desktop platforms.
The desire for emotional marketing reinforcement appears to be a strong factor in the choice, by most companies, to promote the program-centric paradigm. Otherwise, there would be little incentive to give programs obscure unintuitive names and/or to add company names to the program name (e.g. Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, etc.). Combining unintuitive names with company names is especially popular today (e.g. Google Chrome and Mozilla Firefox). This is the opposite goal of the Lisa paradigm where the brand name and the program name are intentionally made more invisible to the user.
Internationalization
Within a few months of the Lisa's introduction in the US, fully translated versions of the software and documentation were commercially available for the British, French, West German, Italian, and Spanish markets, followed by several Scandinavian versions shortly thereafter. The user interface for the OS, all seven applications, LisaGuide, and the Lisa diagnostics (in ROM) can be fully translated, without any programming required, using resource files and a translation kit. The keyboard can identify its native language layout, and the entire user experience will be in that language, including any hardware diagnostic messages.
Although several non-English keyboard layouts are available, the Dvorak keyboard layout was never ported to the Lisa, though such porting had been available for the Apple III, IIe, and IIc, and was later done for the Macintosh. Keyboard-mapping on the Lisa is complex and requires building a new OS. All kernels contain images for all layouts, so due to serious memory constraints, keyboard layouts are stored as differences from a set of standard layouts; thus only a few bytes are needed to accommodate most additional layouts. An exception is the Dvorak layout that moves just about every key and thus requires hundreds of extra bytes of precious kernel storage regardless of whether it is needed.
Each localized version (built on a globalized core) requires grammatical, linguistic, and cultural adaptations throughout the user interface, including formats for dates, numbers, times, currencies, sorting, even for word and phrase order in alerts and dialog boxes. A kit was provided, and the translation work was done by native-speaking Apple marketing staff in each country. This localization effort resulted in about as many Lisa unit sales outside the US as inside the US over the product's lifespan, while setting new standards for future localized software products, and for global project coordination.
MacWorks
In April 1984, following the release of the Macintosh, Apple introduced MacWorks, a software emulation environment which allows the Lisa to run Macintosh System software and applications. MacWorks helped make the Lisa more attractive to potential customers, although it did not enable the Macintosh emulation to access the hard disk until September. Initial versions of the Mac OS could not support a hard disk on the Macintosh machines. In January 1985, re-branded MacWorks XL, it became the primary system application designed to turn the Lisa into the Macintosh XL.
Third-party software
A significant impediment to third-party software on the Lisa was the fact that, when first launched, the Lisa Office System could not be used to write programs for itself. A separate development OS, called Lisa Workshop, was required. During this development process, engineers would alternate between the two OSes at startup, writing and compiling code on one OS and testing it on the other. Later, the same Lisa Workshop was used to develop software for the Macintosh. After a few years, a Macintosh-native development system was developed. For most of its lifetime, the Lisa never went beyond the original seven applications that Apple had deemed enough to "do everything", although UniPress Software did offer UNIX System III for $495.The company known as the Santa Cruz Operation (SCO) offered Microsoft XENIX (version 3), a UNIX-like command-line operating system, for the Lisa 2 — and the Multiplan spreadsheet (version 2.1) that ran on it.
Reception
BYTE wrote in February 1983 after previewing the Lisa that it was "the most important development in computers in the last five years, easily outpacing [the IBM PC]". It acknowledged that the $9,995 price was high, and concluded "Apple ... is not unaware that most people would be incredibly interested in a similar but less expensive machine. We'll see what happens".The Apple Lisa was a commercial failure for Apple, the largest since the failure of the Apple III of 1980. Apple sold approximately 10,000 Lisa machines at a price of US$9,995 (equivalent to about $29,400 in 2022), generating total sales of $100 million against a development cost of more than $150 million.The high price put the Lisa at the bottom of the price realm of technical workstations, but without much of a technical application library. Some features that some much more expensive competing systems included were such things as hardware graphics coprocessors (which increased perceived system power by improving GUI snappiness) and higher-resolution portrait displays. Lisa's implementation of the requisite graphical interface paradigm was novel but many of the time associated UI snappiness with power, even if that was so simplistic as to miss the mark, in terms of overall productivity. The mouse, for example, was dismissed by many critics of the time as being a toy, and mouse-driven machines as being unserious. Of course, the mouse would go on to displace the pure-CLI design for the vast majority of users. The largest Lisa customer was NASA, which used LisaProject for project management. Lisa was not slowed purely by having a 5 MHz CPU (the lowest clock offered by Motorola), sophisticated parity RAM, a slow hard disk interface (for the ProFile), and the lack of a graphics coprocessor (which would have increased cost). It also had its software mainly coded in Pascal, was designed to multitask, and had advanced features like the clipboard for pasting data between programs. This sophistication came at the price of snappiness although it added to productivity. The OS even had "soft power", remembering what was open and where desktop items were positioned. Many such features are taken for granted today but were not available on typical consumer systems.
The massive brand power of IBM at that time was the largest factor in the PC's eventual dominance. Computing critics complained about the relatively primitive hardware ("off-the-shelf components") of the PC but admitted that it would be a success simply due to IBM's mindshare. By the time Lisa was available in the market, the less-expensive and less-powerful IBM PC had already become entrenched. The x86 platform's backward compatibility with the CP/M operating system was helpful for the PC, given that many existing business software applications were originally written for CP/M. Apple had attempted to compete with the PC, via the Apple II platform. DOS was very primitive when compared with the Lisa OS, but the CLI was familiar territory for most users of the time. It would be years before Microsoft would offer an integrated office suite.
The 1984 release of the Macintosh further eroded the Lisa's marketability, as the public perceived that Apple was abandoning it in favor of the Macintosh. Any marketing of the Macintosh clashed with promotion of the Lisa, since Apple had not made the platforms compatible. Macintosh was superficially faster (mainly in terms of UI responsiveness) than Lisa but much more primitive in other key aspects, such as the lack of protected memory (which led to the famous bomb and completely frozen machines for so many years), very small amount of non-upgradable RAM, no ability to use a hard disk (which led to heavy criticism about frequent disk-swapping), no sophisticated file system, a smaller display (with lower resolution), lack of numeric keypad, lack of a built-in screensaver, inability to multitask, lack of parity RAM, lack of expansion slots, lack of a calculator with a paper tape and RPN, more primitive office software, and more. The Macintosh beat the Lisa in terms of having sound support (Lisa had only a beep), having square pixels (which reduced perceived resolution but removed the problem of display artifacts), having a nearly 8 MHz CPU, having more resources placed into marketing (leading to a large increase in the system's price tag), and being coded primarily in assembly. Some features, like protected memory, remained absent from the Macintosh platform for eighteen years, when Mac OS X was released for the desktop. The Lisa was also designed to readily support multiple operating systems, making booting between them intuitive and convenient — something that has taken a very long time to achieve since Lisa, at least as a standard desktop OS feature.
The Lisa 2 and its Mac ROM-enabled sibling the Macintosh XL are the final two releases in the Lisa line, which was discontinued in April 1985. The Macintosh XL is a hardware and software conversion kit to effectively reboot Lisa into Macintosh mode. In 1986, Apple offered all Lisa and XL owners the opportunity to return their computer, with an additional payment of US$1,498, in exchange for a Macintosh Plus and Hard Disk 20. Reportedly, 2,700 working but unsold Lisa computers were buried in a landfill.
Legacy
The Macintosh project, led by Steve Jobs, borrowed heavily from Lisa's GUI paradigm and directly took many of its staff, to create Apple's flagship platform of the next several decades. The column-based interface, for instance, utilized by Mac OS X, had originally been developed for Lisa. It had been discarded in favor of the icon view.
Apple's culture of object-oriented programming on Lisa contributed to the 1988 conception of Pink, the first attempt to re-architect the operating system of Macintosh.
See also
Macintosh 128K
People:
Bill Atkinson
Rich Page
Brad Silverberg
Technology:
History of the graphical user interface
Cut, copy, and paste
Xerox Star
Visi On
Apple ProFile
GEMDOS (adaptation for Lisa 2/5)
Tech: Apple Lisa Demo (1984) on YouTube
Using Apple' Lisa for Real Work
Lisa 2/5 info.
mprove: Graphical User Interface of Apple Lisa
"Inventing the Lisa User Interface by Rod Perkins, Dan Keller and Frank Ludolph (1 MB PDF)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on September 21, 2005. Retrieved March 10, 2006.
Apple Lisa Memorial Exhibition at Dongdaemun Design Plaza, Seoul, Korea on YouTube
Download Apple Lisa Source Code |
The Icon may refer to:
People
Matt Hardy (born 1974), American professional wrestler
Shawn Michaels (born 1965), American professional wrestler
The Sandman (wrestler) (born 1963), American professional wrestler nicknamed the Hardcore Icon
Aaron "The Idol" Stevens (born 1982), American professional wrestler
Sting (wrestler) (born 1959), American professional wrestler
John Zandig (born 1971), American professional wrestler
Other
The Icon, a fictional restaurant on the British soap opera Doctors
The Icon, a work by Palestinian visual artist Amer Shomali |
Kim Yu-sin (595 – 18 August 673) was a Korean military general and politician in 7th-century Silla. He led the unification of the Korean Peninsula by Silla under the reign of King Muyeol and King Munmu. He is said to have been the great-grandchild of King Guhae of Geumgwan Gaya, the last ruler of the Geumgwan Gaya state. This would have given him a very high position in the Silla bone rank system, which governed the political and military status that a person could attain.
Much of what is known about Kim's life comes from the detailed account in the Samguk Sagi, Yeoljeon 1-3, and the much briefer record in the Samguk Yusa, vol. 1.
Early years
Kim Yu-sin was the son of General Kim Seohyeon (the second son of General Kim Mu-ryeok) and Lady Manmyeong, who was a daughter of Kim Sukheuljong (Korean: 김숙흘종; Hanja: 金肅訖宗), who was the younger brother of King Jinheung. He was born in Manno county (만노군; 萬弩郡; present-day Jincheon County) in 595, became a Hwarang warrior at just 15 and was an accomplished swordsman and a Gukseon (Korean: 국선; Hanja: 國仙; Hwarang leader) by the time he was 18 years old. By the age of 34 (in 629) he had been given total command of the Silla armed forces. Three years later, Kim Yu-sin's cousin, Princess Deokman, became Queen Seondeok and kept Kim Yu-sin as commander in chief of the royal army. During the reign of Queen Seondeok of Silla (632–647), Kim Yu-sin owned ten thousand private soldiers, won many battles against Baekje and became one of the most powerful men in Silla.
Military accomplishments
Kim Yu-sin's first military engagement in command is believed to have occurred around 629 AD, and through it he quickly proved his capabilities as a warrior. Silla was in a constant struggle with its neighbor to the west, Baekje, over territory. There had been gains and losses on both sides, and the struggle lasted for many years. It was during this period that Yu-sin rose through the ranks of the military, rising to the position of general and becoming a skilled field commander.
Baekje and Silla had formed an alliance to counter Goguryeo's power and its intentions to push southwards, and together they launched a successful attack on it, Silla taking the northern territory and Baekje the one south of the Han river. But Silla broke the alliance and attacked Baekje in order to claim both territories for itself. After this betrayal, Baekje allied with Goguryeo. When Goguryeo and Baekje attacked Silla in 655, Silla joined forces with Tang dynasty China to battle the invaders. Although it is not clear when Kim Yu-sin first became a general, he was certainly commanding the Silla forces by this time. Eventually, with the help of a 50,000 man Silla army and some 130,000 Tang forces, Yushin attacked the Baekje capital, Sabi, in 660, in the Battle of Hwangsanbeol.
The Baekje defenders were commanded by none other than General Gyebaek, although the Baekje forces consisted of about 5,000 men and were no match for Yu-sin's warriors, which numbered about ten times as many. Baekje, which had already been experiencing internal political problems, crumbled. Kim Yu-sin's Silla forces and their Tang allies now moved on Goguryeo from two directions, and in 661 they attacked the seemingly impregnable Goguryeo kingdom, but were repelled. The attack had weakened Goguryeo, though. In 667 another offensive was launched which, in 668, finally destroyed Goguryeo.
Silla still had to subdue various pockets of resistance, but their efforts were then focused on ensuring that their Tang allies did not overstay their welcome on the peninsula. After some difficult conflicts, Silla eventually forced out the Tang troops and united the peninsula under their rule.
Legends
Many stories exist about Kim Yu-sin. It is told that he once was ordered to subdue a rebel army, but his troops refused to fight as they had seen a large star fall from the sky and took this to be a bad omen. To regain the confidence of his troops, the General used a large kite to carry a fire ball into the sky. The soldiers, seeing the star return to heaven, rallied and defeated the rebels. It is also related how General Kim ingeniously used kites as a means of communication between his troops when they had become divided between islands and the mainland.
Kim Yu-sin once spent the night at a courtesan's tavern, and when his mother learned of this, she cried and asked Kim Yu-sin to never again set his foot in that kind of place. One night, Kim Yu-sin was very drunk, and his horse took him to the courtesan's house. When Kim Yu-sin woke, he was angry at having broken his promise to his mother, and he slit the horse's throat.
His final years
Throughout his life, Kim Yu-sin felt that Baekje, Goguryeo, and Silla should not be separate countries but rather united as one. He is regarded as the driving force in the unification of the Korean Peninsula, and is the most famous of all the generals in the unification wars of the Three Kingdoms.
Kim Yu-sin was rewarded handsomely for his efforts in the campaigns. In 668, King Munmu bestowed upon him the honorary title of Taedaegakgan (Hangul:태대각간 Hanja:太大角干), something like "Supreme Herald of Defense" (literally "greatest-great-trumpet-shield"). He reportedly received a village of over 500 households, and in 669 was given some 142 separate horse farms, spread throughout the kingdom. He died four years later, leaving behind ten children.
Kim Yu-sin lived to the age of 79 and is considered to be one of the most famous generals and masters of Korean swords in Korean history. He is the focus of numerous stories and legends, and is familiar to most Koreans from a very early age. Following his death on 18 August (the 1st day of the 7th lunar month) 673, General Kim was awarded the honorary title of King Heungmu, and was buried at the foot of Songhwa Mountain, 35.8456477°N 129.1911292°E / 35.8456477; 129.1911292 near Gyeongju in southeastern Korea, in a tomb as splendid as that of kings.
Family
Kim Yu-sin had two sisters, Kim Bo-hee and Kim Mun-hee. Kim Mun-hee, later known as Queen Munmyeong, married Yu-sin's friend Kim Cheon-chu, King Taejong Muyeol of Silla, who is credited for having led the unification of the Korean peninsula under Silla. Muyeol and Munmyeong were the parents of King Munmu of Silla and Kim Inmun.
Kim Yu-sin's third wife, Lady Jiso (Hanja:智炤夫人), was the third daughter of King Muyeol of Silla. Yu-sin had ten children. His second son, Kim Won-sul, would later play a central role in completing the independence of Silla from the Tang dynasty.
Wife: Lady Jiso, daughter of King Muyeol of Silla and Queen Munmyeong
Son: Kim Sam-gwang (김삼광)
Son: Kim Won-sul
Son: Kim Won-jeong (김원정)
Son: Kim Jang-yi (김장이)
Son: Kim Won-mang (김원망)
Daughter: Lady Kim of the Gimhae Kim clan (김해 김씨)
Daughter: Lady Kim of the Gimhae Kim clan (김해 김씨)
Daughter: Lady Kim of the Gimhae Kim clan (김해 김씨)
Daughter: Lady Kim of the Gimhae Kim clan (김해 김씨)
Wife: Cheon Gwan-nyeo – Courtesan
Son: Kim Gun-seung (김군승) or Kim Si-deuk (김시득)
Grandson: Kim Am (also Gim Am, Korean: 김암)
Legacy
According to Samguk Sagi, Kim Yu-sin was the descendant of Shaohao.Today, Kim Yu-sin is remembered by Koreans as one of the greatest generals in Korean history. His ultimate legacy is the first unification of the Korean nation. One of his ten children, his second son Kim Won-sul, became a general during the time of King Munmu of Silla, and he was essential in unifying Silla.
Jincheon Gilsangsa is a shrine dedicated to his portrait in Jincheon-eup, Jincheon-gun, Chungcheongbuk-do.
Popular culture
Portrayed by Yoon Seung-won, Lee Jong Soo and Lee David in 2006–2007 SBS TV series Yeon Gaesomun.
Portrayed by Uhm Tae-woong and Lee Hyun-woo in the 2009 MBC TV series Queen Seondeok.
Portrayed by Park Sung-woong in the 2011 MBC TV series Gyebaek.
Portrayed by Kim Yu-seok and Noh Young-hak in the 2012–2013 KBS1 TV series The King's Dream.
Appeared in a Korean MMORPG Atlantica Online as a playable mercenary character Hwarang.
Portrayed by Jang Tae Wong in the 2017 KBS TV series Chronicles of Korea.
McBride, Richard D., II. “Hidden Agendas in the Life Writings of Kim Yusin.” Acta Koreana 1 (August 1998): 101–142.
McBride, Richard D., II. “The Structure and
Korean history
Three Kingdoms of Korea
Queen Seondeok (TV series)
Kim Yusin |
Lee Hae-chan (born 10 July 1952) is a South Korean politician who served as Leader of the Democratic Party of Korea from 2018 to 2020. He also served as Prime Minister of South Korea from 2004 to 2006. He served as Member of the National Assembly for the Gwanak District from 1988 to 1995 and 1996 to 2008. He served as Minister of Education under President Kim Dae-jung from 1998 to 1999. He presided over controversial education reforms including revamping the college entrance process and lowering the retirement age of teachers. He later served under President Roh Moo-hyun as Prime Minister of South Korea from July 2004 to March 2006.
On 27 August 2018, he was elected the leader of the Democratic Party of Korea.
Political career
Minister for Education
Hae-chan instituted reforms to the college admissions process. At the time was summed up in the slogan that being good at one thing was enough to get into college, was criticised for allegedly lowering dramatically the scholastic competence of the so-called "Lee Hae-chan generation" of then-high school students.
Prime Minister of South Korea
He was nominated by President Roh Moo-hyun to become Prime Minister of South Korea on 28 July 2004, confirmed by the National Assembly on 29 July, and took office on 30 July.
His nomination as prime minister met some resistance due to his record as minister of education, which many consider a failure. Since taking office, however, Lee has proved an able prime minister, being described by some as the most powerful prime minister South Korea has seen.
Golf-game scandal
On 1 March 2006, the Korean Railroad Workers Union and Seoul Subway Union entered a strike together. The strike of railroad and subway at the same time proved to be a fatal blow at the nation's economic activity, especially Seoul area, where traffic heavily depend on subway, which is controlled by these two unions. Prime Minister Lee was supposed to command the situation and mediate the strike; however, he was playing golf at Busan area with local businessmen, and this caused massive distaste among Korean people against Lee for not taking care of the government and people.
See also
Politics of South Korea
Roh Moo-hyun |
Goh Kun (Hangul: 고건, Hanja: 高建, born January 2, 1938) is a South Korean politician who was Prime Minister of South Korea from 1997 to 1998 and again from 2003 to 2004. He was also the acting President of South Korea at the time of Roh Moo-hyun's suspension in 2004.
Career
Goh began his career in civil service in the 1960s, when he joined the Ministry of Home Affairs as a probationary officer. He was promoted through various positions, including the Governor of South Jeolla (1975–1979), the Minister of Transportation (1980–1981) and Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries (1981–1982).In 1985, Goh was elected as a Member of Parliament, before being appointed the mayor of Seoul from 1988 to 1990. He was later elected mayor of Seoul from 1998 to 2002.
He served as Prime Minister of South Korea from 1997 to 1998 and from 2003 to 2004.He assumed the role of interim President following President Roh Moo-Hyun's impeachment, from March 12, 2004 until May 14, 2004, when the South Korean Constitutional Court overturned the impeachment decision and restored Roh's powers as President. He resigned from the office of Prime Minister on May 24, 2004 after refusing to comply with the President's request to replace cabinet members.
In June 2006, Goh announced his candidacy for the presidential race.On January 16, 2007, he announced that he would no longer be a candidate for the presidential elections and that he would retire from political life. Despite his retirement, he was named head of social unity council by President Lee Myung-bak on December 21, 2009.
See also
Impeachment of Roh Moo-hyun
"Goh Attends Symposium for Formation of New Party"[Usurped!] - JoongAng Daily (September 12, 2005)
"Constitutional Court Reinstates South Korea's Impeached President" - NY Times (May 14, 2004)
"North Korea Appeals for Help After Railway Explosion" - NY Times (April 24, 2004)
"3,000 Casualties Reported in North Korean Rail Blast" - NY Times (April 23, 2004)
"Impeachment Case to Go Forward in Seoul" - NY Times (April 17, 2004)
"Bullet Train Remakes Map of South Korea" - NY Times (April 2, 2004)
"Acting President Goh Kun Holds First Cabinet Meeting" - Chosun Ilbo (March 15, 2004)
"A Steady Hand Promises Calm Amid the Furor In South Korea" - NY Times (March 14, 2004)
"President's Impeachment Stirs Angry Protests in South Korea" - NY Times (March 13, 2004)
"Goh Says Firmer Stance Against North to Stay" - Chosun Ilbo (May 19, 2003)
"Korea Can't Afford to Cop Out on Corporate Reform" - Bloomberg Businessweek (March 30, 2003)
"Threats and Responses: Seoul; Musing on an Exodus of G.I.'s, South Korea Hails U.S. Presence" - NY Times (March 8, 2003)
"South Korea's New President Gets His Choice for Prime Minister" - NY Times (February 27, 2003)
"Goh Kun" - Bloomberg Businessweek (July 1, 2001)
"Seoul's Web of Anti-Correption" - Bloomberg Businessweek (June 24, 2001) |
Lee Hoi-chang (Korean pronunciation: [i.hø.tɕʰaŋ]; born June 2, 1935) is a South Korean politician and lawyer who served as the 26th Prime Minister of South Korea from 1993 to 1994. He was a presidential candidate in the 15th, 16th and 17th presidential elections of South Korea. Prior to his presidential campaigns, Lee served as Supreme Court Justice of the Supreme Court of Korea.
Early life and education
Lee was born to an elite family in Seoheung, Hwanghae (part of what is now North Korea), but grew up in the South after his father, Lee Hong-gyu, a public prosecutor, was appointed to a new post. Lee studied law at Seoul National University. Lee served as a judge from 1960 to 1980, when he became the country's youngest-ever Supreme Court Justice at the age of 46.
Political career
In 1988, Lee was appointed Chairman of the National Election Commission. He was chosen to head the Board of Audit and Inspection under President Kim Young-sam in 1993. Lee's anti-corruption campaigns in that office gained him the nickname "Bamboo," a Korean term for an upright person of principle. Later in the same year, he was appointed prime minister, but resigned in 1994. His departure was attributed to a frustration with the exclusion of the office of the prime minister from policymaking, in particular concerning North Korea.In 1996, Lee led the parliamentary campaign of the then-ruling New Korea Party (NKP), which merged with the United Democratic Party to become the Grand National Party (GNP) in 1997. Lee was elected as his party's presidential candidate for the presidential election scheduled for that same year. Lee was initially considered the frontrunner in the race, although his performance in public polling took a hit amid revelations in September that two of his sons had been excused from mandatory military service for reporting for duty underweight, having each lost 22 pounds since their initial physical examinations. Lee ultimately lost to Kim Dae-Jung in the midst of the Asian economic crisis.
Lee again campaigned to win the presidency in 2002, running against Roh Moo-hyun of the incumbent Millennium Democratic Party. Although corruption scandals marred the incumbent government, Lee's campaign suffered from the wave of Anti-American sentiment in Korea generated by the Yangju highway incident. Public opinion of Lee, who was widely seen as being both pro-U.S. and the preferred candidate of the George W. Bush Administration in Washington, D.C., suffered. After losing to Roh by 2% in the December 2002 elections, Lee subsequently announced his retirement from politics.On November 7, 2007, Lee officially announced his third campaign for the South Korean presidency as an unaligned candidate after quitting the GNP. Launching his campaign late in the race, some two months prior to the election, Lee joined GNP candidate Lee Myung-bak, UNDP contender Chung Dong-young, and Moon Kook-hyun. Running to the right of his opponents, Lee criticized foreign aid to North Korea, arguing that such programs were fiscally burdensome and inappropriate while North Korea continued to pursue the development of nuclear weapons. His presidential bid posed a concern to the conservatives who were eager to regain the presidency after a decade of leftist rule, as it was feared Lee's candidacy would divide the conservative vote; however, Lee Myung-Bak won the December elections with 48.7% of the vote, while Lee Hoi-chang came in third, with approximately 15%.
After his 2007 election bid, Lee founded the Liberty Forward Party.
Political positions
Lee has been described as a staunch conservative in the context of South Korean politics. His positions include anti-communism, support for free market capitalism, and a hard-line stance against North Korea. Lee repeatedly criticized Kim Dae-jung's "Sunshine Policy" of engagement and détente with North Korea, and argued for the cessation of foreign aid until the North should dismantle its nuclear weapon program. Lee has called for a crackdown on illegal strikes, and for the appointment of more women to government offices. |
Ikarus was a bus manufacturer based in Budapest and Székesfehérvár, Hungary. It was established in 1895 as Imre Uhry's Blacksmith Workshop and Coach Factory (hun.: Uhry Imre Kovács- és Kocsigyártó Üzeme) and during the Communist era in Hungary it dominated bus markets of the entire Eastern Bloc and its allies.
History
Early history (1895–1932)
The company's direct predecessor was established in Budapest in 1895, when Imre Uhry opened his Blacksmith Workshop. The little company's main profile was to repair carts and horseshoes. However, Uhry constantly upgraded his workshop from the stable income he gained, and within a few years the workshop started to produce its first carriages, drays and chariots. After a number of expansions, in 1913 Uhry bought a new plant, and by the outbreak of World War I they started to focus on building and repairing truck superstructures. When the war finally ended in 1918, the company was one of the most significant manufacturers. On the one hand because the Austro-Hungarian Empire collapsed and Uhry's company was one of the few not finding itself on the outer side of the new borders, on the other because the company was taking a significant part in the war production.In the early 1920s, another enlargement of the company was due to happen, which eventually resulted in a new name: Uhry Imre Car-body and Trailer Factory (Uhry Imre Karosszéria és Pótkocsigyár). Prior to 1930s the company was primarily producing various and unique superstructures on foreign companies' chassis, like Ford, Mercedes-Benz, FIAT, Büssing or Gräf & Stift. These included trucks, buses and even some passenger cars. The Uhry company was doing better as time went by. In 1929, the 1000th truck superstructure was produced. Although at this time the company did not have any export products, from time to time some models were caught by international spotlight. For example, in 1934 the company's luxury autobus built on a Gräf & Stift chassis was presented on the French Concours d'Élégance car beauty contest.
The company's three most important customers were the Hungarian State companies Hungarian State Railways (MÁV), the Hungarian State Railways Auto Transportation Company (MAVART) and one of the predecessors of Budapest Transportation Company (BSzKRt). These companies were constantly ordering from Uhry's factory, up until the Great depression hit Hungary in 1930. The crisis suddenly cut most of the orders, production was almost stopped. The situation forced Uhry to sell the vehicles below their real value and to take loans. Eventually, by 1932 the situation led to the bankruptcy of Uhry Imre Car body and Trailer Factory.
From reorganisation to the Communist Era (1933–1948)
In 1933, the children of Imre Uhry established a new company on the ruins of the old, which was called Uhri Siblings Car-body and Vehicle Factory (Uhri Testvérek Autókarosszéria és Járműgyár). The children were using their family name with the letter "i" instead of "y". The new company's first three years went by steadily, without any major success, but in 1936 the BSzKRt, the company then responsible for Budapest's public transportation, ordered 50 diesel buses on MÁVAG–Mercedes chassis. These vehicles were still produced with wooden body, but the factory did hire new engineers, who started to work on a metal body variant, which was to be mass-produced.It is worth noting that during this period of the company it was not customary to actually name their products. When we are referring to each type, it usually has to be done by the chassis it was built on and the year of production.
The first metal-body autobus in Hungary was the Uhri Siblings' MÁVAG N26/36, which was followed by a successor with some modifications every year. Four models were mass-produced, primarily for Budapest: the standard MÁVAG N26/39 and N26/40, as well as the "hill" version N2h/39 and N2h/40. These four were nicknamed Catfish due to their unique front decoration. A total number of 184 units were produced of them.In 1942, the company, which employed almost a thousand people, started to produce aircraft. The site on Margit Street, founded at that time, was one of the bastions of domestic vehicle production until the turn of the Millennium.
In 1948, the company among all others, was a victim of nationalization, which was followed by the Uhri-family's departure from Hungary, out of fear from the newly formed government backed by Soviet Union.
Golden age – the Communist era (1948–1989)
Prelude to the Ikarus models
In 1948, the old customer, the BSzKRt ordered a new line of buses for its fleet and for this request the – now state-owned – company developed a brand new model, the 'Tr 5. It was 9.5 metres in length and was built on a MÁVAG LO 5000 type chassis.
In 1949, new changes were implemented by the communist government. The Uhri Siblings Car-body and Vehicle Factory was merged with:
the Airplane Factory (Repülőgépgyár Rt.)
the Ikarus Machine- and Metal Products Company (Ikarus Gép- és Fémáru Rt.)Hence the Ikarus Body- and Vehicle Factory (Ikarus Karosszéria- és Járműgyár) was created on 8 February.However, the company's products still did not bear the name Ikarus until 1951, although the winged logo started to appear even on the Tr 5 models, built after 1949, and the three other models, not using the company name.As a result of the war, there was shortage of chassis in Hungary, but at the same time there was a growing need for buses, as most of them were destroyed or severely damaged during the Siege of Budapest. The engineers were forced by the circumstances to develop a bus model without chassis. The result was the model Tr 3,5 with a unibody construction in 1948, which was the first in the world of its type. Some sources suggest the German Setra S8 as the first with such unibody construction, but that model was only started to be built in 1950. The small Tr 3,5 weighted only 3,7 tonnes – hence the name – and was 7.73 metres in length. The engine was produced by Rába, but at the time the company could only produce some pre-war models, that were used for their own – at this point obsolete – bus model, the Special.
During this short period, Ikarus had ambitious plans, as they designed two different bus models exclusively for export goals. One of these was the A19, which was designed with Southern-American standards in mind. It was built on a 10.5 metres long chassis, and every single passenger seat was rendered next to a window. The model was also full of decorations. Despite of all the attempts, only two prototypes of the model were built, and both of them remained in Hungary.
The other attempt for export was much more successful. This model was called the M5 and was built on the same chassis as the Tr 5, but received a redesigned front, manually operated swing doors and somewhat more passenger seats. A total number of 170 of the model were produced, out of which 90 were sold to Poland, 45 to Romania, and even though it was intended to be an export model, 35 to the Hungarian company MÁVAUT.
Models between 1951 and 1967
In 1951, after a long and heated argument between the engineers and the political decision makers on whether unibody or body-on-frame vehicles should be produced, the parties managed to reach a compromise. The engineers – who were pro-unibody – were allowed to design one of the two upcoming models with such construction. But they were only permitted to develop a smaller bus, a successor to the Tr 3,5. While the political will forced them to create the larger vehicles (the successor of the Tr 5) on chassis. Out of this "compromise" the company's first vehicle was born, that was actually bearing the factory's name: the Ikarus 30. It was designed as a universal vehicle to serve city and intercity routes, as well as coach services. However, the bus proved to be insufficient to be used in the cities, as it was way too small, narrow, and the windows on the roof were creating greenhouse effect during the summer. Hence, the model received the sobriquet of nylonbus from the passengers.As much as it proved to be an insufficient city bus, it was successful as a coach. It became the first of many Ikarus models to be exported in large numbers. East Germany and China bought over 600 units each, while Czechoslovakia also ordered 500 vehicles.
The year 1951 sought another new model's birth as well: the Ikarus 60, which was the successor of the Tr 5 model. The Ikarus 60, as mentioned before, was a body-on-frame design forced by the decision makers, designed by the Vehicle Development Institution (Járműfejlesztési Intézet or JÁFI) and constructed by Ikarus itself. The Ikarus 60 proved to be a versatile vehicle and with some modifications, many submodels were built on its basis. The most notable example is the Ikarus 60T, produced between 1952 and 1956, which was the company's first trolleybus model.The other important submodels were the ITC 600 and the IC 660, which were built between 1960 and 1967 as one of the first mass-produced articulated bus models in the world. Although it is worth noting, that these modification were not done by Ikarus or its workers, but by FAÜ, one of the operator companies. Hence, they were often referred to as FAÜ-articulated (FAÜ-csuklós).
There are a number of great achievements belonging to the company and one of those were the Ikarus 55 and Ikarus 66 sister models. From the two unique models there were a total of 16,726 units built between 1952 and 1973. Their engines were mounted in the rear section of the vehicles, which had a distinctive configuration and look, resulting in its common nickname Faros (roughly: Buttocks). The sister models became icons of Hungarian bus history.In the second half of the 1950s, Ikarus started to develop the successors of the Ikarus 30 and 60 models, hence created the Ikarus 31 and the Ikarus 620. The former was sold in large numbers to East Germany, while the latter was popular in Hungary and the Soviet Union.In 1963, the Hungarian state decided to merge the Általános Mechanikai Gépgyár or ÁMG ("General Mechanical Machine Factory") with Ikarus. ÁMG's factory was in Székesfehérvár, hence the second plant of Ikarus was created there.
The 1960s were spent by redesigning the palette of models, out of which three models were born, which were based on the same design and elements: Ikarus 180, 556 and 557, which were to give an alternative to all the existing and still operating previous models. The Ikarus 180 must be highlighted out of the triumvirate, as it was the first articulated bus model developed and produced by Ikarus. Although it must be mentioned, that for the development, the company acquired a Henschel HS 160 USL vehicle, which was developed by the German Henschel company and at the time was regarded as „The Articulated Bus”. Ikarus actually disassembled and reassembled the vehicle over and over again in order to understand it. Technically it was almost identically copied by the engineers.In the second half of the 1960s the development of these three vehicles was stopped, when the company decided to invest most of its resources into a new, versatile model series. This series became known as the Ikarus 200-family (or series).
Ikarus 200-series
The first prototype of the new model family, the Ikarus 250 was presented at the Budapest International Fair (BNV), in 1967. The whole idea behind this series was to create a model family, which is versatile. One that can be easily modified to be sufficient as a city, a suburban or as a coach vehicle. Today this is called modular design, but it was not yet a widespread solution in the late 1960s. It was the designer, László Finta's idea to make the structure of the bus more angular, therefore creating more space along with better view for the passengers.The prototypes were participating on a number of international events and contests and won quite a few awards. In 1969, at the International Autobus Week in Nice, the model won the silver trophy out of 17 other vehicles. It also participated in a contest in Monaco, 1971, where the Ikarus 250 SL (luxury submodel) won Rainier III's grand trophy.
From 1968 onwards, Ikarus started to develop and produce a variety of experimental vehicles, in order to find out the correct configuration for future models within the family. Finally, in 1971 the company decided that for city transportation, the best models will be the Ikarus 260 and Ikarus 280 models, which later on became the top-selling bus of that time. The articulated Ikarus was so successful worldwide, that the company even got into the North-American market, with its modified model, the Ikarus 286.At its peak, during the late 1970s and early 1980s, the company set such records that has not yet been challenged since, like:
During the 1970s and 1980s, two-thirds of the world's articulated-bus production was related to the Ikarus 280.
Of all the buses worldwide, the Ikarus 260 was one of the most produced with a unit number of 72,547.
In the early 1980s, somewhat over 12,000 vehicles were produced yearly by the company's two factories in Hungary.
Ikarus 300-series
After the success of the 200-series, the company did not stop developing new projects. The policy, however, changed in the late 1970s from one modular model family to two. One of which was to succeed the coach branch of the previous series, and one was to do the same with the city/suburban branch. The latter became the 400-series, while the former was the Ikarus 300-series.The first prototype of the 300-family was produced in 1981 and was bearing the name Ikarus 386 K1 (380 NE). It was later followed by a wide variety of models during the 1980s. Their major characteristics were the elevated passenger space, which made them resemble modern coaches. They were produced by Ikarus until 1989, when its newly formed subsidiary, the Ikarus EAG received their production and development branch.
Ikarus 400-series
The other specialised new model family was to create a variety of vehicles for city and suburban transportation. The first prototype was built in 1979, under the name Ikarus 413.K1, which was followed by almost a dozen other experimental vehicles in the early 1980s.By 1984, the development was finished, and production could start with the Ikarus 415 model's first generation. Although it was a well built model with the era's required technology, not many orders were received, because Ikarus' main market was in the Eastern Bloc, which just started to suffer economically. Not the Soviet Union nor Hungarian companies could afford the more expensive, more modern model family, and most of them decided to demand to continue the production of the much cheaper, but already 14-years-old models of the 200-series. The company had to wait until 1992 for the actual mass production of the model family, when BKV Zrt. ordered 140 units of the Ik 415 model. By this time the company has long developed the articulated version of the model, bearing the name Ikarus 435, but this vehicle also had to wait until 1994 for the first major order, from the same transportation company.
Ikarus 500-series
This Ikarus family of models was produced between 1979 and 1999 as the company's answer for the request of various developing countries, as they had a need for cheap, small and versatile vehicles. These units did not follow any major design rules, even submodels could look very differently from each other. What these vehicles all had in common was that they were not built with unibody construction, but rather on various chassis. Many companies sold their products to Ikarus, which then built superstructures on them, these include: Volkswagen, Avia, MAN, Renault and even Isuzu. Of all these models, Ikarus 543 was produced in the largest numbers, more than 2100 units were exported.
The fall of Ikarus (1989–2003)
With the fall of the Communist Bloc, Ikarus's existence approached a crisis as well. Many of the once very close customers, including Russia, suddenly turned away from the Hungarian company, which resulted in a looming disaster. The other major problem was that the remaining customers still didn't want to even hear about "newer" models of the 300- and 400-series. And the third issue was that in 1990, the Soviet Union was on the brink of bankruptcy; the Hungarian government's response to this was an immediate halt on exports to the USSR. This resulted in over 1000 already produced Ikarus 200-series buses getting stranded in the factory's yard. That event was a major loss for the company. Ikarus also suffered a blow when Germany withdrew all its orders for the year 1990. These events forced Ikarus to cut off relationships with many of its suppliers and start producing these parts in its own factories. Although being a logical step towards protecting the company, it resulted in the fate of many other Hungarian businesses, including Csepel.In spite of the numerous setbacks, Ikarus managed to stay above water, partially thanks to some newly conquered markets such as the United Kingdom. At the very end of the 1980s, Ikarus managed to export some of the 300-series models to the island, which built a basis for further partnership. From 1990 to 2001, the company developed and exported three models exclusively for the UK, the last of which was designed in 2000, named the Ikarus 489 Polaris and was a very up-to-date, modern vehicle.Ikarus continued developing new models up until it went out of business. In 1993, the company built its first fully low-floored model, the Ikarus 411. With this vehicle, Ikarus was among the first companies to announce such a model. The first fully low-floored bus was the Van Hool A300 in 1991. Nonetheless, only a limited number of the model was produced, mainly because the bus was only 11 metres long, which at the time was not considered very practical. The company realised the issue and developed the successor of the model, the Ikarus 412, which was 12 metres long. On the other hand, Ikarus was the company that produce the first fully low-floored articulated bus in the world. It was Ikarus 417, which due to its modern features was very popular at first, and the German city of Wuppertal immediately ordered 17 units. The success of the model did not last long, though, because it had some recurring mechanical issues. As a result, only 32 units were sold over the next 7 years.
In 1998, a refurbished version of the old 200-series was developed, called the Classic-series. The old models received redesigned fronts/backs and new, more efficient Rába D10 or Detroit Diesel S50 engines. The Classic-series proved to be a success, since the Eastern and Hungarian customers were glad to buy the newer versions of the familiar models, while Ikarus also gained somewhat more income on producing them.In 1999, the French Irisbus bought the already ailing Ikarus, which from this point started its downfall. Irisbus had no long-term plan with the brand itself, it was mostly pushing for Ikarus' factories and markets. In 2003, the French majority ownership concluded that it couldn't acquire these markets and decided that after closing down the factory in Budapest, in 2000, it should end the whole company.The last vehicles to be produced by the company were three Ikarus 280s, which left the factory of Székesfehérvár in October 2003.
Subsidiaries
Ikarus EAG (1967/1989–2007)
This part of Ikarus' history starts in 1967, when the company decided to establish a smaller plant, where the unique or small numbered models could be developed and produced. It became the Ikarus Egyedi Gyáregység (Ikarus Unique Plant). Many models for the Scandinavian countries were constructed here.
Buses by VöV and STLF-regulations
In 1971, the company decided to try itself on the West German market, where the very strict Verband Öffentlicher Verkehrsbetriebe-, or VöV-regulations, were in work. These regulations demanded a certain look and construction of the vehicles, which resulted in very similar, almost doppelganger like buses from the various companies. The Hungarian company developed and exported the Ikarus 190, while the competition produced models like the Mercedes-Benz O305, MAN SL200 or the Magirus-Deutz SH110. The Ikarus' model proved to be prominent, which resulted in several orders from German operators, and a total of 256 units' export until 1977.Later on, from 1976, Sweden also started to be curious about the Ikarus models, so they ordered a small number of them, with major modifications to fit the VöV-regulations' Swedish counterparts, the STLF-, or Svenskkollektivtrafik-regulations. The new model was designated as Ikarus 194 and on the customer's request was built on Swedish chassis (like Volvo and Scania), instead of using a unibody construction. The first series was followed by a number of others up until 1987 and even resulted in the development of an articulated version, the Ikarus 196.
E-series
In 1989, the company, due to the success of the plant, decided to create it as a subsidiary company, which resulted in a new name: Ikarus Egyedi Autóbuszgyár, or Ikarus EAG (Ikarus Unique Autobus Factory). The EAG started to develop its own, higher-quality coaches and buses on chassis called the E-series and became a considerable exporter primarily to the Scandinavian and Western markets.Although being successful and receiving stable income, in 2007 Irisbus eventually chose to close down Ikarus EAG as well.
American-Ikarus (1980/1989–1993)
During the 1980s, Ikarus successfully exported c. 500 of the Ikarus 286 to the US (as the Crown-Ikarus 286) and Canada (as the Orion-Ikarus 286). Later on Ikarus created a subsidiary, the American Ikarus in order to ensure production on the continent. Eventually and partly because of the mother company's bad situation, in 1993 American Ikarus broke away from Ikarus and took the name North American Bus Industries, or NABI. The new company later managed to become one of the most prominent American bus manufacturers.NABI continued production of transit buses, largely based on the Ikarus 416 and 436 models, until 2013, when New Flyer Industries bought NABI and eventually closed it in 2015.
Bus and trolleybus models
Ikarus 250
Ikarus 260
Ikarus 280
Ikarus 415T
See also
Orion Bus Industries
Successors to Ikarus (Hungarian company)
Bibliography
Gerlei – Kukla – Lovász (2008). Az Ikarus évszázados története. Budapest, Maróti Könyvkereskedés és Könyvkiadó Kft. ISBN 9789639005853
Ikarus Bus and Coaches (Bus Explorer)
Budapest says goodbye to the iconic Ikarus bus (Euronews, 20/11/2022)
Polish page about Ikarus and Man buses
Hungarian website featuring many Ikarus buses
Ikarus in the Czech Republic (in Czech)
Technical description of Ikarus buses Archived 27 December 2009 at the Wayback Machine (in Ukrainian)
Ikarus Lux i.e. 55-14, Timeless Buses, Estonia and the same model in Commons |
Subaru (スバル, or ; Japanese pronunciation: [ˈsɯbaɾɯ]) is the automobile manufacturing division of Japanese transportation conglomerate Subaru Corporation (formerly known as Fuji Heavy Industries), the twenty-first largest automaker by production worldwide in 2017.Subaru cars are known for their use of a boxer engine layout in most vehicles above 1,500 cc. The Symmetrical All Wheel Drive drive-train layout was introduced in 1972. Both became standard equipment for mid-size and smaller cars in most markets by 1996. The lone exception is the BRZ, introduced in 2012 via a partnership with Toyota, which pairs the boxer engine with rear-wheel-drive. Subaru also offers turbocharged versions of their passenger cars, such as the WRX, Legacy and Outback XT, Ascent, and formerly the Legacy GT and Forester XT.
In Western markets, Subaru vehicles have traditionally attracted a small but devoted core of buyers. The company's marketing targets those who desire its signature engine and drive train, all-wheel drive and rough-road capabilities, or affordable sports car designs.Subaru is the Japanese name for the Pleiades star cluster M45, or the "Seven Sisters" (one of whom tradition says is invisible – hence only six stars in the Subaru logo), which in turn inspires the logo and alludes to the companies that merged to create FHI.
History
Fuji Heavy Industries (FHI) and Subaru's first cars
Fuji Heavy Industries started out as the Aircraft Research Laboratory in 1915, headed by Chikuhei Nakajima. In 1932, the company was reorganized as Nakajima Aircraft Company, Ltd and soon became a major manufacturer of aircraft for Japan during World War II. At the end of the Second World War, Nakajima Aircraft was again reorganized, this time as Fuji Sangyo Co, Ltd. In 1946, the company created the Fuji Rabbit, a motor scooter, with spare aircraft parts from the war. In 1950, Fuji Sangyo was divided into 12 smaller corporations according to the Japanese government's 1950 anti-zaibatsu legislation, the Corporate Credit Rearrangement Act. Between 1953 and 1955, five of these corporations and a newly formed corporation decided to merge to form Fuji Heavy Industries. These companies were: Fuji Kogyo, a scooter manufacturer; coachbuilder Fuji Jidosha; engine manufacturer Omiya Fuji Kogyo; chassis builder Utsunomiya Sharyo and the Tokyo Fuji Sangyo trading company.
Kenji Kita, CEO of Fuji Heavy Industries at the time, wanted the new company to be involved in car manufacturing and soon began plans for building a car with the development code-name P-1. Kita canvassed the company for suggestions about naming the P1, but none of the proposals were appealing enough. In the end he gave the company a Japanese name that he "had been cherishing in his heart": Subaru, which is the Japanese name for the Pleiades star cluster. The first Subaru car was named the Subaru 1500. Only twenty were manufactured owing to multiple supply issues. Subsequently, the company designed and manufactured dozens of vehicles including the 1500 (1954), the tiny air-cooled 360 (1958), the Sambar (1961), and the 1000 (which saw the introduction of the Subaru boxer engine in 1965).
Later partnerships
Nissan acquired a 20.7% stake in Fuji Heavy Industries, Subaru's parent company, in 1968 during a period of government-ordered merging of the Japanese auto industry in order to improve competitiveness under the administration of Prime Minister Eisaku Satō. Nissan would utilize FHI's bus manufacturing capability and expertise for their Nissan Diesel line of buses. In turn many Subaru vehicles, even today, use parts from the Nissan manufacturing keiretsu. The Subaru automatic transmission, known as the 4EAT, is also used in the first generation Nissan Pathfinder. While under this arrangement with Nissan, Subaru introduced the R-2 (1969), the Rex and the Leone (1971), the BRAT (1978), Alcyone (1985), the Legacy (1989), the Impreza (1993) (and its WRX subtype), and the Forester (1997).
Upon Nissan's alliance with Renault, its stake in FHI was sold to General Motors in 1999. Troy Clarke of General Motors served as representative to Fuji Heavy Industries on their corporate board. During that time, Subaru introduced the Baja (2003), and the Tribeca (2005). The Subaru Forester was sold as a Chevrolet Forester in India in exchange for the Opel Zafira being sold as a Subaru Traviq in Japan. Also, the Chevrolet Borrego concept was presented in 2002, a crossover coupe/pickup truck being derived from the Japanese-market Legacy Turbo platform. During the brief General Motors period, a badge engineered Impreza was sold in the United States as the Saab 9-2X. An SUV (Subaru Tribeca/Saab 9-6X) was also planned but the Saab version did not proceed, and styling was recycled in the 2008 Tribeca refresh.GM liquidated their holdings in FHI in 2005. Nearly all Saab-Subaru joint projects were dropped at that time, other than Subaru supplying parts for the Saab 9-2x. Toyota Motors bought a little over 40% of GM's former FHI stock, amounting to 8.7% of FHI.
(The rest of GM's shares went to a Fuji stock buy-back program.) Toyota and Subaru have since collaborated on a number of projects, among them building the Toyota Camry in Subaru's Indiana U.S. plant beginning in April 2007. Subaru introduced the Exiga in 2008.
Toyota increased their share of FHI to 16.5% in July 2008. Subsequently, Toyota and Subaru jointly developed the Subaru BRZ, first sold in January 2012. Toyota sold the BRZ as the Scion FR-S until 2018, where it was renamed to the Toyota 86 due to the discontinuation of Scion in 2016. Around the time of Toyota's increased ownership, Subaru also declared that they would no longer develop their own Kei cars and trucks, instead selling rebadged products from Toyota's Daihatsu subsidiary. This also allowed Subaru, a small manufacturer, to focus on their core of boxer-engined family cars. The last of Subaru's own kei vehicles to be built was the sixth generation Subaru Sambar, which was taken out of production in March 2012 after 54 years of continuous manufacturing in this category.
Marketing
Some of the advertising slogans Subaru has used in the past include: "Inexpensive, and built to stay that way" (USA 1970s – early 1980s), "The World's Favourite Four Wheel Drive" (in the UK), "Plus on y pense, plus on a le goût de la conduire" (French: "The more you think about it, the more you want to drive it.") in French Quebec, "We built our reputation by building a better car", "What to Drive", "The Beauty of All-Wheel Drive", "Driven by What's Inside", "Think, Feel, Drive", "Love. It's what makes Subaru, a Subaru" (USA early 2010s) and currently "Confidence in Motion" in North America, "All 4 The Driver" in Australia, "Uncommon Engineering, Uncommon Stability, Uncommon Roadholding, Uncommon Sense" in the UK and "Technology that gives you Confidence in Motion" in Southeast Asia.In the 1990s, an ad firm hired by Subaru found the all-wheel-drive cars were popular among lesbians. The company started including subtle marketing to this demographic.According to Automotive Lease Guide, Subaru ranked second place in vehicles that have the highest overall predicted resale values among all industry and all luxury vehicles for MY 2009. The awards are derived after carefully studying segment competition, historical vehicle performance and industry trends. According to a study done by J.D. Power and Associates for the 2008 Customer Retention Study, Subaru ranked at 50.5%, which was above the national average of 48%.Subaru launched an animation series Wish Upon the Pleiades Hōkago no Pleiades (放課後のプレアデス, Hōkago no Pureadesu, lit. 'After School Pleiades') developed jointly with Gainax. The 4-part mini episode series was released on YouTube on 1 February 2011. It featured a magical girl plot with Subaru as a leading protagonist.
Current operations
Subaru's corporate headquarters are located in Ebisu, Tokyo.
Manufacturing facilities
Subaru is distinct from many of its Japanese competitors in that as of early 2016 it still made almost 75% of its cars sold internationally in Japan. Subaru's facilities designated to automotive manufacturing are located in Ōta, Gunma Prefecture, consisting of four locations: Subaru-chō is where the Subaru BRZ/Toyota 86 is built; having been re-purposed from kei car production, Yajima Plant is where all current Subaru cars are built; Otakita Plant is where commercial kei trucks are built (originally a factory location of Nakajima Aircraft Company); and Oizumi Plant in Oizumi, Gunma Prefecture, is where engines and transmissions are built.Subaru's major overseas manufacturing facility is located in Lafayette, Indiana; the factory is called Subaru of Indiana Automotive, Inc. Due to continued sales growth in North American markets, vehicle production capacity at the Lafayette assembly plant is set to expand to 390,000 vehicles annually. Under the current strategic plan, Subaru will have a total production capacity of 1,026,000 vehicles per year at the end of 2016.
Subaru in Asia
In Asian countries outside of Japan, Subaru vehicles, parts and accessories are supplied by Motor Image Group, a wholly owned subsidiary of Hong Kong-listed and Singapore-headquartered Tan Chong International Limited under businessman Glenn Tan.
Subaru has entered the Philippine operations started in 1996 under the Columbian Motors Philippines ownership but withdrew in 2000. Subaru models were temporarily sold in GM Autoworld dealerships from 2000 to 2005. The brand re-entered the market in 2006 under the new management by Motor Image Pilipinas, Inc. Subaru has seventeen dealerships in the country: Greenhills, Pasig, Manila Bay, Alabang, Davao, Cebu, Cagayan de Oro, Iloilo, Santa Rosa, Batangas, Bonifacio Global City, Taguig, General Santos, Cavite, Legazpi, Albay, Camarines Sur, Bacolod, and Pampanga. Subaru has seen popularity in their SUV line-up in the market in recent years, with the Forester and the XV being one of their popular selling models.
Subaru once had a presence in South Korea, established in 2009 in Yongsan, Seoul under Choi Seung-dal. Sales started in April 2010 with the Legacy, Outback and Forester as the initial lineup for the South Korean market. They were the fifth Japanese automobile manufacturer to enter after Toyota, Honda, Nissan and Mitsubishi. According to the company, they delayed their entry due to market dominance by Hyundai and Kia. By 2012, Subaru Korea announced that they would discontinue selling 2013 car models due to low sales.On 23 April 2019, Subaru officially opened its production plant in Lat Krabang, Bangkok, Thailand, the plant is a joint venture between Subaru Corporation and Hong Kong-listed Tan Chong International (TCIL), which holds a 74.9 percent stake. The plant was formerly a Mitsubishi Fuso factory that was repurposed, and will supply Subaru vehicle to markets in Asia, including Australia and New Zealand. According to media interview with Glenn Tan, the plant will have a maximum capacity of 100,000 vehicles per year, and up to a maximum of 4 models to be manufactured. Current production in 2019 is planned for 6,000 vehicles for Forester model only.
Subaru in the United Kingdom
In 1974, Robert Edmiston was finance director at sports car manufacturer Jensen Motors. When the company went bankrupt, he used a £6,000 redundancy payout to set up International Motors, which acquired the UK franchise for Subaru and Isuzu. The Coleshill-based company is still the parent for Subaru in the UK.
Subaru in Australia
Subaru have operated in Australia since the mid-1950s with imports of the 360 & ff-1 Star 1000.
Official operations began since 1973 & have multiple showrooms across the country.
Subaru in the United States
Subaru of America (SOA) was established in 1968 in Bala Cynwyd, Pennsylvania, by Malcolm Bricklin and Harvey Lamm and relocated to Pennsauken, New Jersey, shortly thereafter. In 1986, SOA relocated to Cherry Hill, New Jersey, and Fuji Heavy Industries (now known as Subaru Corporation) acquired full ownership in 1990. In 2018, SOA relocated to a brand new headquarters in Camden, New Jersey. SOA operates regional offices, zone offices and parts distribution centers throughout the United States. SOA also operates port facilities on both the West and East coasts.In 1989, Subaru and then-partner Isuzu opened a joint factory in Lafayette, Indiana, called Subaru-Isuzu Automotive, or SIA, which initially manufactured the Subaru Legacy and Isuzu Rodeo. In 2001 Isuzu sold their stake in the plant to Fuji Heavy Industries for $1 due to flagging sales and it was renamed Subaru of Indiana Automotive, Inc. SIA has been designated backyard wildlife habitat by the National Wildlife Federation and has achieved a zero-landfill production designation (the first automotive assembly plant in the United States to earn that designation).
Motorsports
Subaru Rally Team Japan led by Noriyuki Koseki (founder of Subaru Tecnica International, STI) ran Subaru Leone coupé, sedan DL, RX (SRX) and RX Turbo in the World Rally Championship between 1980 and 1989. Drivers for individual rallies included Ari Vatanen, Per Eklund, Shekhar Mehta, Mike Kirkland, Possum Bourne and Harald Demut. Mike Kirkland finished 6th overall and won the A Group at the 1986 Safari Rally. That year Subaru was one of the only manufacturers combining 4WD and turbo after Audi's successful quattro system had been introduced in 1980, but Audi withdrew from the WRC after safety concerns and Ford's serious accident early in the 1986 season. Subaru changed the rally model to Legacy RS for the 1990–1992 period and took part in the first complete season in the World Rally Championship with the same model in 1993.
Modified versions of the Impreza WRX and WRX STi have been competing successfully in rallying. Drivers Colin McRae (1995), Richard Burns (2001) and Petter Solberg (2003) have won World Rally Championship drivers' titles with the Subaru World Rally Team and Subaru took the manufacturers' title three years in a row from 1995 to 1997. Subaru's World Rally Championship cars are prepared and run by Prodrive, the highly successful British motorsport team. Several endurance records were set in the early and mid-nineties by the Subaru Legacy. The Subaru Justy also holds the world record for the fastest sub 1.0L car without a turbo: 123.224 mph average, it was set in 1989.Subaru was briefly involved in Formula One circuit racing when it bought a controlling interest in the tiny Italian Coloni team for the 1990 season. The Coloni 3B's 12-cylinder engine was badged as a Subaru and shared the boxer layout with the company's own engines, but was an existing design built by Italian firm Motori Moderni. The cars were overweight and underpowered and the partnership broke down before the season finished. With the rise of rally racing and the Import scene in the US, the introduction of the highly anticipated Subaru Impreza WRX in 2001 was successful in bringing high-performance AWD compact cars into the sports car mainstream. Subaru supplied a factory-backed team, Subaru Rally Team USA for Rally America and won the driver's title six times, most recently in 2011 with David Higgins. Grassroots Motorsports awarded Subaru with the Editors' Choice Award in 2002.Since 2005, Cusco Racing have entered an Impreza and a BRZ in the Super GT championship. In 2008, the Impreza was the first 4-door and first 4WD vehicle to win a race.
Starting in 2006, Subaru of America (SOA), as the official distributor of Subaru vehicles in the United States participates in the Subaru Road Racing Team (SRRT) with a Subaru Legacy 2.5 GT Spec-B in the Grand-Am Street Tuner class. In 2010, SRRT campaigns a Subaru Impreza WRX STI in the Grand Sport class. In 2011, SRRT switched from the hatchback to a 2011 Subaru Impreza WRX STI sedan.
On 16 December 2008, it was announced that Subaru would no longer be competing in the World Rally Championships. The decision was made by Subaru's parent company, Fuji Heavy Industries (FHI), partly as a result of the economic downturn but also because it was felt Subaru had achieved its sporting and marketing objectives. Ikuo Mori denied that alterations to the WRC technical regulations in 2010 or a rumored deterioration in the working relationship with Prodrive had any impact on the decision. He also said that the possibility of a Subaru car back in the top category of WRC in the future is not zero, but for this moment there can be no assumption of a comeback.In 2011, Mark Higgins used a stock Impreza to set a lap record at the Isle of Man TT course. In 2016, Higgins again broke the record in a modified WRX STI.On 4 May 2012, Subaru Rally Team USA announced that a new rallycross team, Subaru Puma Rallycross Team USA, will participate in the 2012 Global RallyCross Championship season with Dave Mirra, Bucky Lasek, and Sverre Isachsen. They also competed in the 2014 FIA World Rallycross Championship.
Also in 2012, Subaru became the naming rights sponsor of the chief domestic road cycling competition in Australia, the National Road Series.The Impreza has won hillclimbs such as the Silverstone Race to the Sky and Mount Washington Hillclimb Auto Race.
EyeSight System
In 2008, Subaru introduced their EyeSight collision avoidance system, a type of advanced driver-assistance system (ADAS). Unlike most such systems, which use radar sensors, EyeSight initially launched with dual CCD cameras mounted at the top of the windshield. Depth information is derived from the parallax between two video signals and used to judge the distance to the next vehicle for features such as pre-collision braking and adaptive cruise control. Real-world studies of early EyeSight generations show that this system reduces rear-end crashes with injuries by 85 percent, and reduces pedestrian-related injuries by 35 percent.
As of 2022, Subaru sold 5 million cars equipped with the system, and EyeSight-equipped vehicles account for 91% of total vehicle sales. In the U.S., the EyeSight system is standard on most models equipped with CVTs, and is also standard on automatic transmission BRZ models.
Unlike some other manufacturers (e.g. Toyota), Subaru North America has not provided clear and consistent branding of their Eyesight generations – though some versions are referenced in their owners manuals. This makes it challenging to distinguish key differences, performance, and improvements among model years. Much more detailed information is available in the Japanese EyeSight article.
Technology and fuel consumption
Diesel
The 2007 Frankfurt International Motor Show saw Subaru introduce a horizontally opposed, water-cooled, common rail turbodiesel using a variable geometry turbocharger called the Subaru EE engine, the first of its type to be fitted to a passenger car. Volkswagen had experimented with this idea during the 1950s and made two air-cooled boxer prototype diesel engines that were not turbocharged. VW installed one engine in a Type 1 and another in a Type 2.The Subaru engine was rated at 110 kW (150 PS; 148 hp) and 350 N⋅m (260 ft⋅lbf) with a displacement of 2.0 liters. In March 2008 Subaru offered the Legacy Sedan and Wagon and the Outback Wagon with 2.0 liter turbodiesel in the EU with a 5-speed manual transmission.In September 2008, Subaru announced that the diesel Forester and diesel Impreza will be introduced at the 2008 Paris Motor Show, with Forester sales to begin October 2008 and diesel Impreza sales to start January 2009 in the UK. The Forester and Impreza will have a 6-speed manual transmission, whereas the Legacy and Outback have 5-speed manual transmissions.
Electric vehicles
In June 2006, Fuji Heavy Industries, Inc. (FHI) launched its Subaru Stella Plug-in electric vehicle which is a kei car equipped with a lithium-ion battery pack. The vehicle has a short range of 56 miles (90 km) but it actually costs more than the Mitsubishi iMiEV, at ¥4,380,000 (US$44,860), including Japanese Government consumption taxes with an exemption of $2,240. It also qualified for a rebate from the Japanese Government of up to $14,200, bringing the price down to $30,660. The vehicle is much like the i-MiEV, with a 47-kilowatt motor and a quick-charge capability, but the two-door mini-car has a boxy shape. FHI set a goal of selling 170 vehicles by March 2010.In Japan, Subaru tested two electric vehicles called the Subaru R1e and Subaru G4e between 2003 and 2009.
The Subaru Hybrid Tourer Concept is a four-seat vehicle with gull-wing doors that combines a 2-liter turbocharged direct-injection gasoline engine with a continuously variable transmission and two axle-mounted motors. A lithium-ion battery pack provides energy storage for the vehicle.In early 2018, Subaru, along with Suzuki, Daihatsu and Hino Motors, joined the nascent EV C.A. Spirit venture to collaborate on electric vehicle technology development. The project was launched by Toyota, Mazda and automotive component manufacturer Denso in September 2017.In the U.S., the short-lived Crosstrek hybrid was on the market only for the 2014 to 2017 model years. In 2018, for the 2019 model year, Subaru unveiled the 2019 model year Crosstrek Plug-in Hybrid, based in large part on technology from shareholder Toyota's Prius Prime platform. The EV range is 27 km (17 mi). It is only available in California and parts of the East Coast.Subaru's first all-electric car, named Solterra, is the first vehicle to be based on the e-Subaru Global Platform (e-SGP) co-developed by Toyota and Subaru. The Solterra debuted at the Los Angeles Auto Show on 17 November 2021, and worldwide sales of the Solterra commenced in mid-2022.
Electronics
Since the 2005 model year, Subaru has adopted CAN bus technology for the US and Canada markets. Starting in the 2007 model year, all Subaru vehicles use the CAN technology. Typically, two CAN-buses are used on vehicles: a high-speed CAN running at 500 kbit/s for powertrain communication, and a low-speed CAN running at 125 kbit/s for body control functions and instrument panels. A body-integrated unit (BIU) is used between these two networks.
Clarion and Harman Kardon are among the audio, video, and navigation technology suppliers for Subaru products in North America. Clarion announced in 2015 that it was introducing its "Smart Access" platform, formerly only offered on Clarion's aftermarket products, to the units to be installed in certain Subaru 2015 models in North America. Smart Access is able to work with the driver's smartphone (either iPhone or Android) and allows access to various car-safe apps running on the phone via the car's built-in infotainment screen.
Subaru and Clarion have also, with Liberty Mutual Insurance, introduced the "RightTrack" in-vehicle app which will be able to monitor the driver's habits, make suggestions for safer driving, and possibly offer insurance discounts.
Subaru Global Platform (SGP)
Subaru debuted its new chassis design, dubbed the Subaru Global Platform, with the release of the 2017 model year Impreza. Having spent over a billion dollars on research and development the company plans to extend the architecture to all of its other models, with the exception of the BRZ which is co-developed with Toyota. By incorporating high-strength steel into the chassis updated vehicles will have stiffer bodies that increase safety through greater impact absorption while also improving ride comfort. Another focus of the new platform is modularity, allowing Subaru to reduce development costs by streamlining production throughout its network of facilities. The platform will be able to accommodate a variety of powertrains, including gasoline, hybrid, and fully electric designs.
Environmental record
Subaru claims to have implemented advanced policies which include recycling, reducing harmful emissions, and educating their employees. Their efforts have helped them in their environmental initiatives. The Subaru plant in Lafayette, Indiana (SIA) was the first auto assembly plant to achieve zero-landfill status; nothing from the manufacturing process goes into a landfill. The company has developed a recycling plan for the "end-of-life" of their cars. Most of their modern products use highly recyclable materials throughout the vehicle, in the engine, transmission, suspension and elsewhere in each vehicle leaving Subaru with a 97.3% recycling ratio rate for their end-of-life vehicles.An excerpt from the Subaru website stated "In 2006, SIA was awarded the United States Environmental Protection Agency's Gold Achievement Award as a top achiever in the agency's WasteWise program to reduce waste and improve recycling." The website also stated that "It also became the first U.S. automotive assembly plant to be designated a wildlife habitat."
Subaru currently offers a Partial Zero Emissions Vehicle (PZEV) certified Legacy, Outback, Impreza, XV/Crosstrek and Forester models which are available for sale anywhere in the U.S. Subaru PZEV vehicles meet California's Super-Ultra-Low-Emission Vehicle exhaust emission standard. All other models have been certified LEV2.
Subaru vehicles
Other manufacturers
Subaru has partnered with various manufacturers over time. Below are some of the models sold in Asia and Europe. In Japan they are in the Kei car class with either front or all wheel drive and a straight engine.
An article posted by Autoblog on 16 April 2008, stated that due to a corporate investment by Toyota, all Kei cars built by Subaru will be replaced by Daihatsu models beginning in 2010.
Subaru Bighorn (1988–1993, rebadged Isuzu Trooper)
Subaru Justy (1994–2010, 2016–present: rebadged Suzuki Cultus (1994–2003), Suzuki Ignis (2003–2007), Daihatsu Boon (2007–2010) and Daihatsu Thor (2016–present). Nameplate originally used from 1984 to 1994.)
Subaru Traviq (1999–2005, rebadged Opel Zafira)
Subaru Dex (2006–2012, rebadged Toyota bB)
Subaru Dias Wagon (2009–present, rebadged Daihatsu Atrai)
Subaru Lucra (2010–2015, rebadged Daihatsu Tanto)
Subaru Trezia (2010–2016, rebadged Toyota Ractis)
Subaru Pleo (2010–2018 as a rebadged Daihatsu Mira, nameplate in use since 1998)
Subaru Stella (2010–present, rebadged Daihatsu Move)
Subaru Pleo Plus (2012–present, rebadged Daihatsu Mira e:S)
Subaru Sambar (2012–present as a rebadged Daihatsu Hijet, nameplate in use since 1961)
Subaru Chiffon (2016–present, rebadged Daihatsu Tanto)
Subaru Rex (2022–present, rebadged Daihatsu Rocky)
See also
Prodrive Motorsport team selected by Subaru to run their World Rally Team
Subaru Technica International (also known as STI)
List of Subaru engines
List of Subaru transmissions
Subaru EA engine series
Subaru EF engine series
Subaru EJ engine series
Symmetrical All Wheel Drive
Official website
Subaru at Curlie
Subaru at the Internet Movie Cars Database |
The Voith Group [fɔʏ̯t] is a German multinational technology company with a broad portfolio of systems, products, services and digital applications. Voith works in the markets of energy, paper, raw materials and transport & automotive. Founded in 1867, the company today has around 21,000 employees, sales of €4.9 billion and locations in over 60 countries worldwide and is thus one of the larger family-owned companies in Europe.
Company history
Years of foundation
In 1825, Johann Matthäus Voith took over his father's locksmith's workshop in Heidenheim with five employees, mainly carrying out repairs to water wheels and paper mills.Around 1830 in Heidenheim, there were about 600 people working in 15 factories, mostly textile factories that had been established by wealthy merchants and publishers. The necessary maintenance and repair of the expensive machinery offered a source of income to several workshops, particularly the locksmiths and metalworkers in what was still a small town at the time. In 1830, Johann Matthäus Voith and his workshop were involved in the construction of a paper machine developed by Johann Jakob Widmann from Heilbronn.
Voith developed the first wood grinders based on the patented design of Friedrich Gottlob Keller. In doing so, he laid the cornerstone for the industrial enterprise Voith. As the company got bigger and bigger, so too did the private wealth of its owners. According to town council records dated September 28, 1849, the assets of Johann Matthäus Voith in 1849 amounted to more than 7,000 fl., and eight years later grew to an estimated 15,000 fl. In 1850 , Johann Matthäus Voith was summoned to serve on the town council, and in 1855, along with nine other Heidenheim entrepreneurs, he received a grant to attend the international exhibition in Paris.
After 1850, the company, which had specialized in repairs like other Heidenheim-based metal workshops, began to replicate various machines imported from England. The workshop produced whatever the customers ordered. The transition from a small metalworking shop to a machine factory was completed when contracts were signed for the fabrication of machines for paper manufacturer Heinrich Voelter. Since 1856, these machines had consisted of mechanical wood grinders (based on a patent originally sold in 1846 by Friedrich Gottlob Keller to Voelter's father that Friedrich Voith improved upon and re-registered himself in 1868). From 1861, the machines were wood pulp refiners for crushing coarse wood chips. The result of this development was that the company started to specialize in machines for paper and pulp production. In 1863, a new metalworking shop was added and fitted with one of the few steam engines in Heidenheim. Until the development of cast steel, the machines were built from cast iron. It was difficult to transport cast iron, so the company built its own foundry. No figures have been preserved on the company's sales and profits at the time, but the physical expansion of the company is taken as proof of its good economic performance. In 1863, Friedrich Voith bought a share in a bark mill, where he set up the first research center for the production of wood pulp.
After Voelter's paper mill was destroyed by a fire in 1864, Voith received its first major order for the fabrication of eight hollander beaters, which required building another machine hall. The company's name was changed from Mechanicus Voith to Mechanische Werkstätte und Eisengießerei (Mechanical Workshops and Foundry).
Rise to the industrial enterprise
The official founding date of the company J. M. Voith is January 1, 1867. At this point, the company employed around 35 people. On January 1, 1867, the only son of 63-year-old Johann Matthäus Voith, the 26-year-old Friedrich Voith, took over the business as the sole owner. Under his leadership, his father's workshop became a larger company and specialized in paper machines and the construction of water wheels and turbines. In 1869, Voith was granted the first patent for a wood grinder with a toothed loading rack. On November 18, 1869, the company applied for official registration in the Commercial Register and changed its name to Maschinenfabrik und Eisengießerei von J. M. Voith in Heidenheim.
In 1871, the eight-year-old foundry was expanded. At that time, it had an annual production of 240 tons and employed an average of 19 workers, putting it roughly in the middle of all the foundries in Württemberg. By 1880, it was producing 380 tons with 34 workers on average; in 1890, 1,401 tons with 106 workers; and in 1900, 3,098 tons with 220 workers. At the turn of the century, the foundry had climbed from the mid-field to become the second largest foundry in Württemberg.Voith added another business segment to its existing product lines of paper machines and stock preparation technology – with the construction of a 100-HP Henschel-Jonval turbine. The sources available provide differing information on the relevant figures. The reason for this new turbine production segment was likely because the Heidenheim businesses were suffering from a lack of motive power due to the low supplies of iron ore and coal in the Württemberg region, and that well into the 19th century their largest energy source was hydropower from the River Brenz. During his studies, Friedrich Voith had examined producing hydropower energy. From 1873, the company was selling improved Francis turbines to industrial companies in Heidenheim in collaboration with Wilhelm von Kankelwitz (1831–1892), Professor of Mechanical Engineering at what was then the Stuttgart Polytechnikum (Institute of Technology).
At the 1873 World Exhibition in Vienna, Friedrich Voith and Heinrich Voelter exhibited the Voith wood grinder and received the "Progress Medal" for their development. In 1879 the first automatic speed regulator for turbines was built based on the designs of Voith engineer Adolf Pfarr. The first turbines were originally intended for the mechanical drive systems of machines. As electrification increased, water turbines served to produce electricity.
In 1881, Voith fabricated the first complete Voith paper machine PM1, with a wire width of 2.35 m, for Raithelhuber, Bezner & Cie. in Gemmrigheim. The first administration building was built in 1886. This was followed by a staff canteen in 1887 and another large assembly hall in 1889 that enlarged the factory grounds from 5,090 m2 to 9,590 m2. In 1896, a new machine hall was established for turbine construction. This was the first building to be located on the right bank of the River Brenz.
In 1890, Voith began to supply high-pressure Pelton turbines (also known as impulse-type turbines). In the same year, Friedrich Voith was appointed by Karl I., the King of Württemberg, to his Council of Commercial Advisor. In 1892, Wilhem II., the last King of Württemberg, visited the private home of Friedrich Voith. At the time, Voith's mechanical engineering factory was the second largest company in Heidenheim. The king visited a total of four companies in Heidenheim. In 1892, the company had a workforce of 330 people, making it one of the largest companies in the Kingdom of Württemberg.
In other centers of industrialization during this period, there were numerous social conflicts between companies and workers. Historians have proposed several reasons to explain why this was not the case among the large Heidenheim companies, including the traditionally close reciprocal relationships between commerce and farming and the fact that Heidenheim was still a small town. It is assumed that the large proportion of women and children working in the textile industry could also have been a factor to explain why social democracy and trade unions were slow to become established in Heidenheim. The workers did begin to organize themselves, and in 1890, an office of the German Metal Workers Union was opened and a local branch of the SPD (Social Democratic Party) established. For 1904, the number of union members was estimated at 80 to 100. In the same year, a trade union "commission" was established to link the various trade unions that had been created for printers, woodworkers, construction workers and factory workers.
Starting in 1893, J. M. Voith began building Pelton turbines. For Friedrich Voith, the fabrication of the impulse-type turbines was further progress from both an economic and technical perspective. He regarded contact with the research and development community as essential. In 1903, Voith received an order to build the largest turbines in the world: 12 Francis turbines each with 12,000 HP for power plants at Niagara Falls in the US and Canada. The turbine segment at Voith expanded as more electric power plants were built.
In 1904, the 50th paper machine left the Heidenheim plant. By 1913, 150 had been delivered. Another successful product was the vibrating screen, which separated the coarse shavings produced by the grinding machine. This was replaced in 1902 by a new centrifugal process.The year 1904 saw the opening of the company's first subsidiary in Sankt Pölten (Voith Austria Holding), which was managed until 1944 by Walther Voith. In 1906 , the factory grounds were linked to the Heidenheim station by an industrial railway.Friedrich's eldest son had been managing the factory in Austria since 1904, and the second-eldest, Hermann, joined the management in 1906. The practical knowledge that had been applied so far was now increasingly being displaced by theoretical knowledge acquired through scientific education. For example, in 1907, Voith built a research and testing center for turbines in Hermaringen and another in Brunnenmühle in 1908. In the same year, the first hydraulic R&D center, Brunnenmühle in Heidenheim, started operating. Alongside the R&D center, Voith built Germany's first pumped storage hydropower plant. The elevated reservoir for the plant was located on top of the Schlossberg in Heidenheim and had a capacity of 8,000 m3. The turbine tests were carried out just 100 m below in the Brunnenmühle (water mill) in the Brenz valley.The increase in the number of Voith employees is a major reason why by 1908 there were already 800 trade union members in Heidenheim. Formerly there was said to be a good relationship between workers and factory owners in Heidenheim. This changed following the establishment of the German Metal Workers Union. That the conflicts at Voith began to accumulate before World War I is held to have been due to the management practices of the company rather than – as often claimed – because of the metalworkers' union official Sebastian Geiger.In 1910, a building was constructed to accommodate a modelmaking hall and a fettling shop, and in 1911, a new foundry was built. That same year, Voith built at its plant in St. Pölten in Austria what was at the time the fastest and widest paper machine for newsprint paper. In 1912, Friedrich converted the company to a general partnership and transferred most of his shares to his two sons. Walther managed the St. Pölten plant, Hermann took charge of the commercial side of the Heidenheim headquarters, and Hanns was responsible for the technical department.
Friedrich Voith died in 1913 and just a month later, his third son Hanns was also included in the management team. In 1913 , the company employed more than 3,000 people in Heidenheim and St. Pölten. In the same year, Voith built what at that time was the largest paper machine for newsprint, with a wire width of 5.2 m, for Holmen Bruks in Hallstavik, Sweden.
The papers from the estate of Friedrich Voith include the financial statement at the end of the fiscal year 1912/1913. On July 1, 1913, the total assets of J. M. Voith in Heidenheim were around 15.9 million marks, and those of J. M. Voith in St.. Pölten around 4.4. million kronen or 3.8. million marks. The liabilities from loans were around 7.2. million marks in Heidenheim and around 2.4. million marks in St. Pölten. The deposits of the general and silent partners in Heidenheim combined totaled 7.3. million marks. As the company got bigger and bigger, so too did the private wealth of its owners. According to municipal council records dated September 28, 1849, the assets of Johann Matthäus Voith in 1849 amounted to more than 7,000 florins, and eight years later this was already estimated to be 15,000 florins. In 1909, in his capacity as a natural person, Friedrich Voith declared a private income of 913,405 marks and paid 5% of this in taxes, namely 45,670 marks.
Interwar years
After World War I the brothers decided on a strategic expansion of the company and got the drive technology segment operating. In 1922 , Voith started building gear transmissions where its long-standing expertise in fluid dynamics acquired in previous turbine projects provided an advantage. The breakthrough came with the help of Hermann Föttinger and his research into hydrodynamic energy transfers. In the same year, the first Kaplan turbine, named after its inventor Viktor Kaplan, left the Voith factory.
In 1927, the Viennese engineer Ernst Schneider and the Voith company in Sankt Pölten applied jointly for a patent for the Voith Schneider propeller, which had been developed the year before based on the former's plans. This marine propulsion system, which also acts as a steering device, allows maneuverability previously impossible. Schneider's design was further developed and improved at Voith.
In 1929, Voith developed the first hydrodynamic couplings based on the Föttinger principle. These were used Koepchenwerk, a pumped storage hydropower plant in Herdecke. This was followed by new drive systems for rolling stock and road vehicles. The company also made a name for itself with hydrodynamic transmissions and couplings for industrial applications.
By 1934, Voith had delivered 11,525 turbines for hydropower and pumped storage plants with a total capacity of 7.9 million HP.Following the successful sea trials of the experimental vessel "Torqueo," which was equipped with a Voith Schneider Propeller for the first time, Voith Schneider Propellers were first used in Italy in 1937 for passenger transport in the narrow canals of Venice. At the World Fair in Paris in 1937, Voith won the "Grand Prix" three times for its exhibits of Voith Schneider Propellers and Voith turbo gear units. A year later in Paris, two fireboats fitted with VSPs went into operation on the Seine.
World War II, began in 1939 and deprived Voith of the basis for its business. The export business halted. Total output was drastically reduced. The construction of paper machines in particular was decimated. 600 of the company's 4,000 employee died or went missing during the war.Following the death of Hermann Voith, Hanns Voith assumed the overall management of the Voith factory in Heidenheim in 1942. On April 24, 1945, the U.S. army occupied Heidenheim and issued an ultimatum that the town needed to be surrendered within an hour. As the deputy mayor could not be found, Hanns Voith personally arranged the peaceful handover of the town to American troops.
Reconstruction and internationalization
After World War II, Hanns Voith and Hugo Rupf made the company thrive again. The delivery of a Voith turbine to Norway in 1947 was the first overseas order from the post-war period in Baden-Württemberg. Other major orders included the supply of eight Voith Schneider Propellers for the United Africa Co. in 1949, 46 Voith turbo gear units for Brazil and a paper machine for the Netherlands in 1951. The first Voith water tractor, known as "Biene" (bee), was also launched in 1951.Its triple-converter transmissions for long-distance railcars and DIWA bus transmissions put Voith at the forefront of technical development in 1952. In 1953 , the development and construction of paper machines reached new heights, when Voith built the fastest paper machine in Europe for the production of newsprint for Feldmühle AG. With a speed of 600 m/min, it achieved a production capacity of 200 tons per day.
In 1956, Voith opened a branch factory in Crailsheim, where it produced fluid couplings. In the same year, it exported the first turbo gear units to the United States. In 1957, Hugo Rupf became a managing director alongside Hanns Voith. He was the first manager of the company not a member of the Voith family. At the 1958 World Fair in Brussels, Voith was awarded a gold medal for the first turbo gear units for diesel-hydraulic locomotive drive systems built for Deutsche Bundesbahn (German Railways).
In the 1960s, Voith became an internationally operating group and became a pioneer in paper recycling. The company worked with the Palm and Haindl paper mills to develop a new flotation deinking process to produce paper stock from recovered paper. In 1961, Voith supplied what was at that time Europe's largest newsprint paper machine with a wire width of 8.3 m to the Ahlström publishing house in Warkaus, Finland. Meanwhile, the first Voith variable speed fluid coupling was produced in Crailsheim.
In 1962, the company supplied two spiral turbines, four storage pumps and two pump turbines for what was then the largest European pumped storage power plant in Vianden. To expand the drive technology segment, an increase in production capacities was necessary. In 1963, the company's plant in Garching near Munich began producing automatic transmissions for buses. in 1964 , Voith established a subsidiary in São Paulo in Brazil.
Between 1962 and 1966, the company acquired stakes in the Indian company Utkal Machinery and in Talleres de Tolosa in Spain, took over the tooling and paper machine manufacturer Dörries, and established sales offices in UK and France. In 1966, Voith delivered the widest newsprint paper machine in the world to a customer in Sweden. This was followed by an order from the US for two of the world's largest Pelton (impulse-type) turbines with a capacity of 226,000 HP. Equally powerful were the four Francis turbines that Voith supplied to Estreito in Brazil.
In the 1970s, Voith developed the Zentrimatic clutch and the Voith retarder for buses and trucks. In 1974, Voith established a company in Appleton, Wisconsin and in the same year acquired a majority stake in Morden Machines in Portland, Oregon. Two years later, Voith founded its first subsidiary in Japan. After the death of Hanns Voith, Hugo Rupf became chairman of the management board in 1971, and from 1973, he led the company as Chairman of the Supervisory.
Acquisitions and Joint-Ventures
Voith entered the paper machine clothing market with its acquisition of Appleton Mills in 1983. In addition, in 1986 Voith took over the hydro operations of U.S. market leader Allis-Chalmers in York, Pennsylvania. Within just a few years, the number of employees in the USA rose from just under 200 to over 1,300. In 1985, Voith opened a production facility in Hyderabad, India.
In the early 1990s, different views among the family led to the splitting of the company's assets. The Hermann Voith side of the family withdrew, receiving a large proportion of the financial investments and the machine tool part of the business, The heirs of Hanns Voith retained the core business in paper machines, clothing, drive technology, turbines and maritime technology. This splitting of assets eliminated the debilitating stalemate in the Shareholders' Committee.At Voith, the focus shifted to expansion in the Far East, especially in China. In 1994, Voith supplied turbines for the world's largest pumped storage hydropower plant Guangzhou II. Two years later, Voith supplied the largest fine paper machine in the world to Gold East Paper in Dagang District. New production facilities were opened in Kunshan and Liaoyang in 1996. Under the leadership of Michael Rogowski, who became spokesman for the management board in 1986, the principle of control from corporate headquarters was replaced by a management holding structure with independent corporate divisions.
Other milestones were the introduction of the R 115 integration retarder in 1988 and the commissioning of Europe's largest Deinking facility in Schongau, Germany in 1989. In 1994, Voith and Swiss company Sulzer merged their technical papermaking operations to create Voith-Sulzer Papertec. This also included the paper activities of the Krefeld-based company Kleinewefers Group, which Sulzer had only acquired in 1992. In 1998, Voith acquired a majority stake in this enterprise. In 1999, Voith acquired the technical papermaking operations of British company Scapa, making it one of the leading companies for paper machine clothing technology. The year 2000 saw the creation of Voith Siemens Hydro Power Generation, a joint venture of the two leading manufacturers of turbine and generator technology. At the helm of the company, Michael Rogowski transferred operational responsibility to Hermut Kormann in 2000. Under his leadership, the group grew to become a global player with sales of more than 4 billion euros and a workforce of 34,000 people.
At the end of 2001, via the Voith Paper Holding, Voith took over Jagenberg's Jagenberg Papiertechnik in Neuss with its product lines including winders, cross-cutters and paper coating machines, as well as its manufacturing subsidiary Jagenberg Maschinenbau and overseas subsidiaries Jagenberg Inc. in Enfield, CT, USA, and Basagoitia in Tolosa, Spain.
In 2002, Voith's Austrian subsidiary was fully incorporated into the Voith Group again as Voith Austria Holding AG. As German Property it had been integrated into the USIA (Administration for Soviet Property in Austria) by Soviet troops in 1945. Following the Austrian State Treaty in 1955 the company was an Austrian state-owned enterprise before Voith was able to recover its shares again over the years.Voith went from strength to strength in the field of technical industrial services. With a controlling stake in the Stuttgart-based DIW Deutsche Industriewartung, the foundations were laid for the Voith Industrial Services division. This division grew over the following years and further acquisitions were made, e.g., the Imo-Hüther Group and Hörmann Industrietechnik. At the end of May 2005, Voith Industrial Services strengthened its leading position in the market for technical services and acquired the U.S. Premier Group. In November 2008, Voith Hydro took over the small Austrian hydro company Kössler, which was based in St. Georgen.In May 2006, the Voith Paper Technology Technology Center opened in Heidenheim. In Scotland the Voith subsidiary Wavegen operated the world's first wave power plant, to feed electricity to a grid. The research activities in Inverness, Scotland, were discontinued in 2013.
In 2008, Voith gathered with 200 customers and partners from all over the world to celebrate the 100-year anniversary of the "Brunnenmühle" in Heidenheim, which had previously been upgraded at an investment cost of €20 million. The "Brunnenmühle" is the global R&D center for hydropower technology at Voith Hydro and one of the most modern test centers for hydropower plant components worldwide. Around 300 engineers work at Voith headquarters in Heidenheim and four other locations around the world, in São Paulo, Brazil; York, Pennsylvania, USA; Noida, India, and Västerås, Sweden. The "Brunnenmühle" is where Voith develops generators, turbines, control technology, shut-off valves and other hydro components.
At the Shipbuilding, Machinery & Marine Technology trade fair in 2010, Voith Turbo and one of its rivals each presented for the first time a rim-driven thruster for ships. Over an 18-month construction period, the world's most powerful single-engine diesel-hydraulic locomotive – the Voith Maxima – was developed. Since 2010, a large number of Voith Gravita shunting locomotives have been in operation at Deutsche Bahn (German Railways). In the same year, Voith celebrated the official opening of its new production and service center for the paper industry in Asia at Voith Paper City in Kunshan, China.
Also in 2010, the world's first wave power plant went into commercial operation in Mutriku on the Basque coast. For this plant, Voith supplied Spanish energy utility Ente Vasco de la Energia (EVE) with the equipment for the 16 Wells turbine units, which have a total output of 300 kilowatts and produce enough power for 250 households. The "oscillating water column" technology used in Mutriku means that the turbines do not come into contact with water. Instead, a column of air is set in motion that drives the machines. The kinetic energy of marine currents is converted to electrical energy with the help of unshrouded three-bladed horizontal axis turbines. This kind of marine current turbine is physically similar to wind power turbines.
Following the successful completion and in-depth analysis of the one-year test run in a model power plant near the South Korean island of Jindo Voith systematically continued its tidal current program with the construction of a one-megawatt machine on a 1:1 scale and developed the innovative low-maintenance tidal current turbine technology at the European Marine Energy Centre (EMEC) in Scotland to a commercial scale. Voith built a test turbine at its Heidenheim facility that was installed off the Scottish Orkney island of Eday from 2013 to 2015.On October 1, 2010, Voith AG changed its name and legal status to Voith GmbH.
In 2013, the most powerful generator-turbine unit in Voith's history went into operation at the Chinese hydropower plant Xiluodu on the River Jinsha. After a 72-hour test run, Voith handed over the first of three of these machines to the China Three Gorges Corporation. At 784 megawatts, the generator-turbine unit generates more power than the largest hydropower plants in the world. Upon completion, the total output of the three Voith units for Xiluodu will be roughly equivalent to the most powerful nuclear power plant in Germany Gundremmingen.At the start of 2014, Voith Turbo announced that it was stopping the production of new locomotives. A total of 20 Maxima and 165 Gravita locomotives had been built at the company's Kiel plant.April 2014 saw the official opening of the Voith China Training Center. The vocational training and further education center in Kunshan (around 80 km northwest of Shanghai) is the company's largest training center outside of Germany. In the same year, Voith also celebrated the official opening of a new training center in Heidenheim, which every year provides training in 10 skilled commercial and technical occupations. Worldwide the company trains a total of 1,294 apprentices and students.
In February 2015, it was announced that Voith in Germany and Austria would cut 800 jobs in the paper machine segment and close the Voith Paper plants in Krefeld, Neuwied and St. Pölten. In 2016, the sale of the Industrial Services division was completed. Under the new owners, Triton Partners the business was split into two separate and independent brands. Since 2017, the service business for the automotive sector has been operating as Leadec, while the process and power plant industry segment became known as Veltec.On August 1, 2017, Voith GmbH changed its name and legal status to Voith GmbH & Co. KGaA. With more than 260 workforce and family parties taking place at over 160 locations, the year 2017 was all about celebrating the company's 150th anniversary. In fiscal 2017, all the company's shares in KUKA were sold. In the same year, Voith acquired a majority stake in the German digital services provider Ray Sono.
In 2018, Voith partnered with Franka Emika to establish the new joint venture Voith Robotics, which is now managed solely by Voith. As part of this process, Voith acquired a stake in Franka Emika GmbH. As part of a realignment in 2022, Voith Robotics has discontinued its market activities.
Targeted M&A activities have been implemented since 2019 to expand the portfolio of offerings in line with the strategy and strengthen the core business in all three Group Divisions. On July 31, 2020, Voith acquired a majority stake in the Croatian small hydropower company Sintaksa, which specializes in products and services for electromechanical and automation systems.On December 1, 2019, the acquisition of BTG was successfully completed. The company, headquartered in Switzerland, offers a highly specialized portfolio of solutions for a wide range of applications, primarily for paper manufacturers. On April 30, 2020, the acquisition of Toscotec S.p.A. was also successfully completed. Toscotec was founded in 1948 and specializes in the development and production of paper machines, systems and components for the production of sanitary papers, paper and board. Voith has also acquired shares in the sustainability start-up Yangi®, which is headquartered in Varberg, Sweden. Both parties signed the purchase agreement in December 2022. The company focuses in particular on the megatrends of sustainability and circular economy.
Voith has held 70 percent of the shares in ELIN Motoren GmbH since May 1, 2020. The acquisition of the remaining shares was completed in 2022. The company produces electric motors and generators in small series as well as individual solutions for industrial applications. The Voith Turbo Group Division was also strengthened by the acquisition of the ARGO-HYTOS Group. This was successfully completed on August 2, 2022. ARGO-HYTOS, headquartered in Switzerland, develops and produces hydraulic components and system solutions with a focus on the off-highway sector (agricultural machinery, construction equipment and material handling vehicles). Voith's acquisition of IGW Rail was further announced in 2022. Based in Brno (Czech Republic), the company specializes in transmissions for rail vehicles. The acquisition will create one of the world's largest independent manufacturers of rail vehicle transmissions.
Corporate structure
Voith is represented in around 60 countries and maintains a worldwide network of sales, service, production, R&D and administrative locations. Even in its early years, the company was focused on developing global business relationships. As early as 1903, Voith had supplied turbines for a hydropower plant on the American side of Niagara Falls and for the first Chinese hydropower plant Shi Long Ba. In 1923, the company delivered its first paper machine to India. In 1903, it established its first subsidiary outside Germany, at St. Pölten in Austria, and 10 years later its first subsidiary in the USA. Voith has had a presence in Brazil and India since the 1960s and in China since the early 1990s. Its key regions are Brazil, China, Germany, Europe, India and the USA.
Even today, the Group is still entirely family owned, although since the 1960s, the heirs have been replaced in key management roles. The Voith family is currently one of the wealthiest families in Germany. According to Manager Magazin, the assets of the around 40 owners of the multinational corporation grew to €3.2 billion in 2012, but dropped to €2.2 billion in 2013.Voith is engaged in projects in the education, social welfare, sporting and cultural spheres. Its corporate responsibility commitments range from financial support for relief projects and sponsorships to corporate-volunteering activities. These are realized through Voith GmbH & Co. KGaA – in some cases in collaboration with charitable organizations and also through the foundation Hanns Voith Stiftung established in 1953, and the Fundação Voith set up in Brazil in 2004.
With its portfolio of production plants, products and industrial services, Voith serves five key markets: energy, oil & gas, paper, raw materials, and transport & automotive.
Toralf Haag has been the company's chairman of the Corporate Board of Management. since October 24, 2018. The chairman of the Supervisory Board is Siegfried Russwurm His deputy is Alexander Schlotz, Chairman of the Joint Works Council of J.M. Voith SE & Co. KG.Voith GmbH & Co. KGaA, which is headquartered in Heidenheim an der Brenz, is the operational management holding company for the Group. The Board of Management of Voith GmbH & Co. KGaA is responsible for the strategic management and operations of the Group. The Shareholders' Committee and Supervisory Board act as advisory and supervisory bodies, respectively. The latter is also the monitoring authority with respect to the Management Board.
Voith's operations are organized into three corporate divisions: Voith Hydro, Voith Paper and Voith Turbo. The business operations of the subsidiaries of the corporate divisions are each managed by legally independent management companies. In addition, Voith had a 9.14% stake in SGL Carbon in Wiesbaden, and between December 2014 and July 2016, had a 25.1% share in KUKA beteiligt. Voith's stake in SGL Carbon was reduced to just under 3% by December 2016.
Voith Hydro
Voith Hydro, previously Voith Siemens Hydro Power Generation, is a joint venture of Voith and Siemens Energy (35% share of capital). In October 2021, Siemens Energy announced that it would withdraw from the joint venture and sell its minority stake to the partner.Voith Hydro is a full-line supplier of equipment for hydropower plants of all sizes. Its range of products and services includes generators, turbines and pumps; measuring and control equipment and instrumentation; automation; hydropower plant upgrades; and services like maintenance and spare parts.
Around a quarter of the energy generated by hydropower comes from plants operating with Voith technology. Voith products are used in many large hydropower plants like Niagara (1903), Macagua (1959 - 1963) in Venezuelam, here install 6 Francis Turbine, Itaipú (1976) and the Three Gorges Dam (2003). The construction of the Belo Monte Dam in the Brazilian part of the Amazon Basin, in which Voith Hydro is also involved, began in January 2012. Experts expect that by its completion, it could flood up to 516 km2 of (mostly forested) land and displace 20,000 people.
Voith Paper
Voith Paper is a system supplier for the international paper industry that covers the entire paper manufacturing process. Most paper production worldwide is done on Voith Paper machines.Voith Paper offers
Solutions for the treatment of primary and secondary fibers (e.g., from recovered paper)
The supply of complete paper machines for all paper grades as well as rebuilds of individual paper machines
Automation solutions for the entire paper manufacturing process, e.g., process and quality control systems, sensors and scanners
Paper machine clothing (e.g., forming fabrics), press sleeves, rolls and roll covers
Services from product service to optimization of entire systems
Technologies for the efficient use of all resources like water, energy and fiber, e.g., by using residues and wastewater for energy recovery
Air conditioning and process air systems as well as drying and cooling technology
Voith Turbo
Voith Turbo is a supplier of mechanical, hydrodynamic, electrical, hydraulic and electronic drive and braking systems. Voith Turbo is the market leader worldwide for hydrodynamic transmissions.
Within the Group, its core activities are as follows:
For energy and oil & gas industries: hydrodynamic couplings (fluid couplings), variable speed planetary gear units, turbo gear units, hydrodynamic torque converters and actuating and control technology
For industries including steel, mining and metalworking: Fluid couplings, hydraulic systems and components, Hirth serrations, high-performance cardan shafts, safety couplings and highly flexible couplings
For road vehicles: automatic transmissions for Buses, hydrodynamic retarders, air compressors and VIAB turbo-retarder clutches as well as vibration dampers for agricultural machinery
For rail vehicles: drive systems like turbo gear units, wheelset gear units, traction inverters, cardan shafts, cooling systems, Scharfenberg couplers and front ends
For watercraft: Voith Schneider Propellers, water tractors, Voith Turbo Fin, Voith Linear Jets, Voith Inline Thrusters, Voith Radial Propellers
Research & development
Research and development has traditionally been a high priority at Voith. The company has been making technological history with its inventions since the founding days. This is reflected, among other things, in a strong patent base: Voith holds several thousand active patents worldwide.In fiscal 2021/2022, Voith invested a total €213 million in boosting productivity and the strategic alignment of the Voith Group. In the reporting period (2021/2022), the investment ratio as a proportion of revenue was 4,4% of the consolidated revenue (4,5% in previous year). Of the total R&D expenditure, €5 million was capitalized. At the same time, amortization of €9 million was recognized on capitalized development costs.Voith's research and development activities have an international focus. The main R&D center is in Germany, but centers in America, Asia and the rest of Europe conduct specialized R&D projects in the respective Group Divisions. For example, the Tissue Innovation Center, which was established in São Paulo in 1994, was reopened in November 2011 following a major rebuild. In fiscal 2016/2017, Voith opened its own Voith Innovation Lab in Berlin to boost the process of innovation in the company.
Literature
Matthias Georgi, Tobias Birken, Anna Pezold: Voith: 150 Jahre deutsche Wirtschaftsgeschichte, Siedler Verlag 2017, ISBN 978-3-827501-11-0.
Anne Nieberding: Unternehmenskultur im Kaiserreich. Die Gießerei J. M. Voith und die Farbenfabriken vorm. Friedr. Bayer & Co. (= Schriftenreihe zur Zeitschrift für Unternehmensgeschichte 9), Beck, München 2003, ISBN 3-406-49630-X.
Hermann Schweickert: Der Wasserturbinenbau bei Voith zwischen 1913 und 1939 und die Geschichte der Eingliederung neuer Strömungsmaschinen. Dissertation der Universität Stuttgart, Siedentop, Heidenheim 2002, ISBN 978-3-925887-19-2.
Voith GmbH: Mit guten Ideen voran – seit 1867: Die Voith Geschichte. Unternehmensbroschüre, Heidenheim, Januar 2013 / 2016 als PDF-Datei; 76 S., 1,7 MB oder auf docplayer.org.
voith.com Unternehmensseite
Voith Robotics
Voith Innovation Lab |
ZF Friedrichshafen AG, also known as ZF Group, originally Zahnradfabrik Friedrichshafen, and commonly abbreviated to ZF (ZF = "Zahnradfabrik" = "Cogwheel Factory"), is a global technology company that supplies systems for passenger cars, commercial vehicles and industrial technology. It is headquartered in Friedrichshafen, in the south-west German state of Baden-Württemberg. Specialising in engineering, it is primarily known for its design, research and development, and manufacturing activities in the automotive industry and is one of the largest automotive suppliers in the world. Its products include driveline and chassis technology for cars and commercial vehicles, along with specialist plant equipment such as construction equipment. It is also involved in the rail, marine, defense and aviation industries, as well as general industrial applications. ZF has 168 production locations in 32 countries with approximately 165,000 (2022) employees.
ZF Friedrichshafen is more than 90% owned by the Zeppelin Foundation, which is largely controlled by the town of Friedrichshafen.
History
The company was founded in 1915 in Friedrichshafen, Germany by Luftschiffbau Zeppelin GmbH, to produce gears for Zeppelins and other airships. Zeppelin was unable to otherwise obtain gears for his airships. The German Zahnradfabrik (ZF) translates to 'gear factory' in English.
By 1919, ZF had moved into the automobile market, a move consolidated by the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. Some of the most important milestones that followed:
1920: Patent application submitted for the Soden six speed transmission.
1921: Under a rampant inflation and investor fears, the company went public as the Zepernicker Zahnradfabrik, with the Zeppelin Luftschiffbau GmbH holding 80% of the stock options, valued at 4 million Marks.
1927: Moved to Friedrichshafen and changed the name to ZF Friedrichshafen
1929: A thriving auto industry warrants the series production of the innovative helical ZF Aphon transmission for cars and commercial vehicles.
1932: Launch of steering systems production under license. Today: ZF Lenksysteme GmbH.
1944: On 3 August, the Zahnradfabrik was bombed by the 304th BW / Fifteenth Air Force. As early as 20 September 1942, Albert Speer had warned Hitler of how important the Friedrichshafen tank engine production and the Schweinfurt ball-bearing facilities were. After the bombing, the company was relocated to former location, Zepernick until the 1970s.
1944: Zahnradfabrik Friedrichshafen created the Panzer IV hydrostatischer, the only tank that they modified with their hydraulic drive.
1953: Market launch of the first fully synchronised transmission for commercial vehicles worldwide.
1961: Development of a fully automatic transmission for passenger cars. With series production beginning in 1969, and later proving highly popular, the 3HP20 is built to be swappable with the company's manual transmissions. The 1960s sees ZF supplying transmissions to major German automakers (including DKW, Mercedes-Benz, Porsche and BMW) as well as Peugeot and Alfa Romeo.
1977: Start of volume production for automatic transmissions for commercial vehicles. Worldwide subsidiaries and factories were opened in the 1970s, and the company moved into India and South Korea.
1980s: ZF started operating in Asia in the mid 80s
1984: Majority shareholding gained in Lemförder Metallwaren AG, today ZF Lemförder GmbH.
1986: Start of USA transmission production in Gainesville, Georgia, for pickup trucks. ZF became a major supplier to Ford in the 1980s.
1991: The 5HP18 was the first 5-speed automatic transmission for passenger cars. Introduced in 1991 on the BMW E36 320i/325i and E34 5 Series
1994: Development of an automatic transmission system for heavy commercial vehicles. The company expanded into China in the 1990s.
1999: World premiere for the first automatic 6-speed transmission. Series production begins in 2001, with the BMW 7 Series as the first client. Today, ZF produces around one million six-speed automatic transmissions annually.
2001: Acquisition of Mannesmann Sachs AG. Today: ZF Sachs AG.
2001: Active Roll Stabilization(ARS) premiere on BMW 7 Series (E65)
2002: Presentation of the world's first 4-point link – a newly developed chassis module for trucks and buses.
2003: First deliveries of the Active Steering systems for passenger cars.
2004: Ford starts volume production of the continuously variable transmissions (CVT) for passenger cars developed by ZF.
2005: The 10-millionth airbag casing, the 5-millionth passenger car axle system and the 2-millionth 'Servolectric' electric power steering system are delivered.
2006: ZF produces the 10-millionth passenger car automatic transmission.
2007: One of the world's first 8-speed automatic transmissions, the 8HP boasted to achieve an 11% improvement in fuel economy in comparison with standard 6-speed automatic transmissions. Production began in 2009.
2008: Acquisition of keyboard manufacturers Cherry Corporation. Incorporated into the ZF Electronics GmbH Corporate Division.
2011: World premiere for the first automatic 9-speed transmission.. Land Rover demonstrated the world's first nine-speed automatic transmission for a passenger car at the 2013 Geneva Motor Show. The ZF 9HP transmission is designed for transverse applications, and is one of the most efficient and technically advanced transmissions ever used in a production vehicle. Land Rover is the lead partner with ZF on this project.
2013: Jeep announces that ZF has developed a nine-speed automatic transmission for use in its all-new 2014 Jeep Cherokee (KL) midsized crossover utility vehicle.
2013: ZF Opens Passenger Car Transmission Plant in the U.S.
2014: Acquires American auto parts manufacturer TRW Automotive for $13.5 billion.
2015: Acquires industrial gears and wind turbine gearbox segment from Bosch Rexroth (previously Lohmann & Stolterfoht).
2019: ZF to acquire software specialist for occupant recognition.
2019: ZF to acquire global auto part manufacturer WABCO.
2019: ZF to provide the entire electric powertrain of Mercedes EQC.
2020: ZF completes acquisition of WABCO, which will be integrated into ZF as its Commercial Vehicle Control Systems Division.
2022: ZF and Wolfspeed are planning a joint R&D center in Germany to accelerate global Silicon Carbide system and device top innovation. ZF intends to invest in Wolfspeed, in order to support construction of the world’s most advanced and largest Silicon Carbide device fab. The partnership also includes a significant investment by ZF to support the planned construction of the world’s most advanced and largest 200mm Silicon Carbide device fab in Ensdorf, Germany.
2023: ZF and Hon Hai Technology Group (“Foxconn”) announced a 50-50 partnership in passenger car chassis systems, a key move aimed at accelerating and expanding automotive and supply chain opportunities with top-tier customers. Foxconn will acquire a 50-percent stake in ZF Chassis Modules GmbH.
Products
ZF Friedrichshafen products include automatic and manual transmissions for cars, trucks, buses and construction equipment; chassis components (ball joints, tie rods, cross-axis joints, stabiliser bars, control arms); shock absorbers and suspension struts; electronic damping systems including Continuous Damping Control (CDC), Active Roll Stabilization (ARS); clutches; torque converters; differentials; axle drives; and industrial drives.
ZF products include
driveline technology (automatic, manual, servo, automated manual, special transmission, driveline components, rubber-metal technology, transfer case, hybrid system)
chassis technology (chassis components and modules, steering technology, suspension systems)
additional technologies (electronic/software, diagnostic systems, precision plastic technology, lubricants)
Axle systems and drops
Applications
Cars, trucks, buses & coaches, light commercial vehicles, off-road equipment, rail vehicles, helicopters, motorcycles, lift trucks, machine and system construction, test systems, civil mobile, cranes, and special marine, military and agricultural vehicles and machines.
In the ZF Lenksysteme division (a 50:50 joint venture between ZF and Bosch), steering systems and components are produced, including steering columns, gears and pumps; Electric Power Steering (EPS); and Active Steering.
With the rise in popularity of the automatic transmission in buses, ZF introduced the ZF AS Tronic. The company also manufactures manual and automatic truck and bus transmissions. ZF transmissions are the ones used most commonly in buses. The Ecomat automatic transmission range which was introduced in 1980, is frequently used in buses.
ZF Lemförder and ZF Sachs AG are all divisions/business units of ZF, specialising in original equipment and aftermarket solutions for the automotive industry.
ZF-TRW
ZF-TRW Automotive, headquartered in Livonia, Michigan USA operations primarily surrounding the design, manufacture and sale of safety systems. It operated approximately 200 facilities with 66,100 employees in 26 vehicle-producing countries.
ZF-TRW was acquired in 2015 and now is the 'Active & Passive Safety Technology' division.
Business development
In 1999, the steering systems division was made separate and became the new ZF Lenksysteme GmbH, an independent, 50:50 joint venture between ZF Friedrichshafen and Robert Bosch GmbH.
In 2007 ZF Friedrichshafen managed to increase its business volume about 8% to billion. The operating profit was about million. In 2008 ZF had a profit of million from a total business volume of billion. During the financial crisis ZF was one of the companies hit most. Its business volume decreased in turnover to billion. Total loss was about million. According to the current development ZF is forecasting sales growth of about 10%, which would be above the industry average.
Due to the financial crisis ZF received a credit of about million by KfW. At the end of the term, it has to be paid back with interest. Being a state bank, the KfW aid is not considered governmental support. ZF is about to save million without reducing its permanent staff. Contracts of short-term employees were not extended. Total number of employees was reduced from 63,000 to 59,000 worldwide. According to CEO Härter, there is no need for further employee reduction.On 16 September 2014, the Wall Street Journal reported that ZF agreed to acquire TRW Automotive Holdings for $13.5 billion. The acquisition would create the world's second largest automotive parts concern, ranked just behind Robert Bosch GmbH.
For clearing way to acquire TRW Automotive Holdings, ZF Friedrichshafen AG sold its stake in ZF Lenksysteme GmbH to Robert Bosch GmbH. ZF Lenksysteme GmbH has now been renamed as Robert Bosch Automotive Steering GmbH.In September 2020, ZF Friedrichshafen AG entered a partnership with Aeva Inc to put Lidar sensors, a sensor for self-driving vehicles, into production.
Business organisations
The business units are assigned to the nine divisions:
Active Safety Systems - Sales (2020) €4,987 million: Electronic Stability Control, Integrated Brake Control, Electric Park Brakes, Electrically Powered Steering Systems and Electrically Powered Hydraulic Steering Systems
Car Chassis Technology - Sales (2020) €6,680 million: chassis components for wheel guidance to complete front and rear axles, including passive and semi-active dampers, as well as electromechanical active chassis systems
Electrified Powertrain Technology - Sales (2020) 8,459 million: Automatic Transmissions, Automated Manual Transmissions, Manual Transmissions, and Dual-Clutch Automatic Transmissions, Powertrain Modules, Electronic Systems, Electric Motors, Electric Vehicle Drives, Electronic Interfaces
Electronics & ADAS - Sales (2020) €1,561 million: advanced driver assist systems, sensor technologies, integrated electronics including advanced safety domain control units and safety electronics such as airbag electronic control units and crash sensors for the automotive industry
Passive Safety Systems - Sales (2020) €3,503 million: airbags, airbag inflators, seat belt systems and steering wheels
Commercial Vehicle Control Systems - Sales (2020) €1,539 million: braking control systems and other advanced technologies that improve the safety, efficiency and connectivity of commercial vehicles
Commercial Vehicle Technology - Sales (2020) €3,307 million: automated, manual and powershift transmissions as well as drive components such as clutches and electric drives, and ADAS technology such as automated, camera and radar-based comfort and safety functions for trucks and buses, chassis systems, chassis components and steering systems for vehicles
Industrial Technology - Sales (2020) €2,687 million: transmissions and axles for agricultural and construction machinery as well as driveline technology for material handling systems, rail and special vehicles, marine propulsion systems, aviation technology as well as the development and production of gearboxes for wind turbines and industrial applications, Test systems for all kinds of applications in driveline and chassis technology
Aftermarket - Sales (2020) €2,522 million: product brands ZF, LEMFÖRDER, SACHS, TRW and BOGE
Overseas facilities
The ZF Group is represented across the world. The primary market is Europe, followed by the Asia-Pacific region, including Australia, North and South America and Middle East & Africa.
The company has six worldwide research and development (R&D) sites to provide product development related to the local markets. ZF invests approximately 5 percent of its sales revenue on R&D annually.
Since 1973 ZF has played an active role in Great Britain. The manufacturing base in Darlaston provides Britain's automotive industry with chassis components, including Jaguar, BMW and Land Rover. ZF Great Britain Ltd. based in Nottingham has a remanufacturing facility and customer support operation.
ZF participates in the NAFTA Region. With 16 locations, one R & D center near Detroit and about 4,700 employees, North America is an important market base. A manufacturing plant is currently being built in Laurens County, South Carolina. Groundbreaking took place in January 2011, and the facility was completed in April 2012, with production slated to begin in 2013.
Due to the expansion of Asian vehicle manufacturers, ZF has focused strongly on China, Korea and Japan, but also Australia, included in the Asia-Pacific region.
Liuzhou ZF Machinery Co., Ltd. Liuzhou, Guangxi, China is a joint venture company between Guangxi LiuGong Machinery Co., Ltd. of China and ZF Friedrichshafen AG of Germany to manufacture driveline and parts of driveline for construction machinery. Ratified by the People's Government of Guangxi, both shareholders signed the JV Contract in the Great Hall of the People, Beijing, on Dec.12, 1995, and the business license was approved in the same year. Contribution Ratio: Guangxi LiuGong Machinery Co., Ltd.-49% ZF Friedrichshafen AG-51%
ZF has been represented in India with joint ventures and license partnerships for over three decades. In 2007, ZF India Private Ltd. commenced operations in Pune. The focus of production is on axles and off-road driveline technology and commercial vehicle technology. Together with the Head of ZF India, Piyush Munot, Strebl is in charge of setting up new production lines for the off-road axles and transmission systems. The upswing in the construction machinery sector is also apparent in ZF's performance on site: the assembly plant consists of factory buildings with a surface area of 2,500 sq m (approx. 27,000 sq ft) plus a 1,500-sq-m (approx. 16,000 sq ft) warehouse and an integrated aftermarket service facility.
See also
List of ZF transmissions
ZF.com official website
Documents and clippings about ZF Friedrichshafen in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW |
Manchukuo, officially the State of Manchuria (traditional Chinese: 滿出國; pinyin: Mǎnzhōuguó; Japanese: 満州国; rōmaji: Manshūkoku; "Manchu-region state") prior to 1934 and the Empire of Manchuria (traditional Chinese: 大满洲帝国; pinyin: Dà Mǎnzhōu dìguó; Japanese: 大満州帝国; rōmaji: Dai Manshū teikoku; "Empire of Great Manchuria") thereafter, was a puppet state of the Empire of Japan in Northeast China that existed from 1932 until its dissolution in 1945. It was ostensibly founded as a republic, its territory consisting of the lands seized in the Japanese invasion of Manchuria; it was later declared to be a constitutional monarchy in 1934, though very little changed in the actual functioning of government. Manchukuo received limited diplomatic recognition, mostly from states aligned with the Axis powers, with its existence otherwise widely seen as illegitimate.
The region now known as Manchuria had historically been the homeland of the Manchu people, though by the 20th century they had long since become a minority in the region, with Han Chinese constituting by far the largest ethnic group. The Manchu-led Qing dynasty, which had governed China since 17th century, was overthrown with the permanent abolition of the dynastic system in the 1911 Xinhai Revolution, with Puyi, the final emperor of China, forced to abdicate at the age of six. In 1931, Manchuria was invaded and occupied by the Empire of Japan following the Mukden incident. A puppet government was set up the following year, with Puyi brought in by the Japanese to serve as its nominal regent, though he himself had no actual political power. Japanese officials ultimately made all pertinent decisions, and exercised total control over Puyi's court and personal safety. Upon the nominal transition from republic to empire, Puyi was proclaimed as the emperor of Manchukuo.The Japanese population of Manchuria increased dramatically during this period, largely due to Japan's efforts to resettle young, land-poor farmers from the inner islands. By 1945, more than a million Japanese people had settled within Manchukuo. The region's Korean population also increased during this period. Regions in the western part of the country with large Mongolian populations were ruled under a slightly different system, reflecting the distinct traditions extant there. The southern tip of the Liaodong Peninsula, now the city of Dalian, continued to be ruled directly by Japan as the Kwantung Leased Territory until the end of the war.
The state was ultimately toppled at the end of World War II with the Soviet invasion of Manchuria in August 1945; its government was formally dissolved following the Japanese surrender in September. The territory was formally transferred to Chinese administration the following year.
Names
The name of the state is written with the same Han characters sharing the same meaning in both Japanese and Chinese, allowing for the use of the simplified and variant characters that exist in both languages. In Chinese, the name of Manchukuo has often been prefixed with 偽; wěi; 'so-called' to stress its perceived illegitimacy.In English, 'Manchukuo' derives from the Wade–Giles romanization Man-chou-kuo, incorporating the anglicized demonym 'Manchu'. Other European languages used equivalent terms: Manchukuo was known to its Axis allies as Manciukuò in Italian and Mandschukuo or Mandschureich in German.
Manchukuo was often referred to in English simply as 'Manchuria', itself an unfamiliar term within China; its use had previously been widely encouraged by the Japanese in order to connote a level of separation from the rest of China. This was in stark contrast to the position held by the Qing, that Manchus were one of several integral Chinese peoples, with their homeland being an integral part of China. The historian Norman Smith wrote that "the term 'Manchuria' is controversial". Professor Mariko Asano Tamanoi remarked that she would "use the term in quotation marks". Herbert Giles wrote that the name was unknown to the Manchu people themselves as a geographical designation. In 2012, Professor Chad D. Garcia noted that usage of the term was out of favor in "current scholarly practice", instead preferring "the northeast [of China]".The name of the country was changed to the 'Empire of Manchuria' in 1934 upon the coronation of Puyi as the Kangde Emperor. The name in Chinese and Japanese literal translates to 'Empire of Great Manchuria', with the prefixed 大; dà; 'great' suggestive of official names for previous Chinese dynasties, such as 'Great Ming' and 'Great Qing', though this went largely unreflected in English translations.
History
Background
The Qing dynasty was founded by Manchus hailing from northeastern China in the 17th century, conquering the ethnically Han Shun and Ming dynasties. Upon establishing themselves, the Qing referred to their state as 中國; Zhōngguó; 'central country' in Chinese and equivalently as ᡩᡠᠯᡳᠮᠪᠠᡳᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ; Dulimbai gurun in Manchu. The name was used in official documents and treaties, and while conducting foreign affairs. The Qing equated the territory of their state, which among other regions included present-day Manchuria, Xinjiang, Mongolia, and Tibet, with the idea of 'China' itself, rejecting notions that only Han areas were core parts of China. The Qing thought of China as fundamentally multi-ethnic: the term 'Chinese people' referred to all the Han, Manchu and Mongol subjects within the empire; likewise, the term 'Chinese language' was used to refer to the Manchu and Mongolian languages in addition to those language varieties that descended from Old Chinese. Moreover, the Qing stated explicitly in various edicts, as well as within the Treaty of Nerchinsk, that the Manchu home provinces belonged to China.The Manchu homeland was referred to as the 三東省; Sān dōngshěng; 'three eastern provinces' during the Qing, those provinces being Jilin, Heilongjiang, and Liaoning. These regions were first delineated in 1683, but would not become actual provinces until 1907. Jilin and Heilongjiang, considered primarily Manchu, were separated from Han Liaoning along the Willow Palisade, with internal movement and migration regulated by ethnicity. These policies continued until after the end of the Second Opium War in the late 19th century, when the government started to encourage massive waves of Han migration to the northeast, collectively known as the Chuang Guandong, in order to prevent the Russian Empire from seizing more of the area. In 1907, the three provinces constituting Manchuria were officially constituted, and the Viceroy of the Three Northeast Provinces position was established to govern them.
Qing decline and rising nationalism
As the power of the court in Beijing weakened, many of the empire's outlying areas either broke free (such as Kashgar) or fell under the control of the Western imperialist powers. The Russian Empire had set its sights on Qing's northern territories, and through unequal treaties signed in 1858 and 1860 ultimately annexed huge tracts of territory adjoining the Amur River outright, now known collectively as Outer Manchuria As the Qing continued to weaken, Russia made further efforts to take control of the rest of Manchuria. By the 1890s, the region was under strong Russian influence, symbolized by the Russian-built Chinese Eastern Railway that ran from Harbin to Vladivostok.The Japanese ultra-nationalist Black Dragon Society initially supported Sun Yat-sen's activities against the Qing state, hoping that an overthrow of the Qing would enable a Japanese takeover of the Manchu homeland, with the belief that Han Chinese would not oppose it. Tōyama Mitsuru, who was the Society's leader as well as a member of the pan-Asian secret society Gen'yōsha, additionally believed that the anti-Qing revolutionaries would even aid the Japanese in taking over, as well as helping them to enlarge the opium trade that the Qing were currently trying to destroy. The Society would support Sun and other anti-Manchu revolutionaries until the Qing ultimately collapsed. In Japan, many anti-Qing revolutionaries gathered in exile, where they founded and operated the Tongmenghui resistance movement, whose first meeting was hosted by the Black Dragon Society. The Black Dragon Society had a large impact on Sun specifically, cultivating an intimate relationship with him. Sun often promoted pan-Asianism, and sometimes even passed himself off as Japanese. In the wake of the Xinhai Revolution, the Black Dragons began infiltrating China, making inroads selling opium and spreading anti-Communist sentiment. Eventually, they also began directly agitating for a Japanese takeover of Manchuria.With the Russo-Japanese War, Japanese influence largely replaced that of Russia in Manchuria. Japan had mobilized one million soldiers to fight the Russians in Manchuria, one for every eight Japanese families. Despite shocking success, the Japanese military underwent heavy losses, ultimately incurring about 500,000 casualties. The war caused many Japanese people to develop a more possessive attitude towards Manchuria, with Japan having sacrificed so much while fighting in Manchurian territory. From 1905 on, Japanese publications often described Manchuria as a "sacred" and "holy" land where many Japanese had died as martyrs. The war had almost bankrupted Japan, forcing the Japanese to accept the compromise Treaty of Portsmouth mediated by President Theodore Roosevelt of the United States, under which Japan made gains, but nowhere to the extent that the Japanese public had been expecting. The Treaty of Portsmouth set off an anti-American riot in Tokyo between 5–7 September 1905 as the general viewpoint in Japan was that the Japanese had won the war but lost the peace. The perception in Japan was the Treaty of Portsmouth was a humiliating diplomatic disaster that did not place all of Manchuria into the Japanese sphere of influence as widely expected, and the question of Manchuria was still "unfinished business" that would one day be resolved by the Imperial Army. In 1906, Japan established the South Manchurian Railway on the southern half of the former Chinese Eastern Railway built by Russia from Manzhouli to Vladivostok via Harbin with a branch line from Harbin to Port Arthur, now known as Dalian.
Under the terms of the Treaty of Portsmouth, the Kwantung Army had the right to occupy southern Manchuria while the region fell into the Japanese economic sphere of influence. The Japanese-owned South Manchurian Railroad company had a market capitalization of 200 million yen, making it Asia's largest corporation, which went beyond just running the former Russian railroad network in southern Manchuria to owning the ports, mines, hotels, telephone lines, and sundry other businesses, dominating the economy of Manchuria. With the growth of the South Manchuria Railroad (Mantetsu) company went a growth in number of Japanese living in Manchuria from 16,612 Japanese civilians in 1906 to 233,749 in 1930. The majority of blue-collar employees for the Mantetsu were Chinese, and the Japanese employees were mostly white-collar, meaning most of the Japanese living in Manchuria were middle-class people who saw themselves as an elite. In Japan, Manchuria was widely seen as analogous to the "Wild West": a dangerous frontier region full of bandits, revolutionaries, and warlords, but also a land of boundless wealth and promise, where it was possible for ordinary people to become very well-off. During the interwar period, Manchuria once again became a political and military battleground between Russia, Japan, and China. Imperial Japan moved into Russia's far eastern territories, taking advantage of internal chaos following the Russian Revolution. However, in the years following the establishment of the Soviet Union, a combination of Soviet military successes and American economic pressure forced the Japanese to withdraw from the area, and Outer Manchuria would be under Soviet control by 1925.
Japanese invasion and establishment of Manchukuo
During the Warlord Era, Marshal Zhang Zuolin established himself in Manchuria with Japanese backing. Later, the Japanese Kwantung Army found him too independent, so he was assassinated in 1928. In assassinating Marshal Zhang, the 'Old Marshal' the Kwantung Army generals expected Manchuria to descend into anarchy, providing the pretext for seizing the region. Marshal Zhang was killed when the bridge his train was riding across was blown up while three Chinese men were murdered and explosive equipment placed on their corpses to make it appear that they were the killers, but the plot was foiled when Zhang's son Zhang Xueliang, the 'Young Marshal' succeeded him without incident while the cabinet in Tokyo refused to send additional troops to Manchuria. Given that the Kwantung Army had assassinated his father, the "Young Marshal"—who unlike his father was a Chinese nationalist—had strong reasons to dislike Japan's privileged position in Manchuria. Marshal Zhang knew his forces were too weak to expel the Kwantung Army, but his relations with the Japanese were unfriendly right from the start.
After the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, Japanese militarists moved forward to separate the region from Chinese control and to create a Japanese-aligned puppet state. To create an air of legitimacy, the last Emperor of China, Puyi, was invited to come with his followers and act as the head of state for Manchuria. One of his faithful companions was Zheng Xiaoxu, a Qing reformist and loyalist.The "Northeast Supreme Administrative Council" (東北最高行政委員會, or the Northeast Administrative Committee/東北行政委員會) was established as a puppet government established by the Empire of Japan in Manchuria following the Mukden Incident. On 16 February 16, 1932 the Imperial Army hosted the "Founding Conference" or the "Big Four Conference" with governor of Liaoning Zang Shiyi, commander of the Kirin Provincial Army Xi Qia, Heilongjiang governor Zhang Jinghui, and general Ma Zhanshan to establish the Northeast Administrative Committee. On its second meeting, the committee appointed the previous four and Tang Yulin, Ling Sheng, and Qimote Semupilei as chairmen. On the 18th, the Council issued a statement announcing that "the Northeast provinces are completely independent", all territories of whom are within the hands of the council.On 18 February 1932 Manchukuo ("The Manchurian State") was proclaimed by the Northeast Supreme Administrative Council, nominally in control of Manchuria. On February 25, the Council decided that the name of the new country name (Manchukuo), the national flag, era name, and more. Manchukuo was formally established on 1 March in Xinjing, and the council was abolished. It was recognized by Japan on 15 September 1932 through the Japan–Manchukuo Protocol, after the assassination of Japanese Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi. The city of Changchun, renamed Xinjing (Chinese: 新京; pinyin: Xinjing; lit. 'new capital'), became the capital of Manchukuo. The local Chinese organized volunteer armies to oppose the Japanese and the new state required a war lasting several years to pacify the country.
Nominal transition to monarchy
Manchukuo was proclaimed a monarchy on 1 March 1934, with Puyi assuming the throne with the era name of Kangde. He was nominally assisted in his executive duties by a Privy Council (Chinese: 參議府), and a General Affairs State Council (Chinese: 國務院). This State Council was the center of political power, and consisted of several cabinet ministers, each assisted by a Japanese vice-minister. The commander-in-chief of the Kwantung Army (the army of Manchukuo) also served as the official Japanese ambassador to the state. He functioned in a manner similar to resident officers in European colonial empires, with the added ability to veto decisions by the emperor. The Kwantung Army leadership placed Japanese vice ministers in his cabinet, while all Chinese advisors gradually resigned or were dismissed.
Zheng Xiaoxu served as Manchukuo's first prime minister until 1935, when Zhang Jinghui succeeded him. Puyi was nothing more than a figurehead and real authority rested in the hands of the Japanese military officials. An imperial palace was specially built for the emperor. The Manchu ministers all served as frontmen for their Japanese vice-ministers, who made all decisions.In this manner, Japan formally detached Manchukuo from China over the course of the 1930s. With Japanese investment and rich natural resources, the area became an industrial powerhouse. Manchukuo had its own issued banknotes and postage stamps. Several independent banks were founded as well.The conquest of Manchuria proved to be extremely popular with the Japanese people who saw the conquest as providing a much-needed economic "lifeline" to their economy which had been badly hurt by the Great Depression. The very image of a "lifeline" suggested that Manchuria—which was rich in natural resources—was essential for Japan to recover from the Great Depression, which explains why the conquest was so popular at the time and later why the Japanese people were so completely hostile towards any suggestion of letting Manchuria go. At the time, censorship in Japan was nowhere near as stringent as it would later become, and the American historian Louise Young noted: "Had they wished, it would have been possible in 1931 and 1932 for journalists and editors to express anti-war sentiments". The popularity of the conquest meant that newspapers such as the Asahi Shimbun which initially opposed the war swiftly changed to supporting the war as the best way of improving sales. The conquest of Manchuria was also presented as resolving the "unfinished business" left over the Russo-Japanese war that finally undid one of the key terms of the Treaty of Portsmouth. The most popular song in Japan in 1932 was the Manchuria March whose verses proclaimed that the seizing of Manchuria in 1931–32 was a continuation of what Japan had fought for against Russia in 1904–05, and the ghosts of the Japanese soldiers killed in the Russo-Japanese war could now rest at ease as their sacrifices had not been in vain.In 1935, Manchukuo purchased the Chinese Eastern Railway from the Soviet Union.
Second Sino-Japanese War
During the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Japanese used Manchukuo as a base from which to invade the rest of China. The Manchu general Tong Linge was killed in action by the Japanese in the Battle of Beiping–Tianjin, which marked the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War. In the summer of 1939, a border dispute between Manchukuo and the Mongolian People's Republic resulted in the Battle of Khalkhin Gol. During this battle, a combined Soviet-Mongolian force defeated the Japanese Kwantung Army (Kantōgun) supported by limited Manchukuoan forces.
Soviet invasion, dissolution, and aftermath
On 8 August 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, in accordance with the agreement at the Yalta Conference, and invaded Manchukuo from Outer Manchuria and Outer Mongolia. During the Soviet offensive, the Manchukuo Imperial Army, on paper a 200,000-man force, performed poorly and whole units surrendered to the Soviets without firing a single shot; there were even cases of armed riots and mutinies against the Japanese forces. Emperor Kangde abdicated on 17 August and had hoped to escape to Japan to surrender to the Americans, but the Soviets captured him and eventually extradited him to the government of China, when the Chinese Communist Party came to power in 1949, where the authorities had him imprisoned as a war criminal along with all other captured Manchukuo officials.From 1945 to 1948, Manchuria served as a base of operations for the People's Liberation Army against the National Revolutionary Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Chinese Communists used Manchuria as a staging ground until the final Nationalist retreat to Taiwan in 1949. Many Manchukuo army and Japanese Kantōgun personnel served with the communist troops during the Chinese Civil War against the Nationalist forces. Most of the 1.5 million Japanese who had been left in Manchukuo at the end of World War II were sent back to their homeland in 1946–1948 by U.S. Navy ships in the operation now known as the Japanese repatriation from Huludao.
Politics
Historians generally consider Manchukuo a puppet state of Imperial Japan due to the Japanese military's continued occupation of the country and its direct control over the government. Some historians see Manchukuo as an effort at building a glorified Japanese state in mainland Asia that deteriorated due to the pressures of war.The Legislative Council (Chinese: 立法院) was largely a ceremonial body, existing to rubber-stamp decisions issued by the State Council. The only authorized political party was the government-sponsored Concordia Association, although various émigré groups were permitted their own political associations such as the White Russian Russian Fascist Party.The American historian Louise Young noted that one of the most striking aspects of Manchukuo was that many of the young Japanese civil servants who went to work in Manchukuo were on the left, or at least had once been. In the 1920s, much of the younger intelligentsia in Japan had rejected their parents' values and had become active in various left-wing movements. Starting with the Peace Preservation Law of 1925, which made the very act of thinking about "altering the kokutai a crime, the government had embarked on a sustained campaign to stomp out all left-wing thought in Japan. However, many of the bright young university graduates active in left-wing movements in Japan were needed to serve as civil servants in Manchukuo, which Young noted led the Japanese state to embark upon a contradictory policy of recruiting the same people active in the movements that it was seeking to crush." To rule Manchukuo, which right from the start had a very statist economy, the Japanese state needed university graduates who were fluent in Mandarin Chinese, and the 1920s–30s, many of the university graduates in Japan who knew Mandarin were "progressives" involved in left-wing causes. The fact that young Japanese civil servants in Manchukuo with their degrees in economics, sociology, etc., who had once been active in left-wing movements helps explain the decidedly leftist thrust of social and economic policies in Manchukuo with the state playing an increasingly large role in society. Likewise, much of the debate between Japanese civil servants about the sort of social-economic policies Japan should follow in Manchukuo in the 1930s was framed in Marxist terms, with the civil servants arguing over whether Manchuria prior to September 1931 had a "feudal" or a "capitalist" economy. The American historian Joshua Fogel wrote about the young servants of Manchukuo: "Tremendous debates transpired on such things as the nature of the Chinese economy, and the lingua franca of these debates was always Marxism". To resolve this debate, various research teams of five or six young civil servants, guarded by detachments from the Kwantung Army of about 20 or 30 men, went out to do field research in Manchukuo, gathering material about the life of ordinary people, to determine Manchukuo was in the "feudal" or "capitalist" stage of development. Starting in 1936, the Manchukuo state launched Five Year Plans for economic development, which were closely modeled after the Five Year Plans in the Soviet Union.In theory, the Japanese were creating an entirely new, independent state, and that this allowed for a considerable level of experimentation regarding the policies that the new state would be carrying out. Many university graduates in Japan who were ostensibly opposed to the social system within Japan itself, instead went to Manchukuo with the belief that they could implement reforms that might later inspire policy within Japan itself. This was especially the case since it was impossible to effect any reforms in Japan itself as the very act of thinking about "altering the kokutai" was a crime, which led many leftist Japanese university graduates to go work in Manchukuo, where they believed they could achieve the sort of social revolution that was impossible in Japan. By 1933, the Japanese state had essentially destroyed both the Japanese Socialist Party and the Japanese Communist Party via mass arrests and Tenkō with both parties reduced down to mere rumps, which caused many Japanese student leftists to draw the conclusion that change was impossible in Japan, but still possible in Manchukuo, where paradoxically the Kwantung Army was sponsoring the sort of policies that were unacceptable in Japan. Moreover, the Great Depression had made it very difficult for university graduates in Japan to find work, which made the prospect of a well-paying job in Manchukuo very attractive to otherwise underemployed Japanese university graduates. In Manchukuo, the Japanese state was creating an entire state anew, which meant that Manchukuo had a desperate need for university graduates to work in its newly founded civil service. In addition, the Pan-Asian rhetoric of Manchukuo and the prospect of Japan helping ordinary people in Manchuria greatly appealed to the idealistic youth of Japan. Young wrote about the young Japanese people who went to work in Manchukuo: "The men, and in some cases, the women, who answered the call of this land of opportunity, brought with them tremendous drive and ambition. In their efforts to remake their own lives, they remade an empire. They invested it with their preoccupations of modernity and their dreams of a Utopian future. They pushed it to embrace idealist rhetoric of social reform and justified itself in terms of Chinese nationalist aspiration. They turned it to architectural ostentation and the heady luxury of colonial consumption. They made it into a project of radical change, experimentation and possibility".
The Kwantung Army for its part tolerated the talk of social revolution in Manchukuo as the best way of gaining support from the Han majority of Manchukuo, who did not want Manchuria to be severed from China. Even more active in going to Manchukuo were the products of Tenkō ("Changing directions"), a process of brainwashing by the police of left-wing activists to make them accept that the Emperor was a god after all, whom they were best to serve. Tenkō was a very successful process that turned young Japanese who once had been ardent liberals or leftists who rejected the idea that the Emperor was a god into fanatical rightists, who made up for their previous doubts about the divinity of the Emperor with militant enthusiasm. One tenkōsha was Tachibana Shiraki, who once been a Marxist Sinologist who after his arrest and undergoing Tenkō became a fanatical right-winger. Tachibana went to Manchukuo in 1932, proclaiming that the theory of the "five races" working together was the best solution to Asia's problems and argued in his writings that only Japan could save China from itself, which was a complete change from his previous policies, where he criticized Japan for exploiting China. Other left-wing activists like Ōgami Suehiro did not undergo Tenkō, but still went to work in Manchukuo, believing it was possible to effect social reforms that would end the "semi-feudal" condition of the Chinese peasants of Manchukuo, and that he could use the Kwantung Army to effect left-wing reforms in Manchukuo. Ōgami went to work in the "agricultural economy" desk of the Social Research Unit of the South Manchurian Railroad company, writing up reports about the rural economy of Manchukuo that were used by the Kwantung Army and the Manchukuo state. Ōgami believed that his studies helped ordinary people, citing one study he did about water use in rural Manchukuo, where he noted a correlation between villages that were deprived of water and "banditry" (the codeword for anti-Japanese guerrillas), believing that the policy of improving water supply in villages was due to his study. The outbreak of the war with China in 1937 caused the state in Manchukuo to grow even bigger as a policy of "total war" came in, which meant there was a pressing demand for people with university degrees trained to think "scientifically". Fogel wrote that almost all of the university graduates from Japan who arrived in Manchukuo in the late 1930s were "largely left-wing Socialists and Communists. This was precisely at the time when Marxism had been all but banned in Japan, when (as Yamada Gōichi put) "if the expression shakai (social) appeared in the title of a book, it was usually confiscated".Young also noted—with reference to Lord Acton's dictum that "Absolute power corrupts absolutely"—that for many of the idealistic young Japanese civil servants, who believed that they could affect a "revolution from above" that would make the lives of ordinary people better, that the absolute power that they enjoyed over millions of people "went to their heads", causing them to behave with abusive arrogance towards the very people that they had gone to Manchukuo to help. Young wrote that it was a "monumental conceit" of the part of the young idealists to believe that they could use the Kwantung Army to achieve a "revolution from above" when it was the Kwantung Army that was using them. The ambitious plans for land reform in Manchukuo were vetoed by the Kwantung Army for precisely the reason that it might inspire similar reforms in Japan. The landlords in Japan tended to come from families who once belonged to the samurai caste, and almost all of the officers in the Imperial Japanese Army came from samurai families, which made the Kwantung Army very hostile towards any sort of land reform which might serve as an example for Japanese peasants. In October 1941, the Soviet spy ring headed by Richard Sorge was uncovered in Tokyo, which caused the authorities to become paranoid about Soviet espionage, and led to a new crackdown on the left. In November 1941, the Social Research Unit of the South Manchurian Railroad Company, which was well known as a hotbed of Marxism since the early 1930s, was raided by the Kenpeitai, who arrested 50 of those working in the Social Research Unit. At least 44 of those working in the Social Research Unit were convicted of violating the Peace Preservation Law, which made thinking about "altering the kokutai" a crime in 1942–43 and were given long prison sentences, of whom four died due to the harsh conditions of prisons in Manchukuo. As the men working in the Social Research Unit had played important roles in Manchukuo's economic policy and were university graduates from good families, the Japanese historian Hotta Eri wrote that the Kenpeitai was ordered to "handle them with care", meaning no torture of the sort that the Kenpeitai normally employed in its investigations. When the Japanese surrender was announced on 15 August 1945, Puyi agreed to abdicate.
Head of state
Prime Minister
Administrative divisions
Manchukuo was initially divided into three provinces. This number increased to five in 1934 when Sanjiang and Heihe were split off from Longjiang Province. A special ward of Beiman (Chinese: 北滿特別區) existed between 1 July 1933 and 1 January 1936. In 1941, Manchukuo was reorganized into 19 provinces, with the two special cities of Xinjing and Harbin. Each province was in turn divided in four (Xing'an dong) and 24 (Fengtian) prefectures. Harbin was later incorporated into Binjiang province. Andong and Jinzhou provinces separated themselves from Fengtian while Binjiang and Jiandao separated themselves from Jilin in the same year.
Economy
Manchukuo experienced rapid economic growth and progress in its social systems. During the 1920s, the Japanese Army under the influence of the Wehrstaat (Defense State) theories popular with the Reichswehr had started to advocate their own version of the Wehrstaat, the totalitarian "national defense state" which would mobilize an entire society for war in peacetime. An additional influence on the Japanese "total war" school who tended to be very anti-capitalist was the First Five Year Plan in the Soviet Union, which provided an example of rapid industrial growth achieved without capitalism. At least part of the reason why the Kwangtung Army seized Manchuria in 1931 was to use it as a laboratory for creating an economic system geared towards the "national defense state"; colonial Manchuria offered up possibilities for the army carrying out drastic economic changes that were not possible in Japan. From the beginning, the Army intended to turn Manchukuo into the industrial heartland of the empire, and starting in 1932, the Army sponsored a policy of forced industrialization that was closely modeled after the Five-Year Plan in the Soviet Union. Reflecting a dislike of capitalism, the Zaibatsu were excluded from Manchukuo and all of the heavy industrial factories were built and owned by Army-owned corporations. In 1935, there was a change when the "reform bureaucrat" Nobusuke Kishi was appointed Deputy Minister of Industrial Development. Kishi persuaded the Army to allow the zaibatsu to invest in Manchukuo, arguing that having the state carry out the entire industrialization of Manchukuo was costing too much money. Kishi pioneered an elitist system where bureaucrats such as himself developed economic plans, which the zaibatsu had to then carry out. Kishi succeeded in marshaling private capital in a very strongly state-directed economy to achieve his goal of vastly increased industrial production while at the same time displaying utter indifference to the exploited Chinese workers toiling in Manchukuo's factories; the American historian Mark Driscoll described Kishi's system as a "necropolitical" system where the Chinese workers were literally treated as dehumanized cogs within a vast industrial machine. The system that Kishi pioneered in Manchuria of a state-guided economy where corporations made their investments on government orders later served as the model for Japan's post-1945 development, albeit not with same level of brutal exploitation as in Manchukuo. By the 1930s, Manchukuo's industrial system was among the most advanced making it one of the industrial powerhouses in the region. Manchukuo's steel production exceeded Japan's in the late 1930s. Many Manchurian cities were modernized during the Manchukuo era. However, much of the country's economy was often subordinated to Japanese interests and, during the war, raw material flowed into Japan to support the war effort. Traditional lands were taken and redistributed to Japanese farmers with local farmers relocated and forced into collective farming units over smaller areas of land.
Transportation
When Manchukuo was founded as a Japanese puppet state, it inherited the railroad network of Manchuria that was built originally during an economic and military struggle between Russia and Japan over Chinese territory and became a focal point before and after the Russo-Japanese War. Chinese warlords had also aimed to build local lines when possible. Manchukuo's railroad system would consist mainly of the South Manchuria Railway, a Japanese concession in the Republic of China, and the Chinese Eastern Railway, a Russian concession which was still owned by the Soviet Union inside Manchukuo. The Soviet Union sold the Chinese Eastern Railway to Japanese Manchukuo in 1935, giving Japan and Manchukuo full control over the railroads of Manchuria.The Japanese built an efficient railway system that still functions well today. Known as the South Manchuria Railway or Mantetsu, this large corporation came to own large stakes in many industrial projects throughout the region. Mantetsu personnel were involved in the economic exploitation of occupied China during World War II, and colonial planning at the behest of the Imperial Japanese Army. Many railway lines in Manchukuo were owned by the Manchukuo National Railway. After 1933, the Manchukuo National Railway was fully owned by the South Manchuria Railway/Mantetsu. Mantetsu had close to monopoly status and its properties were guarded by the Kwantung Army.By the end of World War II, the South Manchuria Railway owned 70 companies and employed about 340,000 people in Manchukuo and occupied China.
Demographics
In 1908, the number of residents was 15,834,000, which rose to 30,000,000 in 1931 and 43,000,000 for the Manchukuo state. The population balance remained 123 men to 100 women and the total number in 1941 was 50,000,000.
In early 1934, the total population of Manchukuo was estimated as 30,880,000, with 6.1 persons the average family, and 122 men for each 100 women. These numbers included 29,510,000 Chinese (96%, which should have included the Manchu people), 590,760 Japanese (2%), 680,000 Koreans (2%), and 98,431 (<1%) of other nationality: White Russians, Mongols, etc. Around 80% of the population was rural. During the existence of Manchukuo, the ethnic balance did not change significantly, except that Japan increased the Korean population in China. From Japanese sources come these numbers: in 1940 the total population in Manchukuo of Longjiang, Rehe, Jilin, Fengtian, and Xing'an provinces at 43,233,954; or an Interior Ministry figure of 31,008,600. Another figure of the period estimated the total population as 36,933,000 residents. The majority of Han Chinese in Manchukuo believed that Manchuria was rightfully part of China, who both passively and violently resisted Japan's propaganda that Manchukuo was a "multinational state".After the Russian Civil War (1917–1922), thousands of Russians fled to Manchuria to join the Russian community already there. The Russians living in Manchuria were stateless and as whites had an ambiguous status in Manchukuo, which was meant to be a Pan-Asian state, whose official "five races" were the Chinese, Mongols, Manchus, Koreans, and Japanese. At various times, the Japanese suggested that the Russians might be a "sixth race" of Manchukuo, but this was never officially declared. In 1936, the Manchukuo Almanac reported that were 33,592 Russians living in the city of Harbin—the "Moscow of the Orient"—and of whom only 5,580 had been granted Manchukuo citizenship. Japanese imperialism was to a certain extent based on racism with the Japanese as the "great Yamato race", but there was always a certain dichotomy in Japanese thinking between an ideology based on racial differences based on bloodlines versus the idea of Pan-Asianism with Japan as the natural leader of all the Asian peoples. In 1940, ethnic Russians were included among the other nationalities of Manchukuo as candidates for conscription into the Manchukuo military.The British writer Peter Fleming visited Manchukuo in 1935, and while riding a train through the countryside of Manchukuo, a group of Japanese colonists mistook his Swiss traveling companion Kini for a Russian refugee, and began to beat her up. It was only after Fleming was able to prove to the Japanese that she was Swiss, not Russian, that the Japanese stopped and apologized, saying that they would never had beaten her up if they had known she was Swiss, saying that they sincerely believed she was a Russian when they assaulted her. Fleming observed that in Manchukuo: "you can beat White Russians up till you are blue in the face, because they are people without status in the world, citizens of nowhere". Fleming further noted that the Japanese in Manchukuo had a strong dislike of all European people, and because the Russians in Manchukuo were stateless without an embassy to issue protests if they were victimized, the Japanese liked to victimize them. Until World War II, the Japanese tended to leave alone those travelling to Manchukuo with a passport as they did not like to deal with protests from embassies in Tokyo about the mistreatment of their citizens. The Kwantung Army operated a secret biological-chemical warfare unit based in Pinfang, Unit 731, that performed gruesome experiments on people involving much visceration of the subjects to see the effects of chemicals and germs on the human body. In the late 1930s, the doctors of Unit 731 demanded more European subjects to experiment upon in order to test the efficiency the strains of anthrax and plague that they were developing leading to a great many of the Russians living in Manchukuo becoming the unwilling human guinea pigs of Unit 731. The Russian Fascist Party, which worked with the Japanese was used to kidnap various "unreliable" Russians living in Manchukuo for Unit 731 to experiment upon.The children of the Russian exiles often married Han Chinese, and the resulting children were always known in Manchukuo as "mixed water" people, who were shunned by both the Russian and Chinese communities. Chinese accounts, both at the time and later, tended to portray the Russians living in Manchuria as all prostitutes and thieves, and almost always ignored the contributions made by middle-class Russians to community life. Mindful of the way that Americans and most Europeans enjoyed extraterritorial rights in China at the time, accounts in Chinese literature about the Russians living in Manchukuo and their "mixed water" children often display a certain schadenfreude recounting how the Russians in Manchukuo usually lived in poverty on the margins of Manchukuo society with the local Chinese more economically successful. The South Korean historian Bong Inyoung noted when it came to writing about the "mixed water" people, Chinese writers tended to treat them as not entirely Chinese, but on the other hand were willing to accept these people as Chinese provided that would totally embrace Chinese culture by renouncing their Russian heritage, thus making Chineseness as much a matter of culture as of race.Around the same time the Soviet Union was advocating the Siberian Jewish Autonomous Oblast across the Manchukuo-Soviet border, some Japanese officials investigated a plan (known as the Fugu Plan) to attract Jewish refugees to Manchukuo as part of their colonisation efforts which was never adopted as official policy. The Jewish community in Manchukuo was not subjected to the official persecution that Jews experienced under Japan's ally Nazi Germany, and Japanese authorities were involved in closing down local anti-Semitic publications such as the Russian periodical Nashput. However, Jews in Manchukuo were victims of harassment by antisemitic elements among the White Russian population, one notable incident being the murder of Simon Kaspé. In 1937 the Far Eastern Jewish Council was created, chaired by the Harbin Jewish community leader Dr. Abraham Kaufman. Between 1937 and 1939 the city of Harbin in Manchukuo was the location of the Conference of Jewish Communities in the Far East. Following the Russian Red Army's invasion of Manchuria in 1945, Dr. Kaufman and several other Jewish community leaders were arrested by the Soviets and charged with anti-Soviet activities, resulting in Kaufman's imprisonment for ten years in a Soviet labor camp.
The Japanese Ueda Kyōsuke labeled all 30 million people in Manchuria as "Manchus", including Han Chinese, despite the fact that most of them were not ethnic Manchu, and the Japanese written, "Great Manchukuo" built upon Ueda's argument to claim that all 30 million "Manchus" in Manchukuo had the right to independence to justify splitting Manchukuo from China. In 1942 the Japanese wrote "Ten Year History of the Construction of Manchukuo" which attempted to emphasize the right of ethnic Japanese to the land of Manchukuo while attempting to delegitimize the Manchu's claim to Manchukuo as their native land, noting that most Manchus moved out during the Qing period and only returned later.
Population of main cities
Niuzhuang (119,000 or 180,871 in 1940)
Mukden (339,000 or 1,135,801 in 1940)
Xinjing (126,000 or 544,202 in 1940)
Harbin (405,000 or 661,948 in 1940)
Andong (92,000 or 315,242 in 1940)
Kirin (119,000 or 173,624 in 1940)
Tsitsihar (75,000 in 1940)Source: Beal, Edwin G (1945). "The 1940 Census of Manchuria". The Far Eastern Quarterly. 4 (3): 243–262. doi:10.2307/2049515. JSTOR 2049515. S2CID 166016710.
Japanese population
In 1931–2, there were 100,000 Japanese farmers; other sources mention 590,760 Japanese inhabitants. Other figures for Manchukuo speak of a Japanese population 240,000 strong, later growing to 837,000. In Xinjing, they made up 25% of the population. Accordingly, to the census of 1936, of the Japanese population of Manchukuo, 22% were civil servants and their families; 18% were working for the South Manchurian Railroad company; 25% had come to Manchukuo to establish a business, and 21% had come to work in industry. The Japanese working in the fields of transportation, the government, and in business tended to be middle class, white-collar people such as executives, engineers, and managers, and those Japanese who working in Manchukuo as blue-collar employees tended to be skilled workers. In 1934, it was reported that a Japanese carpenter working in Manchukuo with its growing economy could earn twice as much as he could in Japan. With its gleaming modernist office buildings, state of the art transport networks like the famous Asia Express railroad line, and modern infrastructure that was going up all over Manchukuo, Japan's newest colony become a popular tourist destination for middle-class Japanese, who wanted to see the "Brave New Empire" that was going up in the mainland of Asia. The Japanese government had official plans projecting the emigration of 5 million Japanese to Manchukuo between 1936 and 1956. Between 1938 and 1942 a batch of young farmers of 200,000 arrived in Manchukuo; joining this group after 1936 were 20,000 complete families. Of the Japanese settlers in Manchukuo, almost half came from the rural areas of Kyushu. When Japan lost sea and air control of the Yellow Sea in 1943–44, this migration stopped.About 2% of the Japanese population worked in agriculture. Many had been young, land-poor farmers in Japan that were recruited by the Patriotic Youth Brigade to colonize new settlements in Manchukuo. The Manchukuo government had seized great portions of these land through "price manipulation, coerced sales and forced evictions". Some Japanese settlers gained so much land that they could not farm it themselves and had to hire Chinese or Korean laborers for help, or even lease some of it back to its former Chinese owners, leading to uneasy, sometimes hostile relations between the groups.When the Red Army invaded Manchukuo, they captured 850,000 Japanese settlers. With the exception of some civil servants and soldiers, these were repatriated to Japan in 1946–7. Many Japanese orphans in China were left behind in the confusion by the Japanese government and were adopted by Chinese families. Many, however, integrated well into Chinese society. In the 1980s Japan began to organize a repatriation program for them but not all chose to go back to Japan.The majority of Japanese left behind in China were women, and these Japanese women mostly married Chinese men and became known as "stranded war wives" (zanryu fujin). Because they had children fathered by Chinese men, the Japanese women were not allowed to bring their Chinese families back with them to Japan, so most of them stayed. Japanese law allowed children fathered only by Japanese to become Japanese citizens.
Legal system
Although the League of Nations ruled that Japan had broken international law by seizing Manchuria, the Japanese invested much effort into giving Manchukuo a legal system, believing that this was the fastest way for international recognition of Manchukuo. A particular problem for the Japanese was that Manchukuo was always presented as a new type of state: a multi-ethnic Pan-Asian state comprising Japanese, Koreans, Manchus, Mongols and Chinese to mark the birth of the "New Order in Asia". Typical of the rhetoric surrounding Manchukuo was always portrayed as the birth of a glorious new civilization was the press release issued by the Japanese Information Service on 1 March 1932 announcing the "glorious advent" of Manchukuo with the "eyes of the world turned on it" proclaimed that the birth of Manchukuo was an "epochal event of far-reaching consequences in world history, marking the birth of a new era in government, racial relations, and other affairs of general interest. Never in the chronicles of the human race was any State born with such high ideals, and never has any State accomplished so much in such a brief space of its existence as Manchukuo".The Japanese went out of their way to try to ensure that Manchukuo was the embodiment of modernity in all of its aspects, as it was intended to prove to the world what the Asian peoples could accomplish if they worked together. Manchukuo's legal system was based upon the Organic Law of 1932, which featured a 12 article Human Rights Protection Law and a supposedly independent judiciary to enforce the law. The official ideology of Manchukuo was the wangdao ("Kingly Way") devised by a former mandarin under the Qing turned Prime Minister of Manchukuo Zheng Xiaoxu calling for an ordered Confucian society that would promote justice and harmony that was billed at the time as the beginning of a new era in world history. The purpose of the law in Manchukuo was not the protection of the rights of the individual, as the wangdao ideology was expressly hostile towards individualism, which was seen as a decadent European concept inimical to Asia, but rather the interests of the state by ensuring that subjects fulfilled their duties to the emperor. The wangdao favored the collective over the individual, as the wangdao called for all people to put the needs of society ahead of their own needs. Zheng together with the Japanese legal scholar Ishiwara Kanji in a joint statement attacked the European legal tradition for promoting individualism, which they claimed led to selfishness, greed and materialism, and argued that the wangdao with its disregard for the individual was a morally superior system. The seemingly idealistic Human Rights Protection Law counterbalanced the "rights" of the subjects with their "responsibilities" to the state with a greater emphasis on the latter, just as was the case in Japan. The wangdao promoted Confucian morality and spirituality, which was seen as coming down from Emperor Puyi, and as such, the legal system existed to serve the needs of the state headed by Emperor Puyi, who could change the laws as he saw fit. In this regard it is noteworthy that Legislative Yuan had only the power of assisting the Emperor with making laws, being endowed with far fewer powers than even the Imperial Diet in Japan had, which had the power to reject or approve laws. It was often suggested at the time that the Legislative Yuan of Manchukuo was a model for the Imperial Diet in Japan, an idea Hirohito, the Japanese emperor, was sympathetic to, but never took up. Hirohito in the end preferred the Meiji constitution passed by his grandfather in 1889 as it gave the Emperor of Japan ultimate power, while at the same time the fictitious nature of the Imperial Diet together with a Prime Minister and his cabinet governing Japan gave the Emperor a scapegoat when things went wrong.Initially, the judges who had served the Zhangs were retained, but in 1934, the Judicial Law College headed by the Japanese judge Furuta Masatake was opened in Changchun, to be replaced by a larger Law University in 1937. Right from the start, the new applicants vastly exceeded the number of openings as the first class of the Law College numbered only 100, but 1,210 students had applied. The legal system that the students were trained was closely modeled after the Japanese legal system, which in its turn was modeled after the French legal system, but there were a number of particularities unique to Manchukuo. Law students were trained to write essays on such topics as the "theory of the harmony of the five races [of Manchukuo]", the "political theory of the Kingly Way", "practical differences between consular jurisdiction and extraterritoriality", and how best to "realize the governance of the Kingly Way". The Japanese professors were "astonished" by the "enthusiasm" which the students wrote their essays on these subjects as the students expressed the hope that the wangdao was a uniquely Asian solution to the problems of the modern world, and that Manchukuo represented nothing less than the beginning of a new civilization that would lead to a utopian society in the near future. The Japanese professors were greatly impressed with the Confucian idealism of their students, but noted that their students all used stock phrases to the extent it was hard to tell their essays apart, cited examples of wise judges from ancient China while ignoring more recent legal developments, and were long on expressing idealistic statements about how the wangdao would lead to a perfect society, but were short on how explaining just how this was to be done in practice.An example of the extent of Japanese influence on the legal system of Manchukuo was that every issue of the Manchukuo Legal Advisory Journal always contained a summary of the most recent rulings by the Supreme Court of Japan, and the reasons why the Japanese Supreme Court had ruled in these cases. However, there were some differences between the Manchukuo and Japanese legal systems. In Japan itself, corporal punishment had been abolished as part of the successful effort to end the extraterritorial rights enjoyed by citizens of the European powers but retained for the Japanese colonies of Korea and Taiwan. However, corporal punishment, especially flogging, was a major part of the Manchukuo legal system with judges being very much inclined to impose floggings on low-income Chinese men convicted of minor offenses that would normally merit only a fine or a short prison sentence in Japan. Writing in a legal journal in 1936, Ono Jitsuo, a Japanese judge serving in Manchukuo, regretted having to impose floggings as a punishment for relatively minor crimes but argued that it was necessary of Manchukuo's 30 million people "more than half are ignorant and completely illiterate barbarians" who were too poor to pay fines and too numerous to imprison. In Taiwan and Korea, Japanese law was supreme, but judges in both colonies had to respect "local customs" in regard to family law. In the case of Manchukuo, a place with a Han majority, but that ideology proclaimed the "five races" of Japanese, Chinese, Koreans, Manchus, and Mongols as all equal, this led in effect to several family laws for each of the "five races" respecting their "local customs" plus the Russian and Hui Muslim minorities.
Policing
The Manchukuo police had the power to arrest without charge anyone who was engaged in the vaguely defined crime of "undermining the state". Manchukuo had an extensive system of courts at four levels staffed by a mixture of Chinese and Japanese judges. All of the courts had both two Japanese and two Chinese judges with the Chinese serving as the nominal superior judges and the Japanese the junior judges, but in practice the Japanese judges were the masters and the Chinese judges puppets. Despite the claims that the legal system of Manchukuo was a great improvement over the legal system presided over by Marshal Zhang Xueliang the "Young Marshal", the courts in Manchukuo were inefficient and slow, and ignored by the authorities whenever it suited them. In Asia, the rule of law and an advanced legal system are commonly seen as one of the marks of "civilization", which is why the chaotic and corrupt legal system run by Marshal Zhang was denigrated so much by the Japanese and Manchukuo media. In the early 1930s, Manchukuo attracted much legal talent from Japan as Japanese Pan-Asian idealists went to Manchuria with the goal of establishing a world-class legal system. As the Kwangtung Army had the ultimate power in Manchukuo, the best Japanese judges by the late 1930s preferred not to go to Manchukuo where their decisions could be constantly second-guessed, and instead only the second-rate judges went to Manchukuo. By 1937 the Japanese judges and lawyers in Manchukuo were either disillusioned Pan-Asian idealists or more commonly cynical opportunists and mediocre hacks who lacked the talent to get ahead in Japan. By contrast, the best of the ethnic Chinese law schools' graduates in Manchukuo chose to work as part of Manchukuo's judicial system, suggesting many middle-class Chinese families were prepared to accept Manchukuo.Starting with the Religions Law of May 1938, a cult of Emperor-worship closely modeled after the Imperial cult in Japan where Hirohito was worshiped as a living god, began in Manchukuo. Just as in Japan, schoolchildren began their classes by praying to a portrait of the emperor while imperial rescripts, and the imperial regalia become sacred relics imbued with magical powers by being associated with the god-emperor. As the Emperor Puyi was considered to be a living god, his will could not be limited by any law, and the purpose of the law was starkly reduced down to serving the will of the emperor rather than upholding values and rules. As in Japan, the idea governing the legal philosophy in Manchukuo was the Emperor was a living god who was responsible to no-one and who delegated some of his powers down to mere human beings who had the duty of obeying the will of the god-emperors. In Japan and Manchukuo, the actions of the god-emperors were always just and moral because gods could never do wrong, rather than because the god-emperors were acting to uphold moral values that existed a priori.Again following the Japanese system, in 1937 a new category of "thought crime" was introduced declaring that certain thoughts were now illegal and those thinking these forbidden thoughts were "thought criminals". People were thus convicted not for their actions, but merely for their thoughts. After the war with China began in July 1937, an "emergency law" was declared in Manchukuo, placing it under a type of martial law that suspended the theoretical civil liberties that existed up to that point, ordered the mobilization of society for total war, and increased the tempo of repression with the law on "thought crimes" being merely the most dramatic example. In April 1938, a new type of Special Security Court was created for those charged with the five types of "thought crime". On 26 August 1941, a new security law ruled that those tried before the Special Security Courts had no right of appeal or to a defense lawyer. One Special Security Court in Jinzhou between 1942 and 1945 sentenced about 1,700 people to death and another 2,600 for life imprisonment for "thought crimes", a figure that appears to be typical of the special courts. The police frequently used torture to obtain confessions and those tried in the Special Security Courts had no right to examine the evidence against them. Starting in 1943 the number of those tried and convicted by the courts rose drastically, though the number of death sentences remained stable. The rise in the number of convictions was due to the need for slave labor for the factories and mines of Manchukuo as the traditional supplies of slave labor from northern China were disturbed by World War II as most of those convicted were sentenced to work in the factories and mines. The American historian Thomas David Dubois wrote the legal system of Manchukuo went through two phases: the first lasting from 1931 to 1937, when the Japanese wanted to show the world a state with an ultra-modern legal system that was meant to be a shining tribute to Asians working together in brotherhood; and the second from 1937 to 1945 when the legal system becomes more of a tool for the totalitarian mobilization of society for total war.
Military
The Manchukuo Imperial Army was the ground component of the Empire of Manchukuo's armed forces and consisted of as many as 170,000 to 220,000 troops at its peak in 1945 by some estimates, having formally been established by the Army and Navy Act of 15 April 1932. The force included members of all the major ethnic groups of Manchukuo, which were trained and led by Japanese instructors and advisors. Despite the numerous attempts by the Japanese to improve the combat capability of the Imperial Army and instill a Manchukuoan patriotic spirit among its troops, the majority of its units were regarded as unreliable by Japanese officers. Their main role was to fight Nationalist and Communist insurgents that continued to resist the Japanese occupation of northeastern China, and occasionally the Manchukuo Imperial Army took part in operations against the Chinese National Revolutionary Army and the Soviet Red Army (usually in support of the Imperial Japanese Army). Initially its members were former soldiers of Marshal Zhang Xueliang's warlord army who had surrendered to Japan during the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. But since the Young Marshal's former troops were largely not loyal to the new regime and performed poorly against partisans, the new government of Manchukuo took efforts to recruit—and later draft—new soldiers. In 1934 a law was passed stating that only those that had been trained by the government of Manchukuo could serve as officers. The Military Supplies Requisition Law of 13 May 1937 allowed Japanese and Manchukuo authorities to draft forced laborers. The actual calling up of conscripts for the army did not begin until 1940, at which point all youths received a physical and 10% were to be selected for service. Between 1938 and 1940, several military academies were established to provide a new officer corps for the Imperial Army, including a specific school for ethnic Mongols.
After fighting against insurgents during the early to mid-1930s, the Manchukuo Imperial Army played mainly a supporting role during the actions in Inner Mongolia against Chinese forces, with news reports stating that some Manchukuoan units performed fairly well. Later it fought against the Soviet Red Army during the Soviet–Japanese border conflicts. A skirmish between Manchukuoan and Mongolian cavalry in May 1939 escalated as both sides brought in reinforcements and began the Battle of Khalkhin Gol. Although they did not perform well in the battle overall, the Japanese considered their actions decent enough to warrant expansion of the Manchukuo Army. Throughout the 1940s the only action it saw was against Communist guerrilla fighters and other insurgents, although the Japanese chose to rely only on the more elite units while the majority were used for garrison and security duty. Although Japan took the effort of equipping the Manchukuoan forces with some artillery (in addition to the wide variety it had inherited from Zhang Xueliang's army) along with some elderly tankettes and armored cars, the cavalry was the Imperial Army's most effective and developed branch. This was the force that was confronted by 76 battle-hardened Red Army divisions transferred from the European front in August 1945 during the Soviet invasion of Manchuria. The cavalry branch saw the most action against the Red Army, but the Manchukuo Army and their depleted Japanese Kwantung Army allies were quickly swept aside by the Soviet offensive. While some units remained loyal to their Japanese allies and put up a resistance, many mutinied against their Japanese advisors while others simply melted away into the countryside. Many of these Manchukuo Army troops would later join the Communists since the Chinese Nationalists would execute former collaborators with Japan, which became an important source of manpower and equipment for the Communists in the region.
The other two branches, the Manchukuo Imperial Air Force and the Manchukuo Imperial Navy, were small and underdeveloped, largely existing as token forces to give legitimacy to the Manchukuo regime. An Air Force was established in February 1937 with 30 men selected from the Manchukuo Imperial Army who were trained at the Japanese Kwantung Army aircraft arsenal in Harbin (initially the Kwantung Army did not trust the Manchukuoans enough to train a native air force for them). The Imperial Air Force's predecessor was the Manchukuo Air Transport Company (later renamed the Manchukuo National Airways), a paramilitary airline formed in 1931, which undertook transport and reconnaissance missions for the Japanese military. The first air unit was based in Xinjing (Changchun) and equipped with just one Nieuport-Delage NiD 29 and was later expanded with Nakajima Army Type 91 Fighters and Kawasaki Type 88 light bombers. Two more air units were established, but they suffered a setback when one hundred pilots took their aircraft and defected to insurgents after murdering their Japanese instructors. Nonetheless, three fighter squadrons were formed in 1942 from the first batch of cadets, being equipped with Nakajima Ki-27 fighters in addition to Tachikawa Ki-9s and Tachikawa Ki-55 trainers, along with some Mitsubishi Ki-57 transports. In 1945, because of American bombing raids, they were issued with Nakajima Ki-43 fighters to have a better chance of intercepting B-29 Superfortresses. Some pilots saw action against the American bombers and at least one Ki-27 pilot downed a B-29 by ramming his plane into it in a kamikaze attack. The air force practically ceased to exist by the Soviet invasion but there were isolated instances of Manchukuoan planes attacking Soviet forces. The Imperial Navy of Manchukuo existed mainly as a small river flotilla and consisted mainly of small gunboats and patrol boats, both captured Chinese ships and some Japanese additions. The elderly Japanese destroyer Kashi was lent to the Manchukuoan fleet from 1937 to 1942 as the Hai Wei before returning to the Imperial Japanese Navy. These ships were mostly crewed by Japanese sailors.
In addition, several specialized units functioned outside of the main command structure of the military also existed. The Manchukuo Imperial Guard was formed out of soldiers of ethnic Manchu descent, charged with the protection of the Kangde Emperor (Puyi) and senior officials, as well as to function as an honor guard. Despite this it took part in combat and was considered to be an effective unit. Throughout the 1930s a "Mongolian Independence Army" was established out of about 6,000 ethnic Mongolian recruits and fought its own war against bandits with some success. It was expanded in 1938 but merged with the regular Imperial Army in 1940, although Mongol units continued to perform well. A special Korean detachment was formed in 1937 on the personal initiative of a businessman of Korean descent. The unit was small but distinguished itself in combat against Communist guerrillas and was noted by the Japanese for its martial spirit, becoming one of the few puppet units to earn the respect of its Japanese superiors.
Human rights abuses
War crimes
According to a joint study by historians Zhifen Ju, Mitsuyochi Himeta, Toru Kubo, and Mark Peattie, more than ten million Chinese civilians were used by the Kwantung Army for slave labor in Manchukuo under the supervision of the Kōa-in.The Chinese slave laborers often suffered illness due to high-intensity manual labor. Some badly ill workers were directly pushed into mass graves in order to avoid the medical expenditure and the world's most serious mine disaster, at Benxihu Colliery, happened in Manchukuo.
Bacteriological weapons were experimented on humans by the infamous Unit 731 located near Harbin in Beinyinhe from 1932 to 1936 and to Pingfan until 1945. Victims, mostly Chinese, Russians and Koreans, were subjected to vivisection, sometimes without anesthesia.
Abuse of ethnic minorities
The Oroqen suffered a significant population decline under Japanese rule. The Japanese distributed opium among them and subjected some members of the community to human experiments, and combined with incidents of epidemic diseases this caused their population to decline until only 1,000 remained. The Japanese banned Oroqen from communicating with other ethnicities, and forced them to hunt animals for them in exchange for rations and clothing which were sometimes insufficient for survival, which led to deaths from starvation and exposure. Opium was distributed to Oroqen adults older than 18 as a means of control. After 2 Japanese troops were killed in Alihe by an Oroqen hunter, the Japanese poisoned 40 Oroqen to death. The Japanese forced Oroqen to fight for them in the war which led to a population decrease of Oroqen people. Even those Oroqen who avoided direct control by the Japanese found themselves facing conflict from anti-Japanese forces of the Chinese Communists, which contributed to their population decline during this period.Between 1931 and 1945, the Hezhen population declined by 80% or 90%, due to heavy opium use and deaths from Japanese cruelty, such as slave labor and relocation by the Japanese.
Drug trafficking
In 2007, an article by Reiji Yoshida in The Japan Times argued that Japanese investments in Manchukuo were partly financed by selling drugs. According to the article, a document found by Yoshida shows that the Kōa-in was directly implicated in providing funds to drug dealers in China for the benefit of the puppet governments of Manchukuo, Nanjing and Mongolia. This document corroborates evidence analyzed earlier by the Tokyo tribunal which stated that:
Japan's real purpose in engaging in drug traffic was far more sinister than even the debauchery of Chinese people. Japan, having signed and ratified the opium conventions, was bound not to engage in drug traffic, but she found in the alleged but false independence of Manchukuo a convenient opportunity to carry on a worldwide drug traffic and cast the guilt upon that puppet state ... In 1937, it was pointed out in the League of Nations that 90% of all illicit white drugs in the world were of Japanese origin ...
International relations and recognition
China did not recognize Manchukuo but the two sides established official ties for trade, communications, and transportation. In 1933, the League of Nations adopted the Lytton Report, declaring that Manchuria remained rightfully part of China, leading Japan to resign its membership. The Manchukuo case persuaded the United States to articulate the so-called Stimson Doctrine, under which international recognition was withheld from changes in the international system created by the force of arms.In spite of the League's approach, the new state was diplomatically recognized by El Salvador (3 March 1934) and the Dominican Republic (1934), Costa Rica (23 September 1934), Italy (29 November 1937), Spain (2 December 1937), Germany (12 May 1938) and Hungary (9 January 1939). The Soviet Union extended de facto recognition on 23 March 1935, but explicitly noted that this did not mean de jure recognition. However, upon signing the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact on 13 April 1941, the Soviet Union recognized Manchukuo de jure in exchange for Japan recognizing the integrity of neighboring Mongolia. The USSR did maintain five consulates-general in Manchukuo initially, although in 1936–37 these were reduced to just two: one in Harbin and another in Manzhouli. Manchukuo opened consulates in Blagoveshchensk (September 1932) and in Chita (February 1933).It is commonly believed that the Holy See established diplomatic relations with Manchukuo in 1934, but the Holy See never did so. This belief is partly due to the erroneous reference in Bernardo Bertolucci's 1987 film The Last Emperor that the Holy See diplomatically recognized Manchukuo. Bishop Auguste Ernest Pierre Gaspais was appointed as "representative ad tempus of the Holy See and of the Catholic missions of Manchukuo to the government of Manchukuo" by the Congregation De Propaganda Fide (a purely religious body responsible for missions) and not by the Secretariat of State responsible for diplomatic relations with states. In the 1940s the Vatican established full diplomatic relations with Japan, but it resisted Japanese and Italian pressure to recognize Manchukuo and the Nanking regime.After the outbreak of World War II, the state was recognized by Slovakia (1 June 1940), Vichy France (12 July 1940), Romania (1 December 1940), Bulgaria (10 May 1941), Finland (17 July 1941), Denmark (August 1941), Croatia (2 August 1941)—all controlled or influenced by Japan's ally Germany—as well as by Wang Jingwei's Reorganized National Government of the Republic of China (30 November 1940), Thailand (5 August 1941) and the Philippines (1943)—all under the control or influence of Japan.
Society and culture
National symbols
Aside from the national flag, the orchid, reportedly Puyi's favorite flower, became the royal flower of the country, similar to the chrysanthemum in Japan. The sorghum flower also became a national flower by decree in April 1933. "Five Races Under One Union" was used as a national motto.
Education
Manchukuo developed an efficient public education system. The government established many schools and technical colleges, 12,000 primary schools in Manchukuo, 200 middle schools, 140 normal schools (for preparing teachers), and 50 technical and professional schools. In total the system had 600,000 children and young pupils and 25,000 teachers. Local Chinese children and Japanese children usually attended different schools, and the ones who did attend the same school were segregated by ethnicity, with the Japanese students assigned to better-equipped classes.Confucius's teachings also played an important role in Manchukuo's public school education. In rural areas, students were trained to practice modern agricultural techniques to improve production. Education focused on practical work training for boys and domestic work for girls, all based on obedience to the "Kingly Way" and stressing loyalty to the Emperor. The regime used numerous festivals, sports events, and ceremonies to foster loyalty of citizens. Eventually, Japanese became the official language in addition to the Chinese taught in Manchukuo schools.
Film
The Photographic Division, part of the public relations section of the South Manchurian Railway was created in 1928 to produce short documentary films about Manchuria to Japanese audiences. In 1937, the Manchukuo Film Association was established by the government and the South Manchurian Railway in a studio in Jilin province. It was founded by Masahiko Amakasu, who also helped the career of Yoshiko Ōtaka, also known as Ri Koran. He also tried to ensure that Manchukuo would have its own industry and would be catering mainly to Manchurian audiences. The films for the most part usually promote pro-Manchukuo and pro-Japanese views. General Amakasu shot various "documentaries" showing carefully choreographed scenes worthy of Hollywood of Emperor Puyi in his capital of Xinjing (modern Changchun) being cheered by thousands of subjects and reviewing his troops marching in parades that were intended to help legitimize Manchukuo's independence. After World War II, the archives and the equipment of the association were used by the Changchun Film Studio of the People's Republic of China.
Dress
The Changshan and the Qipao, both derived from traditional Manchu dress, were considered national dresses in Manchukuo.In a meeting with the Concordia Association, the organizers devised what was termed Concordia Costume, or the kyōwafuku, in 1936. Even Japanese such as Masahiko Amakasu and Kanji Ishiwara adopted it. It was gray and a civilianized version of the Imperial Japanese Army uniform. It was similar to the National Clothes (kokumin-fuku) worn by Japanese civilians in World War II as well as the Zhongshan suit. A pin of either a Manchukuo flag or a five-pointed, five colored star with the Manchukuo national colors were worn on the collars.
Sport
Manchukuo had a national football team, and football was considered the country's de facto national sport; the Football Association of Manchukuo was formed around it.Manchukuo hosted and participated in baseball matches with Japanese teams. Some of the games of the Intercity baseball tournament were held in the country, and played with local teams.Manchukuo was to compete in the 1932 Summer Olympics, but one of the athletes who intended to represent Manchukuo, Liu Changchun, refused to join the team and instead joined as the first Chinese representative in the Olympics. There were attempts by Japanese authorities to let Manchukuo join the 1936 games, but the Olympic Committee persisted in the policy of not allowing an unrecognized state to join the Olympics. Manchukuo had a chance to participate in the planned 1940 Helsinki Olympics, but the onset of World War II prevented the games from taking place. Manchukuo instead sent athletes to compete at the 1940 East Asian Games in Tokyo organised by the Japanese Empire, as a replacement for the cancelled 1940 Summer Olympics.
Stamps and postal history
Manchukuo issued postage stamps from 28 July 1932 until its dissolution following the surrender of the Empire of Japan in August 1945. The last issue of Manchukuo was on 2 May 1945.
Notable people
Local Administration:
Puyi: Emperor of Manchukuo (1934–1945); formerly the last Emperor of China and the Qing dynasty
Pujie: Head of the Manchukuo Imperial Guards (1933–1945), younger brother of Puyi, and former Qing prince
Empress Wanrong: Empress of Manchukuo (1934–1945) and Empress Consort of Puyi
Jin Yunying: Younger sister of Puyi and former Qing princess
Yoshiko Kawashima: Spy for the Kwantung Army and Manchukuo and former Qing princess
Zheng Xiaoxu: First Prime Minister of Manchukuo (1932–1935) and close advisor and tutor to Puyi
Luo Zhenyu: Chairman of the Japan-Manchukuo Cultural Cooperation Society, tutor and advisor to Puyi, and Qing loyalist
Zhang Jinghui: Second and last Prime Minister of Manchukuo (1935–1945), Foreign Minister (1937), and Minister of Defense (1932–1935)
Ma Zhanshan: Minister of Defense (1932) and governor of Heilongjiang province (1931–1933); former Chinese general who was one of the main leaders against the Japanese during the invasion of Manchuria
Xi Qia: Imperial Household Minister and Interior Minister (1935–1945) and later Minister of Finance (1932–1935)
Zang Shiyi: Governor of Liaoning province, Speaker of the Senate (1935–1945), Vice Minister for Home Affairs, and ambassador to the Reorganized National Government of China
Xie Jieshi: Foreign Minister (1932–1935), ambassador to Japan, and Minister of Industry
Yu Zhishan: Minister of Defense (1935–1939), commander-in-chief of the 1st Army, and Army Minister
Sun Qichang: Director of the Spirits and Tobacco State Monopoly, governor of Heilongjiang province, governor of Longjiang province, Minister of Finance, and Minister of Civil Affairs
Liu Menggeng: Governor of Rehe province (1934–1937)
Bao Guancheng: Mayor of Harbin and ambassador to Japan
Zhang Yanqing: Foreign Minister (1935–1937), Industry Minister, and co-director of the Concordia Association
Li Shaogeng: Foreign Minister (1942–1944), Minister of Transportation, and Special Envoy to the Reorganized National Government of China
Ruan Zhenduo: Chief Secretary for Liaoning province, co-founder of the Concordia Association, Foreign Minister (1944–1945), Minister of Education (1935–1937), Minister of Transportation (1940–1942), and Minister of Finance (1942–1944)
Ding Jianxiu: Minister of Transportation (1934–1935) and Minister of Enterprises (1935–1937)
Lü Ronghuan: Mayor of Harbin, Governor of Harbin Special Municipality (1933–1935), Governor of Binjiang Province (1934–1935), Minister of Civil Affairs (1935–1937) (1940–1941), Minister of Enterprises (1937), Minister of Industries (1937–1940), and special envoy to the Reorganized National Government of China (1941–1944)
Yuan Jinkai: Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal
Li Yuan: Co-founder of the East Hebei Autonomous Council
Tong Jixu: Chief of Security to the Imperial Household Department
Zhang Haipeng: Governor of Rehe province (1933–1934), Commander of the Taoliao Army, Commander of the Rehe Guard Army
Li Jizhun: General and commander of the National Salvation Army (A Japanese puppet force)
Liu Guitang: Manchukuo soldier and commander, involved in the actions in Inner Mongolia (1933–1936)
Cui Xingwu: Officer in the 55th army of Rehe under Tang Yulin and commanded the 9th Cavalry brigade during the Battle of Rehe before subsequently defecting to the Japanese; later involved in the actions in Inner Mongolia
Yangsanjab: Head of the Khorchin Left Wing Middle Banner and a Mongol prince from Southeastern MongoliaCulture:
Jue Qing: Writer; later labeled as a "traitor to the Chinese nation"White Russian leaders:
Vladimir Kislitsin: Former Imperial Russian Army officer and later a commander of the White movement
Grigory Mikhaylovich Semyonov: Former Imperial Russian Army soldier and general of the White movement; employed by Puyi, the Emperor of Manchukuo
Urzhin Garmaev: White movement general who served in the Manchukuo Imperial Army as a lieutenant general
Konstantin Petrovich Nechaev: Former Imperial Russian Army officer and general of the White movement; lived in Manchukuo after its founding
Konstantin Rodzaevsky: Leader of the Russian Fascist Party based in Manzhouli, ManchukuoNotable Koreans:
Park Chung Hee: Enlisted and served in the Manchukuo Imperial Army during World War II as a lieutenant; later served in the Korean War and became a general in the Republic of Korea Army and the 3rd President of South Korea; assassinated in 1979
Chung Il-kwon: Served in the Manchukuo Imperial Army as a captain during World War II; later served in the Korean War and became a South Korean Army General and subsequently served as Foreign Minister and the 8th Prime Minister of South Korea
Paik Sun-yup: Enlisted in the Manchukuo Imperial Army during World War II as a first lieutenant and served with the Gando Special Force; later joined the South Korean Army and served in the Korean War as a general; died on July 10, 2020
Kim Chang-ryong: Joined the Imperial Japanese Army in Manchukuo and served in the Military police as a detective to hunt down moles in the Kenpeitai and Communists; later joined the South Korean Army as a high-ranking officer and became the head of the National Intelligence Service; assassinated in 1956 by army colleagues
In popular culture
in Hergé's 1934 Tintin: The Blue Lotus, Tintin and Snowy are invited to China in the midst of the 1931 Japanese invasion of Manchuria, where he reveals the machinations of Japanese spies and uncovers a drug-smuggling ring.
In Masaki Kobayashi's The Human Condition (1959), Kaji, the main protagonist, is a labor supervisor assigned to a workforce consisting of Chinese prisoners in a large mining operation in Japanese-colonized Manchuria.Bernardo Bertolucci's 1987 film The Last Emperor presented a portrait of Manchukuo through the memories of Emperor Puyi, during his days as a political prisoner in the People's Republic of China.Haruki Murakami's 1995 novel The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle deals greatly with Manchukuo through the character of Lieutenant Mamiya. Mamiya recalls, in person and in correspondence, his time as an officer in the Kwantung Army in Manchukuo. While the period covered in these recollections extends over many years, the focus is on the final year of the war and the Soviet invasion of Manchuria.The 2008 South Korean western The Good, the Bad, the Weird is set in the desert wilderness of 1930s Manchuria.Michael Chabon's 2007 novel The Yiddish Policemen's Union; in this alternative 2007 Manchukuo has broken off from the rest of China and is an independent nation in its own right, and has its own Space Programme.
See also
Further reading
Manchukuo Propaganda Posters & Bills
Manchukuo Imperial Army
Manchu Money Museum
Education in Mongolia and Manchukuo
Manchukuo Flags
"On Macro-economic Statistics for Manchukuo" by Yuzo Yamamoto
"Toshiro Matsumoto s research over Manchukuo" Archived 20 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine
"Vaticano-Manchukuo no sirve de mea culpa" by Gianni Valente
"Manchukuo National Anthem"
JAPAN-MANCHOUKUO PROTOCOL
" over Manchukuo"
Zionism and the Japanese East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere
Japanese references to Mantetsu Railway Company
Mukden Incident photos
World War II database (1)
World War II database (2) |
Lyuh Woon-hyung or Yo Un-hyung (25 May 1886 – 19 July 1947) was a Korean politician who argued that Korean independence was essential to world peace, and a reunification activist who struggled for the independent reunification of Korea following its national division in 1945.
Lyuh Woon-hyung, Syngman Rhee and Kim Koo were some of the prominent figures of the Provisional Government of Korea in exile. He is also known by his pen name Mongyang (몽양; 夢陽). He is rare among politicians in modern Korean history for being revered in both South and North Korea.
Biography
Lyuh was born in Yangpyeong, Gyeonggi Province, the son of a local yangban magnate. At age 15, Lyuh enrolled in the Baejae School but in less than one year moved to Heunghwa School. After moving to yet another school and leaving that school before graduation, Lyuh began in 1907 to study the Bible and befriended the American missionary Charles Allen Clark, who helped him found Kidok Kwangdong School in 1909. In 1910, Lyuh dramatically parted from Korean tradition by freeing slaves owned by his household. In 1911, Lyuh enrolled in Pyongyang Presbyterian Theological Seminary and, in 1914, went to China where he studied English literature at a university in Nanjing. In 1917, he moved to Shanghai. In 1918, he organized the Mindan (Korea Resident Association) in that city, to provide a base for pro-independence activities. Lyuh took part in the establishment of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea in 1919 and served as a member of that body's Legislative Assembly (Imsi Uijeongwon).
Like many in the Korean independence movement, Lyuh sought aid from both right and left. In 1920, he joined the Koryǒ Communist Party (고려 공산당, Goryeo Gongsandang) and, in 1921, attended the First Congress of the Toilers of the Far East in Moscow. When Lyuh Woon Hyung was in Moscow, He met Leon Trotsky and Vladimir Lenin to discuss Korean Independence. In 1924 he joined Sun Yat-sen's Chinese Nationalist Party and worked for Sino-Korean cooperation. After being released from prison in 1932, Lyuh took on a variety of independence activities in areas of the media and sports. During the Berlin Olympics a Korean marathon runner, Sohn Kee-chung, won the gold medal. The Chungang Daily News, of which Lyuh was the editor and owner, ran the photograph but removed the Japanese flag from his jersey. The Japanese closed down the newspaper and arrested Lyuh for the action. In addition to serving as editor of the Chungang Daily News, he also served as the president of the Choson JungAng Ilbo (조선중앙일보) and other sports associations. His pen-name was Mongyang (몽양; 夢陽), using the Hanja for "dream" and "the sun".In anticipation of Japan's defeat in the Second World War, Lyuh organized in 1944 the Korean Independence League (조선건국동맹, Joseon Geon-guk Dongmaeng), a nationwide underground organization. Lyuh has been experienced US Doolittle Raid in which US implemented for reprisal attack in 1942 after Pearl Harbor. He also formed the Committee for Preparation of Korean Independence (조선 건국 준비 위원회, Joseon Geon-guk Junbi Wiwonhoe), succeeded by the Korean Independence League. When the defeat of the Japanese forces in Korea became imminent in August 1945, the Japanese official Endo Ryusaku established contact with Lyuh and agreed on the release of prisoners and the Japanese withdrawal from Korea. On the 17 August, Lyuh established the Committee for Preparation of Korean Independence which created over 140 subsections in North and South Korea by the end of August.On 6 September 1945, Lyuh proclaimed the People's Republic of Korea with Syngman Rhee as its president and Lyuh vice-president. When the United States landed on the Korean Peninsula two days later, General Hodge did not recognize the government of the People's Republic of Korea that Lyuh Woon Hyung established. In October, he stepped down under pressure from the United States Military Government, and organized the People's Party of Korea, becoming its chairman. For the following months of the anti-trusteeship movement and other political changes, Lyuh took a line of action in concert with the communists.
When a movement to unify the political left and the political right arose in May 1946, Lyuh represented the center-left. However, Lyuh's political stance was attacked by both the extreme right and the extreme left, and his efforts to pursue a centrist position was made increasingly untenable by the political realities of the time.
On 19 July 1947, Lyuh was assassinated in Seoul by a 19-year-old man named Han Chigeun, a recent refugee from North Korea and an active member of the right-wing terrorist group the White Shirts Society. Lyuh's death was widely mourned.
Timeline
25 May 1886 – Born in Yangpyeong Yangseo-myeun Shingok-ri (now Shinwon-ri) Myogok (妙谷), Gyeonggi Province
1894 – In period of Donghak Peasant Revolution, his family fled to Danyang, Chungcheongbuk-do and after 2 years, returned to Myogok.
1900 – Enrolled in the Baejae School
1901 – Transferred to Heung-hwa School (흥화학교).
1902 – Entered school attached to the Correspondent bureau (우무학당).
1903 – Spouse died in August. Grandfather died in October.
1905 – Mother died.
1906 – Father died.
1907 – Became Christian. Founded Gwang-dong school (광동학교) in Yangpyeong.
1908 – Founded branch of National Debt Repayment Movement in Yangpyeong and toured to speech about it.
1910 – Became a teacher of Chodang Uisuk (초당의숙) of Gangneung.
1911 – Had been fired from school because of rejecting Japanese era name. Entered to Pyongyang seminarium and studied to 2 years
1914 – Entered the English literature course of Jinling University (金陵大学) in Nanjing, studied 3 years.
1917 – Got a job of travel Agent at Xiehe bookstore (協和書局) in Shanghai and helped Koreans in passage procedure. Met Sun Yat-sen. In summer, returned to Korea in private. Fled to China with Lee Beom-seok.
1918 – Founded New Korea Youth Party in Shanghai and had been appointed to the leader.
1919 – Became deputy of Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea in Shanghai.
27 November 1919 – Visited Japan and had a speech at the Imperial Hotel about Right to life of Koreans.
1920 – Joined the Koryǒ Communist Party in Shanghai and became a translation committee member and propaganda agent.
1921 – Established "Korea-China Cooperated company" (Hanjung hojosa, 韓中互助社, 한중호조사) in Shanghai.
January 1922 – Participated in "Conference for Oppressed people of the Far east" (遠東被壓迫民族大會, 원동피압박민족대회) in Moscow. Met Vladimir Lenin and discussed about anti-imperialism movement in Korea. in October, Organized "Hanguk Nobyunghoe" (韓國勞兵會, 한국노병회) with Kim gu, Son jung-do etc.
1924 – Became a special member of the Communist Party of China
July 1929 – Became coach of the soccer team of Fudan University and went to the Southeast Asia for educational travel with players. While in travel he made a speech of Anti-Imperialism at the Philippines, Singapore etc. Arrested by Japanese police in Shanghai and taken to Korea. Had been sentenced to imprisonment for 3 years.
November 1932 – Had been released on parole from the prison of Daejeon.
February 1933 – Became the president of the Chungang Daily News (Chosun JungAng Ilbo, 조선중앙일보).
1934 – Became chairman of the "Korea Sports Council" (조선체육회).
1935 – Set up the gravestone in Yi Sun-sin graveyard of Asan.
August 1936 – Chungang Daily News ceased publication eternally for removing Japanese flag of Sohn Kee-chung's picture.
1940 – Gone off to Tokyo and led and inspire Korean students in Japan. Met Fumimaro Konoe, Shūmei Ōkawa.
December 1942 – Arrested by Military police for violation of "Peace Preservation Law" (治安維持法)
1943 – Got released from prison with three years of probation. while retired from active life, he made contact with comrade and led the young people.
10 August 1944 – Formed Korean Restoration Brotherhood Secretly in Sam-gwang Oriental Medical Clinic (삼광한의원) in Seoul and expanded it on a nationwide scale. Rejected the suggestion to go to China of Endo Ryusaku (遠藤柳作), the vice-minister of the post of Governor-General of Korea (朝鮮総督府政務総監). Formed the "Farmers' Brotherhood"(농민동맹) at the Yongmun Mountain in Yangpyeong.
15 August 1945 – Met Endo and had been transferred authority of administration and public order from Endo.
17 August 1945 – Formed the Committee for Preparation of Korean Independence.6 September 1945 – Had been elected to temporary chairman of "National People's Representative Conference"(전국인민대표자회의 →People's Republic of Korea).
12 November 1945 – Formed "People's Party of Korea" (조선 인민당).
9 February to 11 February 1946 – Visited Haeju, Pyongyang and met Cho Man-sik, Kim Il Sung.
15 February 1946 – Be elected one of the co-chairmen of "National Front for Democracy" (民主主義民族戰線, 민주주의민족전선).
May 1946 – Propelled "Left-right cooperation movement" (좌우합작운동) with Kim Kyu-sik, An Jae-hong etc.
17 July 1946 – kidnapped and taken to a mountain of Sindang-dong, Seoul and escaped risk of being murdered
16 October 1946 – Founded "Socialist Labourer's Party" (사회로동당).
28 December 1946 to 8 January 1947 – Visited Pyongyang.
24 May 1947 – Founded "Labor People's Party" (근로인민당). Had been elected to chairman.
19 July 1947 – Had been Assassinated by Han Ji-geun, a member of secret society for White Terror "Baek-ui-sa" (백의사), at the Hyehwa-dong Rotary road, Seoul.
Belief
혈농어수 – 피는 물보다 짙다 (血濃於水): Blood is thicker than water
Genealogy
Grandfather : Lyuh Gyu-sin (여규신, 呂圭信, ? – 1903 October)
Grandmother : ?
Father : Lyuh Jeong-hyeon (여정현, 呂鼎鉉, ? – 1906)
Mother : Lee of Gyeongju (경주 이씨, 慶州李氏, ? – 1905 September)
Spouse : Rhew, Se-yeong's daughter (류세영의 장녀, 진주柳氏, ? – 1903 October, Married 1899–1903)
Younger brother's grandson, Ki-Won Rhew (President, Willows Memorial Foundation of Korea's First Aviation School & Air Corps, 윌로우스 대한민국 임시정부 한인비행학교/비행대 기념재단 (윌로우스 항공 기념재단))
Spouse : Jin Sang-ha (진상하, 陳相夏, 1885 – ?)
Daughter : Lyuh Nan-gu (여난구, 呂鸞九, 1923 – ?), Dropped out Ewha Womans University due to heart disease
Daughter : Lyuh Yeon-gu (여연구, 呂鷰九, 1927 – 1996 September 28)
Daughter : Lyuh Won-gu (여원구, 呂鴛九, 1928 – 2009 July 30)
Daughter : Lyuh Hyeong-gu (여형구, 呂鶑九)
Son : Lyuh Bong-gu (여봉구, 呂鳳九, 1914 – 1932 November 14), Died of typhoid fever
Son : Lyuh Hong-gu (여홍구, 呂鴻九, 1918 – 1939), Died of tetanus
Son : Lyuh Young-gu (여영구, 呂鸋九, 1930~?)
Japanese woman
Son : Lyuh Boong-gu (여붕구, 呂鵬九, 1936 – 1991), Died of Heart attack
Jin Ok-chul (진옥출, 陳玉出)
Daughter : Lyuh Sun-gu(여순구, 呂鶉九, 1942 – )
Brother : Lyuh Woon-il (여운일, 呂運一, 1890 – ?)
Brother : Lyuh Woon-hong (여운홍, 呂運弘, 1891 September 1 – 1973 February 3)
Sister : Lyuh
In popular culture
Portrayed by Kim Gil-ho in the 1981 MBC TV series The First Republic.
Portrayed by Kim Yun-hyung in the 2003 SBS TV series Age of Wanderer.
Portrayed by Shin Goo in the 2006 KBS1 TV series Seoul 1945.
See also
Source: Paekbom Ilchi, English version, historical notes.
Who was Yo Un-Hyung?
Who was Yo Un-hyung? (Part II)
Mongyang Memorial Society (in Korean)
Ministry of Patriots and Veterans Affairs, 독립유공자 공훈록 – Yeo Woon-hyung (in Korean)
<신간> '여운형을 말한다' (in Korean) |
Chun Doo-hwan (Korean: 전두환; Korean pronunciation: [tɕʌnduɦwɐn] or [tɕʌn] [tuɦwɐn]; 18 January 1931 – 23 November 2021) was a South Korean army general and military dictator who ruled as an unelected strongman from 1979 to 1980 before replacing Choi Kyu-hah as president of South Korea from 1980 to 1987.Chun usurped power after the 1979 assassination of president Park Chung-hee. Park was himself a military dictator who had ruled since 1962. Chun orchestrated the 12 December 1979 military coup, then cemented his military dictatorship in the 17 May 1980 military coup in which he declared martial law and later set up a concentration camp for "purificatory education". He established the highly authoritarian Fifth Republic of Korea on 3 March 1981. After the June Struggle democratization movement of 1987, Chun conceded to allowing the December 1987 presidential election. It was won by his close friend and ally Roh Tae-woo, who would continue many of Chun's policies during his own rule into the 1990s.In 1996, Chun was sentenced to death for his role in the suppression of the Gwangju Uprising which led to the deaths of hundreds, possibly thousands, of citizens. Chun was pardoned the following year, along with Roh Tae-woo who had been sentenced to 17 years, by President Kim Young-sam, on the advice of the incoming President-elect Kim Dae-jung whom Chun's administration had sentenced to death some 20 years earlier. Chun and Roh were fined $203 million and $248 million respectively, amounts that were embezzled through corruption during their regimes, which were mostly never paid.In his final years, Chun was criticized for his unapologetic stance and the lack of remorse for his actions as a dictator and his wider regime. Chun died on 23 November 2021 at the age of 90 after a relapse of myeloma.
Early life and education
Chun was born on 18 January 1931 in Yul-Gok myeon, a poor farming town in Hapcheon County, South Gyeongsang Province, Korea. Chun Doo-hwan's family is from the Wonsan Jeon Clan. His 14th generation ancestor, Jeon Je (Korean: 전제; Hanja: 全霽) was a military officer who was executed for violating the orders of Gwon Yul during the Imjin War. Chun Doo-hwan was the fourth son out of ten children to Chun Sang-woo and Kim Jeong-mun. Chun's oldest two brothers, Yeol-hwan and Kyuu-gon, died in an accident when he was an infant. Chun grew up knowing his remaining older brother Ki-hwan and his younger brother Kyeong-hwan.
Around 1936, Chun's family moved to Daegu, where he began attending Horan Elementary School. Chun's father had run-ins with the kempeitai in the past; in the winter of 1939 he murdered a police captain. Their family immediately fled to Jilin, Manchukuo, where they stayed in hiding for two years before returning. When Chun finally started attending elementary school again, he was two years behind his original classmates.
In 1947, Chun began attending Daegu Vocational Middle School, located nearly 25 km from his home. Chun moved on to Daegu Vocational High School.
Military career
After graduating from high school in 1951, Chun gained entry into the Korea Military Academy (KMA). While there, he made several key friends among the students who would later play instrumental roles in helping Chun seize control of the country. He graduated in February 1955 with a Bachelor of Science degree and a commission as a second lieutenant in the 11th class of the KMA. He later trained in the United States, specializing in guerilla tactics and psychological warfare, and married Lee Soon-ja, the daughter of the KMA's commandant at the time of his attendance, in 1958.
Chun, then a captain, led a demonstration at the KMA to show support for the May 16 coup in 1961 led by Park Chung Hee. Chun was subsequently made secretary to the commander of the Supreme Council for National Reconstruction, placing him directly under Park. Chun was quickly promoted to major in 1962, while continuing to make powerful friends and acquaintances. As a major, Chun was the deputy chief of operations for the Special Warfare Command's battle headquarters, and later worked for the Supreme Council for Reconstruction again as the Chief Civil Affairs Officer. In 1963, Chun was given a position in the Korean Central Intelligence Agency (KCIA) as Personnel Director. By 1969, he was senior advisor to the Army Chief of Staff.In 1970, holding the rank of colonel, Chun became the commander of the 29th Regiment, South Korean 9th Infantry Division, and participated in the Vietnam War. Upon returning to Korea in 1971, he was given command of the 1st Special Forces Brigade (Airborne) and later promoted to brigadier general. In 1976 he worked as the deputy chief of the Presidential Security Service and was promoted to the rank of major general during his time there. In 1978 he became the commanding officer of the 1st Infantry Division.Finally, in 1979, he was appointed commander of Security Command, his highest position yet.
Rise to power
Hanahoe
Chun formed Hanahoe as a secret military club shortly after his promotion to general officer. It was predominantly composed of his fellow graduates from the 11th class of the Korea Military Academy, as well as other friends and supporters. The membership to this secret club was predominately restricted to officers from the Gyeongsang Province with just a token membership reserved for a Cholla Province officer. This secret organization's existence within a highly regimented and rigid hierarchical organization of the army was only possible because it was under the patronage of then President Park Chung Hee.
Assassination of Park Chung-hee
On 26 October 1979, South Korean President Park Chung Hee was assassinated by Kim Jae-kyu, Director of the KCIA, while at a dinner party. Secretly, Kim had invited General Jeong Seung-hwa, Army Chief of Staff, and Kim Jeong-seop, Vice-Deputy Director of the KCIA, to dinner in another room that night as well. Although Jeong Seung-hwa was neither present during nor involved in the shooting of the President, his involvement later proved crucial. In the chaos that followed, Kim Jae-kyu was not arrested for many hours, as details of the incident were initially unclear.
After some confusion over the constitutional procedures for presidential succession, Prime Minister Choi Kyu-ha finally ascended to the position of Acting President. Soon after, Jeong named Chun's Security Command to head up the investigation into the mysterious assassination. Chun immediately ordered his subordinates to draw up plans for the creation of an all-powerful "Joint Investigation Headquarters".On 27 October, Chun called for a meeting in his commander's office. Invited were four key individuals now responsible for all intelligence collection nationwide: KCIA Deputy Chief of Foreign Affairs, KCIA Deputy Chief of Domestic Affairs, Attorney General, and Chief of the National Police. Chun had each person searched at the door on his way in, before having them seated and informing them of the President's death. Chun declared the KCIA held full responsibility for the President's assassination, and its organization was therefore under investigation for the crime. Chun stated that the KCIA would no longer be allowed to exercise its own budget:
For the KCIA "to continue exercising full discretion of their budget is unacceptable. Therefore, they are only allowed to execute their duties upon receiving authorization from the Joint Investigation Headquarters."
Chun subsequently ordered all intelligence reports to now be sent to his office at 8:00 am and 5:00 pm every day, so he could decide what information to give higher command. In one move, Chun had taken control of the entire nation's intelligence organizations. Chun then put the KCIA Deputy Chief of Foreign Affairs in charge of running the day-to-day business of the KCIA.
Major Park Jun-kwang, working under Chun at the time, later commented:
In front of the most powerful organizations under the Park Chung-hee presidency, it surprised me how easily [Chun] gained control over them and how skillfully he took advantage of the circumstances. In an instant he seemed to have grown into a giant.
During the investigation and concerned for the welfare of President Park's family, Chun personally gave money (US$500,000) from Park's slush fund to Park Geun-hye, who was 27 at the time. He was reprimanded for this by General Jeong.
12 December coup d’état
In the following month Chun, along with Roh Tae-woo, Yu Hak-seong, Heo Sam-su, and others from the 11th graduating class of the KMA, continued taking advantage of the fragile political situation to grow Hanahoe's strength, courting key commanders and subverting the nation's intelligence gathering organizations.
On 12 December 1979, Chun ordered the arrest of Army Chief of Staff Jeong Seung-hwa on charges of conspiring with Kim Jae-kyu to assassinate the President. This order was made without authorization from President Choi. On the night of Jeong's capture, 29th Regiment, 9th Division, along with the 1st and 3rd Airborne Brigades, invaded downtown Seoul to support the 30th and 33rd Security Group loyal to Chun, then a series of conflicts broke out in the capital. Jang Tae-wan, commander of the Capital Garrison Command, and Jeong Byeong Ju, commander of the special forces, were also arrested by the rebel troops. Major Kim Oh-rang, aide-de-camp of General Jeong Byeong-ju, was killed during the gunfight. By the next morning, the Ministry of Defense and Army HQ were all occupied, and Chun was in firm control of the military. For all intents and purposes, he was now the de facto leader of the country.In early 1980, Chun was promoted to the rank of lieutenant general, and he took up the position of acting director of the KCIA. On 14 April, Chun was officially installed as director of the KCIA.
Martial law and Gwangju Democratization Movement
On 17 May 1980, Chun expanded martial law to the entire country, due to stated rumors of North Korean infiltration into South Korea. The KCIA manipulated these rumors under the command of Chun. General John A. Wickham (US Armed Forces in Korea) reported that Chun's pessimistic assessment of the domestic situation and his stress on the North Korean threat only seemed to be a pretext for a move into the Blue House (the Korean presidential residence).To enforce the martial law, troops were dispatched to various parts of the nation. The expanded martial law closed universities, banned political activities, and further curtailed the press. The event of 17 May meant the beginning of another military dictatorship.
Many townsfolk were growing unhappy with the military presence in their cities, and on 18 May, the citizens of Gwangju organized into what became known as the Gwangju Democratization Movement. Chun ordered it to be immediately suppressed, sending in crack military troops with tanks and helicopter gunships to retake City Hall and ordered the troops to exercise full force. This led to a bloody massacre over the next two days, ultimately leading to the collapse of the Gwangju Democratization Movement and the deaths of at least 200 Gwangju activists. For this, he was called "The Butcher of Gwangju" by many people, especially among the students.
Path to the presidency
In June 1980, Chun ordered the National Assembly to be dissolved. He subsequently created the Special Committee for National Security Measures (SCNSM), a junta-like organization, and installed himself as a member. On 17 July, he resigned his position as KCIA Director, and then held only the position of committee member.
On 5 August, with full control of the military he effectively promoted himself to four star General and on 22 August he was discharged from active duty to the Army reserves.
Samchung re-education camp
Beginning in August 1980, citizens were subjected to organized violence under the name of social cleansing, which aimed at the elimination of social ills, such as violence, smuggling, illegal drugs, and deceptions. They were arrested without proper warrants and given ex parte rankings. Some 42,000 victims were enrolled in the Samchung re-education camp for "purificatory education". More than 60,000 people were arrested in six months between August 1980 and January 1981, including many innocent citizens. They faced violence and hard labour in the re-education camp.
Dictatorship (1980–1987)
Policy
In August 1980, Choi Kyu-hah, who had long since become little more than a figurehead, announced that he would be resigning the presidency. On 27 August, the National Conference for Unification, the nation's electoral college, gathered in Jangchung Arena. Chun was the sole candidate. Out of 2525 members, 2524 voted for Chun with 1 vote counted as invalid, thus with a tally of 99.96% in favor (it was widely speculated at that time that 1 invalid vote was purposely rigged as to differentiate Chun from North Korea's Kim Il Sung, who regularly claimed 100% support in North Korea's elections). He was officially inaugurated into office on 1 September 1980.
On 17 October, he abolished all political parties—including Park's Democratic Republican Party, which had essentially ruled the country as a one-party state since the imposition of the Yushin Constitution. In November, he implemented the Policy for Merger and Abolition of the Press. In January 1981, Chun formed his own party, the Democratic Justice Party; however, for all intents and purposes, it was Park Chung Hee's Democratic Republican Party under a new name. Soon afterward, a new constitution was enacted. It was far less authoritarian than Park's Yushin Constitution; for instance, it enshrined the secrecy of correspondence, banned torture, and invalidated confessions obtained by force. It still vested fairly broad powers in the president, albeit far less sweeping than those Park had held.
He was then re-elected president by the National Conference that February, taking 90 percent of the delegates' vote against three minor candidates. However, Chun's election was a foregone conclusion after the DJP's decisive victory at elections for the National Conference two weeks earlier. The DJP won a supermajority of 69.5 percent of the seats, three times as many as the independents and nine times as seats as the opposition Democratic Korea Party.
Missile memorandum
In 1980, in the face of increased tension with the U.S. over his military takeover, President Chun issued a memorandum stating that his country would not develop missiles with a range longer than 180 km or capable of carrying greater than a 453 kg warhead. After receiving this promise, the Reagan administration decided to fully recognize Chun's military government.In the late 1990s, South Korea and the U.S. held talks on the issue and, rather than scrap the memorandum completely, they came to an agreement allowing missiles up to 300 km in range and capability to carry up to a 500 kg warhead. This compromise came into effect in 2001 under the name Missile Technology Control Regime.
Removed political influence of Park Chung-hee
After his election in 1981, Chun completely rejected the presidency of Park, even going so far as to strike all references to Park's 1961 military coup from the constitution. Chun announced that he would be restoring justice to the government to remove the fraud and corruption of Park's tenure.
South Korean nuclear weapons program
Chun's government did not have the considerable political influence enjoyed by Park Chung Hee's administration. His government could not ignore American influence, and he ended South Korea's nuclear weapons program. During this time, Chun was worried about the state of South Korean-U.S. relations, which had greatly deteriorated towards the end of Park Chung Hee's long authoritarian presidency. Chun needed to be recognized by the United States to legitimize his government.
Political reforms
After his inauguration, Chun clamped down on out-of-school tutoring and banned individual teaching or tutoring. In September 1980, Chun repealed "guilt by association" laws. In 1981, Chun enacted "Care and Custody" legislation; Chun believed that criminals who finish their prison time for a repeat offense should not be immediately returned to society. During the winter of 1984, before declaring a moratorium on the Korean economy, Chun visited Japan, where he requested a loan for $6 billion. With the military coup taking power and crushing the democratization movements country-wide, the citizens' political demands were being ignored, and in this way the 3S Policy (Sex, Screen, Sports) was passed. Based on right-wing Japanese activist Sejima Ryuzo's proposal, Chun tried to appeal to the citizens in order to ensure the success of the 1988 Seoul Olympics preparations. Chun rapidly enacted various measures to this end, forming professional baseball and soccer leagues, starting the broadcast of color TV throughout the nation as a whole, lessening censorship on sexually suggestive dramas and movies, making school uniforms voluntary, and so forth. In 1981, Chun held a large-scale festival called "Korean Breeze '81 [Kukpung81]", but it was largely ignored by the population.
1983 assassination attempt by North Korea
In 1983, Chun was the target of a failed assassination attempt by North Korean agents during a visit to Rangoon, Burma. The North Korean bombing killed 17 of Chun's entourage, including cabinet ministers. Four Burmese government officials were also killed in the attack.
Foreign policy
Chun's presidency occurred during the Cold War, and his foreign policies were based around combating communism not only from North Korea and Soviet Union.
The United States put pressure on the South Korean government to abandon its plans to develop nuclear weapons.
Japanese newspapers widely reported that Chun was the de facto leader of the country months before he made any move to become President.
In 1982, Chun announced the "Korean People Harmony Democracy Reunification Program", but due to repeated rejections from North Korea the program was unable to get off the ground.
Also from 1986 to 1988, he and President Corazon Aquino of the Philippines established talks between the two countries for strengthening Philippine-South Korean economic, social and cultural friendship.
End of the Fifth Republic (1987)
Noh Shin-yeong
From the start of his presidency, Chun began grooming Noh Shin-yeong as his eventual successor. In 1980, while working as ambassador to the Geneva Representation Bureau, Noh Shin-yeong was recalled and made Minister of Foreign Affairs. In 1982, he was installed as the Director of the Security Planning Bureau, and in 1985, he was named Prime Minister.
When that became widely known, those supporting Chun's regime were highly critical of his choice of successor. His supporters, mostly those with heavy military backgrounds, believed that the proper way to groom a successor was by military duties, not political positions. Chun was eventually persuaded to reverse his position and ceased pushing for Noh Shin-yeong to succeed him.
June Struggle Democratization Movement
The 1981 constitution restricted the president to a single seven-year term. Unlike his predecessors, Chun was unable to amend the document in order to run again in 1987; the constitution explicitly stated that any amendments extending a president's term would not apply to the incumbent. However, he consistently resisted pleas to open up the regime.
On 13 April 1987, Chun made the "April 13th Defense of the Constitution speech". He declared that the DJP candidate for president would be one of his military supporters, and his successor would be chosen in an indirect election similar to the one that elected Chun seven years earlier. That announcement enraged the democratization community and, in concert with several scandals from the Chun government that year, demonstrators began their movement again, starting with a speech at the Anglican Cathedral of Seoul.
Two months later, he declared Roh Tae-woo as the Democratic Justice Party's candidate for president, which, by all accounts, effectively handed Roh the presidency. The announcement triggered the June Democracy Movement, a series of large pro-democracy rallies across the country. In hopes of gaining control over a situation that was rapidly getting out of hand, Roh made a speech promising a much more democratic constitution and the first direct presidential elections in 16 years. On 10 July 1987, Chun resigned as head of the Democratic Justice Party, remaining its Honorary Chairman but handing official leadership of the upcoming campaign to Roh.
1987 presidential election
In the 16 December 1987 presidential election, Roh Tae-woo won the election with a plurality, the first free and fair national elections of any sort held in the country in two decades, after opposition candidates Kim Young-sam and Kim Dae-jung split the popular vote. Chun finished out his term and handed over the presidency to Roh on 25 February 1988, the first peaceful transition of power in the history of South Korea.
Post-dictatorship and prison sentence (1987–1997)
In February 1988, during the presidency of Roh Tae-woo, Chun was named chair of the National Statesman Committee and so wielded considerable influence in South Korean politics. In that year, the Democratic Justice Party lost its majority in the National Assembly elections to opposition parties, paving the way for the so-called "Fifth Republic Hearings." The National Assembly explored the events of the Gwangju Democratization Movement and where responsibility should lay for the resulting massacre. On 11 November 1988, Chun apologized to the nation in a public address, pledging to give his money and belongings back to the country. Chun resigned from both the National Statesman Committee and the Democratic Justice Party.
At this time, Chun decided to live for several years in Baekdamsa, a Buddhist temple in the Gangwon-do province, in order to pay penance for his actions. On 30 December 1990, Chun left Baekdamsa and returned home.
Investigations, trials, and prison sentences of Chun and Roh
After Kim Young-sam's inauguration as President of South Korea in 1993, Kim declared that Chun Doo-hwan and Roh Tae-woo had stolen 400 billion won (nearly $370 million) from the South Korean people, and he would conduct internal investigations to prove this.
On 16 November 1995, the citizens’ demands were growing louder about the 12 December 1979 military coup and the bloody 5–18 Gwangju Democratization Movement incident, so Kim Young-sam announced the beginning of a movement to enact retroactive legislation, naming the bill Special Act on 5–18 Democratization Movement. As soon as the Constitutional Court declared Chun's actions unconstitutional, the prosecutors began a reinvestigation. On 3 December 1995, Chun and 16 others were arrested on charges of conspiracy and insurrection. At the same time, an investigation into the corruption of their presidencies was begun.
In March 1996, their public trial began. On 26 August, the Seoul District Court issued a death sentence. On 16 December 1996, the Seoul High Court issued a sentence of life imprisonment and a fine in the amount of ₩220 billion. On 17 April 1997, the judgment was finalized in the Supreme Court. Chun was officially convicted of leading an insurrection, conspiracy to commit insurrection, taking part in an insurrection, illegal troop movement orders, dereliction of duty during martial law, murder of superior officers, attempted murder of superior officers, murder of subordinate troops, leading a rebellion, conspiracy to commit rebellion, taking part in a rebellion, and murder for the purpose of rebellion, as well as assorted crimes relating to bribery.
After his sentence was finalized, Chun began serving his prison sentence. On 22 December 1997, Chun's life imprisonment sentence was commuted by President Kim Young-sam, on the advice of incoming President Kim Dae-jung. Chun was still required to pay his massive fine, but at that point, he had only paid ₩53.3 billion, not quite a fourth of the total fine amount. Chun made a relatively famous quote, saying, "I have only ₩290,000 to my name." The remaining ₩167.2 billion was never collected.
Later life (1998–2021)
Revocation of related military awards
According to the "May 18th Special Legislation", all medals awarded for the military intervention during the Gwangju Democratization Movement were revoked and ordered to be returned to the government. There are still nine medals that have not been returned to the government.
Confiscation of artworks
Because of Chun's unpaid fines amounting to ₩167.2 billion, a team of 90 prosecutors, tax collectors, and other investigators raided multiple locations simultaneously in July 2013, including Chun's residence and his family members' homes and offices. Television footage showed them hauling away paintings, porcelain, and expensive artifacts. Among the properties searched were two warehouses owned by publisher Chun Jae-guk, Chun's eldest son, which contained more than 350 pieces of art by famous Korean artists, some estimated to be worth ₩1 billion.The National Assembly passed a bill called the Chun Doo-hwan Act, extending the statute of limitations on confiscating assets from public officials who have failed to pay fines. Under the old law, prosecutors had only until October 2013, but the new law extends the statute of limitations on Chun's case until 2020 and allows prosecutors to collect from his family members as well if it is proven that any of their properties originated from Chun's illegal funds.
Memoirs
Chun tried to publish three memoirs. On 4 August 2017, a court granted a petition from a group of organizations dedicated to the 18 May movement, to prohibit the publishing, sale, and distribution of the works unless 33 sections containing false statements about the 18 May Movement were removed. The court ruled that Chun and his son, Chun Jae-guk, who runs a publishing company, should take steps to prevent the books being sold—a violation of the order would incur a 5 million won fine, to be paid to the 5.18 Memorial Foundation. In October 2017, Chun reissued his memoirs prompting a second lawsuit to be filed against him. On 15 May 2018, the Gwangju District Court granted a further injunction request; in addition to the 33 sections containing false statements about the 18 May Movement found at the time of the first lawsuit, a further 36 sections were found to make false statements about the Movement.
Libel trial and health problems (2019–2021)
In March 2019, Chun appeared in a libel trial in Gwangju over his controversial memoirs, in which he allegedly defamed victims of his 1980 crackdown. Chun had refuted a testimony by the late activist priest, Cho Chul-hyun, and called him "Satan wearing a mask" in his memoirs. The priest allegedly witnessed the military firing at citizens from helicopters during the crackdown. On 30 November 2020, Chun was found guilty of defaming Cho Chul-hyun and was sentenced to eight months in prison, suspended for two years.Chun proceeded to appeal the sentence but failed to show up to the first and second appellate trials held on 10 May and 14 June 2021. He made his first appearance in the Gwangju District appellate court on 9 August 2021 accompanied by his wife, but looking gaunt and frail. Chun left the courtroom only 25 minutes into the hearing, due to breathing difficulties. He answered some of the judge's questions with the help of his wife and was seen dozing off. A Yonhap news report on 21 August revealed Chun was diagnosed with multiple myeloma.
Death and funeral
Chun died at his home in Yeonhui-dong, Seoul, on 23 November 2021 from complications of blood cancer. Chun died less than one month after his successor Roh Tae-woo.
Since Chun never apologized for his role in the Gwangju Massacre and his past crimes, the Blue House only expressed private condolences to his family via a spokesperson, and announced that there was no plan to send wreaths. Following his death, the South Korean ruling and opposition parties refrained from sending official condolences.The South Korean government also decided not to hold a state funeral for Chun, and his funeral was conducted by his family with the government providing no assistance.His remains were taken to Seoul's Severance Hospital, where it was to be cremated before burial. By law, Chun is not eligible for burial at a national cemetery because of his past criminal record and conviction. According to his widow Lee Soon-ja, Chun had requested his family to minimize the funeral process, never make any tomb for him, and spread his ashes in areas overlooking the North Korean territory.On 23 November 2021, Following Chun's death, during a press conference, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of China spokesperson Zhao Lijian offered brief condolences to Chun's family, stating the 'brief exchanges with relevant sides' that he had following the establishment of diplomatic ties between China and South Korea.On 27 November 2021, during his funeral procession, Lee Soon-ja issued a brief apology over the "pains and scars" caused by Chun's brutal rule. Her apology did not mention Chun's responsibility of the suppression of May 18 Democratic Uprising in Gwangju. As a result, civic groups related to the movement, including those of bereaved families, criticized her apology for being vague and incomplete, and said that they would not accept the apology.
Later events
On 16 March 2023, one of Chun's grandsons Chun Woo-won posted on Instagram, telling of his disgust and repulsion at his grandfather's acts, and stated that his parents were living off the illegal wealth accumulated by Chun and his family. He called his grandfather a "slaughterer" and described him as a criminal rather than a hero. South Korean prosecutors expressed that they would be reviewing the drug allegations and other allegations regarding the Chun family's illegal wealth accordingly.Chun Woo-won visited Gwangju cemetery on 31 March 2023. He made apologies for what his grandfather had done and consoled relatives of those who died in Gwangju. He said: "The citizens of Gwangju, who overcame fear in the midst of military dictatorship and stood against it with courage are heroes and truly the light and salt of our country."
Honours
Malaysia: Honorary Recipient of the Order of the Crown of the Realm (1981)
Thailand: Knight of Order of the Rajamitrabhorn (1981)
In popular culture
Chun was portrayed by South Korean actor Lee Deok-hwa in the 2005 MBC television series 5th Republic.
Chun was referenced in the 2015 South Korean television series Reply 1988.
The 2012 South Korean film 26 Years has a plot of an assassination plan of Chun.
A fictional South Korean president, modelled after Chun Doo-hwan, is portrayed in a cameo by an unknown actor in the 2021 JTBC drama series Snowdrop.
Media related to Chun Doo-hwan at Wikimedia Commons
Former S. Korean dictator Chun Doo-hwan dies unapologetic and unrepentant -- Hankyoreh Nov.23,2021 |
Kim Won-bong (Korean: 김원봉; 1898 – c.1958) was a Korean anarchist, Korean independence activist, communist, and later statesman for North Korea.
Biography
In February 1919, Kim entered the Shinheung Military Academy (신흥무관학교; 新興武官學校) and underwent military education for six months, after which he dropped out of the academy. On November 9 of the same year, Kim organized a Korean nationalist underground organization known as the Korean Heroic Corps (의열단; 義烈團), with Yang Gun-ho, Gwak Jae-ki, Han Bong-Geun, Kim Ok, and others. Among the Heroic Corps aims were the assassinations of Japanese officials and their collaborators, coupled with attacks on Japanese bases. After assuming the position of leader of the Heroic Corps, Kim Won-Bong found that he could not accomplish the aims of the organization as it did not have a sufficient number of members. As a result, he joined the Whampoa Military Academy in 1926. Kim used the pseudonym "Choi Rim" and organized the Korean National Revolutionary Party, and the Joseon Communist Reconstruction Party.The Korean National Revolutionary Party was formed in Shanghai in 1935 by a group of left-wing nationalist Korean parties, organized by Kim Kyu-sik, Kim Won-Bong and Cho Soang. On July 10, 1937, at the invitation of the Government of the Republic of China, Kim went to Lushan, the Chinese government's conference site and famed resort. During his time there, Chinese government officials insisted upon associating the united front against Japanese Imperialism. Before his return, Won-bong received extensive funding from the Chinese governor.Kim Won-Bong served as the deputy commander of the Korean Liberation Army (한국 광복군) of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea.
Legacy
Portrayed by Cho Seung-woo in the 2015 film Assassination.
Portrayed by Yoo Ji-tae in the 2019 MBC TV series Different Dreams.
See also
Heroic Corps
Korean Volunteer Corps
Korean independence movement |
iOS (formerly iPhone OS) is a mobile operating system developed by Apple Inc. exclusively for its hardware. It is the operating system that powers many of the company's mobile devices, including the iPhone; the term also includes the system software for iPads (predating iPadOS, which was introduced in 2019) as well as on the iPod Touch devices (which were discontinued in mid-2022). It is the world's second-most widely installed mobile operating system, after Android. It is the basis for three other operating systems made by Apple: iPadOS, tvOS, and watchOS. It is proprietary software, although some parts of it are open source under the Apple Public Source License and other licenses.Unveiled in 2007 for the first-generation iPhone, iOS has since been extended to support other Apple devices such as the iPod Touch (September 2007) and the iPad (introduced: January 2010; availability: April 2010). As of March 2018, Apple's App Store contains more than 2.1 million iOS applications, 1 million of which are native for iPads. These mobile apps have collectively been downloaded more than 130 billion times.
Major versions of iOS are released annually. The current stable version, iOS 16, was released to the public on September 12, 2022. On June 5, 2023, Apple announced iOS 17 during the WWDC 2023 alongside iPadOS 17 and macOS Sonoma.
History
In 2005, when Steve Jobs began planning the iPhone, he had a choice to either "shrink the Mac, which would be an epic feat of engineering, or enlarge the iPod". Jobs favored the former approach but pitted the Macintosh and iPod teams, led by Scott Forstall and Tony Fadell, respectively, against each other in an internal competition, with Forstall winning by creating the iPhone OS. The decision enabled the success of the iPhone as a platform for third-party developers: using a well-known desktop operating system as its basis allowed the many third-party Mac developers to write software for the iPhone with minimal retraining. Forstall was also responsible for creating a software development kit for programmers to build iPhone apps, as well as an App Store within iTunes.The operating system was unveiled with the iPhone at the Macworld Conference & Expo on January 9, 2007, and released in June of that year. At the time of its unveiling in January, Steve Jobs claimed: "iPhone runs OS X" and runs "desktop class applications", but at the time of the iPhone's release, the operating system was renamed "iPhone OS". Initially, third-party native applications were not supported. Jobs' reasoning was that developers could build web applications through the Safari web browser that "would behave like native apps on the iPhone". In October 2007, Apple announced that a native Software Development Kit (SDK) was under development and that they planned to put it "in developers' hands in February". On March 6, 2008, Apple held a press event, announcing the iPhone SDK.
The iOS App Store was opened on July 10, 2008, with an initial 500 applications available. This quickly grew to 3,000 in September 2008, 15,000 in January 2009, 50,000 in June 2009, 100,000 in November 2009, 250,000 in August 2010, 650,000 in July 2012, 1 million in October 2013, 2 million in June 2016, and 2.2 million in January 2017. As of March 2016, 1 million apps are natively compatible with the iPad tablet computer. These apps have collectively been downloaded more than 130 billion times. App intelligence firm Sensor Tower estimated that the App Store would reach 5 million apps by 2020.In September 2007, Apple announced the iPod Touch, a redesigned iPod based on the iPhone form factor. On January 27, 2010, Apple introduced their much-anticipated media tablet, the iPad, featuring a larger screen than the iPhone and iPod Touch, and designed for web browsing, media consumption, and reading, and offering multi-touch interaction with multimedia formats including newspapers, e-books, photos, videos, music, word processing documents, video games, and most existing iPhone apps using a 9.7-inch (25 cm) screen. It also includes a mobile version of Safari for web browsing, as well as access to the App Store, iTunes Library, iBookstore, Contacts, and . Content is downloadable via Wi-Fi and optional 3G service or synced through the user's computer. AT&T was initially the sole U.S. provider of 3G wireless access for the iPad.In June 2010, Apple rebranded iPhone OS as "iOS". The trademark "IOS" had been used by Cisco for over a decade for its operating system, IOS, used on its routers. To avoid any potential lawsuit, Apple licensed the "IOS" trademark from Cisco.The Apple Watch smartwatch was announced by Tim Cook on September 9, 2014, being introduced as a product with health and fitness-tracking. It was released on April 24, 2015. It uses watchOS as its operating system; watchOS is based on iOS, with new features created specially for the Apple Watch such as an activity tracking app.In October 2016, Apple opened its first iOS Developer Academy in Naples inside University of Naples Federico II's new campus. The course is completely free, aimed at acquiring specific technical skills on the creation and management of applications for the Apple ecosystem platforms. At the academy there are also issues of business administration (business planning and business management with a focus on digital opportunities) and there is a path dedicated to the design of graphical interfaces. Students have the opportunity to participate in the "Enterprise Track", an in-depth training experience on the entire life cycle of an app, from design to implementation, to security, troubleshooting, data storage and cloud usage. As of 2020, the academy graduated almost a thousand students from all over the world, who have worked on 400 app ideas and have already published about 50 apps on the iOS App Store. In the 2018–2019 academic year, students from more than 30 countries arrived. 35 of these have been selected to attend the Worldwide Developer Conference, the annual Apple Developer Conference held annually in California in early June.
On June 3, 2019, iPadOS, the branded version of iOS for iPad, was announced at the 2019 WWDC; it was launched on September 25, 2019.
Features
Interface
The iOS user interface is based upon direct manipulation, using multi-touch gestures such as swipe, tap, pinch, and reverse pinch. Interface control elements include sliders, switches, and buttons. Internal accelerometers are used by some applications to respond to shaking the device (one common result is the undo command) or rotating it in three dimensions (one common result is switching between portrait and landscape mode). Various accessibility described in § Accessibility functions enable users with vision and hearing disabilities to properly use iOS.iOS devices boot to the homescreen, the primary navigation and information "hub" on iOS devices, analogous to the desktop found on personal computers. iOS homescreens are typically made up of app icons and widgets; app icons launch the associated app, whereas widgets display live, auto-updating content, such as a weather forecast, the user's email inbox, or a news ticker directly on the homescreen.Along the top of the screen is a status bar, showing information about the device and its connectivity. The status bar itself contains two elements, the Control Center and the Notification Center. The Control Center can be "pulled" down from the top right of the notch, on the new iPhones, giving access to various toggles to manage the device more quickly without having to open the Settings. It is possible to manage brightness, volume, wireless connections, music player, etc.Instead, scrolling from the top left to the bottom will open the Notification Center, which in the latest versions of iOS is very similar to the lockscreen. It displays notifications in chronological order and groups them by application. From the notifications of some apps it is possible to interact directly, for example by replying a message directly from it. Notifications are sent in two modes, the important notifications that are displayed on the lock screen and signaled by a distinctive sound, accompanied by a warning banner and the app badge icon, and the secondary mode where they are displayed in the Notification Center, but they are not shown on the lock screen, nor are they indicated by warning banners, badge icons or sounds.On earlier iPhones with home button, screenshots can be created with the simultaneous press of the home and power buttons. In comparison to Android OS, which requires the buttons to be held down, a short press does suffice on iOS. On the more recent iPhones which lack a physical home button, screenshots are captured using the volume-up and power buttons instead.The camera application used a skeuomorphic closing camera shutter animation prior to iOS 7. Since then, it uses a simple short blackout effect. Notable additions over time include HDR photography and the option to save both normal and high dynamic range photographs simultaneously where the former prevents ghosting effects from moving objects (since iPhone 5, iOS 6), automatic HDR adjustment (iOS 7.1), "live photo" with short video bundled to each photo if enabled (iPhone 6s, iOS 9), and a digital zoom shortcut (iPhone 7 Plus, iOS 10). Some camera settings such as video resolution and frame rate are not adjustable through the camera interface itself, but are outsourced to the system settings.A new feature in iOS 13 called "context menus" shows related actions when you touch and hold an item. When the context menu is displayed, the background is blurred.To choose from a few options, a selection control is used. Selectors can appear anchored at the bottom or in line with the content (called date selectors). Date selectors take on the appearance of any other selection control, but with a column for day, month, and optionally year.
Alerts appear in the center of the screen, but there are also alerts that scroll up from the bottom of the screen (called "action panels"). Destructive actions (such as eliminating any element) are colored red.
The official font of iOS is San Francisco. It is designed for small text readability, and is used throughout the operating system, including third-party apps.The icons are 180x180px in size for iPhones with a larger screen, usually models over 6 inches, including iPhone 11 Pro and iPhone 8 Plus, while they are 120x120px on iPhones with smaller displays.
Applications
iOS devices come with preinstalled apps developed by Apple including Mail, Maps, TV, Music, FaceTime, Wallet, Health, and many more.
Applications ("apps") are the most general form of application software that can be installed on iOS. They are downloaded from the official catalog of the App Store digital store, where apps are subjected to security checks before being made available to users. In June 2017, Apple updated its guidelines to specify that app developers will no longer have the ability to use custom prompts for encouraging users to leave reviews for their apps. IOS applications can also be installed directly from an IPA file provided by the software distributor, via unofficial ways. They are written using iOS Software Development Kit (SDK) and, often, combined with Xcode, using officially supported programming languages, including Swift and Objective-C. Other companies have also created tools that allow for the development of native iOS apps using their respective programming languages.
Applications for iOS are mostly built using components of UIKit, a programming framework. It allows applications to have a consistent look and feel with the OS, nevertheless offering customization.
Elements automatically update along with iOS updates, automatically including new interface rules. UIKit elements are very adaptable, this allows developers to design a single app that looks the same on any iOS device. In addition to defining the iOS interface, UIKit defines the functionality of the application.
At first, Apple did not intend to release an SDK to developers, because they did not want third-party apps to be developed for iOS, building web apps instead. However, this technology never entered into common use, this led Apple to change its opinion, so in October 2007 the SDK for developers was announced, finally released on March 6, 2008.
The SDK includes an inclusive set of development tools, including an audio mixer and an iPhone simulator. It is a free download for Mac users. It is not available for Microsoft Windows PCs. To test the application, get technical support, and distribute applications through App Store, developers are required to subscribe to the Apple Developer Program.
Over the years, the Apple Store apps surpassed multiple major milestones, including 50,000, 100,000, 250,000, 500,000, 1 million, and 2 million apps. The billionth application was installed on April 24, 2009.
Home screen
The home screen, rendered by SpringBoard, displays application icons and a dock at the bottom where users can pin their most frequently used apps. The home screen appears whenever the user unlocks the device, presses the physical "Home" button while in an app, or swipes up from the bottom of the screen using the home bar. Before iOS 4 on the iPhone 3GS (or later), the screen's background could be customized only through jailbreaking, but can now be changed out-of-the-box. The screen has a status bar across the top to display data, such as time, battery level, and signal strength. The rest of the screen is devoted to the current application. When a passcode is set and a user switches on the device, the passcode must be entered at the Lock Screen before access to the Home screen is granted.In iPhone OS 3, Spotlight was introduced, allowing users to search media, apps, emails, contacts, messages, reminders, calendar events, and similar content. In iOS 7 and later, Spotlight is accessed by pulling down anywhere on the home screen (except for the top and bottom edges that open Notification Center and Control Center). In iOS 9, there are two ways to access Spotlight. As with iOS 7 and 8, pulling down on any homescreen will show Spotlight. However, it can also be accessed as it was in iOS versions 3 through 6. This endows Spotlight with Siri suggestions, which include app suggestions, contact suggestions and news. In iOS 10, Spotlight is at the top of the now-dedicated "Today" panel.Since iOS 3.2, users are able to set a background image for the Home Screen. This feature is only available on third-generation devices—iPhone 3GS, third-generation iPod Touch (iOS 4.0 or newer), and all iPad models (since iOS 3.2)—or newer.iOS 7 introduced a parallax effect on the Home Screen, which shifts the device's wallpaper and icons in response to the movement of the device, creating a 3D effect and an illusion of floating icons. This effect is also visible in the tab view of Mail and Safari.Researchers found that users organize icons on their homescreens based on usage frequency and relatedness of the applications, as well as for reasons of usability and aesthetics.
System font
iOS originally used Helvetica as the system font. Apple switched to Helvetica Neue exclusively for the iPhone 4 and its Retina Display, and retained Helvetica as the system font for older iPhone devices on iOS 4. With iOS 7, Apple announced that they would change the system font to Helvetica Neue Light, a decision that sparked criticism for inappropriate usage of a light, thin typeface for low-resolution mobile screens. Apple eventually chose Helvetica Neue instead. The release of iOS 7 also introduced the ability to scale text or apply other forms of text accessibility changes through Settings. With iOS 9, Apple changed the font to San Francisco, an Apple-designed font aimed at maximum legibility and font consistency across its product lineup.
Folders
iOS 4 introduced folders, which can be created by dragging an application on top of another, and from then on, more items can be added to the folder using the same procedure. A title for the folder is automatically selected by the category of applications inside, but the name can also be edited by the user. When apps inside folders receive notification badges, the individual numbers of notifications are added up and the total number is displayed as a notification badge on the folder itself. Originally, folders on an iPhone could include up to 12 apps, while folders on iPad could include 20. With increasing display sizes on newer iPhone hardware, iOS 7 updated the folders with pages similar to the home screen layout, allowing for a significant expansion of folder functionality. Each page of a folder can contain up to nine apps, and there can be 15 pages in total, allowing for a total of 135 apps in a single folder. In iOS 9, Apple updated folder sizes for iPad hardware, allowing for 16 apps per page, still at 15 pages maximum, increasing the total to 240 apps.
Notification Center
Before iOS 5, notifications were delivered in a modal window and couldn't be viewed after being dismissed. In iOS 5, Apple introduced Notification Center, which allows users to view a history of notifications. The user can tap a notification to open its corresponding app, or clear it. Notifications are now delivered in banners that appear briefly at the top of the screen. If a user taps a received notification, the application that sent the notification will be opened. Users can also choose to view notifications in modal alert windows by adjusting the application's notification settings. Introduced with iOS 8, widgets are now accessible through the Notification Center, defined by 3rd parties.When an app sends a notification while closed, a red badge appears on its icon. This badge tells the user, at a glance, how many notifications that app has sent. Opening the app clears the badge.
Accessibility
iOS offers various accessibility features to help users with vision and hearing disabilities. One major feature, VoiceOver, provides a voice reading information on the screen, including contextual buttons, icons, links and other user interface elements, and allows the user to navigate the operating system through gestures. Any apps with default controls and developed with a UIKit framework gets VoiceOver functionality built in. One example includes holding up the iPhone to take a photo, with VoiceOver describing the photo scenery. As part of a "Made for iPhone" program, introduced with the release of iOS 7 in 2013, Apple has developed technology to use Bluetooth and a special technology protocol to let compatible third-party equipment connect with iPhones and iPads for streaming audio directly to a user's ears. Additional customization available for Made for iPhone products include battery tracking and adjustable sound settings for different environments. Apple made further efforts for accessibility for the release of iOS 10 in 2016, adding a new pronunciation editor to VoiceOver, adding a Magnifier setting to enlarge objects through the device's camera, software TTY support for deaf people to make phone calls from the iPhone, and giving tutorials and guidelines for third-party developers to incorporate proper accessibility functions into their apps.In 2012, Liat Kornowski from The Atlantic wrote that "the iPhone has turned out to be one of the most revolutionary developments since the invention of Braille", and in 2016, Steven Aquino of TechCrunch described Apple as "leading the way in assistive technology", with Sarah Herrlinger, Senior Manager for Global Accessibility Policy and Initiatives at Apple, stating that "We see accessibility as a basic human right. Building into the core of our products supports a vision of an inclusive world where opportunity and access to information are barrier-free, empowering individuals with disabilities to achieve their goals".Criticism has been aimed at iOS depending on both internet connection (either WiFi or through iTunes) and a working SIM card upon first activation. This restriction has been loosened in iOS 12, which no longer requires the latter.
Multitasking
Multitasking for iOS was first released in June 2010 along with the release of iOS 4. Only certain devices—iPhone 4, iPhone 3GS, and iPod Touch 3rd generation—were able to multitask. The iPad did not get multitasking until iOS 4.2.1 in that November.The implementation of multitasking in iOS has been criticized for its approach, which limits the work that applications in the background can perform to a limited function set and requires application developers to add explicit support for it.Before iOS 4, multitasking was limited to a selection of the applications Apple included on the device. Users could however "jailbreak" their device in order to unofficially multitask. Starting with iOS 4, on third-generation and newer iOS devices, multitasking is supported through seven background APIs:
Background audio – application continues to run in the background as long as it is playing audio or video content
Voice over IP – application is suspended when a phone call is not in progress
Background location – application is notified of location changes
Push notifications
Local notifications – application schedules local notifications to be delivered at a predetermined time
Task completion – application asks the system for extra time to complete a given task
Fast app switching – application does not execute any code and may be removed from memory at any timeIn iOS 5, three new background APIs were introduced:
Newsstand – application can download content in the background to be ready for the user
External Accessory – application communicates with an external accessory and shares data at regular intervals
Bluetooth Accessory – application communicates with a bluetooth accessory and shares data at regular intervalsIn iOS 7, Apple introduced a new multitasking feature, providing all apps with the ability to perform background updates. This feature prefers to update the user's most frequently used apps and prefers to use Wi-Fi networks over a cellular network, without markedly reducing the device's battery life.
Switching applications
In iOS 4.0 to iOS 6.x, double-clicking the home button activates the application switcher. A scrollable dock-style interface appears from the bottom, moving the contents of the screen up. Choosing an icon switches to an application. To the far left are icons which function as music controls, a rotation lock, and on iOS 4.2 and above, a volume controller.
With the introduction of iOS 7, double-clicking the home button also activates the application switcher. However, unlike previous versions it displays screenshots of open applications on top of the icon and horizontal scrolling allows for browsing through previous apps, and it is possible to close applications by dragging them up, similar to how WebOS handled multiple cards.With the introduction of iOS 9, the application switcher received a significant visual change; while still retaining the card metaphor introduced in iOS 7, the application icon is smaller, and appears above the screenshot (which is now larger, due to the removal of "Recent and Favorite Contacts"), and each application "card" overlaps the other, forming a rolodex effect as the user scrolls. Now, instead of the home screen appearing at the leftmost of the application switcher, it appears rightmost. In iOS 11, the application switcher receives a major redesign. In the iPad, the Control Center and app switcher are combined. The app switcher in the iPad can also be accessed by swiping up from the bottom. In the iPhone, the app switcher cannot be accessed if there are no apps in the RAM.
Ending tasks
In iOS 4.0 to iOS 6.x, briefly holding the icons in the application switcher makes them "jiggle" (similarly to the homescreen) and allows the user to force quit the applications by tapping the red minus circle that appears at the corner of the app's icon. Clearing applications from multitasking stayed the same from iOS 4.0 through 6.1.6, the last version of iOS 6.
As of iOS 7, the process has become faster and easier. In iOS 7, instead of holding the icons to close them, they are closed by simply swiping them upwards off the screen. Up to three apps can be cleared at a time compared to one in versions up to iOS 6.1.6.
Task completion
Task completion allows apps to continue a certain task after the app has been suspended. As of iOS 4.0, apps can request up to ten minutes to complete a task in the background. This doesn't extend to background uploads and downloads though (e.g. if a user starts a download in one application, it won't finish if they switch away from the application).
Siri
Siriis an intelligent personal assistant integrated into iOS. The assistant uses voice queries and a natural language user interface to answer questions, make recommendations, and perform actions by delegating requests to a set of Internet services. The software adapts to users' individual language usages, searches, and preferences, with continuing use. Returned results are individualized.
Originally released as an app for iOS in February 2010, it was acquired by Apple two months later, and then integrated into iPhone 4S at its release in October 2011. At that time, the separate app was also removed from the iOS App Store.Siri supports a wide range of user commands, including performing phone actions, checking basic information, scheduling events and reminders, handling device settings, searching the Internet, navigating areas, finding information on entertainment, and is able to engage with iOS-integrated apps. With the release of iOS 10 in 2016, Apple opened up limited third-party access to Siri, including third-party messaging apps, as well as payments, ride-sharing, and Internet calling apps. With the release of iOS 11, Apple updated Siri's voices for more clear, human voices, it now supports follow-up questions and language translation, and additional third-party actions.
Game Center
Game Center is an online multiplayer "social gaming network" released by Apple. It allows users to "invite friends to play a game, start a multiplayer game through matchmaking, track their achievements, and compare their high scores on a leaderboard." iOS 5 and above adds support for profile photos.Game Center was announced during an iOS 4 preview event hosted by Apple on April 8, 2010. A preview was released to registered Apple developers in August. It was released on September 8, 2010, with iOS 4.1 on iPhone 4, iPhone 3GS, and iPod Touch 2nd generation through 4th generation. Game Center made its public debut on the iPad with iOS 4.2.1. There is no support for the iPhone 3G, original iPhone and the first-generation iPod Touch (the latter two devices did not have Game Center because they did not get iOS 4). However, Game Center is unofficially available on the iPhone 3G via a hack.
Hardware
The main hardware platform for iOS is the ARM architecture (the ARMv7, ARMv8-A, ARMv8.2-A, ARMv8.3-A). iOS releases before iOS 7 can only be run on iOS devices with 32-bit ARM processors (ARMv6 and ARMv7-A architectures). In 2013, iOS 7 was released with full 64-bit support (which includes a native 64-bit kernel, libraries, drivers as well as all built-in applications), after Apple announced that they were switching to 64-bit ARMv8-A processors with the introduction of the Apple A7 chip. 64-bit support was also enforced for all apps in the App Store; All new apps submitted to the App Store with a deadline of February 2015, and all app updates submitted to the App Store with a deadline of June 1, 2015. iOS 11 drops support for all iOS devices with 32-bit ARM processors as well as 32-bit applications, making iOS 64-bit only.
Development
The iOS SDK (Software Development Kit) allows for the development of mobile apps on iOS.
While originally developing iPhone prior to its unveiling in 2007, Apple's then-CEO Steve Jobs did not intend to let third-party developers build native apps for iOS, instead directing them to make web applications for the Safari web browser. However, backlash from developers prompted the company to reconsider, with Jobs announcing in October 2007 that Apple would have a software development kit available for developers by February 2008. The SDK was released on March 6, 2008.The SDK is a free download for users of Mac personal computers. It is not available for Microsoft Windows PCs. The SDK contains sets giving developers access to various functions and services of iOS devices, such as hardware and software attributes. It also contains an iPhone simulator to mimic the look and feel of the device on the computer while developing. New versions of the SDK accompany new versions of iOS. In order to test applications, get technical support, and distribute apps through App Store, developers are required to subscribe to the Apple Developer Program.Combined with Xcode, the iOS SDK helps developers write iOS apps using officially supported programming languages, including Swift and Objective-C. Other companies have also created tools that allow for the development of native iOS apps using their respective programming languages.
Update history & schedule
Apple provides major updates to the iOS operating system annually via iTunes and, since iOS 5, also over-the-air. The device checks an XML-based PLIST file on mesu.apple.com for updates. Updates are delivered as unencrypted ZIP files. Updates are checked for regularly, and are downloaded and installed automatically if enabled. Otherwise, the user can install them manually or are prompted to allow automatic installation overnight if plugged in and connected to Wi-Fi.
iPod Touch users originally had to pay for system software updates due to accounting rules that designated it not a "subscription device" like the iPhone or Apple TV, causing many iPod Touch owners not to update. In September 2009, a change in accounting rules won tentative approval, affecting Apple's earnings and stock price, and allowing iPod Touch updates to be delivered free of charge.Apple significantly extended the cycle of updates for iOS-supported devices over the years. The iPhone (1st generation) and iPhone 3G only received two iOS updates, while later models had support for five, six, and seven years.
XNU kernel
The iOS kernel is the XNU kernel of Darwin. The original iPhone OS (1.0) up to iPhone OS 3.1.3 used Darwin 9.0.0d1. iOS 4 was based on Darwin 10. iOS 5 was based on Darwin 11. iOS 6 was based on Darwin 13. iOS 7 and iOS 8 are based on Darwin 14. iOS 9 is based on Darwin 15. iOS 10 is based on Darwin 16. iOS 11 is based on Darwin 17. iOS 12 is based on Darwin 18. iOS 13 is based on Darwin 19. iOS 14 is based on Darwin 20. iOS 15 is based on Darwin 21. iOS 16 is based on Darwin 22.In iOS 6 the kernel is subject to ASLR, similar to that of OS X Mountain Lion. This makes exploit possibilities more complex since it is not possible to know the location of kernel code.
Apple has made the XNU kernel open source. The source is under a 3-clause BSD license for the original BSD parts, with parts added by Apple under the Apple Public Source License. The versions contained in iOS are not available; only the versions used in macOS are available.
iOS does not have kernel extensions (kexts) in the file system, even if they are actually present. The kernel cache can be decompressed to show the correct kernel, along with the kexts (all packed in the __PRELINK_TEXT section) and their plists (in the __PRELINK_INFO section).
The kernel cache can also be directly decompressed (if decrypted) using third-party tools. With the advent of iOS 10 betas and default plain text kernelcaches, these tools can only be used after unpacking and applying lzssdec to unpack the kernel cache to its full size.
The kextstat provided by the Cydia alternative software does not work on iOS because the kextstat is based on kmod_get_info(...), which is a deprecated API in iOS 4 and Mac OS X Snow Leopard. There are other alternative software that can also dump raw XML data.
On developing devices, the kernel is always stored as a statically linked cache stored in /System/Library/Caches/com.apple.kernelcaches/kernelcache which is unpacked and executed at boot.
In the beginning, iOS had a kernel version usually higher than the corresponding version of macOS. Over time, the kernels of iOS and macOS have gotten closer. This is not surprising, considering that iOS introduced new features (such as the ASLR Kernel, the default freezer, and various security-strengthening features) that were first incorporated and subsequently arrived on macOS. It appears Apple is gradually merging the iOS and macOS kernels over time. The build date for each version varies slightly between processors. This is due to the fact that the builds are sequential.
Kernel Image
The kernel image base is randomized by the boot loader (iBoot). This is done by creating random data, doing a SHA-1 hash of it and then using a byte from the SHA-1 hash for the kernel slide. The slide is calculated with this formula:
base=0x01000000+(slide_byte*0x00200000)
If the slide is 0, the static offset of 0x21000000 is used instead.
The adjusted base is passed to the kernel in the boot arguments structure at offset 0x04, which is equivalent to gBootArgs->virtBase.
Kernel Map
The kernel map is used for kernel allocations of all types (kalloc(), kernel_memory_allocate(), etc.) and spans all of kernel space (0x80000000-0xFFFEFFFF). The kernel based maps are submaps of the kernel_map, for example zone_map, ipc_kernel_map, etc.
The strategy is to randomize the base of the kernel_map. A random 9-bit value is generated right after kmem_init() which establishes kernel_map, is multiplied by the page size. The resulting value is used as the size for the initial kernel_map allocation. Future kernel_map (and submap) allocations are pushed forward by a random amount. The allocation is silently removed after the first garbage collection and reused. This behaviour can be overridden with the "kmapoff" boot parameter.
Attacks
Kext_request() allows applications to request information about kernel modules, divided into active and passive operations. Active operations (load, unload, start, stop, etc.) require root access. iOS removes the ability to load kernel extensions. Passive operations were originally (before iOS 6) unrestricted and allowed unprivileged users to query kernel module base addresses. iOS6 inadvertently removed some limitations; only the load address requests are disallowed. So attackers can use kKextRequestPredicateGetLoaded to get load addresses and mach-o header dumps. The load address and mach-o segment headers are obscured to hide the ASLR slide, but mach-o section headers are not. This reveals the virtual addresses of loaded kernel sections.
This information leak has been closed with iOS 6.0.1.
Versions codenames
Internally, iOS identifies each version by a codename, often used internally only, normally to maintain secrecy of the project. For example, the codename for iOS 14 is Azul.
Jailbreaking
Since its initial release, iOS has been subject to a variety of different hacks centered around adding functionality not allowed by Apple. Prior to the 2008 debut of Apple's native iOS App Store, the primary motive for jailbreaking was to bypass Apple's purchase mechanism for installing the App Store's native applications. Apple claimed that it would not release iOS software updates designed specifically to break these tools (other than applications that perform SIM unlocking); however, with each subsequent iOS update, previously un-patched jailbreak exploits are usually patched.When a device is booting, it loads Apple's own kernel initially, so a jailbroken device must be exploited and have the kernel patched each time it is booted up.
There are different types of jailbreak. An untethered jailbreak uses exploits that are powerful enough to allow the user to turn their device off and back on at will, with the device starting up completely, and the kernel will be patched without the help of a computer – in other words, it will be jailbroken even after each reboot.
However, some jailbreaks are tethered. A tethered jailbreak is only able to temporarily jailbreak the device during a single boot. If the user turns the device off and then boots it back up without the help of a jailbreak tool, the device will no longer be running a patched kernel, and it may get stuck in a partially started state, such as Recovery Mode. In order for the device to start completely and with a patched kernel, it must be "re-jailbroken" with a computer (using the "boot tethered" feature of a tool) each time it is turned on. All changes to the files on the device (such as installed package files or edited system files) will persist between reboots, including changes that can only function if the device is jailbroken (such as installed package files).
In more recent years, two other solutions have been created – semi-tethered and semi-untethered.
A semi-tethered solution is one where the device is able to start up on its own, but it will no longer have a patched kernel, and therefore will not be able to run modified code. It will, however, still be usable for normal functions, just like stock iOS. To start with a patched kernel, the user must start the device with the help of the jailbreak tool.
A semi-untethered jailbreak gives the ability to start the device on its own. On first boot, the device will not be running a patched kernel. However, rather than having to run a tool from a computer to apply the kernel patches, the user is able to re-jailbreak their device with the help of an app (usually sideloaded using Cydia Impactor) running on their device. In the case of the iOS 9.2-9.3.3 and 64-bit 10.x jailbreaks, Safari-based exploits were available, thereby meaning websites could be used to rejailbreak.
In more detail: Each iOS device has a bootchain that tries to make sure only trusted/signed code is loaded. A device with a tethered jailbreak is able to boot up with the help of a jailbreaking tool because the tool executes exploits via USB that bypass parts of that "chain of trust", bootstrapping to a pwned (no signature check) iBSS, iBEC, or iBoot to finish the boot process.
Since the arrival of Apple's native iOS App Store, and—along with it—third-party applications, the general motives for jailbreaking have changed. People jailbreak for many different reasons, including gaining filesystem access, installing custom device themes, and modifying SpringBoard. An additional motivation is that it may enable the installation of pirated apps. On some devices, jailbreaking also makes it possible to install alternative operating systems, such as Android and the Linux kernel. Primarily, users jailbreak their devices because of the limitations of iOS. Depending on the method used, the effects of jailbreaking may be permanent or temporary.In 2010, the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) successfully convinced the U.S. Copyright Office to allow an exemption to the general prohibition on circumvention of copyright protection systems under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA). The exemption allows jailbreaking of iPhones for the sole purpose of allowing legally obtained applications to be added to the iPhone. The exemption does not affect the contractual relations between Apple and an iPhone owner, for example, jailbreaking voiding the iPhone warranty; however, it is solely based on Apple's discretion on whether they will fix jailbroken devices in the event that they need to be repaired. At the same time, the Copyright Office exempted unlocking an iPhone from DMCA's anticircumvention prohibitions. Unlocking an iPhone allows the iPhone to be used with any wireless carrier using the same GSM or CDMA technology for which the particular phone model was designed to operate.
Unlocking
Initially most wireless carriers in the US did not allow iPhone owners to unlock it for use with other carriers. However AT&T allowed iPhone owners who had satisfied contract requirements to unlock their iPhone. Instructions to unlock the device are available from Apple, but it is ultimately at the sole discretion of the carrier to authorize unlocking the device. This allows the use of a carrier-sourced iPhone on other networks. Modern versions of iOS and the iPhone fully support LTE across multiple carriers wherever the phone was purchased. Programs to remove SIM lock restrictions are available, but are not supported by Apple, and most often not a permanent unlock – a soft unlock, which modifies the iPhone so that the baseband will accept the SIM card of any GSM carrier. SIM unlocking is not jailbreaking, but a jailbreak is also required for these unofficial software unlocks.
The legality of software unlocking varies in each country; for example, in the US, there is a DMCA exemption for unofficial software unlocking of devices purchased before January 26, 2013.
Digital rights management
The closed and proprietary nature of iOS has garnered criticism, particularly by digital rights advocates such as the Electronic Frontier Foundation, computer engineer and activist Brewster Kahle, Internet-law specialist Jonathan Zittrain, and the Free Software Foundation who protested the iPad's introductory event and have targeted the iPad with their "Defective by Design" campaign. Competitor Microsoft, via a PR spokesman, criticized Apple's control over its platform.At issue are restrictions imposed by the design of iOS, namely digital rights management (DRM) intended to lock purchased media to Apple's platform, the development model (requiring a yearly subscription to distribute apps developed for the iOS), the centralized approval process for apps, as well as Apple's general control and lockdown of the platform itself. Particularly at issue is the ability for Apple to remotely disable or delete apps at will.
Some in the tech community have expressed concern that the locked-down iOS represents a growing trend in Apple's approach to computing, particularly Apple's shift away from machines that hobbyists can "tinker with" and note the potential for such restrictions to stifle software innovation.
Former Facebook developer Joe Hewitt protested against Apple's control over its hardware as a "horrible precedent" but praised iOS's sandboxing of apps.
Security and privacy
iOS utilizes many security features in both hardware and software. Below are summaries of the most prominent features.
Secure Boot
Before fully booting into iOS, there is low-level code that runs from the Boot ROM. Its task is to verify that the Low-Level Bootloader is signed by the Apple Root CA public key before running it. This process is to ensure that no malicious or otherwise unauthorized software can be run on an iOS device. After the Low-Level Bootloader finishes its tasks, it runs the higher level bootloader, known as iBoot. If all goes well, iBoot will then proceed to load the iOS kernel as well as the rest of the operating system.
Secure Enclave
The Secure Enclave is a coprocessor found in iOS devices part of the A7 and newer chips used for data protection. It includes the user data pertaining to Touch ID, Face ID, and Apple Pay, among other sensitive data. The purpose of the Secure Enclave is to handle keys and other info such as biometrics that is sensitive enough to not be handled by the Application Processor (AP). It is isolated with a hardware filter so the AP cannot access it. It shares RAM with the AP, but its portion of the RAM (known as TZ0) is encrypted. The secure enclave itself is a flashable 4 MB AKF processor core called the secure enclave processor (SEP) as documented in Apple Patent Application 20130308838 Archived December 12, 2020, at the Wayback Machine. The technology used is similar to ARM's TrustZone/SecurCore but contains proprietary code for Apple KF cores in general and SEP specifically. It is also responsible for generating the UID key on A9 or newer chips that protects user data at rest.It has its own secure boot process to ensure that it is completely secure. A hardware random number generator is also included as a part of this coprocessor. Each device's Secure Enclave has a unique ID that is given to it when it is made and cannot be changed. This identifier is used to create a temporary key that encrypts the memory in this portion of the system. The Secure Enclave also contains an anti-replay counter to prevent brute force attacks.The SEP is located in the devicetree under IODeviceTree:/arm-io/sep and managed by the AppleSEPManager driver.In 2020, security flaws in the SEP were discovered, causing concerns about Apple devices such as iPhones.
Face ID
Face ID is a face scanner that is embedded in the notch on iPhone models X, XS, XS Max, XR, 11, 11 Pro, 11 Pro Max, 12, 12 Mini, 12 Pro, 12 Pro Max, 13, 13 Mini, 13 Pro, 13 Pro Max, 14, and the 14 Plus. On the iPhone 14 Pro and the 14 Pro Max, it is embedded in the Dynamic Island. It can be used to unlock the device, make purchases, and log into applications among other functions. When used, Face ID only temporarily stores the face data in encrypted memory in the Secure Enclave, as described above. There is no way for the device's main processor or any other part of the system to access the raw data that is obtained from the Face ID sensor.
Passcode
iOS devices can have a passcode that is used to unlock the device, make changes to system settings, and encrypt the device's contents. Until recently, these were typically four numerical digits long. However, since unlocking the devices with a fingerprint by using Touch ID has become more widespread, six-digit passcodes are now the default on iOS with the option to switch back to four or use an alphanumeric passcode.
Touch ID
Touch ID is a fingerprint scanner that is embedded in the home button and can be used to unlock the device, make purchases, and log into applications among other functions. When used, Touch ID only temporarily stores the fingerprint data in encrypted memory in the Secure Enclave, as described above. Like Face ID, there is no way for the device's main processor or any other part of the system to access the raw fingerprint data that is obtained from the Touch ID sensor.
Address Space Layout Randomization
Address Space Layout Randomization (ASLR) is a low-level technique of preventing memory corruption attacks such as buffer overflows. It involves placing data in randomly selected locations in memory in order to make it more difficult to predict ways to corrupt the system and create exploits. ASLR makes app bugs more likely to crash the app than to silently overwrite memory, regardless of whether the behavior is accidental or malicious.
Non-executable memory
iOS utilizes the ARM architecture's Execute Never (XN) feature. This allows some portions of the memory to be marked as non-executable, working alongside ASLR to prevent buffer overflow attacks including return-to-libc attacks.
Encryption
As mentioned above, one use of encryption in iOS is in the memory of the Secure Enclave. When a passcode is utilized on an iOS device, the contents of the device are encrypted. This is done by using a hardware AES 256 implementation that is very efficient because it is placed directly between the flash storage and RAM.iOS, in combination with its specific hardware, uses crypto-shredding when erasing all content and settings by obliterating all the keys in 'effaceable storage'. This renders all user data on the device cryptographically inaccessible.
Keychain
The iOS keychain is a database of login information that can be shared across apps written by the same person or organization. This service is often used for storing passwords for web applications.
App security
Third-party applications such as those distributed through the App Store must be code signed with an Apple-issued certificate. In principle, this continues the chain of trust all the way from the Secure Boot process as mentioned above to the actions of the applications installed on the device by users. Applications are also sandboxed, meaning that they can only modify the data within their individual home directory unless explicitly given permission to do otherwise. For example, they cannot access data owned by other user-installed applications on the device. There is a very extensive set of privacy controls contained within iOS with options to control apps' ability to access a wide variety of permissions such as the camera, contacts, background app refresh, cellular data, and access to other data and services. Most of the code in iOS, including third-party applications, runs as the "mobile" user which does not have root privileges. This ensures that system files and other iOS system resources remain hidden and inaccessible to user-installed applications.
App Store bypasses
Companies can apply to Apple for enterprise developer certificates. These can be used to sign apps such that iOS will install them directly (sometimes called "sideloading"), without the app needing to be distributed via the App Store. The terms under which they are granted make clear that they are only to be used for companies who wish to distribute apps directly to their employees.Circa January–February 2019, it emerged that a number of software developers were misusing enterprise developer certificates to distribute software directly to non-employees, thereby bypassing the App Store. Facebook was found to be abusing an Apple enterprise developer certificate to distribute an application to underage users that would give Facebook access to all private data on their devices. Google was abusing an Apple enterprise developer certificate to distribute an app to adults to collect data from their devices, including unencrypted data belonging to third parties. TutuApp, Panda Helper, AppValley, and TweakBox have all been abusing enterprise developer certificates to distribute apps that offer pirated software.
Network security
iOS supports TLS with both low- and high-level APIs for developers. By default, the App Transport Security framework requires that servers use at least TLS 1.2. However, developers are free to override this framework and utilize their own methods of communicating over networks. When Wi-Fi is enabled, iOS uses a randomized MAC address so that devices cannot be tracked by anyone sniffing wireless traffic.
Two-factor authentication
Two-factor authentication is an option in iOS to ensure that even if an unauthorized person knows an Apple ID and password combination, they cannot gain access to the account. It works by requiring not only the Apple ID and password, but also a verification code that is sent to an iDevice or mobile phone number that is already known to be trusted. If an unauthorized user attempts to sign in using another user's Apple ID, the owner of the Apple ID receives a notification that allows them to deny access to the unrecognized device.
Hardened memory allocation
iOS features a hardened memory allocator known as kalloc_type that was introduced in iOS 15. Since the XNU kernel is primarily written in memory unsafe languages such as C and C++, kalloc_type is designed to mitigate the large amount of vulnerabilities that result from the use of these languages in the kernel. In order to achieve this, kalloc_type implements mitigations such as type isolation in order to prevent type confusion and buffer overflow vulnerabilities. Ultimately, the prevention of privilege escalation is intended.
Reception
Market share
iOS is the second most popular mobile operating system in the world, after Android. Sales of iPads in recent years are also behind Android, while, by web use (a proxy for all use), iPads (using iOS) are still the most popular.By the middle of 2012, there were 410 million devices activated. At WWDC 2014, Tim Cook said 800 million devices had been sold by June 2014.During Apple's quarterly earnings call in January 2015, the company announced that they had sold over one billion iOS devices since 2007.By late 2011, iOS accounted for 60% of the market share for smartphones and tablets. By the end of 2014, iOS accounted for 14.8% of the smartphone market and 27.6% of the tablet and two-in-one market. In February 2015, StatCounter reported iOS was used on 23.18% of smartphones and 66.25% of tablets worldwide, measured by internet usage instead of sales.In the third quarter of 2015, research from Strategy Analytics showed that iOS adoption of the worldwide smartphone market was at a record low 12.1%, attributed to lackluster performance in China and Africa. Android accounted for 87.5% of the market, with Windows Phone and BlackBerry accounting for the rest.
Devices
See also
Comparison of mobile operating systems
Android (operating system)
Official website
Official website Dev Center at Apple Developer Connection
iOS Reference Library – on the Apple Developer Connection website |
The Leased Territory of Guangzhouwan, officially the Territoire de Kouang-Tchéou-Wan, was a territory on the coast of Zhanjiang in China leased to France and administered by French Indochina. The capital of the territory was Fort-Bayard, present-day Zhanjiang.The Japanese occupied the territory in February 1943. In 1945, following the surrender of Japan, France formally relinquished Guangzhouwan to China. The territory did not experience the rapid growth in population that other parts of coastal China experienced, rising from 189,000 in the early 20th century to just 209,000 in 1935. Industries included shipping and coal mining.
Geography
The leased territory was situated on the east side of the Leizhou Peninsula (French: Péninsule de Leitcheou), near Guangzhou, around a bay then called Kwangchowan, now called the Port of Zhanjiang. The bay forms the estuary of the Maxie River (Chinese: 麻斜河; pinyin: Máxié hé, French: Rivière Ma-The), now known as the Zhanjiang Waterway (Chinese: 湛江水道; pinyin: Zhànjiāng shuǐdào). The Maxie is navigable as far as 19 kilometres (12 mi) inland even by large warships.
The territory leased to France included the islands lying in the bay, which enclosed an area 29 km long by 10 km wide and a minimum water depth of 10 metres. The islands were recognized at the time as an admirable natural defense, the main islands being Donghai Dao. On the smaller Naozhou Island farther to the southeast, a lighthouse was constructed.
The limits of the territory inland were fixed in November 1899; on the left bank of the Maxie, France gained from Gaozhou prefecture (Kow Chow Fu) a strip of territory 18 kilometres (11 mi) by 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), and on the right bank a strip 24 kilometres (15 mi) by 18 kilometres (11 mi) from Leizhou prefecture (Lei Chow Fu). The total land area of the leased territory was 1,300 square kilometres (500 sq mi). The city of Fort-Bayard (Zhanjiang) was developed as a port.
History
French occupation and early development
Kwangchouwan was leased to the French for 99 years, or until 1997 (as the British did in Hong Kong's New Territories) according to the Treaty of 29 May 1898, ratified by China on 5 January 1900. The colony was described as "commercially unimportant but strategically located"; most of France's energies went into their administration of the mainland of French Indochina, and their main concern in China was the protection of Roman Catholic missionaries, rather than the promotion of trade. Kwangchow Wan, while not a constituent part of Indochina, was effectively placed under the authority of the French Resident Superior in Tonkin (itself under the Governor-General of French Indochina, also in Hanoi); the French Resident was represented locally by Administrators. In addition to the territory acquired, France was given the right to connect the bay by railway with the city and harbour situated on the west side of the peninsula; however when they attempted to take possession of the land to build the railway, forces of the provincial government offered armed resistance. As a result, France demanded and obtained exclusive mining rights in the three adjoining prefectures. The return of the leased territory to China was promised after the First World War by the French at the Washington Naval Conference of 1921–1922 and ultimately returned.By 1931, the population of Kwangchow Wan had reached 206,000, giving the colony a population density of 245 persons per km2; virtually all Chinese, and only 266 French citizens and four other Europeans were recorded as living there. Industries included shipping and coal mining. The port was also popular with smugglers; prior to the 1928 cancellation of the American ban on the export of commercial airplanes, Kwangchow Wan was also used as a stop for Cantonese smugglers transporting military aircraft purchased in Manila to China, and US records mention at least one drug smuggler who picked up opium and Chinese emigrants to be smuggled into the United States from there.
World War II
As an adjunct of French Indochina, Kwangchow Wan generally endured the same fate as the rest of the Indochina colony during World War II. Even before the signing of the 30 August 1940 accord with Japan in which France recognized the “privileged status of Japanese interests in the Far East” and which constituted the first step of the Japanese military occupation of Indochina, a small detachment of Japanese marines had landed at Fort-Bayard without opposition in early July and set up a control and observation post in the harbor. However, as in the rest of French Indochina, the civilian administration of the territory was to remain in the hands of officials of Vichy France following the Fall of France; in November 1941, Governor-General Jean Decoux, newly appointed by Marshal Pétain, made an official visit to Kwangchow Wan.In mid-February 1943, the Japanese, after having informed the Vichy government that they needed to strengthen the defence of Kwangchow Wan Bay, unilaterally landed more troops and occupied the airport and all other strategic locations in the Territory. From then on, Kwanchow Wan was de facto under full military Japanese occupation and the French civilian administration was gradually reduced to a mere façade. The Administrator resigned in disgust and Adrien Roques, a local pro-Vichy militant, was appointed to replace him. In May of the same year, Roques signed a convention with the local Japanese military authorities in which the French authorities promised to cooperate fully with the Japanese. On 10 March 1945, the Japanese, following up on their sudden attack on French garrisons throughout Indochina the night before, disarmed and imprisoned the small French colonial garrison in Fort-Bayard. Just prior to the Japanese surrender, Chinese forces were prepared to launch a large-scale assault on Kwangchow Wan; however, due to the end of the war, the assault never materialised. While the Japanese were still occupying Kwangchow Wan following the surrender, a French diplomat from the Provisional Government of the French Republic and Kuo Chang Wu, Vice-Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China, signed the Convention between the Provisional Government of the French Republic and the National Government of China for the retrocession of the Leased Territory of Kouang-Tchéou-Wan. Almost immediately after the last Japanese occupation troops had left the territory in late September, representatives of the French and the Chinese governments went to Fort-Bayard to proceed to the transfer of authority; the French flag was lowered for the last time on 20 November 1945.During the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong, Kwangchow Wan was often used as a stopover on an escape route for civilians fleeing Hainan and Hong Kong and trying to make their way to Thailand, North America and Free China; Patrick Yu, a prominent trial lawyer, recalled in his memoirs how a Japanese military officer helped him to escape in this way. However, the escape route was closed when the Japanese occupied the area in February 1943.
French language
A French-language school, École Franco-Chinoise de Kouang-Tchéou-Wan, as well as a branch of the Banque de l'Indochine, were set up in Fort-Bayard. In addition, a Roman Catholic church constructed during the French occupation is still preserved today.
Gallery
See also
China–France relations
French Indochina
Zhanjiang
French colonization of the Americas
"Compte administratif du budget local du territoire de Kouang-Tchéou-Wan". National Library of France.
WorldStatesmen - China
"Historic pictures of Fort Bayard". Archived from the original on October 12, 2007. Retrieved November 16, 2010.
Map of French Guangzhouwan
Map of French Indochina and Guangzhouwan
Other map about Guangzhouwan and Indochina
Map of Kwang Tchou Wan
"French Colonial Zhanjiang" |
Centre Point is a building in Central London, comprising a 34-storey tower; a 9-storey block to the east including shops, offices, retail units and maisonettes; and a linking block between the two at first-floor level. It occupies 101–103 New Oxford Street and 5–24 St Giles High Street, WC1, with a frontage also to Charing Cross Road, close to St Giles Circus and almost directly above Tottenham Court Road tube station. The site was once occupied by a gallows, and the tower sits directly over the former route of St Giles High Street, which had to be re-routed for the construction.
The building is 117 m (385 ft) high, has 34 floors and 27,180 m2 (292,563 sq ft) of floor space. Constructed from 1963 to 1966, it was one of the first skyscrapers in London, and as of 2009 was the city's joint 27th-tallest building. It stood empty from the time of its completion until 1975, and was briefly occupied by housing activists in 1974. Since 1995 it has been a Grade II listed building. In 2015 it was converted from office space to flats.
Construction and history
The building was designed by George Marsh of the architects R. Seifert and Partners, with engineers Pell Frischmann, and was constructed by Wimpey Construction from 1963 to 1966 for £5.5 million. The precast segments were formed of fine concrete, utilising crushed Portland stone; they were made by Portcrete Limited at Portland, Isle of Portland, Dorset, and transported to London by lorry.Centre Point was built as speculative office space by property tycoon Harry Hyams, who had leased the site at £18,500 a year for 150 years. Hyams intended that the whole building be occupied by a single tenant, and negotiated fiercely for its approval.On completion, the building remained vacant for many years, leading to its being referred to as "London's Empty Skyscraper". With property prices rising and most business tenancies taken for set periods of 10 or 15 years, Hyams could afford to keep it empty and wait for his single tenant at the asking price of £1,250,000; he was challenged to allow tenants to rent single floors, but consistently refused. At that time skyscrapers were rare in London, and Centre Point's prominence led to its becoming a rallying symbol for opponents. The homeless charity Centrepoint was founded in 1969 as a homeless shelter in nearby Soho, named Centrepoint in response to the building Centre Point being seen as an "affront to the homeless" for being left empty to make money for the property developer.In 1974 an umbrella group of Direct Action housing campaigners, including Jim Radford, Ron Bailey and Jack Dromey, organised a weekend occupation of Centre Point from 18 January to 20 January to draw attention to its being deliberately left empty during a housing crisis in London. (Two of the occupiers had obtained jobs with the Burns Security Company, which was guarding the building.)From July 1980 to March 2014, Centre Point was the headquarters of the Confederation of British Industry (CBI) which became, at 33 years and seven months, the building's longest-standing tenant.
In October 2005, Centre Point was bought from the previous owners, Blackmoor LP, by commercial property firm Targetfollow for £85 million. The building was extensively refurbished. As of 2009 occupants included US talent agency William Morris; the state-owned national oil company of Saudi Arabia, Aramco; Chinese oil company PetroChina; and electronic gaming company EA Games.It has since been purchased by Almacantar. Almacantar approached Conran and Partners for the refurbishment of the tower including change of use from office to residential, whilst MICA, formerly Rick Mather Architects, led the refurbishment of the lower rise buildings and the new affordable housing block. In 2015 work began on conversion of the building to residential flats. The restoration and conversion of the tower to a residential building was finished in March 2018. Much as had been the case at its original opening, the refurbished tower remains largely empty, with few windows lit in the evenings, the rest in darkness, despite at least half its units being sold. This has led to it being called one of London's "ghost towers".
Transport
The promised transport interchange and highways improvements were not delivered following the original plan. The pedestrian subway attracted anti-social activities. On 19 June 2006, the Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment pointed to the building as an example of bad design, where badly-designed pavements force pedestrians into the bus lane and account for the highest level of pedestrian injuries in Central London. With the planned redevelopment of Tottenham Court Road Underground Station, a framework has been adopted to redevelop the traffic island beneath Centre Point as an open space.
Architectural reception
Architecture critic Nikolaus Pevsner described Centre Point as "coarse in the extreme". In 1995 it became a Grade II listed building. In 2009, it won the Concrete Society's Mature Structures Award.
Cultural references
Centre Point is featured in the 1977 horror film The Medusa Touch. A Boeing 747 aircraft is seen to hit the top of the tower and destroy it. The resulting collapse engulfs the nearby Dominion Theatre.
Centre Point is one of the locations Jim (Cillian Murphy) walks past in the "deserted London" scenes of UK horror film 28 Days Later (2002). Director Danny Boyle also references it (as "'Centre Point,' the famous empty/partially empty building in this busy section of London") on the DVD commentary.
The character "Old Bailey" camps on top of Centre Point at one point in Neil Gaiman's novel Neverwhere. He describes it as an "ugly and distinctive Sixties skyscraper" and goes on to remark that "the view from the top was without compare, and, furthermore, the top of Centre Point was one of the few places in the West End of London where you did not have to look at Centre Point itself".
The building is mentioned in the sixth episode of the fourth series of the BBC comedy series The Thick of It. During an inquiry into the UK government's routine leaking of information to the press, Stuart Pearson, a Conservative spin doctor, is asked about an analogy he has made between government transparency and the Pompidou Centre. A member of the inquiry suggests that rather than creating a "political Pompidou Centre," Pearson has created "the opposite, Centre Point – I mean everyone sees it looming over them but nobody has the faintest idea what happens in there." To which Pearson replies, "I think there's some kind of club on the top floor."
In an episode of Captain Kremmen, the titular character is forced to fire a "Thron" ray into London by his Krell captors, but avoids any deaths by aiming it at Centre Point, which was empty.
For a number of years up until January 2022, two members of The Sidemen (KSI and Simon Minter) lived in a three bedroom apartment there. They streamed a number of videos as individual and also filmed a number of videos with The Sidemen as a group.
See also
Tall buildings in London
List of skyscrapers
Official website
Targetfollow.co.uk – Owner of Centre Point
Targetspace.co.uk – Office Services in Centre Point
BBC News: Hunt for UK's 'failed' buildings
Concrete Society: Certificate of Excellence for Centre Point
Centre Point by Richard Seifert
Centre Point building information & photos |
Elsie Tu (née Hume; Chinese: 杜葉錫恩; 2 June 1913 – 8 December 2015), known as Elsie Elliott in her earlier life, was an English-born Hong Kong social activist, elected member of the Urban Council of Hong Kong from 1963 to 1995, and member of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong from 1988 to 1995.
Born and raised in Newcastle upon Tyne, England, Tu moved to Hong Kong in 1951 following a period as a missionary in China. She became known for her strong antipathy towards colonialism and corruption, as well as for her work for the underprivileged. She took the main role in the 1966 Kowloon riots when she opposed the Star Ferry fare increase which later turned into riots and faced accusations of inciting the disorder. She fought for gay rights, better housing, welfare services, playgrounds, bus routes, hawker licences and innumerable other issues and her campaigning is credited with leading to the establishment of the Independent Commission Against Corruption (ICAC) in 1974.In the run up to the 1997 handover of Hong Kong to China and the midst of the Sino-British conflict on the 1994 Hong Kong electoral reform, Tu found favour with the Chinese Communist authorities, and took a seat on the Beijing-controlled Provisional Legislative Council, from December 1996 to June 1998, after losing both her seats in the Urban and Legislative Councils in 1995 to another prominent democrat Szeto Wah. In post-1997 Hong Kong, although without a formal public role, Tu consistently supported the SAR government and policies including the controversial Basic Law Article 23 legislation. She died in Hong Kong on 8 December 2015, at the age of 102.
Early life
Tu was born into the working-class family of John and Florence Hume on 2 June 1913 in Newcastle upon Tyne, the second child of four. After attending Benwell Secondary Girls' School and Heaton Secondary School, she went on to study at Armstrong College, a forerunner of Newcastle University, graduating in 1937 with a Bachelor of Arts. From 1937 to 1947 she was a schoolteacher in Halifax, where, during the Second World War, she was a Civil Defence volunteer.
Hume converted to Christianity in 1932 during her first year at university. In 1946 she married William Elliott, and went with him to China as a missionary called the Christian Missions in Many Lands in 1947 and stationed in Yifeng. Hume was among the last group of missionaries moving from Nanchang to Hong Kong after the Communist Party of China took power in 1949 and expelled all foreign missionaries from the Mainland China. She lived in an illegal apartment in a squatter community in Wong Tai Sin area, known as Kai Tak New Village. She soon learned about corruption because squatters had to pay triad gangs protection money.Shocked by the poverty and injustices there, and due to her sympathy to the situation of Hong Kong society, Elsie became disenchanted with her husband's rigid Protestant faith and the refusal of their church, the Plymouth Brethren, to become involved in social issues. Elsie left the Plymouth Brethren when she stood up in the assembly in Hong Kong in 1955. She returned to Hong Kong alone to carry on the education works. She divorced her husband and lived, for a time, in a kitchen in a Kowloon Walled City tenement.In 1954, she founded and worked in Mu Kuang English School for poor children in an old army tent at a squatter area near Kai Tak. She started with 30 pupils in an old army tent. For a year, she lived on little else but bread and water until employed at the Hong Kong Baptist College, teaching English, English Literature and French. She also met her colleague, Andrew Tu Hsueh-kwei in the school, who became her husband 30 years later. The Mu Kuang English School is now situated on Kung Lok Road in Kwun Tong, serving 1,300 children of Hong Kong's low-income families. She remained as the school principal until 2000.
Political career
Early involvement
Elliott was shocked by the injustices she perceived in Hong Kong when she first arrived. However, her church did not permit social activism. After she left the church, she felt like she was "starting [her] new life at the age of 43, with a mission on earth for human beings, and not mansion in heaven for [her]self." She wrote to The Guardian, deploring the long working hours, low wages and primitive working conditions experienced by Chinese people in Hong Kong. Her letter was quoted during debate in the UK Parliament. A controversy ensued, resulting in labour reform in Hong Kong. Elliott was also appalled to find child labour officially recognised and accepted in Hong Kong.
Urban Councillor
Becoming politically active, Elliott was elected for the first time to the Urban Council in 1963, a body dealing with local district matters such as public health, recreation, culture, food hygiene, hawking and markets. Its membership was partially publicly-elected and partially appointed. It was also the only elected office in the colony at the time. Brook Bernacchi's Reform Club was seeking a woman candidate and Elliott ran. At that time, the Reform Club and the Civic Association, the two quasi-opposition parties in the Urban Council formed a join ticket for the four seats in the council to push for constitutional reform in the colony. She later left the club and ran as an independent in the re-election in 1967. One of the prerequisites for becoming an Urban Councillor at that time was a knowledge of English, the only official language. Elliott thought this unfair and lobbied, with Councillor Denny Huang and others, for years to have Chinese recognised as an official language.
Elliott became vice-chairman of the Urban Council with Gerry Forsgate as chairman in 1986. Until her defeat in 1995, she had always been re-elected to the Urban Council with the highest votes. She was also the spokeswoman for the United Nations Association of Hong Kong, which advocated self-government in the colony in the 1960s. In 1966, Elliott went to London and met with politicians including Secretary of State for the Colonies Frederick Lee and Members of Parliament, seeking a Royal Commission of Inquiry into Hong Kong on the colony's economic inequality, corruption in the colonial government and self-government for Hong Kong as seen in other British colonies. She also invited some Members of Parliament to visit Hong Kong and joined the delegations of elected Urban Councillors to London in 1979 to discuss the proposed constitutional changes for Hong Kong.Around 1981 when District Boards were set up, Urban Councillors were appointed ex-officio members of the Boards. Consequently, Elliott was member of the Kwun Tong District Board until the appointment system was abolished in 1991.
Social activism
From the 1960s to 1980s, Elliott fought for gay rights, better housing, welfare services, playgrounds, bus routes, hawker licences and innumerable other issues. She was especially opposed to the corruption then endemic in many areas of Hong Kong life and the influence of the triads. Her popularity grew as did her reputation as fighter for the underprivileged and outspoken critic of British colonial rule.
In 1954, the government issued a new policy which allowed the Squatter Control Branch to demolish new squatter huts where many newcoming refugees from the Mainland were living. Elliott thought that the policy carried out many unjust practices and corruption. She called for a review of the policy once she was elected to the Urban Council in 1963 and helped the homeless and filed complaints to the government officials. Eventually the government agreed that the squatters whose huts were demolished in Jordan Valley could build huts on the nearby hilltop known as "Seventh Cemetery".In 1965, the Star Ferry applied to the Government for a First Class fare increase of 5 Hong Kong cents to 25 cents. This was widely opposed in Hong Kong. Elliott collected over 20,000 signatories opposing the plan, and flew to London in an attempt to arrest it. The increase in fare was approved in March 1966 by the Transport Advisory Committee, where the only vote opposing was Elliott's. Inspired by Elliot's actions, on 4 April 1966, a young man named So Sau-chung began a hunger strike protest at the Star Ferry Terminal in Central with his black jacket upon which he had hand-written the words "Hail Elsie", "Join hunger strike to block fare increase". So was soon arrested and more protests were sparked which eventually turned into the Kowloon riots in April 1966. Elliott faced smear attacks from the pro-government media and was called to an official inquiry, portraying her as the instigator of the riots and naming it the "Elliott riot".At the time street hawkers generally had to pay protection money to triads, a portion of which went to the police. She strove for the institution of hawking control measures to combat these ills. Though many in ruling circles disliked Elliott rocking the boat, her campaigning is credited with leading to the establishment of the Independent Commission Against Corruption (ICAC) in 1974 by Governor Murray MacLehose who pushed forward massive reforms to the colonial system. Minibus drivers in the 1970s had to pay extortion money in order to avoid receiving summonses. She reported these minibus rackets and allegations of police corruption to Peter Fitzroy Godber, the Chief Superintendent of the Traffic Department, Governor Murray MacLehose, the Traffic Commissioner of Traffic Department, Colonial Secretary, and G. A. Harknett, the Director of Operations of ICAC in various letters. She also helped Mak Pui-yuen who was believed to be victimised for having reported corruption to Police Inspectors J. Peter Law and Peter Fitzroy Godber about minibus racket in 1970.In 1979, Elliott and Andrew Tu, a social activist whom she later married, formed the Association for the Promotion of Public Justice (APPJ) to promote social justice, stability and prosperity. In 1982, the APPJ Filipino Overseas Workers Group was established to help Filipino domestic helpers in Hong Kong on human rights issues.Elliott fought for gay rights. She urged the government to decriminalise homosexuality, as had been done in the United Kingdom in 1967, but was told that the locals would object. She appealed directly to Governor MacLehose, who also supported gay rights, but he echoed the same sentiment that the community would oppose decriminalisation. In September 1979 she appealed to Sir Yuet-keung Kan, but he and others continued to block reform. Homosexuality was eventually decriminalised in Hong Kong in 1991, although there are still no laws against discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation.
In January 1980, John MacLennan, a police inspector, was found shot five times in the chest and body in his locked flat on the day he was to have been arrested on homosexual charges. Elliott suggested that MacLennan was being persecuted because he "knew too much" about the names of homosexuals in his investigation of homosexuality in the police. As a result, Elliott corresponded with Murray MacLehose, Commissioner of the Commission of Inquiry and MacLennan's family, J. M. Duffy, the Senior Crown Counsel, John C. Griffiths, the Attorney General and also collected information on MacLennan's case as well as the Inquest and Inquiry. The event led to the setting up of the Commission of Inquiry and a review of the laws on homosexuality.In 1980 it was revealed by investigative journalist Duncan Campbell that she was under surveillance by the Standing Committee on Pressure Groups (SCOPG). This, however, did not worry Elliott as she stated: "I know my telephone was tapped and probably is at this moment but I have done nothing wrong and have no political affiliations." Later, Tu wrote in her semi-autobiographical work, Colonial Hong Kong in the Eyes of Elsie Tu, that her phone line was already tapped in 1970.
Before and after 1997
Tu was appointed as a HKSAR Basic Law Consultative Committee member in 1985 before the handover. In 1985 as the colonial government introduced indirect election to the Legislative Council for the first time in history, the Urban Council became an electoral college, and the Urban Councillors could elect a representative to the Legislative Council. At the next election in 1988 she was first elected to the Legislative Council through the constituency and served for two terms until 1995. From 1991 to 1995 she chaired the House Committee in the legislature. She remained the most popular legislator for the most period of her tenure.In the period leading up to Hong Kong's return to Chinese sovereignty, Tu became an advocate of slower pace in democratisation as preferred by the Chinese government, which markets it as "gradual pace", as opposed to many democrats who advocate faster-pace democratisation such as Emily Lau and Martin Lee. She opposed the last Governor Chris Patten's electoral reform, questioning the British refusal to give Hong Kong democracy for decades but then advancing such reforms only in the final years of its "disgraceful colonial era" in which Hong Kong "never had any democracy to destroy". She attacked Governor Chris Patten as a hypocrite.In the Urban Council election in March 1995, she lost her seat after 32 years of service to Democratic Party politician Szeto Wah, whose campaign targeted Tu's perceived pro-Beijing stance, by a margin of 2,397 votes. In the Legislative Council election held September in the same year, she left her Urban Council constituency and went for the Kowloon East direct election but was defeated by Szeto Wah again. As she ran against the pro-democracy icon, Tu was supported by the pro-Beijing party Democratic Alliance for the Betterment of Hong Kong (DAB), which made her look even closer to Beijing.
Tu was appointed by the Beijing government to the Selection Committee, which was responsible for electing the first Chief Executive and the Provisional Legislative Council, established in 1996 to straddle the 1997 handover in which Tu served as a member. Tu's political career came to an end when the Provisional Legislative Council was dissolved in 1998. In response to her opponents' criticisms of her being increasingly pro-Beijing, she said "I'm not for China, I'm not for Britain. I've always been for the people of Hong Kong and for justice. I will do the work I've always done and stand for the people who get a raw deal."
Retirement and death
Tu left active politics and closed her office in 1998 but continued to comment on social issues and turned in articles to newspapers to criticise government policies she deemed unfair or inadequate. She remained, as one Hong Kong commentator put it, "the pro-Beijing camp's only worthy, authentic, popular hero".In 2002, she wrote to the Legislative Council in support of enactment of the anti-subversion law under Basic Law Article 23, a largely unpopular move seen by many as a threat to civil liberty. The controversy over Article 23 sparked the 1 July Protest of 2003 with a record turnout of more than 500,000 demonstrators. The legislation had been promoted by Regina Ip, Secretary for Security. When the latter ran in the 2007 Legislative Council by-election against democrat Anson Chan who was the former Chief Secretary for Administration, Tu publicly endorsed the Beijing-supported Ip.In 2013, she criticised the widening income disparity in Hong Kong and "rich men who seem to have no conscience", expressing sympathy for striking dock workers against billionaire Li Ka-shing's Hutchison Whampoa.Tu turned 100 in June 2013. For her 100th birthday, Mu Kuang alumni established the Elsie Tu Education Fund in her honour. She died from pneumonia-related complications at the Kwun Tong United Christian Hospital on 8 December 2015, aged 102. All three Chief Executives Leung Chun-ying and his two predecessors Tung Chee-hwa and Donald Tsang were among the pallbearers at the funeral of Tu on 20 December. A cremation ceremony was held at the Cape Collinson Crematorium in Chai Wan after the funeral and Tu's ashes were buried with the remains of her husband, Andrew Tu.
Family and marriages
Tu's father, John Hume, originally a grocer's assistant, was sent to fight in the First World War in Europe when she was one. He was gassed in the trenches and suffered as a result for the rest of his life. Tu noted that her father had a profound influence on her conscience when he told her his experiences during the war. He had a hatred of war and compassion for all people. He became an agnostic and interested in politics. Her family discussed about the hypocrisy of religions, about Marxism and the rights of workers and about sports. Her left-leaning world-view influenced by her father made Tu decided that "I could at least be good and useful in life" in her youth. Her father died when she was in China.Elsie married William Elliott who was eight years her junior and worked in the Plymouth Brethren missionary in 1946. She went with her husband to China in 1947, but became increasingly disillusioned with her husband's fundamentalism and their church. She described the period as "the lowest point in [her] life" and thought of committing suicide. The couple eventually separated during an abortive trip back to England. She returned to Hong Kong alone and later divorced him in 1964.She met her second husband, Andrew Tu Hsueh-kwei, who had come to Hong Kong from Inner Mongolia in the 1950s. They became working partners at the Mu Kuang English School, with Andrew teaching the Chinese language and Elliott teaching all other Form 1 subjects. In spite of cultural and language differences, she found that Andrew's ideas took her back to the days of sharing with her father. In 1985, 30 years after the two teachers met, they finally got married when Elsie was 71 and Andrew was 63. The old couple remained married until Andrew died in 2001. Andrew was also a social activist and the leader of the Chinese Alliance for Commemoration of the Sino-Japanese War Victims, which demands justice, reparations and apologies of the victims suffered in the Second Sino-Japanese War from the Japanese government.
Works
Tu wrote two volumes of autobiography, as well as other works. Colonial Hong Kong in the Eyes of Elsie Tu was published in 2003 and Shouting at the Mountain: A Hong Kong Story of Love and Commitment, cowritten with Andrew Tu, tells of the couple's lives dedicated to society. It was completed after Andrew Tu's death in 2001 and published in 2005. She also completed the publication of her husband Andrew's autobiography of his childhood in Inner Mongolia, Camel Bells in the Windy Desert.
Legacy
Tu was seen as the champion of fighting for underprivileged and against corruption back in the earlier days in the 1960s. Chief Executive Leung Chun-ying praised her "passion and devotion to Hong Kong and her tremendous contributions to social reform and development" in a statement after her death. Chief Secretary Carrie Lam said her acquaintance with Tu started in her university days when she was a student participating in social actions led by Tu, who she described as an exemplary champion of social justice who commanded respect for her valiant words and deeds.Founding chairman of the Democratic Party Martin Lee praised her as pioneer of fighting for democracy. Other democrats such as Lau Chin-shek, Lee Wing-tat, Fred Li Wah-ming and Frederick Fung admitted their involvement in social activism was inspired or assisted by Elsie Tu.
Awards
Tu received numerous honours in recognition of her services to Hong Kong. In 1975, she was awarded the Ramon Magsaysay Award for Government Service. She was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 1977 for her work against corruption. In 1997, she was among the first recipients of the Grand Bauhinia Medal (GBM), the highest honour in the SAR award system.A number of honorary degrees were also conferred on her. She received honorary doctoral degree in Social Science from the University of Hong Kong in 1988 and both honorary doctoral degrees in Laws from the Hong Kong Polytechnic University and in Social Science from the Open Learning Institute of Hong Kong in 1994. From Armstrong College (later to become Newcastle University) of Durham University where she graduated from, she received honorary doctoral degrees in Civil Law in 1996 from both universities.
See also
List of centenarians
Additional
BooksElliott, Elsie (1971). The Avarice, Bureaucracy and Corruption of Hong Kong.
Elliott, Elsie (1981). Crusade For Justice: An Autobiography.
Tu, Elsie (2003). Colonial Hong Kong in the Eyes of Elsie Tu. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 978-962-209-606-6.
Tu, Elsie; Tu, Andrew (2005). Shouting At The Mountain: A Hong Kong Story of Love and Commitment.
Urban Council, Urban Council Annual Report, 1974
Hong Kong Newspaper Clippings Online
Ramon Magsaysay Award citation Archived 5 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine
Elsie Tu Personal Papers Collection in Hong Kong Baptist University Library – Manuscript, Archives and related material of Elsie Tu (includes biographical material)
Elsie Tu Digitized Publications Special Collections & Archives, Hong Kong Baptist University Library.
Elsie Tu Digitized Speeches Special Collections & Archives, Hong Kong Baptist University Library.
Elsie Elliot The Young Reporter (HKBU Journalism Student Publication Archive) |
Radical 208 meaning "rat" or "mouse" is 1 of 4 Kangxi radicals (214 radicals total) composed of 13 strokes.
In the Kangxi Dictionary there are 92 characters (out of 49,030) to be found under this radical.
Characters with Radical 208
Literature
Fazzioli, Edoardo (1987). Chinese calligraphy : from pictograph to ideogram : the history of 214 essential Chinese/Japanese characters. calligraphy by Rebecca Hon Ko. New York: Abbeville Press. ISBN 0-89659-774-1.
Lunde, Ken (Jan 5, 2009). "Appendix J: Japanese Character Sets" (PDF). CJKV Information Processing: Chinese, Japanese, Korean & Vietnamese Computing (Second ed.). Sebastopol, Calif.: O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-51447-1.
Unihan Database - U+9F20 |
150 may refer to:
150 (number), a natural number
AD 150, a year in the 2nd century AD
150 BC, a year in the 2nd century BC
150 Regiment RLC
Combined Task Force 150
See also
List of highways numbered 150
All pages with titles containing 150 |
.af is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Afghanistan. It is administered by AFGNIC, a service of the UNDP. As of 26 August 2020, .af was used by 5960 domains.Registration is made directly at the second level, or on the third level beneath various categorized subdomains at the second level. Third-level domains have restrictions based on which second-level domain they are registered under. Registration on the second level is unrestricted, but more expensive. All fees are higher for international registrants.
The .af domain was delegated to Abdul Razeeq in 1997, a year after Taliban fighters had captured Kabul and founded the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. NetNames of London initially maintained the domain following an agreement with the IANA. Razeeq later disappeared, halting some services. The domain was reopened on March 10, 2003, as a joint program between UNDP and the Afghan Ministry of Communications.With the fall of Kabul the .af domain again came under the control of the Taliban. ICANN said it "defers decision making to within the country".
Second-level domains
.gov.af
.com.af
.org.af
.net.af
.edu.af
.tv.af
.media.af
IANA .af whois information
AFGNIC official site
AfghanServer, .af registrant |
.ag is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Antigua and Barbuda.
Second and third level registrations
Registrations can be made at the second level directly beneath .ag, or at the third level beneath:
.com.ag or .co.ag (intended for commercial entities)
.org.ag (intended for organisations, especially nonprofits)
.net.ag (intended for network operators/providers)
.nom.ag (intended for individuals)There are no restrictions on who can register.
Domain hacks
In addition to its original intended use as a country code, the .ag domain has been marketed for use for agriculture-related sites, and for sites referencing the atomic symbol for silver, Ag. It also has a potential use for other domain hacks for English words that end in -ag. The Heritage Foundation uses .ag for URL shortening (herit.ag).
".ag" used to mean "Aktiengesellschaft"
Aktiengesellschaft, abbreviated AG, is a German term that refers to a corporation that is limited by shares, i.e. owned by shareholders, and may be traded on a stock market. The term is used in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, but not Liechtenstein or Luxembourg.
Legal status of .ag in Germany
A German court (5. Zivilsenat des Oberlandesgerichtes Hamburg) ruled in July 2004 that a .ag domain may only be registered by an Aktiengesellschaft, and then only by an AG that has the same name as the domain. For example, a company with shareholders in Germany having the name X AG may not register as y.ag.
Use in Greenland
Sermitsiaq uses the TLD.
See also
Internet in Antigua and Barbuda
List of .AG Registrars Archived 2013-07-08 at the Wayback Machine
IANA .ag whois information |
.zw is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Zimbabwe.
Although no registry Web site is shown in the IANA whois listing, at least .co.zw registrations are presently being taken by the Zimbabwe Internet Service Providers Association, whose charter claims that one of the purposes of the organization's founding was to oversee the .zw domain.
.ac.zw registrations are being taken by the University of Zimbabwe. Applications are handled by this institution's Computer Centre. As with the general norm, .ac.zw registrations are for academic institutions.
.org.zw registrations are taken by the country's fixed telecommunications provider, TelOne. These are intended for use by NGOs, and similar organisations but any restrictions are not clear.
TelOne is also listed as the administrative and technical contact of the domain.
IANA .zw whois information |
.co is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) assigned to Colombia.
It is administered by .CO Internet S.A.S., a subsidiary of Neustar since 2014. As of July 10, 2010, there were no registration restrictions on second-level .co domains; any individual or entity in the world can register a .co domain.
.CO Internet S.A.S from Bogotá, Colombia, was appointed as the manager for the .co TLD through a public procurement process that took place in early 2009. .CO Internet received the re-delegation approval as the manager of the .co TLD by ICANN on December 9, 2009, and received formal confirmation of the request by the United States Department of Commerce on December 23, 2009.
Second-level domain names
When they took over administration of the .CO domain, .CO Internet S.A.S. implemented new domain policies that were more flexible than the historic ones that had been administered by the University of the Andes. The new policies were adjusted to international best practices and defined in consultation with local and international communities. With the new policies, Colombia would be able to sell second-level domain names to the world, such as widgets.co, where previously only third-level domain names were available, such as widgets.com.co.
To celebrate the launch of second-level domains, the registry auctioned the first single letter .CO domain name "e.CO" during Internet Week on June 10, 2010. A video of the auction can be seen here: For a purchase price of $81,000, the winner of the auction was internet entrepreneur Lonnie Borck of B52 Media. Proceeds were donated to a charitable cause of the winner's choice.
In addition to e.co, the other single letter .CO domain names that have been allocated include:
As of June 2011, more than 1 million .CO domains had been registered by people in over 200 countries and territories worldwide. As of January 2014, that number has grown to over 1.6 million .CO domains registered.
With respect to search engine optimization, Google confirmed that "it will rank .co domains appropriately if the content is globally targeted".
Summary of policies since 2010
Any person or entity in the world can register .co domain names
There are no domicile or burdensome documentation requirements
Registration period is between 1 and 5 years, subject to renewal
Registrants can easily transfer domain names.CO domains became available via the following timeline:
April 1, 2010 – April 20, 2010: Sunrise A allowed registered local trademarks to apply for exact match domains.
April 26, 2010 – June 10, 2010: Sunrise B allowed trademarks of national effect to apply for exact match domains.
June 21, 2010 – July 13, 2010: Landrush allowed anyone to apply for domain names of high commercial value.
July 20, 2010: .co domains became generally available.
Third-level domain registrations
The third-level domain registrations closely mirror the "traditional" IANA .com / .net / .org / .gov / .edu / .mil hierarchy, with the addition of a national equivalent of .name. Different from registrations directly under .co, which are used to signal globally relevant interests, third-level domains are used to signal locally relevant business, organizations, academic institutions, and government.
com.co – commercial
org.co – organizations
edu.co – educational
gov.co – government
net.co – network infrastructure
mil.co – military
nom.co – private person
History
IANA delegates ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 codes as country code top-level domains, and on December 24, 1991, the .co top-level domain was assigned to Colombia and delegated to the Universidad de los Andes.In 2001, the university began to consider the possibility of marketing the domain as an alternative to the generic top-level domains. The government of Colombia objected on the basis that the university, a private entity, did not have regulatory oversight of the TLD and the Minister of Communications, Angela Montoya Holguín, wrote to them requesting that they not continue. In turn the university wrote to ICANN, rejecting the government's objections and stating their intention to appoint a subcontractor to handle the commercialisation of the domain.At a meeting on December 11, 2001, Holguín asked the Consultative Chamber and Civil Service of the Council of State to consider three issues:
whether the .co domain is a public resource
if the domain is public resource, whether it is intrinsically linked with telecommunications
if the domain is linked with telecommunications, who should profit from its commercialisationIn relation to these three issues, the meeting concluded that:
the .co domain, having been assigned to Colombia, is of public interest
the administration of the domain is intrinsically related to telecommunications, and hence falls under the purview of the Ministry of Communications, with the exception of those functions assigned to the ICFES by the Ministry of National Education
unless the Congress of Colombia adopts an act allowing tax to be collected in relation to the registration of domain names, no amount can be charged for such a serviceIn response to the Council of State meeting, the university wrote to ICANN on 12 February 2002 stating that it had abandoned plans to commercialise the domain, and that as it could "no longer bear the administrative and operational responsibilities" it wished to discontinue its responsibility for operating the domain.Finally, with the enactment of Law 1065 of 2006, the Ministry of Communications of Colombia initiated a public consultation process involving local and international participants, including members of the ICANN community, with the objective of defining the future of the .CO TLD. As a result of that process, through Resolution 001652 of 2008, the Ministry approved new policies that would govern the administration of the .CO TLD. A public procurement process began which resulted in the award of the administration contract to .CO Internet SAS. Finally, on February 7, 2010, the administration of the TLD was transitioned from the University of Andes to .CO Internet SAS, under the regulatory and policy supervision of the Ministry of Communications of Colombia.On July 20, 2010, second level .co domains became available to the rest of the world on a first-come, first-served basis. In 2014, .CO Internet S.A.S was acquired by Neustar for US$109 Million, and became a wholly owned subsidiary of Neustar. It is responsible for the promotion, administration, and technical operation of the .co TLD.
Accredited registrars
Only accredited registrars are able to sell .co domain names directly; other registrars selling .co domain names are acting as resellers. The list of accredited registrars is available on the .CO Internet website, and as of October 2011 there are 20 accredited registrars. Some of the 20 registrars operate under multiple brands.
See also
Internet in Colombia
IANA .co information |
.tw is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Taiwan. The domain name is based on the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code TW. The registry is maintained by the Taiwan Network Information Center (TWNIC), a Taiwanese non-profit organization appointed by the National Communications Commission (NCC) and the Ministry of Transportation and Communication. Since 1 March 2001, TWNIC has stopped allowing itself to sign up new domain names directly, instead allowing new registration through its contracted reseller registrars. As of May 2023, there are 17 registrars.
Registering .tw website domains
Internationalized ccTLDs
ICANN assigned two Internationalized country code top-level domains (IDN ccTLDs) for Taiwan on 25 June 2010:
台灣 : taiwan in traditional Chinese characters (DNS name: xn--kpry57d)
台湾 : taiwan in simplified Chinese characters (DNS name: xn--kprw13d)Presently in November 2019, and since at least November 2015 ("IETF dnsop WG mailing list".), the simplified suffix is a DNAME alias for the traditional suffix. As a result any subdomain of the traditional xn--kpry57d TLD automatically has a CNAME alias from the simplified xn--kprw13d TLD. The traditional suffix is in active use.
Second-Level Domains
Registrations under .tw are possible in second-level space or under various domains as third-level domains:
edu.tw: for educational and academic institutions
gov.tw: for agencies of the Government of the Republic of China, operated by Taiwan
mil.tw: for the Republic of China Armed Forces, operated by Taiwan
com.tw: for companies or firms (Taiwanese or foreign) registered under the laws of their country
net.tw: for network or telecommunications license holders
org.tw: for non-profit organizations (Taiwanese or foreign) established according to the laws of their country
idv.tw: for individuals (must verify their identity by e-mail)
game.tw: unrestricted (but registrant must verify their identity by email), intended for gaming-related content
ebiz.tw: unrestricted (but registrant must verify their identity by email), intended for online business-related content
club.tw: unrestricted (but registrant must verify their identity by email)
tw: unrestrictedDomain names in Chinese characters may also be registered at the second level. Furthermore, any registrant of a standard domain name who has chosen a domestic registrar may automatically get two more domain names in Chinese characters in the following second-level domains: 網路.tw, 組織.tw and 商業.tw. These second-level domains correspond to net.tw, org.tw and com.tw, respectively.
Statistics
As of March 2017, around 8.31％ of the .tw domains are served via secured HTTPS protocol, with the cPanel, Inc. Certification Authority being the most popular SSL certificate. Apache is the most popular web server, serving 47.60% of the .tw domains, followed by Microsoft-IIS serving 20.31% of the total .tw domains.
See also
.cn (China)
.jp (Japan)
.kr (South Korea)
.TW Whois Service
IANA .tw whois information
List of registrars accredited by TWNIC
List of registrars accredited by Neulevel |
.ai is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Anguilla, a British Overseas Territory in the Caribbean. It is administered by the government of Anguilla.
It is popular with companies in and projects related to the artificial intelligence industry (AI).
Second and third level registrations
Registrations within off.ai, com.ai, net.ai, and org.ai are available unrestrictedly, worldwide. From September 15, 2009, second level registrations within .ai are available to everyone worldwide.
Registration
The minimum registration term allowed for .ai domain is 2 years for registration and 2 years for renewal. The authority in charge of managing this extension is “WHOIS.AI”. Registrations began on 1995-02-16. The minimum length is 2 and the maximum is 63 characters. There are no requirements for registering domain, anybody can register them, local and foreign residents.
AI domain can be suspended or revoked, if the domain is based on some illegal activity, such as violating trademarks or copyrights. The usage must not violate the laws of Anguilla.Anguilla uses the UDRP. Filing a UDRP challenge requires using one of the ICANN Approved Dispute Resolution Service Providers. If the domain is with an ICANN accredited registrar, they should work with the arbitrator. Usually this means either doing nothing or transferring a domain. .ai domains are transferable to any desired registrars as the registration of domain is done maintaining EPP.The character set supported by .ai domain include A-Z, a-z, 0-9, and hyphen. As of November 2022, .ai domains don't accommodate IDN characters. The auction of expired .ai domain is undertaken every ten days where expired domains can be procured through the auction process.
Valuation
Domains are $120 for each two-year period. As of December 2017, the ".ai" registry supports Extensible Provisioning Protocol. Consequently, many registrars are allowed to sell ".ai" domains. Since then, the .ai ccTLD has also been popular with artificial intelligence companies and organizations. Though such trends are primarily seen among new AI based companies or startups, many established AI and Tech companies preferred not to opt for .ai domain. For example, DeepMind has its domain retained at .com; Facebook has redirected its facebook.ai domain to ai.facebook.com.As of November 2022, expert.ai is the most valued .ai domain that has been sold ever. The sell was brokered and mediated by Sedo in June 2020 and was finalized at €95,000 (about $108,000).
Impact on Anguilla's economy
The registration fees earned from the .ai domains go to the treasury of Government of Anguilla. As per a New York Times report, in 2018, the total revenue generated out of selling .ai domains was $2.9 million.
See also
Internet in Anguilla
Internet in the United Kingdom
IANA .ai whois information
old .ai NIC page
.ai domain registration page
.ai whois page
.ai expired domain name auction |
Clóvis Beviláqua (4 October 1859 – 26 July 1944) was a Brazilian jurist, historian and journalist born in Viçosa do Ceará, Ceará, in 1859. Beviláqua was professor of civil and comparative law in Recife. As the author of the Brazilian Civil Code of 1916, whose first draft he presented in 1899, and as that code's first commentator, Beviláqua was the founding father of Brazilian civil law scholarship. He founded and occupied the 14th chair of the Brazilian Academy of Letters, from 1897 until his death in 1944. The chair's patron is Franklin Távora.
Paul, Wolf (2001). "Clóvis Bevilaqua". In Michael Stolleis (ed.). Juristen: ein biographisches Lexikon; von der Antike bis zum 20. Jahrhundert (in German) (2nd ed.). München: Beck. p. 85. ISBN 3-406-45957-9.
Alessandro Hirata, Clóvis Beviláqua: o grande civilista da segunda metade do século XIX, in Carta Forense, 4.7.2011 |
昆陽 may refer to:
Gonyang-myeon (곤양면; 昆陽面), Sacheon, South Gyeongsang Province, South Korea
Aoki Konyō (1698 – 1769), Confucian scholar, minor hatamoto and pioneer rangaku scholar in early Edo period Japan
Kunyang, Chinese town, once in Battle of Kunyang, located in what is today Kunyang Town, Ye County, Pingdingshan, Henan province, China
All pages with titles containing 昆陽
The dictionary definition of 昆 at Wiktionary
The dictionary definition of 陽 at Wiktionary |
The four occupations (simplified Chinese: 士农工商; traditional Chinese: 士農工商; pinyin: Shì nóng gōng shāng), or "four categories of the people" (Chinese: 四民; pinyin: sì mín), was an occupation classification used in ancient China by either Confucian or Legalist scholars as far back as the late Zhou dynasty and is considered a central part of the fengjian social structure (c. 1046–256 BC). These were the shi (gentry scholars), the nong (peasant farmers), the gong (artisans and craftsmen), and the shang (merchants and traders).
The four occupations were not always arranged in this order. The four categories were not socioeconomic classes; wealth and standing did not correspond to these categories, nor were they hereditary.The system did not factor in all social groups present in premodern Chinese society, and its broad categories were more an idealization than a practical reality. The commercialization of Chinese society in the Song and Ming periods further blurred the lines between these four occupations. The definition of the identity of the shi class changed over time—from warriors, to aristocratic scholars, and finally to scholar-bureaucrats. There was also a gradual fusion of the wealthy merchant and landholding gentry classes, culminating in the late Ming dynasty.
In some manner this system of social order was adopted throughout the Chinese cultural sphere. In Japanese it is called "Shi, nō, kō, shō" (士農工商, shinōkōshō), although in Japan it became a hereditary caste system. In Korean it is called "Sa, nong, gong, sang" (사농공상), and in Vietnamese is called "Sĩ, nông, công, thương (士農工商). The main difference in adaptation was the definition of the shi (士).
Background
From existing literary evidence, commoner categories in China were employed for the first time during the Warring States period (403–221 BC). Despite this, Eastern-Han (AD 25–220) historian Ban Gu (AD 32–92) asserted in his Book of Han that the four occupations for commoners had existed in the Western Zhou (c. 1050–771 BC) era, which he considered a golden age. However, it is now known that the classification of four occupations as Ban Gu understood it did not exist until the 2nd century BC. Ban explained the social hierarchy of each group in descending order:
Scholars, farmers, artisans, and merchants; each of the four peoples had their respective profession. Those who studied in order to occupy positions of rank were called the shi (scholars). Those who cultivated the soil and propagated grains were called nong (farmers). Those who manifested skill (qiao) and made utensils were called gong (artisans). Those who transported valuable articles and sold commodities were called shang (merchants).
The Rites of Zhou described the four groups in a different order, with merchants before farmers. The Han-era text Guliang Zhuan placed merchants second after scholars, and the Warring States-era Xunzi placed farmers before scholars. The Shuo Yuan mentioned a quotation which stressed the ideal of equality between the four occupations.Anthony J. Barbieri-Low, Professor of Early Chinese History at the University of California, Santa Barbara, writes that the classification of "four occupations" can be viewed as a mere rhetorical device that had no effect on government policy. However, he notes that although no statute in the Qin or Han law codes specifically mentions the four occupations, some laws did treat these broadly classified social groups as separate units with different levels of legal privilege.The categorisation was sorted according to the principle of economic usefulness to state and society, that those who used mind rather than muscle (scholars) were placed first, with farmers, seen as the primary creators of wealth, placed next, followed by artisans, and finally merchants who were seen as a social disturbance for excessive accumulation of wealth or erratic fluctuation of prices. Beneath the four occupations were the "mean people" (Chinese: 賤民 jiànmín), outcasts from "humiliating" occupations such as entertainers and prostitutes.The four occupations were not a hereditary system. The four occupations system differed from those of European feudalism in that people were not born into the specific classes, such that, for example, a son born to a gong craftsman was able to become a part of the shang merchant class, and so on. Theoretically, any man could become an official through the Imperial examinations.From the fourth century BC, the shi and some wealthy merchants wore long flowing silken robes, while the working class wore trousers.
Shī (士)
Ancient Warrior class
During the ancient Shang (1600–1046 BC) and Early Zhou dynasties (1046–771 BC), the shi were regarded as a knightly social order of low-level aristocratic lineage compared to dukes and marquises. This social class was distinguished by their right to ride in chariots and command battles from mobile chariots, while they also served civil functions. Initially rising to power through controlling the new technology of bronzeworking, from 1300 BC, the shi transitioned from foot knights to being primarily chariot archers, fighting with composite recurved bow, a double-edged sword known as the jian, and armour.The shi had a strict code of chivalry. In the battle of Zheqiu, 420 BC, the shi Hua Bao shot at and missed another shi Gongzi Cheng, and just as he was about to shoot again, Gongzi Cheng said that it was unchivalrous to shoot twice without allowing him to return a shot. Hua Bao lowered his bow and was subsequently shot dead. In 624 B.C. a disgraced shi from the State of Jin led a suicidal charge of chariots to redeem his reputation, turning the tide of the battle. In the Battle of Bi, 597 BC, the routing chariot forces of Jin were bogged down in mud, but pursuing enemy troops stopped to help them get dislodged and allowed them to escape.As chariot warfare became eclipsed by mounted cavalry and infantry units with effective crossbowmen in the Warring States period (403–221 BC), the participation of the shi in battle dwindled as rulers sought men with actual military training, not just aristocratic background. This was also a period where philosophical schools flourished in China, while intellectual pursuits became highly valued amongst statesmen. Thus, the shi eventually became renowned not for their warrior's skills, but for their scholarship, abilities in administration, and sound ethics and morality supported by competing philosophical schools.
Scholar-Officials
Under Duke Xiao of Qin and the chief minister and reformer Shang Yang (d. 338 BC), the ancient State of Qin was transformed by a new meritocratic yet harsh philosophy of Legalism. This philosophy stressed stern punishments for those who disobeyed the publicly known laws while rewarding those who labored for the state and strove diligently to obey the laws. It was a means to diminish the power of the nobility, and was another force behind the transformation of the shi class from warrior-aristocrats into merit-driven officials. When the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) unified China under the Legalist system, the emperor assigned administration to dedicated officials rather than nobility, ending feudalism in China, replacing it with a centralized, bureaucratic government. The form of government created by the first emperor and his advisors was used by later dynasties to structure their own government. Under this system, the government thrived, as talented individuals could be more easily identified in the transformed society. However, the Qin became infamous for its oppressive measures, and so collapsed into a state of civil war after the death of the Emperor.
The victor of this war was Liu Bang, who initiated four centuries of unification of China proper under the Han dynasty (202 BC–AD 220). In 165 BC, Emperor Wen introduced the first method of recruitment to civil service through examinations, while Emperor Wu (r. 141–87 BC), cemented the ideology of Confucius into mainstream governance installed a system of recommendation and nomination in government service known as xiaolian, and a national academy whereby officials would select candidates to take part in an examination of the Confucian classics, from which Emperor Wu would select officials.In the Sui dynasty (581–618) and the subsequent Tang dynasty (618–907) the shi class would begin to present itself by means of the fully standardized civil service examination system, of partial recruitment of those who passed standard exams and earned an official degree. Yet recruitment by recommendations to office was still prominent in both dynasties. It was not until the Song dynasty (960–1279) that the recruitment of those who passed the exams and earned degrees was given greater emphasis and significantly expanded. The shi class also became less aristocratic and more bureaucratic due to the highly competitive nature of the exams during the Song period.Beyond serving in the administration and the judiciary, scholar-officials also provided government-funded social services, such as prefectural or county schools, free-of-charge public hospitals, retirement homes and paupers' graveyards. Scholars such as Shen Kuo (1031–1095) and Su Song (1020–1101) dabbled in every known field of science, mathematics, music and statecraft, while others like Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072) or Zeng Gong (1019–1083) pioneered ideas in early epigraphy, archeology and philology.
From the 11th to 13th centuries, the number of exam candidates participating in taking the exams increased dramatically from merely 30,000 to 400,000 by the dynasty's end. Widespread printing through woodblock and movable type enhanced the spread of knowledge amongst the literate in society, enabling more people to become candidates and competitors vying for a prestigious degree. With a dramatically expanding population matching a growing amount of gentry, while the number of official posts remained constant, the graduates who were not appointed to government would provide critical services in local communities, such as funding public works, running private schools, aiding in tax collection, maintaining order, or writing local gazetteers.
Nóng (农/農)
Since Neolithic times in China, agriculture was a key element to the rise of China's civilization and every other civilization. The food that farmers produced sustained the whole of society, while the land tax exacted on farmers' lots and landholders' property produced much of the state revenue for China's pre-modern ruling dynasties. Therefore, the farmer was a valuable member of society, and even though he was not considered one with the shi class, the families of the shi were usually landholders that often produced crops and foodstuffs.Between the ninth century BC (late Western Zhou dynasty) to around the end of the Warring States period, agricultural land was distributed according to the Well-field system (井田), whereby a square area of land was divided into nine identically-sized sections; the eight outer sections (私田; sītián) were privately cultivated by farmers and the center section (公田; gōngtián) was communally cultivated on behalf of the landowning aristocrat. When the system became economically untenable in the Warring States period, it was replaced by a system of private land ownership. It was first suspended in the state of Qin by Shang Yang and other states soon followed suit.From AD 485–763, land was equally distributed to farmers under the Equal-field system (均田). Families were issued plots of land on the basis of how many able men, including slaves, they had; a woman would be entitled to a smaller plot. As government control weakened in the 8th century, land reverted into the hands of private owners.
Song dynasty (950–1279) rural farmers engaged in the small-scale production of wine, charcoal, paper, textiles, and other goods.By the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), the socioeconomic class of farmers grew more and more indistinct from another social class in the four occupations: the artisan. Artisans began working on farms in peak periods and farmers often traveled into the city to find work during times of dearth. The distinction between what was town and country was blurred in Ming China, since suburban areas with farms were located just outside and in some cases within the walls of a city.
Gōng (工)
Artisans and craftsmen—their class identified with the Chinese character meaning labour—were much like farmers in the respect that they produced essential goods needed by themselves and the rest of society. Although they could not provide the state with much of its revenues since they often had no land of their own to be taxed, artisans and craftsmen were theoretically respected more than merchants. Since ancient times, the skilled work of artisans and craftsmen was handed down orally from father to son, although the work of architects and structural builders were sometimes codified, illustrated, and categorized in Chinese written works.Artisans and craftsmen were either government-employed or worked privately. A successful and highly skilled artisan could often gain enough capital in order to hire others as apprentices or additional laborers that could be overseen by the chief artisan as a manager. Hence, artisans could create their own small enterprises in selling their work and that of others, and like the merchants, they formed their own guilds.Researchers have pointed to the rise of wage labour in late Ming and early Qing workshops in textile, paper and other industries, achieving large-scale production by using many small workshops, each with a small team of workers under a master craftsman.Although architects and builders were not as highly venerated as the scholar-officials, there were some architectural engineers who gained wide acclaim for their achievements. One example of this would be the Yingzao Fashi printed in 1103, an architectural building manual written by Li Jie (1065–1110), sponsored by Emperor Huizong (r. 1100–1126) for these government agencies to employ and was widely printed for the benefit of literate craftsmen and artisans nationwide.
In the late of Ming dynasty there were many porcelain kilns created that led the Ming dynasty to be economically well off. The Qing emperors like the Kangxi Emperor helped the growth of porcelain export and by allowing an organization of private maritime trade that assisted families who owned private kilns. Chinese export porcelain, designed purely for the European market and unpopular among locals as it lacked the symbolic significance of wares produced for the Chinese home market, was a highly popular trade good.In China, silk-worm farming was originally restricted to women, and many women were employed in the silk-making industry. Even as knowledge of silk production spread to the rest of the world, Song dynasty China was able to maintain near-monopoly on manufacture by large scale industrialization, through the two-person draw loom, commercialized mulberry cultivation, and a factory production. The organization of silk weaving in 18th-century Chinese cities was compared with the putting-out system used in European textile industries between the 13th and 18th centuries. As the interregional silk trade grew, merchant houses began to organize manufacture to guarantee their supplies, providing silk to households for weaving as piece work.
Shāng (商)
In Ancient pre-Imperial China, merchants were highly regarded as necessary for the circulation of essential goods. The legendary Emperor Shun, prior to receiving the throne from his predecessor, was said to be a merchant. Archaeological artifacts and oracle bones suggest a high status was accorded to merchant activity. In the Spring and Autumn Period, Hegemon of China Duke Huan of Qi appointed Guan Zhong, a merchant, as Prime Minister. He cut taxes for merchants, built rest stops for merchants, and encouraged other lords to lower tariffs.In Imperial China, the merchants, traders, and peddlers of goods were viewed by the scholarly elite as essential members of society, yet were esteemed least of the four occupations in society, due to the view that they were a threat to social harmony from acquiring disproportionally large incomes, market manipulation or exploiting farmers.However, the merchant class of China throughout all of Chinese history were usually wealthy and held considerable influence above its supposed social standing. The Confucian philosopher Xunzi encouraged economic cooperation and exchange. The distinction between gentry and merchants was not as clear or entrenched as in Japan and Europe, and merchants were even welcomed by gentry if they abided by Confucian moral duties. Merchants accepted and promoted Confucian society by funding education and charities, and advocating Confucian values of self-cultivation of integrity, frugality, and hard work. By the late imperial period, it was a trend in some regions for scholars to switch to careers as merchants. William Rowe's research of rural elites in late imperial Hanyang, Hubei shows that there was a very high level of overlap and mixing between the gentry and the merchants.Han dynasty writers mention merchants owning huge tracts of land. A merchant who owned property worth a thousand catties of gold—equivalent to ten million cash coins—was considered a great merchant. Such a fortune was one hundred times larger than the average income of a middle class landowner-cultivator and dwarfed the annual 200,000 cash-coin income of a marquess who collected taxes from a thousand households. Some merchant families made fortunes worth over a hundred million cash, which was equivalent to the wealth acquired by the highest officials in government. Itinerant merchants who traded between a network of towns and cities were often rich as they had the ability to avoid registering as merchants (unlike the shopkeepers), Chao Cuo (d. 154 BC) states that they wore fine silks, rode in carriages pulled by fat horses, and whose wealth allowed them to associate with government officials.
Historians like Yu Yingshi and Billy So have shown that as Chinese society became increasingly commercialized from the Song dynasty onward, Confucianism had gradually begun to accept and even support business and trade as legitimate and viable professions, as long as merchants stayed away from unethical actions. Merchants in the meantime had also benefited from and utilized Confucian ethics in their business practices. By the Song period, merchants often colluded with the scholarly elite; as early as 955, the Scholar-officials themselves were using intermediary agents to participate in trading. Since the Song government took over several key industries and imposed strict state monopolies, the government itself acted as a large commercial enterprise run by scholar-officials. The state also had to contend with the merchant guilds; whenever the state requisitioned goods and assessed taxes it dealt with guild heads, who ensured fair prices and fair wages via official intermediaries.
By the late Ming dynasty, the officials often needed to solicit funds from powerful merchants to build new roads, schools, bridges, pagodas, or engage in essential industries, such as book-making, which aided the gentry class in education for the imperial examinations. Merchants began to imitate the highly cultivated nature and manners of scholar-officials in order to appear more cultured and gain higher prestige and acceptance by the scholarly elite. They even purchased printed books that served as guides to proper conduct and behavior and which promoted merchant morality and business ethics. The social status of merchants rose to such significance that by the late Ming period, many scholar-officials were unabashed to declare publicly in their official family histories that they had family members who were merchants. The scholar-officials' dependence upon merchants received semi-legal standing when scholar-official Qiu Jun (1420–1495), argued that the state should only mitigate market affairs during times of pending crisis and that merchants were the best gauge in determining the strength of a nation's riches in resources. The Imperial court followed this guideline by granting merchants licenses to trade in salt in return for grain shipments to frontier garrisons in the north. The state realized that merchants could buy salt licenses with silver and in turn boost state revenues to the point where buying grain was not an issue.Merchants banded in organisations known as huiguan or gongsuo; pooling capital was popular as it distributed risk and eased the barriers to market entry. They formed partnerships known as huoji zhi (silent investor and active partner), lianhao zhi (subsidiary companies), jingli fuzhe zhi (owner delegates control to a manager), xuetu zhi (apprenticeship), and hegu zhi (shareholding). Merchants had a tendency to invest their profits in vast swathes of land.
Outside China
Outside of China, the same values permeated and prevailed across other East Asian societies where China exerted considerable influence. Japan and Korea were heavily influenced by Confucian thought that the four occupational social hierarchy in those societies were modeled from that of China's.
Ryukyu Kingdom
A similar situation occurred in the Ryūkyū Kingdom with the scholarly class of yukatchu, but yukatchu status was hereditary and could be bought from the government as the kingdom's finances were frequently deficient. Due to the growth of this class and the lack of government positions open for them, Sai On allowed yukatchu to become merchants and artisans while keeping their high status. There were three classes of yukatchu, the pechin, satonushi and chikudun, and commoners may be admitted for meritorious service. The Ryukyu Kingdom's capital of Shuri also featured a university and school system, alongside a civil service examination system. The government was managed by the Seissei, Sanshikan and the Bugyo (Prime Minister, Council of Ministers and Administrative Departments). Yukatchu who failed the examinations or were otherwise deemed unsuitable for office would be transferred to obscure posts and their descendants would fade into insignificance. Ryukyuan students were also enrolled into the National Academy (Guozijian) in China, at Chinese government expense, and others studied privately at schools in Fujian province such diverse skills as law, agriculture, calendrical calculation, medicine, astronomy, and metallurgy.
Japan
In Japan, the Four Occupations was modified into a rigid hereditary four-caste system, where marriage across caste lines was socially unacceptable. In Japan, the Scholar role was taken by the hereditary samurai class. Originally a martial class, the samurai became civil administrators to their daimyōs during the Tokugawa shogunate. No exams were needed as the positions were inherited. They constituted about 5% of the population and were allowed to have a proper surname. (see Edo society).In the sixteenth century, lords began to centralise administration by replacing enfeoffment with stipend grants, and placing pressure on vassals to relocate into castle towns, away from independent power bases. Military commanders became rotated to avert the formation of strong personal loyalties from the troops. Artisans and merchants were solicited by these lords and sometimes received official appointments. This century was a period of exceptional social mobility, with instances of merchants of samurai-descent or commoners becoming samurai. By the eighteenth century samurai and merchants had become interwoven intimately, despite general samurai hostility toward merchants who as their creditors were blamed for the financial difficulties of a debt-ridden samurai class.
Korea
In Silla Korea, the scholar-officials, also known as Head rank 6, 5, and 4 (두품), were strictly hereditary castes under the Bone rank system (골품제도), and their power was limited by the Royal clan who monopolized the positions of importance.From the late 8th century, succession wars in Silla, as well as frequent peasant uprisings, led to the dismantling of the bone-rank system. Head rank 6 leaders sojourned to China for study, while regional governance fell into the hojok or castle-lords commanding private armies detached from the central regime. These factions coalesced, introducing a new national ideology that was an amalgamation of Chan Buddhism, Confucianism and Feng Shui, laying the foundation for the formation of the new Goryeo Kingdom. King Gwangjong of Goryeo introduced a civil service examination system in 958, and King Seongjong of Goryeo complemented it with the establishment of a Confucian-style educational facilities and administration structures, extending for the first time to local areas. However, only aristocrats were permitted to sit for these examinations, and the sons of officials of at least 5th rank were exempt completely.In Joseon Korea, the Scholar occupation took the form of the noble yangban class, which prevented the lower classes from taking the advanced gwageo exams so they could dominate the bureaucracy. Below the yangban were the chungin, a class of privileged commoners who were petty bureaucrats, scribes, and specialists. The chungin were actually the least populous class, even smaller than the yangban. The yangban constituted 10% of the population. From the mid-Joseon period, military officers and civil officials were separately derived from different clans.
Vietnam
Vietnamese dynasties also adopted the examination degree system (khoa bảng 科榜) to recruit scholars for government service. The bureaucrats were similarly divided into nine grades and six ministries, and examinations were held annually at provincial level, and triennially at regional and national levels. The Vietnamese political elite consisted of educated landholders whose interests often clashed with the central government. Although all land theoretically was the ruler's, and was supposed to be distributed equitably by the Equal-field system (chế độ Quân điền) and non-transferable, the court bureaucracy increasingly appropriated land which they leased to tenant farmers and hired labourers to till. It was unlikely for individuals of common background to become Mandarins, however, since they lacked access to classical education. Degree-holders were frequently clustered in certain clans.
Maritime Southeast Asia
Chinese official positions, under various different native titles, go back to the courts of precolonial states of Southeast Asia, such as the Sultanates of Malacca and Banten, and the Kingdom of Siam. With the consolidation of colonial rule, these became part of the civil bureaucracy in Portuguese, Dutch and British colonies, exercising both executive and judicial powers over local Chinese communities under the colonial authorities, examples being the title of Chao Praya Chodeuk Rajasrethi in Thailand's Chakri dynasty, and Sri Indra Perkasa Wijaya Bakti, the Malay court position of Kapitan Cina Yap Ah Loy, arguably the founder of modern Kuala Lumpur.Overseas Chinese merchant families in British Malaya and the Dutch Indies donated generously to the provision of defence and disaster relief programs in China in order to receive nominations to the Imperial Court for honorary official ranks. These ranged from chün-hsiu, a candidate for the Imperial examinations, to chih-fu (Chinese: 知府; pinyin: zhīfŭ) or tao-t'ai (Chinese: 道臺; pinyin: dàotái), prefect and circuit intendant respectively. The bulk of these sinecure purchases were at the level of t'ungchih (Chinese: 同知; pinyin: tóngzhī), or sub-prefect, and below. Garbing themselves in the official robes of their rank in most ceremonial functions, these wealthy dignitaries would adopt the conduct of scholar-officials. Chinese language newspapers would list them exclusively as such and precedence at social functions would be determined by title.In colonial Indonesia, the Dutch government appointed Chinese officers, who held the ranks of Majoor, Kapitein or Luitenant der Chinezen with legal and political jurisdiction over the colony's Chinese subjects. The officers were overwhelmingly recruited from old families of the 'Cabang Atas' or the Chinese gentry of colonial Indonesia. Although appointed without state examinations, the Chinese officers emulated the scholar-officials of Imperial China, and were traditionally seen locally as upholders of the Confucian social order and peaceful coexistence under the Dutch colonial authorities. For much of its history, appointment to the Chinese officership was determined by family background, social standing and wealth, but in the twentieth century, attempts were made to elevate meritorious individuals to high rank in keeping with the colonial government's so-called Ethical Policy.The merchant and labour partnerships of China developed into the Kongsi Federations across Southeast Asia, which were associations of Chinese settlers governed through direct democracy. On Kalimantan they established sovereign states, the Kongsi republics such as the Lanfang Republic, which bitterly resisted Dutch colonisation in the Kongsi Wars.
Unclassified occupations
There were many social groups that were excluded from the four broad categories in the social hierarchy. These included soldiers and guards, religious clergy and diviners, eunuchs and concubines, entertainers and courtiers, domestic servants and slaves, prostitutes, and low class laborers other than farmers and artisans. People who performed such tasks that were considered either worthless or "filthy" were placed in the category of mean people (賤人), not being registered as commoners and having some legal disabilities.
Imperial clan
The emperor—embodying a heavenly mandate to judicial and executive authority—was on a social and legal tier above the gentry and the exam-drafted scholar-officials. Under the principle of the Mandate of Heaven, the right to rule was based on "virtue"; if a ruler was overthrown, this was interpreted as an indication that the ruler was unworthy, and had lost the mandate, and there would often be revolts following major disasters as citizens saw these as signs that the Mandate of Heaven had been withdrawn.
The Mandate of Heaven does not require noble birth, depending instead on just and able performance. The Han and Ming dynasties were founded by men of common origins.Although his royal family and noble extended family were also highly respected, they did not command the same level of authority.
During the initial and end phases of the Han dynasty, the Western Jin dynasty, and the Northern and Southern dynasties, the members of the Imperial clan were enfeoffed with vassal states, controlling military and political power: they often usurped the throne, intervened in Imperial succession, or fought civil wars. From the 8th century on, the Tang dynasty imperial clan was restricted to the capital and denied fiefdoms, and by the Song dynasty were also denied any political power. By the Southern Song dynasty, imperial princes were assimilated into the scholars, and had to take the imperial examinations to serve in government, like commoners. The Yuan dynasty favoured the Mongol tradition of distributing Khanates, and under this influence, the Ming dynasty also revived the practice of granting titular "kingdoms" to Imperial clan members, although they were denied political control; only near the end of the dynasty were some permitted to partake in the examinations to qualify for government service as common scholars.
Eunuchs
The court eunuchs who served the royals were also viewed with some suspicion by the scholar-officials, since there were several instances in Chinese history where influential eunuchs came to dominate the emperor, his imperial court, and the whole of the central government. In an extreme example, the eunuch Wei Zhongxian (1568–1627) had his critics from the orthodox Confucian 'Donglin Society' tortured and killed while dominating the court of the Tianqi Emperor—Wei was dismissed by the next ruler and committed suicide. In popular culture texts such as Zhang Yingyu's The Book of Swindles (ca. 1617), eunuchs were often portrayed in starkly negative terms as enriching themselves through excessive taxation and indulging in cannibalism and debauched sexual practices. The eunuchs at the Forbidden City during the later Qing period were infamous for their corruption, stealing as much as they could. The position of eunuch at the Forbidden City offered such opportunities for theft and corruption that countless men willingly become eunuchs in order to live a better life. Ray Huang argues that eunuchs represented the personal will of the Emperor, while the officials represented the alternate political will of the bureaucracy. The clash between them would thus have been a clash of ideologies or political agenda.
Religious workers
Although shamans and diviners in Bronze Age China had some authority as religious leaders in society, as government officials during the early Zhou dynasty, with the Shang dynasty Kings sometimes described as shamans, and may have been the original physicians, providing elixirs to treat patients, ever since Emperor Wu of Han established Confucianism as the state religion, the ruling classes have shown increasing prejudice against shamanism, preventing them from amassing too much power and influence like military strongmen (one example of this would be Zhang Jiao, who led a Taoist sect into open rebellion against the Han government's authority).
Fortune-tellers such as geomancers and astrologers were not highly regarded.Buddhist monkhood grew immensely popular from the fourth century, where the monastic life's exemption from tax proved alluring to poor farmers. 4,000 government-funded monasteries were established and maintained through the medieval period, eventually leading to multiple persecutions of Buddhism in China, a lot of the contention being over Buddhist monasteries' exemption from government taxation, but also because later Neo-Confucian scholars saw Buddhism as an alien ideology and threat to the moral order of society.However from the fourth to twentieth centuries, Buddhist monks were frequently sponsored by the elite of society, sometimes even by Confucian scholars, with monasteries described as "in size and magnificence no prince's house could match". Despite the strong Buddhist sympathies of the Sui dynasty and Tang dynasty rulers, the curriculum of the Imperial Examinations was still defined by Confucian canon as it alone covered political and legal policy necessary to government.
Military
The social category of the soldier was left out of the social hierarchy due to the gentry scholars' embracing of intellectual cultivation (文 wén) and detest for violence (武 wǔ). The scholars did not want to legitimize those whose professions centered chiefly around violence, so to leave them out of the social hierarchy altogether was a means to keep them in an unrecognized and undistinguished social tier.Soldiers were not highly respected members of society, specifically from the Song dynasty onward, due to the newly instituted policy of "Emphasizing the civil and downgrading the military" (Chinese: 重文輕武). Soldiers traditionally came from farming families, while some were simply debtors who fled their land (whether owned or rented) to escape lawsuits by creditors or imprisonment for failing to pay taxes. Peasants were encouraged to join militias such as the Baojia (保甲) or Tuanlian (團練), but full-time soldiers were usually hired from amnestied bandits or vagabonds, and peasant militia were generally regarded as the more reliable.From the 2nd century B.C. onward, soldiers along China's frontiers were also encouraged by the state to settle down on their own farm lots in order for the food supply of the military to become self-sufficient, under the Tuntian system (屯田), the Weisuo system (衛所) and the Fubing system (府兵). Under these schemes, multiple dynasties attempted to create a hereditary military caste by exchanging border farmland or other privileges for service. However, in every instance, the policy would fail due to rampant desertion caused by the extremely low regard for violent occupations, and subsequently these armies had to be replaced with hired mercenaries or even peasant militia.
However, for those without formal education, the quickest way to power and the upper echelons of society was to join the military. Although the soldier was looked upon with a bit of disdain by scholar-officials and cultured people, military officers with successful careers could gain a considerable amount of prestige. Despite the claim of moral high ground, scholar-officials often commanded troops and wielded military power.
Entertainers
Entertaining was considered to be of little use to society and was usually performed by the underclass known as the "mean people" (Chinese: 賤民).Entertainers and courtiers were often dependents upon the wealthy or were associated with the often-perceived immoral pleasure grounds of urban entertainment districts. Musicians who played music as full-time work were of low status. To give them official recognition would have given them more prestige.
"Proper" music was considered a fundamental aspect of nurturing of character and good government, but vernacular music, as defined as having "irregular movements" was criticised as corrupting for listeners. In spite of this, Chinese society idolized many musicians, even women musicians (who were seen as seductive) such as Cai Yan (ca. 177) and Wang Zhaojun (40-30 B.C). Musical abilities were a prime consideration in marriage desirability. During the Ming dynasty, female musicians were so common that they even played for imperial rituals.Private theatre troupes in the homes of wealthy families were a common practice.
Professional dancers of the period were of low social status and many entered the profession through poverty, although some such as Zhao Feiyan achieved higher status by becoming concubines. Another dancer was Wang Wengxu (王翁須) who was forced to become a domestic singer-dancer but who later bore the future Emperor Xuan of Han.Institutions were set up to oversee the training and performances of music and dances in the imperial court, such as the Great Music Bureau (太樂署) and the Drums and Pipes Bureau (鼓吹署) responsible for ceremonial music. Emperor Gaozu set up the Royal Academy, while Emperor Xuanzong established the Pear Garden Academy for the training of musicians, dancers and actors. There were around 30,000 musicians and dancers at the imperial court during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong, with most specialising in yanyue. All were under the administration of the Drums and Pipes Bureau and an umbrella organization called the Taichang Temple (太常寺).Professional artists had similarly low status.
Slaves
Slavery was comparatively uncommon in Chinese history but was still practiced, largely as a judicial punishment for crimes. In the Han and Tang dynasties, it was illegal to trade in Chinese slaves (that were not criminals), but foreign slaves were acceptable. The Xin dynasty emperor Wang Mang, the Ming dynasty Hongwu emperor, and Qing dynasty Yongzheng emperor attempted to ban slavery entirely but were not successful. Illegal enslavement of children frequently occurred under the guise of adoption from poor families. It has been speculated by researchers such as Sue Gronewold that up to 80% of late Qing era prostitutes may have been slaves.Six dynasties, Tang dynasty, and to a partial extent Song dynasty society also contained a complex system of servile groups included under "mean people" (賤人) that formed intermediate standings between the four occupations and outright slavery. These were, in descending order:
the musicians of the Imperial Sacrifices 太常音聲人
general bondsmen 雑戶, including Imperial tomb guards
musician households 樂戶
official bondsmen 官戶
government slaves 奴婢And in private service,
personal retainers 部曲
female retainers 客女
private slaves 家奴These performed a wide assortment of jobs in households, in agriculture, delivering messages or as private guards.
See also
Social structure of China
Edo society
Estates of the realm
Society and culture of the Han dynasty
Society of the Song dynasty
Yangban, Chungin, Sangmin and Cheonmin in Korea
Youxia
Kheshig
Samurai
Hwarang |
Jaye Davidson (born Alfred Amey; March 21, 1968) is an English model, fashion stylist, and retired actor. He made his acting debut as Dil in the thriller film The Crying Game (1992), for which he received an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor. Following his breakthrough, he portrayed the villainous Ra in the commercially successful science fiction film Stargate (1994). Davidson retired from acting afterwards, disliking the fame that the roles brought him.
Life
Davidson was born in Riverside, California, and was raised in Borehamwood in Hertfordshire, England. His father is from Ghana and his mother is from England. Davidson is gay. During his acting career, he said that his androgynous look alienated him within the gay community. He stated that gay men "love very masculine men. And I'm not a very masculine person. I'm reasonably thin. I have long hair, which isn't very popular with gay men." In 2017, he married Thomas Clarke.
Career
Davidson, who had no prior professional acting experience, was discovered at a wrap party for Derek Jarman's Edward II and was invited to audition for The Crying Game. He was cast in the role of Dil. The film was a critical and popular success. It is known for a surprise plot twist: a love scene in which Dil undresses and main character Fergus (played by Stephen Rea) discovers that Dil is transgender. The scene required full-frontal nudity. Rea later said, “If Jaye hadn’t been a completely convincing woman, my character would have looked stupid.” When the film was released, Miramax requested that reviewers keep Davidson's gender a secret.For his work in The Crying Game, Davidson was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor and for the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role in 1993. Davidson also received nominations for the Chicago Film Critics Association Award for Most Promising Actor and the Chicago Film Critics Association Award for Most Promising Actress in 1993.Davidson starred as Ra, an alien impersonating a god, in the 1994 science fiction adventure film Stargate. He was surprised when they agreed to pay his $1 million fee.Davidson later retired from acting, stating that he "genuinely hated the fame" he was receiving. He became more involved in modelling, and has since worked on several high-profile photo shoots, in addition to working as a fashion stylist in Paris.
Filmography
Film
Television
Jaye Davidson at IMDb |
Northeast China or Northeastern China (simplified Chinese: 东北; traditional Chinese: 東北; pinyin: Dōngběi) is a geographical region of China. It usually corresponds specifically to the three provinces east of the Greater Khingan Range, namely Liaoning, Jilin, and Heilongjiang, but historically is meant to also encompass the four easternmost prefectures of Inner Mongolia west of the Greater Khingan. The heartland of the region is the Northeast China Plain, the largest plain in China, with an area of over 350,000 km2 (140,000 sq mi). It is separated from Russian Far East to the north by the Amur, Argun, and Ussuri Rivers; from Korea to the south by the Yalu and Tumen Rivers; and from Inner Mongolia to the west by the Greater Khingan and parts of the Xiliao River.
Due to the shrinking of its once-powerful industrial sector and the decline of its economic growth and population, the region is often referred to as China's Rust Belt. As a result, a campaign named Northeast Area Revitalization Plan was launched in the 2000s by the State Council of the People's Republic of China, in which five prefectures of eastern Inner Mongolia, namely Hulunbuir, Hinggan, Tongliao, Chifeng and Xilin Gol, are also formally defined as regions of the Northeast.
Names
Northeastern China is known in Chinese contexts as simply the Northeast or Dōngběi, from the Mandarin pronunciation of its Chinese name.
The name Manchuria is an exonym (derived from the endonym and demonym "Manchu") of Japanese origin and was not used by the Manchus or Chinese people. The geographical term Manchuria was first used in the 18th or 19th century by Japan. "Manchuria "variations of which arrived in European languages through Dutch, is a calque from Latin of the Japanese placename Manshū (満州, "Region of the Manchus"), which dates from the 18th century. The toponym has since become associated with Japanese colonialism. Its use is considered controversial by some historians such as Mark C. Elliott, Norman Smith, and Mariko Asano Tamanoi who question its legitimacy. In China, areas once considered part of Manchuria are referred to as the Northeast.The area was historically referred to by various names. During the Ming dynasty, the area in which the Jurchens lived was referred to as Nurgan. The Qing dynasty used names such as Guandong (simplified Chinese: 关东; traditional Chinese: 關東; pinyin: Guāndōng), East of the Pass) or the Three Provinces (東三省; 东三省; Dōngsānshěng) referring to Jilin, Heilongjiang, and Fengtian since 1683 when Heilongjiang was split from Jilin.
Administrative divisions
Cities with urban area over one million in population
Provincial capitals in bold.
History
Northeast China was the homeland of several ethnic groups, including the Koreans, Manchus (or Jurchens), Ulchs, Hezhen (also known as the Goldi and Nanai). Various ethnic groups and their respective kingdoms, including the Sushen, Xianbei, and Mohe have risen to power in Northeast China. The region came under the rule of various states throughout history, including Yan, Gija Joseon, Wiman Joseon, Buyeo, Western Han, Goguryeo, Xin dynasty, Eastern Han, Gongsun Yan, Cao Wei, Western Jin, Former Yan, Former Qin, Later Yan, Tang dynasty, Wu Zhou, Balhae, Liao dynasty, Jin dynasty, Eastern Liao, Later Liao, Eastern Xia, Mongol Empire, Yuan dynasty, Northern Yuan, Ming dynasty, Qing dynasty, and Republic of China.
During the late Qing dynasty, Northeast China came under influence of the Russian Empire with the building of the Chinese Eastern Railway through Harbin to Vladivostok. The Empire of Japan replaced Russian influence in the region as a result of the Russo-Japanese War in 1904–1905, and Japan laid the South Manchurian Railway in 1906 to Port Arthur. During the Warlord Era in the Republic of China, Zhang Zuolin established himself in Northeast China, but was murdered by the Japanese for being too independent. The last Qing emperor, Puyi, was then placed on the throne to lead a Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo. After the atomic bombing of Japan in 1945, the Soviet Union invaded the region as part of its declaration of war against Japan. From 1945 to 1948, Northeast China was a base area for the Communist People's Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. With the encouragement of the Soviet Union, the area was used as a staging ground during the Civil War for the Chinese Communists, who were victorious in 1949 and have been controlling this region since.
Demographics
Northeast China has a total population of about 107,400,000 people, accounting for 8% of China's total population. The overwhelming majority of the population in the Northeast is Han Chinese, many of whose ancestors came in the 19th and 20th centuries during a migration movement called "Chuang Guandong" (simplified Chinese: 闯关东; traditional Chinese: 闖關東; lit. 'venture into the east of the Pass'). Northeast China historically had a significant Han Chinese population, reaching over 3 million by the end of the Ming Dynasty, but they were subjected to eviction and assimilation by the conquest of the Qing Dynasty, who then set up Willow Palisades during the reign of Shunzhi Emperor and prohibited any settlement of Han Chinese into the region. Despite officially prohibiting Han Chinese settlement, by the 18th century the Qing decided to settle Han into the Northeast so that Han Chinese farmed 500,000 hectares in the region by the 1780s. Besides moving into the Liao area in southern Manchuria, the path linking Jinzhou, Fengtian, Tieling, Changchun, Hulun, and Ningguta was settled by Han Chinese during the Qianlong Emperor's reign, and Han Chinese were the majority in urban areas of Manchuria by 1800.
This resulted in the local Han Chinese population growing to over 20 million before the Second Sino-Japanese War. After the establishment of the People's Republic of China at the end of the Chinese Civil War, further immigrations were organized by the Central Government to "develop the Great Northern Wilderness" (开发北大荒), eventually peaking the population at over 100 million people.
Because most people in Northeast China trace their ancestries back to the migrants from the Chuang Guandong era, Northeastern Chinese were more culturally uniform compared to other geographical regions of China. People from the Northeast would first identify themselves as "Northeasterners" (东北人) before affiliating to individual provinces and cities/towns.
Ethnic Manchus form the second significant ethnic group in Northeast China, followed by the Mongols, Koreans, and the Huis, as well as 49 other ethnic minorities such as Daurs, Sibos, Hezhens, Oroqens, Evenks, and Kyrgyz. Located in the Northeast is the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture where ethnic Koreans make up roughly 35% of the population.
Religion
Taoism and Chinese Buddhism coexist alongside predominating Chinese folk religions led by local shamans. The region has also a strong presence of folk religions and Confucian churches.
Economy
The Northeast was one of the earliest regions to industrialize in China during the era of Manchukuo. After the founding of the People's Republic of China, Northeast China continued to be a major industrial base of the country, and has been hailed as "the Republic's eldest son" (共和国长子). Recent years, however, have seen the stagnation of Northeast China's heavy-industry-based economy, as China's economy continues to liberalize and privatize; the government has initialized the Revitalize the Northeast campaign to counter this problem, and established the Northeast Summit to improve policy coordination and integration. The region has experienced difficulty distancing itself from a planned economy, a legacy that began in 1905 with the establishment of the Japanese sphere of influence there. The region's once-abundant raw materials have also depleted and the economy has suffered from bureaucratic inefficiency and protectionist politics.The region is, on the whole, more heavily urbanised than most parts of China, largely because it was the first part of the country to develop heavy industry owing to its abundant coal reserves. Major cities include Shenyang, Dalian, Harbin, Changchun and Anshan, all with several million inhabitants. Other cities include the steel making centres of Fushun and Anshan in Liaoning, Jilin City in Jilin, and Qiqihar and Mudanjiang in Heilongjiang. Harbin, more than any other city in China, possesses significant Russian influences: there are many Orthodox churches that have fallen out of use since the Cultural Revolution. Shenyang and Dalian, meanwhile, have sizable populations of Japanese and South Koreans due to their traditional linkages.
The Northeast is an important breadbasket region of China, as the Northeast China Plain has the largest stretch of arable flatland in the country, with an abundance of fertile black soil. The rural population heavily concentrated in the warmer southern part of the Northeast, where very warm to hot summer weather permits crops such as maize and millet to be grown with high yields. Soybeans and flax are also very important, as are wheat and barley. The region possesses large flocks of sheep, and pigs are abundant in the more densely settled southern part. The northern half of Heilongjiang is so cold and poorly drained that agriculture is almost impossible; however, the Amur River provides very rich fisheries, and sheep are even more abundant than in southern Heilongjiang.
Northeast China is the country's traditional industrial base, focusing mainly on equipment manufacturing. Major industries include the steel, automobile, shipbuilding, aircraft manufacturing, and petroleum refining industries. The Anshan Iron and Steel Works was the most important industrial enterprise in northeast China until the discovery of the Daqing oil field in 1959.: 38 In recent years, the Chinese government has initialized the "Revitalize the Northeast campaign" to turn this region into one of China's economic growth engines. As of 2015 the region was losing population and the economy, dominated by state-owned enterprises, was stagnant.
Culture
In general, the culture of Northeast China takes its elements from the cultures of North China and Shandong, the hometowns of most of the Han Chinese who migrated into Northeast China during the Chuang Guandong. Northeast China also takes cultural inspiration from the Tungusic peoples.
Dialects
There are two main dialects of Mandarin Chinese spoken in Northeast China.
The most widely spoken dialect is Northeastern Mandarin (called dongbeihua or 东北话), which is a very slight variant of the Standard Chinese but retains sporadic elements from native Tungusic languages, Korean and Russian. There are enough differences from Mandarin to give dongbeihua its own distinctive characteristics.
The second dialect is Jiaoliao Mandarin, which is actually a Shandong dialect. Many residents in the southern fringe of the Liaodong region (mostly in Dalian and Dandong) speak Jiaoliao dialect.
Ethnic Manchus speak mostly Mandarin, and the Manchu language is almost extinct due to widespread assimilation to Han culture over the last four centuries. Ethnic Mongols tend to be bilingual in their own Mongolian tongues as well as Mandarin.
Cuisine
Northeastern Chinese cuisine reflects the region's ethnic diversity, blending Northern Han, Manchu and Korean cooking styles. One of the distinguishing characteristics of the cuisine is the use of uncooked fresh vegetables. During the long winter season, pickled Chinese cabbage, which is called "suan cai", is preserved and used for cooking. Whereas rice is widely grown in south China, millet, wheat, and noodles are consumed more in Northeast China. In almost every other region of China, vegetables are cooked thoroughly before being eaten. Most of the meat dishes are based around pork due to how cold it can get. Often braised pork or dumplings are the main attraction of a meal. This region's cold climate makes it hard to grow or produce much of anything and growing seasons are correspondingly very short.
Folk dance and sports
Errenzhuan, yangge, Jilin opera and stilts are popular forms of traditional entertainment in Northeast China. "Northeastern Cradle Song" is an example of the folk songs of this region.
Because of its climatic conditions, Northeast China is the base for China's winter sports. Ice hockey and ice skating athletes often come from or were educated in Northeast China.
Film, music, and literature
In 2019, the term Dongbei renaissance was coined by the rapper Gem to describe a revival in interest in the culture of the Northeast after his song Yelang Disco went viral. Artwork associated with the Dongbei renaissance often incorporates nostalgia for the "corny" aesthetics of the 1970s boom period of the Northeast, self-deprecating humor, and speculations on the decline and potential future of the economically depressed region. Notable works associated with the movement include Shuang Xuetao's fiction collection Moses on the Plain and the Diao Yinan film Black Coal, Thin Ice.
Major universities
Jilin University (吉林大学)
Northeast Agricultural University (东北农业大学)
Northeast Normal University (东北师范大学)
Harbin Institute of Technology (哈尔滨工业大学)
Northeastern University (东北大学)
Liaoning University (辽宁大学)
Shenyang Agricultural University (沈阳农业大学)
Shenyang University of Chemical Technology (沈阳化工大学)
Dalian University of Technology (大连理工大学)
Dalian Maritime University (大连海事大学)
Northeast Forestry University (东北林业大学)
Shenyang Normal University (沈阳师范大学)
Changchun University of Science and Technology (长春理工大学)
Northeast Petroleum University (东北石油大学)
Shenyang Aerospace University (沈阳航空航天大学)
Harbin Engineering University (哈尔滨工程大学)
Heilongjiang University (黑龙江大学)
Dongbei University of Finance and Economics (东北财经大学)
See also
Northeast Area Revitalization Plan
Outer Manchuria
== |
Pu Songling (Chinese: 蒲松齡, 5 June 1640 – 25 February 1715) was a Chinese writer during the Qing dynasty, best known as the author of Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio (Liaozhai zhiyi).
Biography
Pu was born into a poor merchant family from Zichuan (淄川, in Zibo, Shandong). At the age of 18, he received the Xiucai degree in the Imperial examination. It was not until he was 71 that he was awarded the Gongsheng ("tribute student") degree for his achievement in literature rather than for passing the Imperial exam.
He spent most of his life working as a private tutor, collecting stories that were later published in Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio in 1740. Some critics attribute the Vernacular Chinese novel Xingshi Yinyuan Zhuan ("Marriage Destinies to Awaken the World") to him.
Translations of his work
Strange Tales from Liaozhai, 6 volumes (tr. Sidney L. Sondergard). Jain Pub Co., 2008-2014. ISBN 978-0-89581-001-4.
Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio (tr. John Minford). London: Penguin, 2006. 562 pages. ISBN 0-14-044740-7.
Strange Tales from the Liaozhai Studio (Zhang Qingnian, Zhang Ciyun and Yang Yi). Beijing: People's China Publishing, 1997. ISBN 7-80065-599-7.
Strange Tales from Make-do Studio (Denis C. & Victor H. Mair). Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1989.
Strange Tales of Liaozhai (Lu Yunzhong, Chen Tifang, Yang Liyi, and Yang Zhihong). Hong Kong: Commercial Press, 1982.
Strange Stories from the Lodge of Leisures (George Soulié). London: Constable, 1913.
Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio (tr. Herbert A. Giles). London: T. De La Rue, 1880. ISBN 1-4212-4855-7.
Movies
The Knight of Shadows: Between Yin and Yang 2019, Jackie Chan as Pu Songling
Encyclopædia Britannica 2005 Ultimate Reference Suite DVD, P'u Sung-ling
Death of Woman Wang 1978, Johnathon D Spence
Further reading
Chun-shu, Chang, and Shelley Hsueh-lun Chang (1998) Redefining History: Ghosts, Spirits, and Human Society in P'u Sung-ling's World, 1640–1715. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-10822-0
Judith T. Zeitlin (1993). Historian of the Strange : Pu Songling and the Chinese Classical Tale. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, xii, 332p. ISBN 0-8047-2085-1.
Owen, Stephen, "Pu Song-ling (1640–1715), Liao-zhai's Record of Wonders," in Stephen Owen, ed. An Anthology of Chinese Literature: Beginnings to 1911. New York: W. W. Norton, 1997. p. 1103-1126 (Archive).
Hummel, Arthur W. Sr., ed. (1943). "P'u Sung-ling" . Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. United States Government Printing Office.
Works by Pu Songling at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Pu Songling at Internet ArchiveWorks by Pu Songling at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) |
Landau (Palatine German: Landach), officially Landau in der Pfalz (German pronunciation: [ˈlandaʊ ɪn deːɐ ˈpfalts]), is an autonomous (kreisfrei) town surrounded by the Südliche Weinstraße ("Southern Wine Route") district of southern Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It is a university town (since 1990), a long-standing cultural centre, and a market and shopping town, surrounded by vineyards and wine-growing villages of the Palatinate wine region. Landau lies east of the Palatinate forest, on the German Wine Route.
It contains the districts (Ortsteile) of Arzheim, Dammheim, Godramstein, Mörlheim, Mörzheim, Nussdorf, Queichheim, and Wollmesheim.
History
Landau was first mentioned as a settlement in 1106. It was in the possession of the counts of Leiningen-Dagsburg-Landeck, whose arms, differenced by an escutcheon of the Imperial eagle, served as the arms of Landau until 1955. The town was granted a charter in 1274 by King Rudolf I of Germany, who declared the town a Free Imperial Town in 1291; nevertheless Prince-Bishop Emich of Speyer, a major landowner in the district, seized the town in 1324. The town did not regain its ancient rights until 1511 from Maximilian I. An Augustinian monastery was founded in 1276.
After the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, control of Landau was ceded to France, although with certain ill-defined reservations. Landau was later part of France from 1680 to 1815, during which it was one of the Décapole, the ten free cities of Alsace, and received its modern fortifications by Louis XIV's military architect Vauban in 1688–99, making the little town (its 1789 population was approximately 5,000) one of Europe's strongest citadels. In the War of the Spanish Succession it had four sieges. After the siege of 1702 lost by the French, an Imperial garrison was installed in Landau. In a subsequent siege from 13 October to 15 November 1703 the French regained the town, following their victory in the Battle of Speyerbach. A third siege, begun on 12 September 1704 by Louis, Margrave of Baden-Baden, ended on 23 November 1704 with a French defeat. During this siege King Joseph I arrived at Landau coming from Vienna in a newly developed convertible carriage. This carriage would become very popular and became named the landau in English, or Landauer in German. The French recaptured Landau once more in a final siege which lasted from 6 June to 20 August 1713 by Marshal General Villars.Landau was part of Bas-Rhin department between 1789 and 1815. After Napoleon's Hundred Days following his escape from Elba, Landau, which had remained French, was granted to the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1815 and became the capital of one of the thirteen Bezirksämter (counties) of the Bavarian Rheinkreis, later renamed Pfalz.
In 1840 famous political cartoonist Thomas Nast was born in Landau.
Following World War II, Landau was an important barracks town for the French occupation.
Main sites
Landau's large main square (Rathausplatz) is dominated by the town hall (Rathaus) and the market hall (Altes Kaufhaus). In the 19th century, the former fortifications gave way to a ring road that encircles the old town centre, from which the old industrial buildings have been excluded. A convention hall, the Festhalle, was built in Art Nouveau style, 1905–07 on a rise overlooking the town park and facing the modernist Bundesamt, the regional government building.
The Protestant Collegiate Church (Stiftskirche) in Landau in der Pfalz is one of the oldest buildings in the town. With the construction of the church started in the 14th century, was completed in the mid-16th century.
The zoo is located close to the center of Landau alongside the historical fortifications. Animals are held in natural enclosures. The zoo contains numerous exotic species such as tigers and cheetahs, but also seals, penguins, kangaroos and flamingos and many more.
Economy
Wine-making continues to be an important industry of Landau.
Culture
The "landau," a luxury open carriage with a pair of folding tops, was invented in the town during the War of the Spanish Succession.
A frequent Ashkenazi surname originates in this town. Probably its most famous bearer was Yechezkel Landau, an 18th-century talmudist and halakhist and the chief rabbi of Prague.
Twin towns – sister cities
Landau in der Pfalz is twinned with:
Haguenau, France
Ribeauvillé, France
Ruhango, Rwanda
Notable people
Landau in der Pfalz travel guide from Wikivoyage
Official website
Pictures Archived 2011-05-22 at the Wayback Machine |
The kip (Lao: ກີບ, romanized: kib; code: LAK; sign: ₭ or ₭N; French: kip; officially: ເງີນກີບລາວ, lit. "currency Lao kip") is the currency of Laos since 1955. Historically, one kip was divided into 100 att (ອັດ).
The term derives from ກີບ kì:p, a Lao word meaning "ingot."
History
French Indochina
The piastre was the currency of French Indochina between 1885 and 1952.
Free Lao Kip (1946)
In 1945–1946, the Free Lao government in Vientiane issued a series of paper money in denominations of 10, 20 and 50 att and 10 kip before the French authorities took control of the region.
Royal Kip (1955)
The kip was reintroduced in 1955, replacing the French Indochinese piastre at par. The kip (also called a piastre in French) was sub-divided into 100 att (Lao: ອັດ) or cents (French: Centimes). It was pegged to the French franc at a rate of 10 francs per kip.
On 10 October 1958, the kip's peg switched to the US dollar, and was officially devalued from ₭35 to ₭80 per US dollar: however, the official exchange rate did not reflect market conditions at the time, with the parallel rate reaching ₭600 per dollar by the end of 1963. Laos devalued the kip again on 1 January 1964, and adopted an official rate of ₭240 per dollar and a "free market" rate of about ₭505 per dollar: the free market rate then fell to ₭600 per dollar on 8 November 1971, with the official rate being abolished on 4 April 1972.
Pathet Lao Kip (1976)
The Pathet Lao introduced the liberation kip on 12 October 1968, for circulation in the areas that the group controlled. Banknotes for the liberation kip, which were printed in China, consisted of ₭1, ₭10, ₭20, ₭50, ₭100, ₭200 and ₭500.According to the Pathet Lao's media outlet Siang Pasason, one liberation kip was worth 6 royal kip on 20 August 1975, three days before the Pathet Lao entered Vientiane. Based on historic exchange rates provided by the International Monetary Fund, one US dollar in 1975 was worth 725 royal kip or 120.83 liberation kip.In 1976, the new communist Laotian government replaced the royal kip with the liberation kip. The exchange rate was 20 royal kip per liberation kip. A currency confiscation was carried out, where individuals could exchange up to 100,000 royal kip for liberation kip, and businesses up to one million royal kip: they had to deposit the rest in a bank.
Lao PDR Kip (1979)
On 16 December 1979, the former Pathet Lao “Liberation” kip was replaced by the new Lao kip at a rate of 100 to 1.
Coins
Royal Kip (1955)
Coins were issued in denominations of 10, 20 and 50 att or cents with French and Lao inscriptions. All were struck in aluminum and had a hole in the centre, like the Chinese cash coins. The only year of issue was 1952.
Pathet Lao Kip (1976)
Coins
Coins were again issued in Laos for the first time in 28 years in 1980 with denominations of 10, 20 and 50 att, with each being struck in aluminum and depicting the state emblem on the obverse and agricultural themes on the reverse. These were followed by commemorative 1, 5, 10, 20 and 50 kip coins issued in 1985 for the 10th anniversary of the establishment of the Lao People's Democratic Republic. However, due to the economic toll of the Soviet collapse in 1991 and the persistence of chronic inflation, coins are rarely seen in circulation.
Banknotes
In 1953, the Laos branch of the Institut d'Emission des États du Cambodge, du Laos et du Vietnam issued notes dual denominated in piastre and kip. At the same time, the two other branches had similar arrangements with the riel in Cambodia and the đồng in South Vietnam. There were notes for 1, 5, 10 and 100 kip/piastres.
In 1957, the government issued notes denominated solely in kip. The notes were for 1, 5, 10, 20 and 50 kip printed by the Security Banknote Company, 100 kip printed by the Banque de France and a commemorative 500 kip printed by De La Rue. 1 and 5 kip notes printed by Bradbury & Wilkinson, as well as 10 kip notes by De La Rue were introduced in 1962.
In 1963, 20, 50, 200 and 1000 kip notes were added, all printed by De La Rue. These were followed by 100, 500 and 5000 kip notes in 1974–75, again by De La Rue. 10 kip notes by Bradbury & Wilkinson and 1000 kip notes by De La Rue were printed but not circulated.
Pathet Lao Kip (1976)
Banknotes issued in 1975 or before in Pathet Lao controlled areas, and were in denominations of 1, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200 and 500 kip.
Lao PDR Kip (1979)
In 1979, banknotes were introduced in denominations of 1, 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 kip. 500 kip notes were added in 1988, followed by 1000 kip in 1992, 2000 and 5000 kip in 1997, 10,000 and 20,000 kip in 2002 and 50,000 kip on January 17, 2006 (although dated 2004). On November 15, 2010, a 100,000 kip banknote was issued to commemorate the 450th anniversary of the founding of the capital, Vientiane, and the 35th anniversary of the establishment of the Lao People's Democratic Republic. Kaysone Phomvihane (1920–1992) is pictured on the obverse of the 2,000, 5,000, 10,000, 20,000, 50,000, and 100,000 kip banknotes.
The Bank of Laos governor announced on January 25, 2012, that the Bank of Laos would issue 100,000 Kip banknotes as a regular issue on February 1, 2012 (but dated 2011) to encourage Lao people to use the national currency instead of U.S. dollars and Thai baht.
As of 2019, the ₭500 note is the smallest one commonly in circulation.
Lao kip exchange rate |
Lee Eun-ju (December 22, 1980 – February 22, 2005) was a South Korean actress. She was the star of hit films including Taegukgi and The Scarlet Letter. She died by suicide at age 24.
Life and career
Born in Gunsan, Jeollabuk-do, South Korea, Lee studied piano for much of her youth, without giving much thought to becoming an actress. She moved to Seoul after graduating high school and was first noticed in the mid-1990s as a model for school uniforms. After finding work as a model, she began to be offered roles in various TV dramas, including Start and KAIST. Her film debut came in 1999, when she played the younger sister in Park Chong-wan's award-winning feature Rainbow Trout.Her first lead role came as the title character in Hong Sang-soo's Virgin Stripped Bare by Her Bachelors (2000).Following this, she teamed with actor Lee Byung-hun in the 2001 hit film Bungee Jumping of Their Own, and also scored a hit opposite Cha Tae-hyun in the melodrama Lovers' Concerto.Lee's later career was marked by several turns in films that failed at the box-office, plus a key role in the record-breaking Korean War film Taegukgi. In 2004 she appeared in the very popular Korean drama, Phoenix, and later that year she starred in her last feature, Daniel H. Byun's The Scarlet Letter which screened as the Closing Film at the 2004 Pusan International Film Festival."I'm called a new generation star, but I don't want to be the kind of person who achieves instant fame and then is quickly forgotten. I want to learn step-by-step how to become a good actress, and gradually work my way up. A star achieves brilliance, but is soon forgotten; to become an actress takes more time." [Interview Excerpt: Kino, #60, February 2000]
Death and subsequent tributes
On the night of February 22, 2005, only a few days after her graduation from Dankook University, Lee died by suicide at her apartment in Bundang, Seongnam, after slitting her wrists and hanging herself. She was 24 years old. The family blamed the suicide on severe bouts of depression and mental illness and said she had been suffering from insomnia due to the nude scenes she had done in The Scarlet Letter, but it could also be traced from Bungee Jumping of Their Own, where all her characters since then have died, so she was too invested in her characters.She left a suicide note scrawled in blood, in which she wrote, "Mom, I am sorry and I love you." A separate note said, "I wanted to do too much. Even though I live, I'm not really alive. I don't want anyone to be disappointed. It's nice having money... I wanted to make money."The news of her death prompted a massive outpouring of grief from fellow actors and filmmakers and fans. Lee Eun-ju was cremated and enshrined in a crypt at Goyang. Hundreds of her fellow actors and entertainers attended her funeral. Vocalist Bada sang "You Were Born to be Loved", and friends spoke in her memory.Her friends and colleagues have held memorials for Lee every year since her death. The 2007 event was marked by a music CD released in her name, featuring remastered versions of her cover performance of The Corrs' "Only When I Sleep" from The Scarlet Letter, as well as tribute performances by her friends in the entertainment industry.
Filmography
Film
Television series
Music video
Discography
Awards and nominations
See also
Suicide in South Korea
Lee Eun-ju at the Korean Movie Database
Lee Eun-ju at IMDb
Lee Eun-joo at HanCinema |
Big Four or Big 4 may refer to:
Groups of companies
Big Four accounting firms: Deloitte, Ernst & Young, KPMG, PwC
Big Four (airlines) in the U.S. in the 20th century: American, Eastern, TWA, United
Big Four (banking), several groupings of banks in different countries
Big Four (British railway companies) in the period 1923–1947: GWR, LMS, LNER, SR
Big Four (British broad gauge railways in Argentine) c.1900–1948: Buenos Aires and Pacific Railway, Buenos Aires Great Southern Railway, Buenos Aires Western Railway and Central Argentine Railway
Big Four (radio networks) in the U.S.: CBS, NBC, ABC, Mutual
Big Four Railroad, a nickname of the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis Railway in the U.S.
Big Four American tech companies: Apple, Amazon, Google, Meta Platforms
Big Four television networks in the U.S.: ABC, CBS, FOX, NBC
The "Big Four" largest UK ITV companies 1955–1968: History of ITV § The Big Four and Big Five
Big Four state-owned car manufacturers of China, namely: SAIC Motor, FAW Group, Dongfeng Motor Corporation, and Changan Automobile
Japanese Big Four motorcycle manufacturers: Honda, Kawasaki, Suzuki, Yamaha
Big Four supermarkets chains in the United Kingdom: Tesco, Sainsbury's, Asda, and Morrisons
Big Four cognac companies: Hennessy, Martell, Courvoisier, and Rémy Martin
Groups of people
Big Four (Central Pacific Railroad), 19th century American railroad entrepreneurs
Big Four (debutantes), in the Chicago social scene during World War I
Big Four (Najaf), leading Grand Ayatollahs of Twelver Shia Islam
The Four Companions, the most loyal companions of Muhammad and Ali.
Big Four (Scotland Yard), London detectives of about 1919
Big Four of Maryland Thoroughbred racing, horse trainers in the 1960s–1970s
The Big Four (Calgary), Alberta cattlemen of the early 20th century
The Four Greats (Norwegian writers): Ibsen, Bjørnson, Lie, Kielland
Groups in sport
Big Four (Canadian football), a forerunner competition to the Canadian Football League East Division
Big Four (English football) in the 2000s: Arsenal, Chelsea, Liverpool, Manchester United
Big Four in Formula 1: McLaren, Williams, Renault (formerly Benetton), and Ferrari, from 1980s to 2008
Big Four (Mexico), a group of the top four football clubs in Mexico: Club América, Chivas, Cruz Azul and Pumas
Big Four (polo), an American polo team of the early 20th century
Big Four (tennis), from 2008 to 2017: Federer, Nadal, Djokovic, Murray
Big Four, the leading major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada: MLB, NBA, NFL, NHL
Big-4 League, a senior ice hockey league in Canada between 1919 and 1921
Other groups
Big Four (Western Europe): France, Germany, Italy, and the United Kingdom
Big Four Conference, various conferences between the victorious nations after World War I and World War II
Big Four (World War I), the four major Allied powers: United States, United Kingdom, France, Italy
Big Four (World War II), or Four Policemen: United States, United Kingdom, China, Soviet Union
Big Four outlaw motorcycle clubs: Hells Angels, Pagans, Outlaws, Bandidos
Big Four international beauty pageants: Miss Earth, Miss International, Miss Universe, and Miss World
Big Four (universities), the top four universities in the Philippines
Arts, entertainment and media
Big Four (band), a Hong Kong music group
Big Four (Eurovision), the four main sponsoring countries before 2011
Big Four (Grammy Awards) or the General Field, four standard awards
The Big Four (fashion), the 4 most notable Vogue covers: American Vogue, British Vogue, Vogue France and Vogue Italia
Big Four of Fashion week: Paris, Milan, London and New York
Big Four of Britpop: Blur, Oasis, Pulp, Suede
Big Four of Doom metal: Candlemass, Pentagram, Saint Vitus, Trouble
Big Four of Grunge: Nirvana, Pearl Jam, Soundgarden, Alice in Chains
Big Four of Power metal: Helloween, Blind Guardian, Sabaton, DragonForce
Big Four of Thrash metal: Anthrax, Megadeth, Metallica, Slayer
The Big Four: Live from Sofia, Bulgaria a 2010 concert recording
Big Four, a key rhythmic innovation on the marching band beat, invented by Buddy Bolden
Big 4 (sculpture), outside the Channel 4 headquarters in London
Big Four films of the Disney Renaissance: The Little Mermaid, Beauty and The Beast, Aladdin and The Lion King
Marvel Comics' Big Four Avengers: Iron Man, Captain America, Thor and Hulk
The Big Four (novel), by Agatha Christie, 1927
The Big 4, a 2022 Indonesian movie
Places
Big Four, West Virginia, U.S.
Big Four Bridge, connecting Louisville, Kentucky, and Jeffersonville, Indiana, U.S.
Big Four Mountain, Washington, U.S.
Other uses
Big 4 (lottery), a game in the Pennsylvania Lottery
Big Four (Indian snakes), four snake species responsible for the most snake-bites in India
Big Four (White Star Line), four British ocean liners of the early 20th century
Norton Big 4, a British motorcycle 1907–1954
After World War I: The major allied powers (United States, United Kingdom, France, and Italy), who held separate sessions during the peace negotiations.
After World War II: The major allied powers United States, Soviet Union, United Kingdom, and China (later France).
The main Nazi war criminals Adolf Hitler, Heinrich Himmler, Joseph Goebbels, and Hermann Göring.
See also
All pages with titles beginning with Big four
All pages with titles beginning with Big 4
Big One (disambiguation)
Big Two (disambiguation)
Big Three (disambiguation)
Big Five (disambiguation)
Big Six (disambiguation)
Big Seven (disambiguation)
Big Eight (disambiguation)
Big Ten (disambiguation)
Big 12
Core Four
Fab Four
Quadruple Alliance (disambiguation) |
Yingluck Shinawatra (Thai: ยิ่งลักษณ์ ชินวัตร, RTGS: Yinglak Chinnawat, pronounced [jîŋ.lák t͡ɕʰīn.nā.wát]; born 21 June 1967), nicknamed Pou (Thai: ปู, RTGS: Pu, pronounced [pūː], meaning "crab"), is a Thai businesswoman, politician and a member of the Pheu Thai Party who became the Prime Minister of Thailand following the 2011 election. Yingluck was Thailand's first female prime minister and its youngest in over 60 years. She was removed from office on 7 May 2014 by a Constitutional Court decision.Born in Chiang Mai Province into a wealthy family of Hakka Chinese descent, Yingluck Shinawatra earned a bachelor's degree from Chiang Mai University and a master's degree from Kentucky State University, both in public administration. She then became an executive in the businesses founded by her elder brother, Thaksin Shinawatra and later became the president of property developer SC Asset and managing director of Advanced Info Service. Thaksin served as Prime Minister from 2001 until 2006 when he was overthrown by a military coup. He fled abroad shortly before he was convicted in absentia of using his position to increase his own wealth. Thereafter, he lived in self-imposed exile to avoid serving his prison sentence until he returned to Thailand in August 2023.
In May 2011, the Pheu Thai Party, which maintains close ties to Thaksin, nominated Yingluck as their candidate for Prime Minister in the 2011 election. She campaigned on a platform of national reconciliation, poverty eradication, and corporate income tax reduction and won a landslide victory.
After mass protests against her government in late 2013, she asked for a dissolution of parliament on 9 December 2013, triggering a snap election, but continued to act as caretaker prime minister. On 7 May 2014, the Constitutional Court of Thailand removed Yingluck Shinawatra from the office of caretaker prime minister and defence minister following months of political crisis. The court found her guilty of charges of abuse of power over the removal of national security chief Thawil Pliensri in 2011. In the wake of the May 2014 military coup, Yingluck was arrested along with former cabinet ministers and political leaders of all parties and held at an army camp for a few days while the coup was consolidated.
She was tried in 2016 but did not appear in court in August 2017 for the verdict. An arrest warrant was issued. She reportedly fled the country. In September 2017, she was found guilty in absentia and sentenced to five years in prison. She is rumoured to now be in London. Yingluck has become the chairwoman and legal representative of Shantou International Container Terminals Ltd since 12 December 2018, a Chinese port operator, operating in the Shantou Port area in eastern Guangdong.
Early life and business career
Yingluck Shinawatra is the youngest of nine children of Loet Shinawatra and Yindi Ramingwong. Her father was a businessman and member of parliament for Chiang Mai. Her paternal family is of Hakka Chinese origin, descending from Seng Saekhu (her great-grandfather) who immigrated from Meizhou, Guangdong, to Siam in the 1860s, becoming a tax farmer in Chiang Mai. On her maternal side, she is a descendant of the former royal family of Chiang Mai through her grandmother, Princess Chanthip na Chiangmai (great-great-granddaughter of Prince Thammalangka who ruled Chiang Mai in the early-19th century). Yingluck grew up in Chiang Mai and attended Regina Coeli College, a private girls' catholic school, for the lower secondary level, followed by Yupparaj College, a co-educational school, at the upper secondary level. She graduated with a BA degree from the Faculty of Political Science and Public Administration, at Chiang Mai University in 1988 and received a MPA degree (specialisation in Management Information Systems) from Kentucky State University in 1991.
Yingluck began her career as a sales and marketing intern in 1993 at Shinawatra Directories Co., Ltd., a telephone directory business founded by AT&T International. She later became the director of procurement and the director of operations. In 1994, she became the general manager of Rainbow Media, a subsidiary of International Broadcasting Corporation (which later became TrueVisions). She left as Deputy CEO of IBC in 2002, and became the CEO of Advanced Info Service (AIS), Thailand's largest mobile phone operator. After the sale of Shin Corporation (the parent company of AIS) to Temasek Holdings, Yingluck resigned from AIS, but remained managing director of SC Asset Co Ltd, the Shinawatra family property development company. She was investigated by Thailand's Securities and Exchange Commission regarding possible insider trading after she sold shares of her AIS stock for a profit prior to the sale of the Shin Corporation to Temasek Holdings. However, no charges were filed. Yingluck Shinawatra is also a committee member and secretary of the Thaicom Foundation.
Yingluck received 0.68 percent of Shin Corp shares out of the 46.87 percent that Thaksin Shinawatra and his then-wife held in 1999. The military junta-appointed Assets Examination Committee charged that Yingluck made up false transactions and that "there were no real payments for each Ample Rich Co., Ltd shares sold" and "the transactions were made at a cost basis of par value in order to avoid income taxes, and all the dividends paid out by Shin to those people were transferred to [her sister-in-law] Potjaman's bank accounts". However, the AEC did not pursue a case against her. Yingluck, in response, claimed that "her family has been a victim of political persecution".
Political career
Establishment of the Pheu Thai Party
After the governing People's Power party was dissolved and its executive board was banned from political activity for five years by the Constitutional Court on 2 December 2008, the former People's Power Party MPs formed the Pheu Thai Party. Yingluck was asked to become the party's leader, but she declined, saying that she had no desire to be prime minister and wanted to concentrate on business. Yongyuth Wichaidit became the leader of the party.
US diplomatic cables leaked in 2011 revealed that during a 9 September 2009 meeting, former Deputy Prime Minister and "close Thaksin ally" Sompong Amornwiwat told Ambassador to Thailand Eric John that she did not envision a big role for Yingluck in the Pheu Thai Party, and that "Thaksin himself was not eager to raise her profile within the party, and was more focused on finding ways to keep his own hand active in politics." However, in a subsequent cable dated 25 November 2009, the ambassador noted that in a meeting with Yingluck, she spoke with confidence about the "operations, strategy and goals" of the Pheu Thai party and seemed "far more poised" than in previous meetings. The cable cited Yingluck saying that, "Someone could easily emerge relatively late in the game to take the reins of the party and serve as the next Prime Minister."Yingluck's bank account was among 86 accounts that the Abhisit government accused of being used to finance the Red Shirt protesters during their demonstrations in 2010. Abhisit accused the Red Shirts of trying to overthrow the monarchy, something they denied. However, the government did not pursue any legal action against her. The Department for Special Investigation found that from 28 April 2009 to May 2010, 150 million baht was deposited into one of her accounts while 166 million baht was withdrawn. On 28 April 2010 alone, 144 million baht was withdrawn.
Pheu Thai Party leadership
Yongyuth had stated her intention of resigning as party leader in late 2010. Speculation about a snap election in early 2011 heightened internal debate over the party leadership. The front runners were Yingluck and Mingkwan Saengsuwan, who had led the opposition in an unsuccessful motion of no confidence against the Democrat Party-led coalition government. As late as 28 January 2011, Yingluck continued to rule out the party leadership, repeating that she wanted to focus on business. However, she was endorsed by veteran politician Chalerm Yubamrung.On 16 May 2011, the Pheu Thai party voted to name Yingluck as their top candidate under the party-list system (and presumably be the party's nominee for Prime Minister) for parliamentary election scheduled for 3 July. However, she was not made party leader and did not join the party's executive board. The ultimate decision was made by Thaksin himself. "Some said she is my nominee. That's not true. But it can be said that Yingluck is my clone... Another important thing is that Ms Yingluck is my sister and she can make decisions for me. She can say 'yes' or 'no' on my behalf," noted Thaksin in an interview.
2011 election and rise to premiership
Election campaign
Pheu Thai campaigned with a slogan of "Thaksin thinks, Pheu Thai acts". Yingluck's main campaign theme was reconciliation following the extended political crisis from 2008 to 2010, culminating in the military crackdown on protesters which left nearly 100 protesters dead and thousands injured. She promised to empower the Independent Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Thailand (ITRC), the panel that the Democrat-led government had set up to investigate the killings. The ITRC had complained that its work was hampered by the military and the government.Yingluck also proposed a general amnesty for all major politically motivated incidents that had taken place since the 2006 coup, which could include the coup itself, court rulings banning Thai Rak Thai and People's Power Party leaders from seeking office, the People's Alliance for Democracy (PAD) seizures of Government House and Don Muang and Suvarnabhumi Airports, the military crackdowns of 2009 and 2010, and the conviction of Thaksin Shinawatra for abuse of power. The proposal was fiercely attacked by the government, who claimed that it would specifically give amnesty to Thaksin, and also result in the return to him of the 46 billion baht of his wealth that the government had seized as a penalty. However, Yingluck denied that the return of seized assets was a priority for the Pheu Thai party, and repeated that she had no intention of giving amnesty to any one person. Abhisit claimed outright that Yingluck was lying and that amnesty to Thaksin actually was the Pheu Thai party's policy. The government blamed Pheu Thai for the bloodshed during the military crackdown.Yingluck described a 2020 vision for the elimination of poverty. She promised to reduce the corporate income tax from 30 per cent to 23 per cent and then 20 per cent by 2013 and to raise the minimum wage to 300 baht per day and the minimum wage for university graduates to 15,000 baht per month. Her agricultural policies included improving operating cashflow to farmers and providing loans of up to 70 per cent of expected income, based on a guaranteed rice price of 15,000 baht per tonne. She also planned to provide free public Wi-Fi and a tablet PC to every schoolchild (a Thai Rak Thai Party plan to provide one laptop per child was cancelled after the 2006 military coup).
Election results and the establishment of the government
Exit polls indicated a landslide victory, with Pheu Thai projected to win as many as 310 seats in the 500-seat parliament. However, the official result was 265 seats and 47 percent of the vote for Pheu Thai, with a 75.03 percent election turnout rate. There were 3 million invalid ballots; the large number was cited as the cause for the difference between the exit poll results and the official count. It was only the 2nd time in Thai history that a single party won more than half of the seats in parliament; the first time was in 2005 with Thaksin's own Thai Rak Thai Party.
United Nations secretary-general Ban Ki-moon welcomed the outcome of the elections and called for all parties to "respect the will of the Thai people as expressed through the democratic process." Aung San Su Kyi congratulated Yingluck, praised the election as "free and fair," and said that she expected "the ties between Myanmar and Thailand to get better."Yingluck quickly formed a coalition with the Chartthaipattana (19 seats), Chart Pattana Puea Pandin (7 seats), and Phalang Chon (7 seats), and Mahachon (1 seat), and New Democracy (1 seat) parties, giving her a total of 300 seats. Outgoing Defense Minister General Prawit Wongsuwan said that he accepted the election results, and after having talked with military leaders, would not intervene.
Prime Minister of Thailand, 2011–2014
Following the general election, the first separate session of the House of Representatives was held in the morning of 5 August to select a new Prime Minister. 296 of the 500 members of parliament voted to approve the premiership of Yingluck Shinawatra, three disapproved, and 197 abstained. Four Democrat lawmakers were absent. Somsak Kiatsuranont, President of the National Assembly, advised and consented King Bhumibol Adulyadej to appoint Yingluck Prime Minister on 8 August. The Proclamation on her appointment was made retroactive, taking effect from 5 August.
Yingluck established her cabinet on 9 August. She and her Ministers were sworn in on 10 August. They were then required to complete addressing their administrative policy to the National Assembly. According to the Constitution, the address had to be made within fifteen days from the effective date of the Proclamation on Yingluck's appointment.Key members of Yingluck's cabinet include former Interior Permanent Secretary Yongyuth Wichaidit as Interior Minister, Securities and Exchange Commission Secretary-General Thirachai Phuvanatnaranubala as Finance Minister, and former Defense Permanent Secretary General Yuthasak Sasiprapa as Defense Minister. Absent from Yingluck's cabinet were Red Shirts who had spearheaded protests against the Democrat-led government.
Polls from shortly after her cabinet was announced found that the cabinet rated most highly in terms of economic competency. It also showed that Yingluck was much more popular than her exiled brother Thaksin.
2011 floods
The 2011 rainy season saw the highest levels of rainfall in Thailand in the previous 50 years. Flooding started in northern Thailand on 31 July, a week prior to Yingluck's appointment as Prime Minister. Flooding quickly spread from the North to the Central Chao Phraya River Basin, and by the beginning of October, the province of Ayutthaya, north of Bangkok, was almost flooded. The floods were the worst in Thailand in over 50 years. Yingluck established centralised flood monitoring and relief operations in mid-August and made tours of flooded provinces beginning 12 August. Yingluck also pledged to invest in long-term flood prevention projects, including the construction of drainage canals. Flood reduction measures were hampered by disputes between people on the different sides of flood barriers: those on the flooded side in some instances sabotaged the barriers, sometimes resulting in armed confrontation. Opposition leader Abhisit Vejjajiva and military leaders called for Yingluck to declare a state of emergency, claiming that it would give the military greater authority to deal with embankment sabotage. A state of emergency had last been declared in 2010 during the Abhisit-government's crackdown on anti-government protesters. Yingluck refused to declare a state of emergency, saying that it would not improve flood management. Instead, she invoked the 2007 Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Act and issued a disaster warning which gave her government greater authority to manage flood control and drainage.
Cabinet reshuffle
On 18 January 2012, Yingluck reshuffled her cabinet, assigning six cabinet members to new posts, naming ten new ministers and deputies, and dismissing nine members of the government. The regrouping was assessed as a step to increase loyalty to the head of government and a reaction to discontent with the government's management of the flood disaster. Especially noted was the choice of Nalinee Taveesin (Minister in the PM's Office), who is on a US blacklist for alleged business links to Zimbabwean President Robert Mugabe, and Nattawut Saikua (Deputy Minister of Agriculture), the first leader of the United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship (UDD, or "Red Shirts") in the government. Yingluck's first cabinet had not incorporated any "Red Shirts" activists.On 30 June 2013, the fifth reshuffle occurred in the cabinet of Yingluck, leading to changes in 18 cabinet posts. She herself assumed the post of minister of defence in the reshuffle.
2013/14 Opposition protests, supreme court impeachment and coup
On 9 December 2013, Yingluck dissolved the country's parliament and called early elections in the face of anti-government protests.On 7 May 2014, the Constitutional Court unanimously dismissed Yingluck from office in consequence of her removing an appointee of an earlier government, Thawil Pliensri, from his post as National Security Council secretary-general in 2011. The court deemed the transfer unconstitutional and therefore, removed Yingluck from office.A few weeks after Yingluck was impeached, the military coup of 2014 occurred.
2014 negligence of duty investigation and trial
Based on the 2007 Thai constitution, public officials can be charged and imprisoned for abuse of power and negligence, even without proof of corruption.
As chairperson of the rice committee, Yingluck was investigated by Thailand's anti-graft agency about her role in the rice pledging scheme. Two of her former ministers were also investigated, and later sentenced for decades in prison.Despite being chairperson of the rice committee, Yingluck admitted in the 2013 censure debate against her government that she had never attended meetings of the National Rice Policy Committee.On 8 May 2014, the National Anti-Corruption Commission (NACC) unanimously agreed to indict Yingluck in the rice-pledging scheme corruption case citing millions of rice farmers who remain unpaid.On 28 November, Thailand's National Legislative Assembly (NLA) denied the addition of 72 pieces of evidence to her rice-pledging case. The first hearing of her impeachment case was also scheduled to be on 9 January 2015.On 15 January 2016, the trial against Yingluck began.On 25 August 2017, the scheduled verdict day, Yingluck did not appear before the court, who then issued an arrest warrant for her and confiscated her ฿30,000,000 bail. 3,000 of her supporters gathered outside the court in Bangkok. Reportedly, Yingluck fled the country ahead of the judgment. Some senior members of her political party said she left Thailand the week before to Dubai. The pronouncement was then rescheduled to 27 September 2017.On 27 September 2017, in her absence, she was found guilty of dereliction of duty over the rice subsidy scheme and was sentenced to five years in prison.Yingluck's passports were cancelled by the Junta controlled government, and she is rumoured to be in London and to have a UK passport. She has been granted citizenship by the government of Serbia.
List of countries and territories officially visited
During Yingluck Shinawatra's tenure as Prime Minister, she travelled to more than 40 countries and territories in an effort to strengthen the relationship between them. Her goals included improvement of trade relations and increased export business investments, and studying water resources management.
Southeast Asia (ASEAN)
East Asia
Oceania
South Asia
Central Asia
West Asia
North America
Europe
Africa
Personal life
She has one son, with her common law husband, Anusorn Amornchat. Anusorn was an executive of the Charoen Pokphand Group and managing director of M Link Asia Corporation PCL. Her sister, Yaowapha Wongsawat, is married to the former prime minister, Somchai Wongsawat.
Honours
Yingluck has received the following royal decorations in the Honours System of Thailand:
Royal Decorations
Dame Grand Cordon (Special Class) of the Most Exalted Order of the White Elephant: 6 April 2012
Dame Grand Cordon (Special Class) of the Most Noble Order of the Crown of Thailand: 20 March 2012
The Boy Scout Citation Medal (First Class)
Volunteer Defense Corps of Thailand Rank
Volunteer Defense Corps General of Volunteer Defense Corps (Thailand) : 30 September 2011
See also
Pheu Thai Party
Yingluck cabinet
List of elected or appointed female heads of government
Pheu Thai Party website
Profile: Yingluck Shinawatra on BBC News
Profile: Yingluck Shinawatra on CBC News
Yingluck Shinawatra collected news and commentary at Al Jazeera English |
Guiyang–Guangzhou high-speed railway, also known as the Guiguang HSR, is a high-speed railway line in southern China between Guiyang in Guizhou Province and Guangzhou in Guangdong Province. The railway is dedicated to high speed passenger rail service. The line is 856 km (532 mi) in length and can carry trains at speeds of up to 250 km/h (155 mph). The line was built from 2008 to 2014 and opened on December 26, 2014.
The line traverses rugged karst terrain in Guizhou and Guangxi and relies on extensive bridges and tunnels, which comprise 83% of the line's total length. The travel time by train between the two terminal cities was reduced from 20 hours to 4 hours.
History
The Guiguang HSR was a major trunk route planned in the 11th Five Year Plan by the Chinese government. It is designed to serve as a rapid rail link between the southwest China and the Pearl River Delta. Construction began in 2008 and was completed in 2014. The line was built to accommodate train speeds of up to 250 km/h (155 mph), with the capacity to be remodelled to allow train speeds of up to 300 km/h (186 mph).
Route
The Guiguang HSR takes a more direct route between its terminal cities, and crosses exceptionally difficult and mountainous terrain, which made construction very costly. The project cost an estimated 85.8 billion RMB (USD$12.5 billion), although this figure was later revised to 94.6 billion RMB (USD$13.8 billion).The line runs from Guangzhou through Foshan, Sanshui and Zhaoqing in the densely populated Pearl River Delta and then crosses the Lingnan mountain range via Huaiji into Guangxi. It continues in a northwesterly direction through Hezhou and Zhongxiang to the famed scenic cities of Yangshuo and Guilin and then on to Sanjiang. The line enters Guizhou at Congjiang near the southeast tip of the province and passes Rongjiang, Sandu, Duyun, and Longli on to Guiyang in the center of the province.
This line traverses 270 tunnels and 510 valleys across the karst landscape. Bridges and tunnels account for 83% of the line's total length, including 92% in Guizhou. A total of 238 tunnels, totaling 464 km (288 mi), were built along route including nine tunnels over 10 km (6.2 mi) in length. The longest tunnel, through the Yan Mountain in Rongjiang, is 14.693 km (9.130 mi).
Stations
Accidents and incidents
4 June 2022 – around 10:30AM CST, train D2809 derailed at Rongjiang railway station following a collision with a landslide just after exiting the Yuezhai Tunnel entrance. This lead to the death of the driver, who noticed an "abnormality" on the track and engaged the emergency brakes, minimizing the disaster. Upon derailing, the train slid by more than 900 meters. The front car of the train swept out to the opposing track and finally stopped wedged on to the platform Rongjiang railway station. One crew member and seven passengers sustained injuries. Train G2929 passed through the tunnel normally and entered Rongjiang railway station 15 minutes earlier, which meant the landslide happened quite suddenly. Repair work of the line was completed and resumed normal operation the next day. |
Yáng Kāihuì (simplified Chinese: 杨开慧; traditional Chinese: 楊開慧; courtesy name: Yúnjǐn (simplified Chinese: 云锦; traditional Chinese: 雲錦); 6 November 1901 – 14 November 1930) was the second wife of Mao Zedong, whom he married in 1920. She had three children with Mao Zedong: Mao Anying, Mao Anqing, and Mao Anlong. Her father was Yang Changji, the head of the Hunan First Normal School and one of Mao's favorite teachers.
Early life
Yang Kaihui was born in the small village of Bancang in Changsha, Hunan Province, on 6 November 1901. Her name meant "Opening Wisdom", although she came to be nicknamed Xia, meaning "Little Dawn." Her father was Yang Changji, a teacher and leftist intellectual, her mother was Xiang Zhenxi, while she had a brother three years older than her, Yang Kaizhi. Through his teaching of ethics at the First Normal School of Changsha, Changji had become a father figure to a pupil named Mao Zedong, later writing in his journal that "it is truly difficult to imagine someone so intelligent and handsome" as him. A friendship developing, in summer 1916, Mao was invited to spend several days at Yang's Bancang home, walking twenty miles in straw sandals in order to get there. On this occasion, he did not talk to either Zhenxi or Kaizhi, instead bowing his head to them as a mark of respect.Yang Changji gained a professorship at Peking University and had moved his family to the city when Mao came to Peking in September 1918 with several like-minded friends from Hunan. Upon arrival, they stayed in the Yangs' small house in the north of the city. Here, Mao met Kaihui again, and the two discovered a mutual attraction. A friend who knew Kaihui at the time described her as "small in stature and round-faced, with deep-set eyes and pale white skin", and her appearance impressed both Mao and his friends. Kaihui later related that she had "fallen madly in love with him already when I heard about his numerous accomplishments" but did not make her feelings immediately known. She kept "hoping and dreaming" that he shared her feelings and decided that she would never marry anyone but him.Their relationship did not develop swiftly, as Mao was shy and lacked sufficient funds to court her, living in cramped rented accommodation with other Hunanese students in Peking's Three-Eyed Well district. Changji secured Mao a job at the university library as assistant to the librarian Li Dazhao, an early Chinese communist.In January 1920, Yang Changji died. Mao was in Peking ostensibly on business, though biographer Stuart Schram suspected his presence was partly due to his desire to comfort Kaihui. Yang Kaihui and her mother returned to Changsha with her father's remains, and she soon entered the Fusiang Girls’ School. At the missionary school, her exposure to revolutionary ideas got her labeled a 'rebel', who refused to pray and cut her hair short in defiance of convention.Mao had gone from Peking to Shanghai, where he worked in a laundry and joined a Communist group for the first time. Following the overthrow of Hunanese warlord Zhang Jingyao by generals favourable to Mao, he returned to Changsha in July 1920. Mao opened a bookstore and publishing house. Now possessing social status and financial security, Mao was able to marry Kaihui.
Revolutionary experience
Yang joined the Chinese Socialism Youth League in the second half of 1920 as one of the first members in Hunan. She married Mao Zedong that winter, without any wedding ceremony or other celebrations. Yang joined the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in the beginning of 1922.
By the 1920s, the Communist movement in China used a labor and peasant organizing strategy that combined workplace advocacy with women's rights advocacy. The Communists would lead union organizing efforts among male workers while simultaneously working in nearby peasant communities on women's rights issues, including literacy for women. Yang and Mao were among the most effective Communist political organizers using this method, using it in the Anyuan mines and nearby peasant communities.In April 1923, Mao went to the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party in Shanghai to work as the Organization Department Minister. In the following year, Yang, together with her two children, Mao Anying and Mao Anqing, joined her husband in Shanghai and organized an evening school at a cotton mill. In 1925, accompanied by Mao, Yang Kaihui went to Shaoshan to organize peasant movements, while caring for her husband and educating their children. At the same time, she continued to teach peasant evening schools and contracted with other comrades. In the beginning of 1927, Mao inspected the peasant movement in Hunan. Yang Kaihui sorted through the large amount of investigation materials and neatly copied them down. Mao's Report on an Investigation of the Peasant Movement in Hunan including Yang's contributions, was published in March of that year. During this period Yang organized many movements among peasants, labor, women, and students.After the National Revolution failed, Yang returned alone to Bancang to organize underground revolutions and lead fights against the Kuomintang (KMT) in Changsha, Pingjiang, and the borders of Xiangyin. Amid the great difficulties and dangers, Yang wrote many letters to her cousin Yang Kaiming, asking him to take good care of her children and mother if she met a sudden death. Because of the great distance and spare communication with Mao over the next three years, Yang often only saw news about her husband in the KMT's newspapers and worried greatly about his safety.In early 1928, Mao began a relationship with He Zizhen without ending his marriage with Yang Kaihui.
Death
In October 1930, the local KMT warlord He Jian captured Yang Kaihui and her son Mao Anying. Her captors wanted her to publicly renounce Mao Zedong and the CCP, but she refused to do so. Even under torture, she is reputed to have told her captors, "You could kill me as you like, you would never get anything from my mouth ... Chopping off the head is like the passing of wind, death could frighten cowards, rather than our Communists ... Even if the seas run dry and the rocks crumble, I would never break off relations with Mao Zedong ... I prefer to die for the success of Mao's revolutionary career."Yang was executed in Changsha on 14 November 1930 at the age of 29. Her children with Mao Zedong were effectively orphaned, and were rediscovered years later. Mao Anying later died early in the Korean War, and Mao Anqing became a translator for the CCP Central Committee.
Influence of Yang Kaihui's death on Mao
Although he would have relationships with other women, Mao mourned Kaihui for the rest of his life.
In summer 1937, he conversed with the American reporter Agnes Smedley, reciting to her a poem that he had written in memory of Kaihui.In spring 1957, Li Shuyi, a friend and comrade of Mao and Yang's, wrote a poem in memory of her own husband, Liu Chih-hsün, a member of the Red Army who had been killed in 1933. Sending her poem to Mao, he responded by composing his own poem commemorating both Liu and Kaihui, titled "The Immortals", which he would subsequently publish:
The allusion to poplar trees is a reference to Yang, whose surname meant "poplar", while that to willows alludes to Liu's surname, which meant "willow".
Poetry
Yang wrote poems to express her loneliness and her longing for Mao. One of them, "偶感 [Ǒu Gǎn]" ("Occasional Feeling"), was written in October 1928, two years before her death, and discovered when her former residence was being repaired about 50 years later:
Movie and television portrayals
2011
Portrayed by Zhou Dongyu in the movie The Road Of Exploring.
Portrayed by Li Qin in the movieThe Founding of a Party and on the TV series China in 1921.
Portrayed by Zhang Meng on the TV series Epoch-Making.
2017
Portrayed by Li Qin in the movie The Founding of an Army.
Portrayed by Sarah Zhao on the TV series Autumn Harvest Uprising.
2021
Portrayed by Zhou Ye in the movie 1921.
2023
Portrayed by Zhang Huiwen on the TV series Bloody Glory.
== |
Chaohu (Chinese: 巢湖; pinyin: Cháohú) is a county-level city of Anhui Province, People's Republic of China, it is under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Hefei. Situated on the northeast and southeast shores of Lake Chao, from which the city was named, Chaohu is under the administration of Hefei, the provincial capital, and is the latter's easternmost county-level division.
Formerly it was a prefecture-level city, which held administration over Wuwei, Lujiang, He and Hanshan counties until it dissolved on August 22, 2011. The Anhui provincial government announced in a controversial decision that the prefecture-level city Chaohu was to be split into three parts and absorbed into neighboring cities. Juchao District was renamed to Chaohu as a county-level city under Hefei's administration.
Climate
Administrative divisions
Chaohu City is divided to 6 Subdistricts, 11 towns and 1 townships.
SubdistrictsTownsTownshipsMiaogang Township (庙岗乡)
Notable people
Zhou Yu (175 - 210), Three Kingdoms era military general of the Kingdom of Wu
Ding Ruchang (1836–1895), Qing Dynasty naval commander and captain of battleship Dingyuan
Feng Yuxiang, warlord in the Republican Era
Xu Haifeng (b. 1957), first Chinese gold medalist for Men's 50 m Pistol in the 1984 Summer Olympics held in Los Angeles
Zhang Zhizhong, general in the National Revolutionary Army of the Republic of China.
Government website of Chaohu (available in Chinese and English) |
Ma'anshan (Chinese: 马鞍山), also colloquially written as Maanshan, is a prefecture-level city in the eastern part of Anhui province in Eastern China. An industrial city stretching across the Yangtze River, Ma'anshan borders Hefei to the west, Wuhu to the southwest, and Nanjing to the east. It is a satellite city of the Nanjing metropolitan area and is also a city in the Yangtze River Delta Economic Zone.
As of the 2020 census, Ma'anshan was home to 2,159,930 inhabitants, of whom 1,253,960 lived in the built-up (or metro) area made of Huashan and Yushan urban districts and Dangtu County, which is largely urbanized.
One can notice that Ma'anshan is now being conurbated with Nanjing making a combined built-up area of 8,419,252 inhabitants.
After the August 2011 administrative re-regionalization of Anhui Province, its population rose to 2.16 million, as two additional counties (He and Hanshan) were placed under its administration.
Administration
The prefecture-level city of Ma'anshan administers 6 county-level divisions, including 3 districts and 3 counties.
Yushan District (雨山区)
Huashan District (花山区)
Bowang District (博望区)
Dangtu County (当涂县)
He County (和县)
Hanshan County (含山县)In September 2012, Jinjiazhuang District was dissolved and merged with Huashan District, while part of Dangtu County was split and established as Bowang District.
Name
The name of the city means "Horse Saddle Mountain". According to legend, the name came to be when the Western Chu hegemon Xiang Yu was fleeing from the Battle of Gaixia. Rather than be captured, the defeated general killed himself at the area now known as Ma'anshan after ensuring that his beloved horse would be ferried across the river to safety. Upon seeing his master die, the grief-stricken horse leapt into the river and was drowned. As a tribute, the boatman buried the horse's saddle on a nearby hill, giving Ma'anshan its name.
City Flower and City Tree
Osmanthus fragrans is the city flower of Ma'anshan and is widely planted in Ma'anshan. The climate of Ma'anshan is more rainy and mild, suitable for the growth of sweet-scented osmanthus. Generally from mid-September to Chinese National Day, the sweet-scented osmanthus blooms.
Camphor tree is the city tree of Ma'anshan. Camphor trees are very popular among residents of Ma'anshan. Residents of Ma'anshan City often regard camphor trees as landscape trees and feng shui trees. Feng shui in China means warding off evil spirits, longevity and good luck.
History
The south bank of the Yangtze River from Ma'anshan upstream for 240 km (150 mi), has long been a mining area. The coming of a railroad and the opening of the Huai-nan coalfield in the 1930s made it possible for the Japanese to open an iron and steel works in 1938. Although destroyed at the end of the Second World War, the industries were restored to production in 1953, and Ma'anshan grew rapidly under the Communists' first and second Five-Year Plans. Ma'anshan also has sulfur and limestone mines, and chemical and cement factories.
In 1954, Ma'anshan was elevated to town level, and, in Oct. 12, 1956, Ma'anshan City was declared to be founded.
Geography and climate
Surrounded by low hills (the name of the city means "horse saddle mountain"), Ma'anshan is not as polluted as other major Chinese steelmaking cities, thanks to the environmental policies taken by the local government that granted the city the recognition as one of the "Ten Green Cities of China."
Its climate is similar to other cities in the Yangtze River Delta, with lower humidity that makes its summers and winters less extreme. There are frequent showers during July and August.
Caishi Rock (采石矶; 采石磯), a famous ancient battlefield from the Jin–Song Wars lying to the southwest of the city, is regarded as the best of three rocks that project over the Yangtze River. Taibai pavilion is one of four famous pavilions along the Yangtze river. Caishi scenic area is a national tourism spot, with a combination of natural and cultural attractions.
Economy
The main industry is the steel industry (MaGang) which employs much of the workforce of Ma'anshan.
At present (2005) major expansions of the steel plant are underway to increase production drastically.
With the advanced manufacturing infrastructure and fast transportation link, Ma'anshan has received much investment in many industries.
Ma'anshan city has an annual manufacture investment ranking No.1 in Anhui Province and her GDP ranks No.4 in Anhui Province after Hefei, Anqing and Wuhu. Ma'anshan's population ranks No.16 in the province and has a GDP per capita of US$7,118 which is No.1 in Anhui Province and near the average of Yangtze River Delta.
Maanshan has been identified by the Economist Intelligence Unit in the November 2010 Access China White Paper as a member of the CHAMPS (Chongqing, Hefei, Anshan, Ma'anshan, Pingdingshan and Shenyang), an economic profile of the top 20 emerging cities in China.
Transportation
The deep water river port of Ma'anshan, with custom offices ensures fast and inexpensive transportation to other cities both in the East coast, and the inner cities along the Yangtze River. Nanjing Lukou International Airport is 40 km (25 mi) from Ma'anshan, with direct flights to every corner of China and also daily flights to Europe. By road, Ma'anshan is connected with highways to Nanjing, Shanghai, Hangzhou, Ningbo, Hefei and Wuhu.
The city has one Yangtze River crossing—the Ma'anshan Yangtze River Bridge, opened in 2013, enables direct road access to cities in northern Anhui.
As of 2020, plans are underway to extend Nanjing Metro to Ma'anshan, the future Line S2 (Nanjing Metro) under review will connect Ma'anshan as well as the Dangtu County to the south with the city of Nanjing.
Culture
There is a memorial to the famous Chinese poet, Li Bai (a.k.a. Li Po c.700-762), just west of Ma'anshan. Li Bai is said to have drowned at Ma'anshan after attempting to embrace a reflection of the moon.
China's first poetry festival was held in Ma'anshan from October 25–30, 2005. The theme of the festival, sponsored by the Ministry of Culture, the Chinese Writers Association, and the Anhui provincial government, was "Poetic China, Harmonious China." The Ma'anshan Sports Centre Stadium, a 36,542-capacity venue, is located in the city. The football stadium opened in 2019.
Shopping
Dahua International Plaza is located in the northeast corner of Tuanjie Plaza, with a total construction area of 140,000 square meters. It is currently the largest comprehensive shopping mall in Maanshan City.
Ma'anshan Yaohan is located in Building A, Phase II of Dahua Plaza. It opened on November 28, 2009. It has a business area of 36,000 square meters and 600 underground parking spaces. On November 28, 2010, a single-day sales record of Huadi Group Yaohan was set at 27 million yuan.
Xintiandi Plaza is located on Jiefang Road Commercial Street.
Hongtai Xinbai is located in Jiefang Road Commercial Street with a business area of 15,000 square meters.
Hong Kong City is located at the intersection of Hunan Road and Hudong Road.
Golden Eagle International is located at the intersection of Hunan Road and Hudong Road. It opened on August 29, 2015.
Wanda Plaza is a large-scale high-end shopping mall under Wanda Group.
Impression City is located at the intersection of Yushan Road and Kangle Road.
Cultural places
Zhu Ran Family Cemetery
Li Bai Tomb
Hexian Yuanren Site
Lingjiatan Site
Taibailou
Caishi Rock
Taibai Tower (Zanxian Tower, one of the three famous buildings on the Yangtze River)
Sanyuandong
Santai Court
Yushan Lake
Putang Scenic Area
Li Bai Cemetery
Tomb of Zhu Ran
Overlord Temple
Baochan Mountain
Jilongshan National Forest Park
Local products
Hengwang Mountain Rice Wine: Hengwangshan rice wine has a long history, dating back to the Jin and Tang dynasties. According to historical records, the current Hengwangshan rice wine originated in the Qing period. Hengwang Mountain rice wine, brewed by ancient methods, is exquisite. In 2013, Hengwangshan rice wine brewing skills were announced as the fourth batch of municipal intangible cultural heritage protection list by the Maanshan Municipal Government.
Bowang Wind fish: When wind fish was founded, the exact age is no longer available. There is a saying that in the late Qing Dynasty, an outsider was involved in the management of fishing in the Shijiu Lake area of Bowang. Since there were a lot of bream fish, and they could not be refrigerated in that era, he created a way to dry the fish for long-term preservation. It was recognized as a national green food in 2008.
Taihushan antler: Taihu Mountain antler is a special product of Taihu Mountain, Hanshan County, Ma'anshan City, Anhui Province. It is produced in Taihu Mountain Deer Farm. Antler is a precious medicinal material, which has the functions of invigorating arteries, producing essence, and strengthening bones. It is divided into sika antler and red antler. Sika antler, also called yellow antler or flower antler, mostly has 1 to 2 branches; red antler, also known as green antler, is thicker and has more branches. Antler is a precious Chinese medicinal material with sweet, salty, warm nature and non-toxic.
Education
Anhui University of Technology
Hohai University Wentian College which is a high institute mainly focus in trading and business management, and expanding to offer the international bachelor's degree for several majors bilingually in English and Chinese.
See also
List of twin towns and sister cities in China
Government website of Ma'anshan |
Won Gyun (Korean: 원균; Hanja: 元均; RR: Won Gyun; MR: Wŏn Kyun; 12 February 1540 – 27 August 1597) was a Korean general and admiral during the Joseon Dynasty. He is best known for his campaigns against the Japanese during Hideyoshi's invasions of Korea. Won was a member of Wonju Won clan, which was well known for its members' military accomplishments. He was born in 1540 near Pyeongtaek and demonstrated his skill as warrior at a young age. He was qualified as a military officer and was first assigned to the northern border to defend against the Jurchens, who frequently raided Korean villages. Won led many successful campaigns with Yi Il and Yi Sun-sin against the Jurchens. After considerable accomplishments on the northern frontier, he was promoted to admiral in 1592 and sent to the southern coast of Gyeongsang Province to command the province's Western Fleet, along with Yi Sun-sin, who became admiral before Won and took command of Jeolla Province's Eastern Fleet. At the time, Won and Yi were cavalry leaders who had no experience with naval warfare.
Military career
Upon passing the qualification exam, he was assigned to the northern border to defend against the Jurchens, who frequently raided Korean villages. Won led successful campaigns along with Yi Il and Yi Sun-sin against the Jurchens. He was promoted to admiral in 1592 and sent to the southern coast of Gyeongsang Province to command the province's Eastern Fleet, with Yi Sun-sin, who became admiral before Won and took command of Jeolla Province's Western Fleet. At the time, Won and Yi were cavalry leaders who had no experience with naval warfare.
Before the Japanese invasion
Japan had just united after a long period of internal warfare by a new leader, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who had become supreme ruler over most of Japan by killing and co-opting many rivals to rise to power. He decided to begin an expansionist war against Japan's neighbors, beginning with Joseon as the first step to China, then under the Ming Dynasty. Some Koreans realized that the threat from Japan was great and argued that the Joseon dynasty needed to prepare for invasion from Japan as well as the existing Jurchen menace. However, the government was divided along factional lines, and officials could not reach a decision.
First wave of Japanese invasion
On April 13, 1592, the Japanese fleet, under Katō Kiyomasa, launched a sudden strike on the Eastern Fleet of Gyeongsang province and disabled every ship under its control. The main army under Kato and Konishi Yukinaga landed on the Korean Peninsula the next day and marched northward. Won, the commander of the Eastern Fleet of Gyeongsang Province, was also routed by the invading Japanese. (Won's predecessor was able to pass a fleet combat readiness inspection just one year before the war.) With an able force, Admiral Won might have had an opportunity to intercept and engage Japanese invading forces at sea, thus perhaps preventing or delaying the Japanese incursion on Korean soil. However, he decided not to act upon the naval intelligence regarding the Japanese incursion until the Japanese landing party had established a beachhead and successfully laid siege upon the city of Busan.
At that point, Won sank many of his ships in retreat to ensure they would not be captured by invading Japanese forces. With four ships left under his command, Won called for help from Yi Sun-sin, who had prepared for war and raised a smaller and battle ready fleet. King Seonjo finally ordered both admirals to fight against the Japanese forces on May 2, 1592. Won and Yi began their campaign two days later, with Admiral Yi Eok-gi, the commander of the Eastern Fleet of Jeolla Province who later became the commander of the Western Fleet of the same Province following Yi's promotion.
On May 7, the Korean navy under Yi destroyed a Japanese fleet in the Battle of Okpo. Later, Won was promoted to an army general, and Yi became naval chief of staff.
Plot to remove Yi Sun-sin
In 1597, the Japanese decided to stop all negotiations with the Koreans and Chinese Ming Dynasty and planned a re-invasion of Korea. To do so, they plotted to remove Admiral Yi Sun-sin from his position. Japanese spies directed by Konishi Yukinaga spread word that Katō Kiyomasa was urging other Japanese to continue fighting and would soon be crossing the sea. King Seonjo ordered Admiral Yi to capture Kato, but Yi refused to do so, as he knew that the words were the fabrications of Japanese agents.
Seonjo was in fear of a possible coup d'état attempt by Yi or by his supporters, which was never plotted, but Seonjo convinced himself it could happen any day: Yi refused to carry out his orders several times and his fleet was the strongest combat force on both sides. Yi refused to carry out the orders purely due to tactical reasons, but the act of insubordination itself, no matter how justifiable, frightened the King beyond his breaking point. King Seonjo finally ordered the execution of Yi, but the royal court reluctantly yet successfully resisted the order and was able to lower the punishment to imprisonment and demotion. Yi was placed under the command of Gwon Yul to recover from his wounds from the torture administered during the investigation of the charges against him. Seonjo then replaced Yi with Won Gyun as the naval chief of staff.
Battle of Chilcheonryang – Won Gyun's first and last naval engagement
Won also knew the information was false and did not advance toward Busan for the same tactical reasons Yi had reported to the royal court before his removal from the post. Yi was removed for refusing orders to engage the Japanese. The government continued to trust the information and ordered Won to attack Japanese ships at Ungchŏn. Won attacked the Japanese – who were mostly unarmed and protected under the cease-fire treaty to support the negotiation process which was about to be terminated – and defeated them. He lost one of his battleships and its captain during the attack. He did not advance after receiving a letter of protest from the Japanese commander. Then Field Marshal Gwon Yul, who was also under heavy pressure from the king, recalled Won to his headquarters and once again ordered him to attack Busan. Won finally led the navy towards Busan, along with the admiral Yi Eok Ki, following orders despite tactical considerations.
The Japanese at first seemed to retreat, but it was a trap. The Japanese were prepared to devastate the Joseon navy before land invasion. The number of Japanese ships was so great that most of the Koreans were thoroughly intimidated, including Admiral Bae Seol. The Japanese fleet, commanded by Todo Takatora, advanced toward Won Gyun's fleets. Won knew that he would lose the battle but had no choice but to engage.
At the Battle of Chilchonryang, most of Joseon Navy's ships were destroyed. Won was considered to be killed in action while running away, when his brother was killed during this battle. Only the small detachment of twelve warships under the command of admiral Bae Sŏl – who refused to participate and fled even before the battle began – survived. Every other ship in the combat was destroyed or disabled, along with almost all of the Joseon navy line officers and many capable mid-level commanders.
Aftermath
The battle opened the route for the Japanese to advance to the Yellow Sea, and Todo devised a plan to attack Hanyang from land and sea with Katō Kiyomasa and Konishi Yukinaga. However, Japan's hopes were crushed again by Yi Sun-sin's return at the Battle of Myeongnyang, which would decide the winner of the devastating war. Despite any historical controversy, Won Gyun and Yi Sun-sin received commendations following their deaths.
Legacy
Next to his military career, Won Gyun is perhaps best known for his personal faults, which included excessive alcohol consumption and attempts at adultery. In his War Diaries, Yi Sun-Sin recalls reports and rumors about "cruel deeds" committed by Won and even mentions an incident in which Won had attempted to seduce one of his subordinates' wives, calling him a "wicked man" and (at least partially) blaming him for his degradation ("Won employs all means to entrap me").Much controversy lingers in regard to Won Gyun as a military leader. Widely panned by scholars and historians, there is recent research to suggest that Won Gyun may have been excessively vilified during the Park Chung-Hee administration to elevate Yi Sun-sin by juxtaposition. In particular, Won Gyun's earlier successes against the Jurchens have been buried and there is an interest in providing a more objective view of Won Gyun's military career.
While fault exists for Won Gyun's mistakes as a naval officer, much of the blame of the troubles during that period lies in the factionalized incompetence of the royal court. However, it is still hard to ignore his actions and lack of competency as a naval commander, and blame the political instability and indecision of the royal court for the result of the battle of Chilcheonryang. The battle led to the near-complete annihilation of the Korean navy in a single engagement against the Japanese, who had previously been unable to prevail against the Koreans in naval engagements. Some explain his legacy of poor command to be an unfortunate byproduct of comparison with his more successful associate, Yi Sun-sin.
Family
Parents
Father – Won Jun-ryang (원준량, 元俊良), Internal Prince Pyeongwon (평원부원군) (? 18 December – ? 27 January)
Grandfather – Won Im (원임, 元任)
Great-Grandfather – Won Suk-jeong (원숙정, 元叔貞)
Great-Great-Grandfather – Won Mong (원몽, 元蒙) (1419 – ?)
Uncle – Won Su-ryang (원수량, 元遂良)
Uncle – Won Guk-ryang (원국량, 元國良)
Mother – Lady Yang of the Namwon Yang clan (남원 양씨)
Grandfather – Yang Hui-jeung (양희증, 梁希曾)Siblings
Younger brother – Won Yeon (원연, 元埏) (1543–1597); became the adoptive son of his uncle Won Su-ryang (원수량, 元遂良)
Nephew – Won Sa-rib (원사립) (1569–1610); became the adoptive son of his uncle Won Jeon (원전)
Younger brother – Won Yong (원용, 元墉) or Won Hun (원훈, 元塤)
Younger brother – Won Jeon (원전, 元塼) or Yun Oh (원오, 元墺) (? – 1597)
Younger brother – Won Ji (원지, 元地)
Younger sister – Lady Won of the Wonju Won clan (원씨)
Brother-in-law – Seong Dae-chung (성대충, 成大忠)
Younger brother – Won Gon (원곤, 元坤)
Younger brother – Won Gam (원감, 元堪)
Younger brother – Won Hae (원해, 元垓)Wives and issues:
Yun Chi-sam (윤차심, 尹次深), Lady Yun of the Papyeong Yun clan (파평 윤씨; 1546 – 16 September 1642)Son – Won Sa-eung (원사웅, 元士雄) (1575–1646)
Daughter-in-law – Lady Gu of the Neungseong Gu clan (능성구씨); daughter of Gu Sam-rak (구삼락, 具三樂)
Grandson – Won Pil, Lord Chungui (충의위 원필, 忠義衛 元珌)
Daughter-in-law – Lady Seong of the Changnyeong Seong clan (창녕 성씨); daughter of Seong Yeo-hak (성여학, 成汝學)
Grandson – Won Yeom (원염, 元琰)
Daughter – Lady Won of the Wonju Won clan (원주 원씨)
Son-in-law – Han Eok (한억, 韓嶷)
Unnamed concubine
Unnamed concubine
In popular culture
Film and television
Portrayed by Choi Jae-sung in the 2004–2005 KBS1 TV series Immortal Admiral Yi Sun-sin.
Portrayed by Son Hyun-joo in the 2022 film Hansan: Rising Dragon.
Comics
In Yi Soon Shin: Warrior and Defender, as one of Yi's adversaries.
Video games
In the Admiral Yi campaign of the video game Empires: Dawn of the Modern World, Won Gyun is portrayed as a traitor to Korea, allying first with Manchu raiders harassing Korea's north and later with the Japanese invaders. In this portrayal, Won Gyun appears to be responsible for masterminding both attacks on Korea, with the eventual aim of becoming King of a reduced Korea, allied to Japan and a tributary to Ming China. His treachery is discovered by Ryu Seong-ryong, and he is arrested.
See also
History of Korea
Naval history of Korea
Hideyoshi's invasions of Korea
Yi Sun-sin, Nanjung Ilgi [The War Diary], eds. Ha Tae-hung and Sohn Pow-key. Seoul: Yonsei University Press. 1977.
Sadler, A.L. “The Naval Campaign in the Korean War of Hideyoshi, 1592–1598.” In Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, ser. 2, vol. 14, June 1937, pp. 178–208.
Underwood, Horace Horton. “Korean Boats and Ships.” In Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society, Korea Branch, Seoul, vol. 23, pp. 1–89, 1934.
Park, Yun-hee. Yi Sun-sin. Seoul: Hanjin. 1978. |
GNU ( ) is an extensive collection of free software (383 packages as of January 2022), which can be used as an operating system or can be used in parts with other operating systems. The use of the completed GNU tools led to the family of operating systems popularly known as Linux. Most of GNU is licensed under the GNU Project's own General Public License (GPL).
GNU is also the project within which the free software concept originated. Richard Stallman, the founder of the project, views GNU as a "technical means to a social end". Relatedly, Lawrence Lessig states in his introduction to the second edition of Stallman's book Free Software, Free Society that in it Stallman has written about "the social aspects of software and how Free Software can create community and social justice".
Name
GNU is a recursive acronym for "GNU's Not Unix!", chosen because GNU's design is Unix-like, but differs from Unix by being free software and containing no Unix code. Stallman chose the name by using various plays on words, including the song The Gnu.: 45:30
History
Development of the GNU operating system was initiated by Richard Stallman while he worked at MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory. It was called the GNU Project, and was publicly announced on September 27, 1983, on the net.unix-wizards and net.usoft newsgroups by Stallman. Software development began on January 5, 1984, when Stallman quit his job at the Lab so that they could not claim ownership or interfere with distributing GNU components as free software.The goal was to bring a completely free software operating system into existence. Stallman wanted computer users to be free to study the source code of the software they use, share software with other people, modify the behavior of software, and publish their modified versions of the software. This philosophy was published as the GNU Manifesto in March 1985.Richard Stallman's experience with the Incompatible Timesharing System (ITS), an early operating system written in assembly language that became obsolete due to discontinuation of PDP-10, the computer architecture for which ITS was written, led to a decision that a portable system was necessary.: 40:52 It was thus decided that the development would be started using C and Lisp as system programming languages, and that GNU would be compatible with Unix. At the time, Unix was already a popular proprietary operating system. The design of Unix was modular, so it could be reimplemented piece by piece.Much of the needed software had to be written from scratch, but existing compatible third-party free software components were also used such as the TeX typesetting system, the X Window System, and the Mach microkernel that forms the basis of the GNU Mach core of GNU Hurd (the official kernel of GNU). With the exception of the aforementioned third-party components, most of GNU has been written by volunteers; some in their spare time, some paid by companies, educational institutions, and other non-profit organizations. In October 1985, Stallman set up the Free Software Foundation (FSF). In the late 1980s and 1990s, the FSF hired software developers to write the software needed for GNU.As GNU gained prominence, interested businesses began contributing to development or selling GNU software and technical support. The most prominent and successful of these was Cygnus Solutions, now part of Red Hat.
Components
The system's basic components include the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC), the GNU C library (glibc), and GNU Core Utilities (coreutils), but also the GNU Debugger (GDB), GNU Binary Utilities (binutils), and the GNU Bash shell. GNU developers have contributed to Linux ports of GNU applications and utilities, which are now also widely used on other operating systems such as BSD variants, Solaris and macOS.Many GNU programs have been ported to other operating systems, including proprietary platforms such as Microsoft Windows and macOS. GNU programs have been shown to be more reliable than their proprietary Unix counterparts.As of January 2022, there are a total of 459 GNU packages (including decommissioned, 383 excluding) hosted on the official GNU development site.
GNU as an operating system
In its original meaning, and one still common in hardware engineering, the operating system is a basic set of functions to control the hardware and manage things like task scheduling and system calls. In modern terminology used by software developers, the collection of these functions is usually referred to as a kernel, while an 'operating system' is expected to have a more extensive set of programmes. The GNU project maintains two kernels itself, allowing the creation of pure GNU operating systems, but the GNU toolchain is also used with non-GNU kernels. Due to the two different definitions of the term 'operating system', there is an ongoing debate concerning the naming of distributions of GNU packages with a non-GNU kernel. (See below.)
With kernels maintained by GNU and FSF
GNU Hurd
The original kernel of GNU Project is the GNU Hurd microkernel, which was the original focus of the Free Software Foundation (FSF).With the April 30, 2015 release of the Debian GNU/Hurd 2015 distro, GNU now provides all required components to assemble an operating system that users can install and use on a computer.However, the Hurd kernel is not yet considered production-ready but rather a base for further development and non-critical application usage.
Linux-libre
As of 2012, a fork of the Linux kernel became officially part of the GNU Project in the form of Linux-libre, a variant of Linux with all proprietary components removed.
The GNU Project has endorsed Linux-libre distributions, such as Trisquel, Parabola GNU/Linux-libre, PureOS and GNU Guix System.
With non-GNU kernels
Because of the development status of Hurd, GNU is usually paired with other kernels such as Linux or FreeBSD. Whether the combination of GNU libraries with external kernels is a GNU operating system with a kernel (e.g. GNU with Linux), because the GNU collection renders the kernel into a usable operating system as understood in modern software development, or whether the kernel is an operating system unto itself with a GNU layer on top (i.e. Linux with GNU), because the kernel can operate a machine without GNU, is a matter of ongoing debate. The FSF maintains that an operating system built using the Linux kernel and GNU tools and utilities should be considered a variant of GNU, and promotes the term GNU/Linux for such systems (leading to the GNU/Linux naming controversy). This view is not exclusive to the FSF. Notably, Debian, one of the biggest and oldest Linux distributions, refers to itself as Debian GNU/Linux.
Copyright, GNU licenses, and stewardship
The GNU Project recommends that contributors assign the copyright for GNU packages to the Free Software Foundation, though the Free Software Foundation considers it acceptable to release small changes to an existing project to the public domain. However, this is not required; package maintainers may retain copyright to the GNU packages they maintain, though since only the copyright holder may enforce the license used (such as the GNU GPL), the copyright holder in this case enforces it rather than the Free Software Foundation.For the development of needed software, Stallman wrote a license called the GNU General Public License (first called Emacs General Public License), with the goal to guarantee users freedom to share and change free software. Stallman wrote this license after his experience with James Gosling and a program called UniPress, over a controversy around software code use in the GNU Emacs program. For most of the 80s, each GNU package had its own license: the Emacs General Public License, the GCC General Public License, etc. In 1989, FSF published a single license they could use for all their software, and which could be used by non-GNU projects: the GNU General Public License (GPL).This license is now used by most of GNU software, as well as a large number of free software programs that are not part of the GNU Project; it also historically has been the most commonly used free software license (though recently challenged by the MIT license). It gives all recipients of a program the right to run, copy, modify and distribute it, while forbidding them from imposing further restrictions on any copies they distribute. This idea is often referred to as copyleft.In 1991, the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL), then known as the Library General Public License, was written for the GNU C Library to allow it to be linked with proprietary software. 1991 also saw the release of version 2 of the GNU GPL. The GNU Free Documentation License (FDL), for documentation, followed in 2000. The GPL and LGPL were revised to version 3 in 2007, adding clauses to protect users against hardware restrictions that prevent users from running modified software on their own devices.Besides GNU's packages, the GNU Project's licenses can and are used by many unrelated projects, such as the Linux kernel, often used with GNU software. A majority of free software such as the X Window System, is licensed under permissive free software licenses.
Logo
The logo for GNU is a gnu head. Originally drawn by Etienne Suvasa, a bolder and simpler version designed by Aurelio Heckert is now preferred. It appears in GNU software and in printed and electronic documentation for the GNU Project, and is also used in Free Software Foundation materials.
There was also a modified version of the official logo. It was created by the Free Software Foundation in September 2013 in order to commemorate the 30th anniversary of the GNU Project.
See also
Free software movement
History of free and open-source software
List of computing mascots
Category:Computing mascots
Official website
Ports of GNU utilities for Microsoft Windows
The daemon, the GNU and the penguin |
Guan Ping(died January or February 220) was a military general serving under the warlord Liu Bei during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China.
Life
Guan Ping was the eldest son of Guan Yu. Little about him is documented in historical records except that he was captured along with his father west of Maicheng (麦城, southeast of present-day Dangyang, Hubei) by the forces of Sun Quan sometime between 23 January and 21 February 220. They were executed in Linju (臨沮; in present-day Nanzhang County, Xiangyang, Hubei) later.
In Romance of the Three Kingdoms
Guan Ping appears in the 14th century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms by Luo Guanzhong. He is the second son of Guan Ding (關定), a farmer. His elder brother is Guan Ning (關寧). Guan Yu encounters Guan Ding and his family during his journey across five passes to find Liu Bei. He is so impressed with Guan Ping on first sight that he accepts him as his foster son. During the Battle of Runan, Guan Ping, Guan Yu and Zhou Cang lead 300 men to rescue Liu Bei, who is under attack by Cao Cao's general Zhang He. Guan Ping participates in some of Liu Bei's subsequent military exploits, including the Battle of Bowang against Cao Cao's general Xiahou Dun, and the Yi Province campaign against Liu Zhang. Later, he is relocated to Jing Province to join his foster father in defending Liu Bei's territories in Jing Province. In 219, Guan Ping follows Guan Yu to the Battle of Fancheng and scores some initial victories over Cao Cao's forces, including flooding seven enemy armies. However, in the meantime, Sun Quan (Liu Bei's ally) secretly breaks the alliance and sends his general Lü Meng to attack and conquer Jing Province in a stealth invasion. Guan Yu is completely caught off guard and eventually isolated in Maicheng with a fraction of his remaining forces. While trying to break out of the siege, Guan Yu and Guan Ping are captured in an ambush by Sun Quan's forces. Sun Quan tries to persuade them to surrender, but they refuse so Sun has them executed.
In popular culture
Religion
Guan Ping sometimes appears as a door god in Chinese and Taoist temples in partnership with Guan Yu. He also sometimes accompanies Guan Yu in his role as a war god, sometimes in combination with Zhou Cang and Liao Hua. Guan Ping's face is traditionally painted white, while Zhou Cang is black and Guan Yu red.
Video games
Guan Ping appears as a playable character in Koei's Dynasty Warriors and Warriors Orochi video game series.
See also
Lists of people of the Three Kingdoms
Bibliography
Chen, Shou (3rd century). Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi).
Luo, Guanzhong (14th century). Romance of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Yanyi). |
Lee Shing-cheong (Chinese: 李成昌; born 11 October 1957) is a Hong Kong TVB actor. He also goes by the name Henry Lee.
Career
Acting
Lee graduated from the 8th TVB Training Class in August 1979. He landed his first role in Hong Kong '81, one of TVB's long-running series, and was notable for the role of Michael in Looking Back In Anger, one of TVB's most popular dramas to date.
Lee is also a member of the Hong Kong Performing Artistes Guild. He was inducted on 10 November 1994.
Lee was originally known for playing villains, but gained weight over the years and is now usually known for comedic roles. Lee has acted alongside fellow TVB veteran Elliot Ngok Wah many times, their most notable show being Looking Back in Anger.
Personal life
Lee lives in Tseung Kwan O with his family. He married his bank officer wife in 1993 and has a daughter, born in 2001.
Filmography
Hong Kong '81 (1981)
Hong Kong '82 (1982)
Hong Kong '83 (1983)
Hong Kong '84 (1984)
Hong Kong '85 (1985)
Hong Kong '86 (1986)
A Taste Of Bachelorhood (1986)
The Legend of the Book and the Sword (1987)
Looking Back In Anger (1989)
Chun Mun Kong Chuen Kei (晋文公傳奇) (1989)
The Confidence Men (1991)
Files Of Justice Part I (1992)
Rage and Passion (1992)
Revelation of the Last Hero (1992)
Justice, My Foot! (1992)
Royal Tramp (1992)
The Bride with White Hair (1993)
The Buddhism Palm Strikes Back (1993)
Files Of Justice Part II (1993)
Crime and Passion (1994)
Instinct (1994)
The Condor Heroes 95 (1995)
Files Of Justice Part III (1995)
The Criminal Investigator Part I (1995)
The Romance of the White Hair Maiden (1995)
The Criminal Investigator Part II (1996)
Cold Blood, Warm Heart (1996)
Files Of Justice Part IV (1997)
Demi-Gods and Semi-Devils (1997)
Time Before Time (1997)
Justice Sung (1997)
Detective Investigation Files III (1997)
Secret of the Heart (1997)
Armed Reaction (1998)
Rural Hero (1998)
Ultra Protection (1999)
Detective Investigation Files IV (1999)
Armed Reaction II (2000)
Armed Reaction III (2001)
Burning Flame II (2002)
Take My Word For It (2002)
Survivor's Law (2003)
Not Just a Pretty Face (2003)
The Driving Power (2003)
Double Crossing (2003)
To Get Unstuck In Time (2004)
The War Of The In-Laws (2004)
Armed Reaction IV (2004)
Scavenger's Paradise (2005)
The Academy (2005)
The Gentle Crackdown (2005)
Revolving Doors Of Vengeance (2005)
Hidden Treasures (2005)
Life Made Simple (2005)
Always Ready (2005)
When Rules Turn Loose (2005)
War Of In-Laws (2005)
Square Pegs (2006)
Greed Mask (2006)
Bar Bender (2006)
Au Revoir Shanghai (2006)
Men in Pain (2006)
Love Guaranteed (2006)
Land Of Wealth (2006)
The Price Of Greed (2006)
The Brink of Law (2007)
Heavenly In-Laws (2007)
The Slicing of the Demon (2007)
War and Destiny (2007)
Heart of Greed (2007)
A Change of Destiny (2007)
On the First Beat (2007)
Devil's Disciples (2007)
Fathers and Sons (2007)
The Building Blocks of Life (2007)
Burning Flame III (2008)
The Gentle Crackdown II (2008)
Catch Me Now (2008)
Forensic Heroes II (2008)
Speech of Silence (2008)
Moonlight Resonance (2008)
The King of Snooker (2009)
Rosy Business (2009)
Burning Flame III (2009)
Born Rich (2009)
In the Eye of the Beholder (2010)
A Fistful of Stances (2010)
The Mysteries of Love (2010)
A Pillow Case of Mystery II (2010)
The Stool Pigeon (2010)
No Regrets (2010)
Yes, Sir. Sorry, Sir! (2011)
The Other Truth (2011)
Forensic Heroes III (2011)
Bottled Passion (2011-2012)
Tiger Cubs (2012)
Witness Insecurity (2012)
Three Kingdoms RPG (2012)
Ghetto Justice II (2012)
King Maker (2012)
Divas in Distress (2012)
A Great Way to Care II (2013)
Blind Detective (2013)
Return of the Silver Tongue (2013-2014)
Ruse of Engagement (2014)
Rear Mirror (2014)
Overachievers (2014)
That Demon Within (2014)
Noblesse Oblige (2014-2015)
Madam Cutie On Duty (2015)
Raising the Bar (2015)
Little Big Master (2015)
Limelight Years (2015)
Captain of Destiny (2015)
My Dangerous Mafia Retirement Plan (2016)
Between Love & Desire (2016)
No Reserve (2016)
Short End of the Stick (2016)
Provocateur (2017)
Another Era (2018)
Life on the Line (2018)
Awards
2012: MY AOD Favourite Awards 2012
Shing-Cheung Lee at IMDb |
The traditional Chinese calendar divides a year into 24 solar terms. Lìqiū, Risshū, Ipchu, or Lập thu (Chinese: 立秋; pinyin: lìqiū) is the 13th solar term. It begins when the Sun reaches the celestial longitude of 135° and ends when it reaches the longitude of 150°. It more often refers in particular to the day when the Sun is exactly at the celestial longitude of 135°. In the Gregorian calendar, it usually begins around August 7 and ends around August 23.
Liqiu signifies the beginning of autumn in East Asian cultures.
Date and time |
The traditional Chinese calendar divides a year into 24 solar terms. Báilù, Hakuro, Baengno, or Bạch lộ (Chinese and Japanese: 白露; pinyin: báilù; rōmaji: hakuro; Korean: 백로; romaja: baengno; Vietnamese: bạch lộ; "white dew") is the 15th solar term. It begins when the Sun reaches the celestial longitude of 165° and ends when it reaches the longitude of 180°. It more often refers in particular to the day when the Sun is exactly at the celestial longitude of 165°. In the Gregorian calendar, it usually begins around September 7 and ends around September 23. Mid-Autumn Festival is celebrated around this time.
Pentads
鴻雁來, 'The wild geese come' – referring to the southward migration of geese.
玄鳥歸, 'The dark birds return' – 'dark birds' refer to swallows.
群鳥養羞, 'Birds stock their hoards' – i.e. in preparation for winter.
Date and time |
Year 1068 (MLXVIII) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.
Events
By place
Byzantine Empire
January 1 – Empress Eudokia Makrembolitissa, wife of the late Emperor Constantine X, marries General Romanos Diogenes (a member of a prominent Cappadocian family) – who is proclaimed co-emperor as Romanos IV of the Byzantine Empire.
Autumn – Romanos IV begins a campaign against the Seljuk Turks, leading a Byzantine expeditionary force (which is in poor condition). He is successful in recapturing the fortress city of Hieropolis (modern-day Manbij) near Aleppo in northern Syria.
Winter – Romanos IV leaves a portion of his army as a rearguard at Melitene. The Byzantine garrison fails to check a Seljuk raid that manages to sack Amorium (penetrating deep in Byzantine territory). Romanos winters near Aleppo before returning to Constantinople.
Europe
Norman conquest of southern Italy: Norman forces under Robert Guiscard (duke of Apulia and Calabria) lay siege to the Byzantine city of Bari.
Battle of the Alta River: The Cumans defeat the Kievan Rus' forces of Grand Prince Iziaslav I, and his brothers Sviatoslav II and Vsevolod I.
Kiev Uprising: The city of Kiev rebels against Iziaslav I, in the aftermath of the Kievan Rus' defeat against the Cumans.
Rethra destruction: In Annals of Augsburg the slavic city is mentioned for the last time under the year 1068. It was captured by bishop Burchard, who destroyed their temple and abducted the sacred white horse living there.
England
Siege of Exeter: Norman forces under King William I (the Conqueror) take the city of Exeter after a siege of 18-days.
William I begins a campaign in the East Midlands to put down the rebellions at Nottingham, Stafford, Lincoln and York.
Edgar the Ætheling takes refuge with King Malcolm III of Scotland along with Edgar's sister Margaret, who marries King Malcolm.
May 11 – William I brings his wife Matilda of Flanders to England. She is crowned queen in Westminster Abbey.
Africa
September – Zaynab an-Nafzawiyyah marries Abu Bakr ibn Umar, leader of the Almoravids, and becomes his queen and co-regent.
Asia
Spring – Emperor Yi Zong of the Western Xia (or Xi Xia) dies after a 19-year reign. He is succeeded by his 7-year-old son Hui Zong, who assumes the throne (until 1086).
May 22 – Emperor Go-Reizei dies after a 23-year reign, leaving no direct heirs to the throne. He is succeeded by his brother Go-Sanjō as the 71st emperor of Japan.
By topic
Geology
March 18 – An earthquake affects the Near East, with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent). The shock has a magnitude greater than 7, and leaves about 20,000 people dead.
Births
August 1 – Taizu (Aguda), emperor of the Jin Dynasty (d. 1123)
Abu al-Salt, Moorish astronomer and polymath (approximate date)
Ermengarde of Anjou, duchess of Aquitaine and Brittany (d. 1146)
Haakon Magnusson (Toresfostre), king of Norway (d. 1095)
Henry I, king of England (approximate date) (d. 1135)
Peter I, king of Aragon (approximate date)
Robert de Ferrers, 1st Earl Derby (d. 1139)
Deaths
January 11 – Egbert I, margrave of Meissen
May 22 – Go-Reizei, emperor of Japan (b. 1025)
November 10 – Agnes of Burgundy, duchess of Aquitaine
Abulchares, Byzantine general and catepan
Ali ibn Yusuf al-Ilaqi, Persian physician
Argyrus, Lombard nobleman and general
Böritigin, ruler of Transoxiana (Kara-Khanid Khanate)
Choe Chung, Korean Confucian scholar (b. 984)
Eadnoth the Constable, English landowner
Ephraim ibn al-Za'faran, Jewish physician
Ralph the Staller, English nobleman
William IV (or Guillem), French nobleman
William of Montreuil, Italo-Norman duke
Yi Zong, emperor of Western Xia (b. 1047)
Vijayaditya VI, king of the Eastern Chalukyas (unconfirmed) |
Catch may refer to:
In sports
Catch (game), children's game
Catch (baseball), a maneuver in baseball
Catch (cricket), a mode of dismissal in cricket
Catch or reception (gridiron football)
Catch, part of a rowing stroke
In music
Catch (music), a form of round
Catch (band), an English band
C. C. Catch (born 1964), Dutch-born German pop singer
Albums
Catch, 1969 self titled album by Catch
Catch (Misako Odani album), 2006
Catch! (Tsuji Shion album)
Catch, a 2002 electronic album by Kosheen
Songs
"Catch" (The Cure song), 1987
"Catch" (Kosheen song), 2000
"Catch" (Allie X song)
"Catch" (Brett Young song), 2019
Other uses
Catch or latch, a device to close a door or window
catch, a computer-language command in exception handling syntax
Catch, an Indian web news magazine owned by Rajasthan Patrika
Catch, a ship of the Third Supply fleet to Virginia colony in 1609
See also
Caught (disambiguation)
The Catch (disambiguation)
Catch and release
Catch-22 (disambiguation)
Catching (disambiguation) |
Jason Chan (born 12 December 1977) is a Hongkongese actor and television presenter. He started off at TVB hosting a variety of English Pearl lifestyle shows, which required the use of his proficiency in various languages: English, Cantonese, Mandarin, French, and Latin.
Life and career
Chan was born to a Hakka distant family in the United Kingdom. He spent 3 years of his childhood in the UK before returning back to Hong Kong when he was 10. He is the second of four children. His eldest brother is a dentist and youngest brother is still in university. In the UK, Chan's family runs a Chinese restaurant. Chan received a bachelor's degree in modern and classical Chinese at the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, and a post-graduate diploma in economics at the University of Hong Kong. During university he had often helped out at his father's restaurant waiting tables, and had taken on various translation jobs. After graduation, Chan worked for two years in hospital management, before finally deciding on a career in TV.
In his first year in Hong Kong, Chan worked as an English tutor at his aunt's education centre. In 2005, Chan joined TVB and graduated from TVB's 20th Artist Training Class in 2006. The following few years, Chan hosted a lifestyle show on Pearl and anchored TVB Entertainment News, whilst at the same time taking on various roles in TV dramas. In 2010, Chan was offered his first major role in the sitcom, Be Home for Dinner (2011). In 2012, he was given his first leading role in the drama Missing You.
Since 2009, he had been rumoured to be dating Miss Chinese International 2007 winner Sarah Song, who lived at different towers within the same residential complex.
On 10 August 2014, Sarah posted a photo of herself and Jason Chan. The two were on a dinner together as a celebration of Sarah Song's 29th birthday. In the photo, the sweet couple were smiling happily as the former Miss China International contestant wraps her hand across the Jason's shoulders.
Sarah Song captioned her photo, saying, "Thank you for another birthday. More wonderful birthdays ahead...but hopefully not wrinkles."
This post was then regarded by the public as her confirmation that she is in fact in a relationship with Jason Chan.
In 2018, Jason left TVB. Sarah gave birth to their first baby.
Presenting works
Dolce Vita
TVB Entertainment News
Body Talks
Play N Chat
Mix & Match
Tung Wah Charity Show
Hong Kong Back Then
Filmography
Films
Television dramas
Jason Chan at TVB Microblog
Jason Chan on Sina Weibo (in Chinese)
Jason Chan Shi-San at the Hong Kong Movie DataBase |
24 flavors (Chinese: 廿四味 or 廿四老味茶; pinyin: niàn; Jyutping: jaa6 sei3 mei6) is a Cantonese herbal tea, drunk for medicinal purposes. Its name refers to the fact that it is a combination of many different ingredients (around 24, although it may feature as few as 10 or as many as 28 or more). The recipe is not fixed, and thus may vary according to the producer.
The tea is somewhat bitter in taste and may be consumed by a person who has too much 'yeet hey' or 'hot air'.
Typical ingredients (will vary by producer)
Mulberry leaf (桑叶)
Chrysanthemum flower (菊花)
Japanese Honeysuckle flower (金银花)
Bamboo leaf (竹叶)
Peppermint (薄荷)
Imperata cylindrica (茅根)
Luohan guo (罗汉果)
Agastache rugosa (藿香)
Perilla frutescens (紫苏)
Elsholtzia (香薷)
Fermented soybean (淡豆鼓)
Cleistocalyx operculatus flower (水翁花)
Microcos paniculata leaf (布渣叶)
Ilex rotunda (救必应)
See also
Chinese herbology |
Louise Lee Si-kei (Chinese: 李司棋; born 26 September 1950, Tianjin) is a Hong Kong actress and former Chinese Canadian newscaster.
Biography
Louise was crowned in 1968 when she competed in the Hong Kong Princess beauty pageant. Li left Hong Kong in the mid to late 1980s and briefly was a news anchor at Toronto's Chinavision Canada station. She left Canada and returned to Hong Kong to resume her acting career with TVB.
Louise, Liza Wang, Gigi Wong, Angie Chiu were named the 4 most valued TVB actresses in the 1970s and 1980s.In 2007, she won the coveted Best Actress award in the 40th TVB Anniversary Awards for her role as "Ling Hau" in Heart of Greed.
In 2008, she won the "My Favourite Female Character" at the 41st TVB Anniversary Awards for her role as "Chung Siu-Hor" in Moonlight Resonance.At the 2010 TVB Anniversary Awards, she won the "Lifetime Acting Achievement Award", being the first to win 3 major awards.
In December 2014, Louise ended her contract with TVB with her last appearance in Romantic Repertoire as Lin Sau-Fong. She will be pursuing acting roles in Mainland China in the future.
Personal life
Louise was treated for cancer and continues to live in Hong Kong and travels to Canada to visit her family. Her daughter is Toronto radio DJ Leslie Yip with A1 Chinese Radio (formerly with Toronto First Radio). She is a Christian and a member of Artistes Christian Fellowship.
Filmography
MediaCorp TV Channel 8 series
TVB Series
Awards and nominations
TVB Anniversary Awards
2007: Best Actress (Heart of Greed)
2008: My Favourite Female Character (Moonlight Resonance)
2010: Lifetime Achievement Award
Others
Astro Wah Lai Toi Drama Awards 2008 – Favourite Leading Actress Award – Role as 'Ling Hau' in Heart of Greed.
Astro Wah Lai Toi Drama Awards 2008 – Most Unforgettable Moment Award – the scene in which she as the 'Dai Kei' quarrels with 'Sai Kei' regarding 'Sai Kei' and Ling Bo handling 'dirty-money' business in Episode 13.
Astro Wah Lai Toi Drama Awards 2008 – Top 12 Favourite Characters Award – one of the character won in the category, as 'Ling Hau' in Heart of Greed too.
Louise Lee at IMDb |
Chunghwa Telecom Company, Ltd. (literally Chinese Telecom Company) (Chinese: 中華電信股份有限公司; pinyin: Zhōnghuá Diànxìn; Wade–Giles: Chung1-hua2 Tien4-hsin4) (TWSE: 2412, NYSE: CHT) is the largest integrated telecom service provider in Taiwan, and the incumbent local exchange carrier of PSTN, Mobile, and broadband services in the country.
History
Chunghwa Telecom was founded as a company on June 15, 1996 as part of the Taiwanese government's privatization efforts. Prior to this, it was operated as a business unit of the Directorate General of Telecommunications for over 100 years.
The company's common shares have been listed on the Taiwan Stock Exchange under the number "2412" since October 2000, and its ADSs have been listed on the New York Stock Exchange under the symbol "CHT" since July 2003.
In August 2005, Chunghwa Telecom became a privatized company, as the Taiwan government's ownership was reduced to less than 50%.
The Directorate General of Telecommunications once exercised a monopoly on the telecommunications market in Taiwan. To make the telecommunications industry more competitive and improve service quality, the Ministry of Transportation and Communications began to promote "telecommunications liberalization" policy from the late 1980s, in which the telecom industry would gradually be opened to private industry operations. The liberalization of telecommunications, as well as the management and operation of telecommunications business as mentioned in the plan, aimed to achieve "separation between government and enterprises".
On July 1, 1996, the "Chunghwa Telecom Ordinance" was enacted under an amendment of the "Telecommunications Act", which formally established Chunghwa Telecom Co. Ltd. with a capital of NT$96.477 billion yuan, operating first class and second class telecom services, under the "Taiwan Northern Telecom Branch", "Central Taiwan telecommunications branch", "Southern Taiwan telecommunications branch"," long-distance and mobile communications branch", "International Telecommunication Branch", "Data Communications Branch", "Telecommunications Research Institute" and "Telecommunications Training Institute".
In 1997, Chunghwa Telecom was awarded the license to operate a second-generation mobile communications (2G) network (GSM 900 MHz and 1800 MHz).
In October 2000, Chunghwa Telecom was listed on the Taiwan Stock Exchange under the ticker symbol "2412." In July 2003, Chunghwa Telecom was listed on the New York Stock Exchange under the symbol "CHT" and on 12 August 2005, the Government of China Telecom's stake to 50%, and officially became a private company.
In 2007, Chunghwa Telecom acquired Senao International, and Senao becomes the exclusive sales agent of Chunghwa Telecom mobile phones.
On May 1, 2007, Chunghwa Telecom set up a division for enterprise customers, incorporated in the Southern Taiwan telecommunications branch.
On October 30, 2013, Chunghwa Telecom acquired in an auction for NT$39.075 billion a spectrum of LTE bands (900 MHz B2 / 1800 MHz C2 / C5), with a bandwidth limit of 2x35MHz, as well as C5-band (1800 MHz).
On May 29, 2014, Chunghwa Telecom held a press conference to announce the start of 4G LTE services on May 30, 2014, and this made Chunghwa Telecom the first telco in Taiwan to provide LTE services.
Chunghwa Telecom launched Taiwan's first 5G NR network on June 30, 2020, and has also announced the arrival of a Cloud Gaming service as part of its 5G package. The service has been developed in cooperation with Gamestream and Intel.On Dec 10, 2022, Chunghwa Telecom has been selected as a member of both the 2022 Dow Jones Sustainability Indices (DJSI) - World Index and Emerging Markets Index.On Feb. 7, 2023, Chunghwa Telecom has been awarded Top 5% S&P Global ESG Score in the Sustainability Yearbook 2023 for the Telecommunications group.On May 5, 2023, Chunghwa Telecom announced the appointment of President Mr. Shui-Yi Kuo as the new Chairman, succeeding Mr. Chi-Mau Sheih.
Mobile networks
Subsidiaries
Senao International Co., Ltd., a cellular phone distributor from which Senao Networks, manufacturer of data networking products and wireless telephones under the EnGenius and Senao brands was spun off.
Light Era Development Co.
Donghwa Telecom Co., Ltd.
Chunghwa Telecom Singapore Pte., Ltd.
Chunghwa System Integration Co., Ltd.
Chunghwa Investment Co., Ltd.
CHIEF Telecom Inc.
CHYP Multimedia Marketing & Communications Co., Ltd.
Prime Asia Investments Group Ltd. (B.V.I.)
Spring House Entertainment Tech. Inc.
Chunghwa Telecom Global, Inc.
Chunghwa Telecom Vietnam Co., Ltd.
Smartfun Digital Co., Ltd.
Chunghwa Telecom Japan Co., Ltd.
Chunghwa Sochamp Technology Inc.
Honghwa International Co., Ltd.
Chunghwa Leading Photonics Tech Co., Ltd.
Chunghwa Telecom (Thailand) Co., Ltd.
CHT Security Co., Ltd.
International Integrated Systems, Inc.
See also
List of companies of Taiwan
Taiwan Mobile
Far EasTone
Taiwan Star Telecom
Official website |
Sober usually refers to sobriety, the state of not having any measurable levels or effects from alcohol or drugs.
Sober may also refer to:
Music
Sôber, Spanish rock band
Songs
"Sober" (Bad Wolves song), from the 2019 album Nation
"Sober" (Big Bang song), from the 2016 album Made
"Sober" (Childish Gambino song), from the 2014 extended play, Kauai
"Sober" (Demi Lovato song), 2018 single
"Sober" (G-Eazy song), from the 2017 album The Beautiful & Damned
"Sober" (Inna song), 2020 single
"Sober" (Jennifer Paige song), from the 1999 album Jennifer Paige
"Sober" (Kelly Clarkson song), from the 2007 album My December
"Sober" (Little Big Town song), from the 2012 album Tornado
"Sober" (Lorde song) and "Sober II (Melodrama)", two songs from the 2017 album Melodrama
"Sober" (Loreen song), from the 2012 album Heal
"Sober" (Pink song), from the 2008 album Funhouse
"Sober" (Selena Gomez song), from the 2015 album Revival
"Sober" (Tool song), from the 1993 album Undertow
"Sober", by Bazzi
"Sober", by Blink-182 from the 2016 album California
"Sober", by Cheat Codes
"Sober", by DJ Snake featuring John Ryan From the 2016 album Encore
"Sober", by Muse from the 1999 album Showbiz
"Sober", by Sam Smith from the 2020 album Love Goes
"Sober", by Fidlar from the 2015 album Too
People
Bojan Sober (born 1957), Croatian opera singer
Elliott Sober (born 1947), American philosopher of science
Olga Sober, Serbian singer:
Places
Sober Hall, village in Ingleby Barwick, England
Sober Island, Nova Scotia
Sober, Spain
Other
Sober Grid, an app to help people in recovery from alcohol and drug addiction find and connect with one another for peer support
Sober Meal, painting by Pieter Franciscus Dierckx
Sober space, type of sobriety of a topological space in mathematics
Sober living houses
Sober (worm), a family of computer worms |
LibreOfficeis a free and open-source office productivity software suite, a project of The Document Foundation (TDF). It was forked in 2010 from OpenOffice.org, an open-sourced version of the earlier StarOffice. The LibreOffice suite consists of programs for word processing, creating and editing of spreadsheets, slideshows, diagrams and drawings, working with databases, and composing mathematical formulas. It is available in 115 languages. TDF does not provide support for LibreOffice, but enterprise-focused editions are available from companies in the ecosystem.LibreOffice uses the OpenDocument standard as its native file format, but supports formats of most other major office suites, including Microsoft Office, through a variety of import and export filters.
LibreOffice is available for a variety of computing platforms, with official support for Microsoft Windows, macOS and Linux and community builds for many other platforms. Ecosystem partner Collabora uses LibreOffice upstream code and provides apps for Android, iOS, iPadOS and ChromeOS. LibreOffice is the default office suite of most popular Linux distributions.LibreOffice Online is an online office suite which includes the applications Writer, Calc and Impress and provides an upstream for projects such as commercial Collabora Online.
It is the most actively developed free and open-source office suite, with approximately 50 times the development activity of Apache OpenOffice, the other major descendant of OpenOffice.org, in 2015.The project was announced and a beta released on 28 September 2010. In the nine months between January 2011 (the first stable release) and October 2011, LibreOffice was downloaded about 7.5 million times. In 2015, the project claimed 120 million unique downloading addresses from May 2011 to May 2015, excluding Linux distributions, with 55 million of those being from May 2014 to May 2015. The Document Foundation estimates that there are 200 million active LibreOffice users worldwide; approximately 25% are students and 10% are Linux users, who usually find LibreOffice part of their preferred distribution.
Features
Included applications
Operating systems and processor architectures
LibreOffice is cross platform software. The Document Foundation developers target Microsoft Windows (IA-32 and x86-64), Linux (IA-32, x86-64 and ARM) and macOS (x86-64 and ARM). There are community ports for FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD and Mac OS X 10.5 PowerPC receive support from contributors to those projects, respectively. LibreOffice is also installable on OpenIndiana via SFE.Historically predecessors of LibreOffice, back to StarOffice 3, have run on Solaris with SPARC CPUs that Sun Microsystems (and later Oracle) made. Unofficial ports of LibreOffice, versions now obsolete, have supported SPARC. Current unofficial ports of LibreOffice 5.2.5 run only on Intel-compatible hardware, up to for Solaris 11.
In 2011, developers announced plans to port LibreOffice both to Android and to iOS. A beta version of a document viewer for Android 4.0 or newer was released in January 2015; In May 2015, LibreOffice Viewer for Android was released with basic editing capabilities. In February 2020, Collabora released its first officially supported version of LibreOffice (branded as Collabora Office) for Android and iOS. In July 2020 Collabora shipped an app, branded as Collabora Office, for ChromeOS, as used on the popular Chromebook line of notebook computers as well as other form factors of computers.
The LibreOffice Impress Remote application for various mobile operating systems allows for remote control of LibreOffice Impress presentations.
In June 2023, Red Hat announced that it will no longer support LibreOffice on future editions of Red Hat Enterprise Linux (and potentially Fedora by proxy) in order to focus on Wayland support and other priorities towards workstation users. LibreOffice will still be available via distribution-neutral Flatpak.
Table of cross platform support
LibreOffice Online
LibreOffice Online is the online office suite edition of LibreOffice. It allows for the use of LibreOffice through a web browser by using the canvas element of HTML5. Development was announced at the first LibreOffice Conference in October 2011, and is ongoing. The Document Foundation, IceWarp, and Collabora announced a collaboration to work on its implementation. A version of the software was shown in a September 2015 conference, and the UK Crown Commercial Service announced an interest in using the software. On 15 December 2015, Collabora, in partnership with ownCloud, released a technical preview of LibreOffice Online branded as Collabora Online Development Edition (CODE). In July 2016 the enterprise version Collabora Online 1.0 was released. The same month, Nextcloud and Collabora partnered to bring CODE to Nextcloud users. By October 2016, Collabora had released nine updates to CODE. The first source code release of LibreOffice Online was done with LibreOffice version 5.3 in February 2017. In June 2019, CIB software GmbH officially announced its contributions to LibreOffice Online and "LibreOffice Online powered by CIB".In October 2020 Collabora announced the move of its work on Collabora Online from The Document Foundation infrastructure to GitHub.
Comparison with OpenOffice
A detailed 60-page report in June 2015 compared the progress of the LibreOffice project with the related project Apache OpenOffice. It showed that "OpenOffice received about 10% of the improvements LibreOffice did in the period of time studied."
Supported file formats
As its native file format to save documents for all of its applications, LibreOffice uses the Open Document Format for Office Applications (ODF), or OpenDocument, an international standard developed jointly by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). LibreOffice also supports the file formats of most other major office suites, including Microsoft Office, through a variety of import and export filters.
Miscellaneous features
LibreOffice can use the GStreamer multimedia framework in Linux to render multimedia content such as videos in Impress and other programs.
Visually, LibreOffice used the large "Tango style" icons that are used for the application shortcuts, quick launch icons, icons for associated files and for the icons found on the toolbar of the LibreOffice programs in the past, and used on the toolbars and menus by default. They were later replaced by multiple icon themes to adapt the look and feel of specific desktop environment, such as Colibre for Windows, and Elementary for GNOME.LibreOffice also ships with a modified theme which looks native on GTK-based Linux distributions. It also renders fonts via Cairo on Linux distributions; this means that text in LibreOffice is rendered the same as the rest of the Linux desktop.With version 6.2, LibreOffice includes a ribbon-style GUI, called Notebookbar, including three different views.
This feature has formerly been included as an experimental feature in LibreOffice 6 (experimental features must be enabled from LibreOffice settings to make the option available in the View menu).LibreOffice has a feature similar to WordArt called Fontwork.LibreOffice uses HarfBuzz for complex text layout, it was first introduced in 4.1 for Linux and 5.3 for Windows and macOS. Fonts with OpenType, Apple Advanced Typography or SIL Graphite features can be switched by either a syntax in the Font Name input box or the Font Features dialog from the Character dialog.
LibreOffice supports a "hybrid PDF" format, a file in Portable Document Format (PDF) which can be read by any program supporting PDF, but also contains the source document in ODF format, editable in LibreOffice by dragging and dropping.
Licensing
The LibreOffice project uses a dual LGPLv3 (or later) / MPL 2.0 license for new contributions to allow the license to be upgraded. Since the core of the OpenOffice.org codebase was donated to the Apache Software Foundation, there is an ongoing effort to get all the code rebased to ease future license updates. At the same time, there were complaints that IBM had not in fact released the Lotus Symphony code as open source, despite having claimed to. It was reported that some LibreOffice developers wanted to incorporate some code parts and bug fixes which IBM already fixed in their OpenOffice fork.
Scripting and extensions
LibreOffice supports third-party extensions. As of July 2017, the LibreOffice Extension Repository lists more than 320 extensions. Another list is maintained by the Apache Software Foundation and another one by the Free Software Foundation. Extensions and scripts for LibreOffice can be written in C++, Java, CLI, Python, and LibreOffice Basic. Interpreters for the latter two are bundled with most LibreOffice installers, so no additional installation is needed. The application programming interface for LibreOffice is called "UNO" and is extensively documented.
LibreOffice Basic
LibreOffice Basic is a programming language similar to Microsoft Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) but based on StarOffice Basic. It is available in Writer, Calc and Base. It is used to write small programs known as "macros", with each macro performing a different task, such as counting the words in a paragraph.
History
ooo-build, Go-oo and Oracle
Members of the OpenOffice.org community who were not Sun Microsystems employees had wanted a more egalitarian form for the OpenOffice.org project for many years; Sun had stated in the original OpenOffice.org announcement in 2000 that the project would eventually be run by a neutral foundation and put forward a more detailed proposal in 2001.Ximian and then Novell had maintained the ooo-build patch set, a project led by Michael Meeks, to make the build easier on Linux and due to the difficulty of getting contributions accepted upstream by Sun, even from corporate partners. It tracked the main line of development and was not intended to constitute a fork. It was also the standard build mechanism for OpenOffice.org in most Linux distributions and was contributed to by said distributions.In 2007, ooo-build was made available by Novell as a software package called Go-oo (ooo-build had used the go-oo.org domain name as early as 2005), which included many features not included in upstream OpenOffice.org. Go-oo also encouraged outside contributions, with rules similar to those later adopted for LibreOffice.Sun's contributions to OpenOffice.org had been declining for some time. They remained reluctant to accept contributions and contributors were upset at Sun releasing OpenOffice.org code to IBM for IBM Lotus Symphony under a proprietary contract, rather than under an open source licence.Sun was purchased by Oracle Corporation in early 2010. OpenOffice.org community members were concerned by Oracle's behaviour towards open source software, specifically the Java lawsuit against Google and Oracle's withdrawal of developers, and lack of activity on or visible commitment to OpenOffice.org, as had been noted by industry observers; as Meeks put it in early September 2010, "The news from the Oracle OpenOffice conference was that there was no news." Discussion of a fork started soon after.
The Document Foundation and LibreOffice
On 28 September 2010, The Document Foundation was announced as the host of LibreOffice, a new derivative of OpenOffice.org. The Document Foundation's initial announcement stated their concerns that Oracle would either discontinue OpenOffice.org, or place restrictions on it as an open source project, as it had on Sun's OpenSolaris.LibreOffice 3.3 beta used the ooo-build build infrastructure and the OpenOffice.org 3.3 beta code from Oracle, then adding selected patches from Go-oo. Go-oo was discontinued in favour of LibreOffice. Since the office suite that was branded "OpenOffice.org" in most Linux distributions was in fact Go-oo, most moved immediately to LibreOffice.Oracle was invited to become a member of The Document Foundation. However, Oracle demanded that all members of the OpenOffice.org Community Council involved with The Document Foundation step down from the OOo Community Council, claiming a conflict of interest.
Naming
The name "LibreOffice" was picked after researching trademark databases and social media, as well as after checks were made to see if it could be used for URLs in various countries. Oracle rejected requests to donate the OpenOffice.org brand to the project.LibreOffice was initially named BrOffice in Brazil. OpenOffice.org had been distributed as BrOffice.org by the BrOffice Centre of Excellence for Free Software because of a trademark issue.
End of OpenOffice.org and beginning of Apache OpenOffice
Oracle announced in April 2011 that it was ending its development of OpenOffice.org and would lay off the majority of its paid developers. In June 2011, Oracle announced that it would donate the OpenOffice.org code and trademark to the Apache Software Foundation, where the project was accepted for a project incubation process within the foundation, thus becoming Apache OpenOffice. In an interview with LWN in May 2011, Ubuntu founder Mark Shuttleworth blamed The Document Foundation for destroying OpenOffice.org because it did not license its code under Oracle's Contributor License Agreement. In opposition to Shuttleworth's view, the former Sun executive Simon Phipps argued in the interview for the same online magazine, that the lay-off was an inevitable business decision by Oracle, not impacted by existence of LibreOffice.In March 2015, an LWN.net comparison of LibreOffice with its cousin project Apache OpenOffice concluded that "LibreOffice has won the battle for developer participation".
Release history
Mascot competition
In late 2017 The Document Foundation held a competition for the new mascot of LibreOffice. The mascot was to be used primarily by the community, and was not intended to supersede existing logos for the project. Over 300 concepts were submitted before the first evaluation phase.The mascot contest was cancelled soon after new submissions stopped being accepted. The Document Foundation cited their lack of clear rules and arguments among community members as their reasoning for cancelling the contest.
Versions
Since March 2014 and version 4.2.2, two different major "released" versions of LibreOffice are available at any time in addition to development versions (numbered release candidates and dated nightly builds). The versions are designated to signal their appropriateness for differing user requirements. Releases are designated by three numbers separated by dots. The first two numbers represent the major version (branch) number, and the final number indicates the bugfix releases made in that series. LibreOffice designates the two release versions as:
"Fresh" – the most recent major version (branch), which contains the latest enhancements but which may have introduced bugs not present in the "still" release.
"Still" (formerly "Stable") – the prior major version, which, by the time it has become the "still" version, has had around six months of bug fixing. It is recommended for users for whom stability is more important than the latest enhancements.Since February 2024, LibreOffice will use calendar based-release numbering, thus the next major release will be LibreOffice 24.2.0.
Release schedule
LibreOffice uses a time-based release schedule for predictability, rather than a "when it's ready" schedule. New major versions are released around every six months, in January or February and July or August of each year. The initial intention was to release in March and September, to align with the schedule of other free software projects.
Minor bugfix versions of the "fresh" and "still" release branches are released frequently.
Enterprise support
Commercially supported distributions for LibreOffice with service-level agreements are available via partners such as Collabora (marketed as Collabora Office and Collabora Online), CIB (marketed as CIB Office on the Microsoft Store), and Red Hat. The three vendors are major corporate contributors to the LibreOffice project.As of version 7.1, the open source release of LibreOffice is officially branded as "LibreOffice Community", in order to emphasize that the releases are intended primarily for personal individual use, and are "not targeted at enterprises, and not optimized for their support needs". The Document Foundation states that usage of the community versions in such settings "has had a two-fold negative consequence for the project: a poor use of volunteers' time, as they have to spend their time to solve problems for business that provide nothing in return to the community, and a net loss for ecosystem companies."
Users and deployments
The figure shows the worldwide number of LibreOffice users from 2011 to 2018 in millions. are in the text.
2011: The Document Foundation estimated in September 2011, that there were 10 million users worldwide who had obtained LibreOffice via downloads or CD-ROMs. Over 90% of those were on Windows, with another 5% on OS X. LibreOffice is the default office suite for most Linux distributions, and is installed when the operating system is installed or updated. Based on International Data Corporation reckonings for new or updated Linux installations in 2011, The Document Foundation estimated a subtotal of 15 million Linux users. This gave a total estimated user base of 25 million users in 2011. In 2011, the Document Foundation set a target of 200 million users worldwide before the end of 2020.2013: In September 2013, after two years, the estimated number of LibreOffice users was 75 million. A million new unique IP addresses check for downloads each week.2015: In 2015, LibreOffice was used by 100 million users and 18 governments.2016: In August 2016, the number of LibreOffice users was estimated at 120 million.2018: The Document Foundation estimated in 2018 that there are 200 million active LibreOffice users worldwide. About 25% of them are students and 10% Linux users (who often automatically receive LibreOffice through their distribution). In comparison, Microsoft Office was used in 2018 by 1.2 billion users.
Mass deployments
LibreOffice has seen various major deployments since its inception:
2003–2010
In 2003–2004, the Brazilian corporation Serpro started migrating its software to BrOffice (the local version of LibreOffice at the time), with estimated value of BRL 3.5 million (approximately US$1.2 million at the time), and became a case study for similar initiatives in Brazil, particularly in e-government.
In 2005, the French Gendarmerie announced its migration to OpenOffice.org. It planned to migrate 72,000 desktop machines to a customised version of Ubuntu (GendBuntu) with LibreOffice by 2015.
In 2010, the Irish city of Limerick gradually started migrating to open-source solutions to free itself from vendor lock-in and improve its purchase negotiation power. One of the key aspects of this move has been the use of LibreOffice.2011
The administrative authority of the Île-de-France region (which includes the city of Paris) included LibreOffice in a USB flash drive given to students which contains free open-source software. The USB flash drive is given to approximately 800,000 students.
It was announced that thirteen hospitals of the Copenhagen region would gradually switch to LibreOffice, affecting "almost all of the 25,000 workers".2012
The Greek city of Pylaia-Chortiatis migrated its PCs to use LibreOffice. The local Linux user group estimated cost savings to be at least €70,000.
In July, the Spanish city of Las Palmas switched its 1,200 PCs to using LibreOffice, citing cost savings of €400,000.
The administration of Umbria, Italy, started a project to migrate an initial group of 5,000 civil workers to LibreOffice.
The city of Largo, Florida, US, has been a long-time user of open-source software using Linux thin clients. Originally using OpenOffice.org, the city switched to LibreOffice in 2013.2013
In August, the administration of the Spanish autonomous region of Valencia has completed the migration of all 120,000 PCs of the administration, including schools and courts, to LibreOffice.
The German city of Munich announced that it would transition from OpenOffice to LibreOffice in the near future. This is in line with Munich's long-term commitment to using open-source software. Munich uses LiMux, an Ubuntu Linux derivative, on nearly all of the city's 15,000 computers. The city of Munich is the second public administration to join the advisory board at the Document Foundation. News appeared in 2014 that the council is considering migrating back to Microsoft Windows & Microsoft Office but was later denied. Based on a study, the mayor of Munich, Dieter Reiter, initiated the re-investigation of the scenario of migrating back to Microsoft systems. The trustworthiness of the study is questionable because the company has been "Microsoft's Alliance Partner of the Year" for nine years. Further details were issued by the Document Foundation.2014
The French city of Toulouse announced it saved €1 million by migrating thousands of workstations to LibreOffice.2015
The Italian Ministry of Defence announced that it would install LibreOffice on 150,000 PCs.
The Italian city of Bari replaced Microsoft Office with LibreOffice on its 1,700 PCs.
LibreOffice was officially made available for all UK Government agencies nationwide. Annual cost saving on a subscription for 6,500 users compared to MS Office is approximately £900,000.
In July 2015, the IT project manager working for the administration of Nantes (France's sixth largest city) talked about the ongoing switch of its 5,000 workstations to LibreOffice started in 2013. According to the IT project manager, the switch to LibreOffice allowed the administration to save €1.7 million.
As of 2015, LibreOffice is installed on almost all of the 500,000 workstations of the 11 French ministries members of the MIMO working group. The MIMO working group was the first public administration to join the advisory board at the Document Foundation.2016
The Taiwanese county of Yilan would purchase no more Microsoft Office licenses and turned to ODF and LibreOffice.
The Vietnam Posts and Telecommunications Group switched all of its PCs (more than 15,000) to LibreOffice.
Lithuanian police switched to LibreOffice on over 8,000 workstations, citing cost savings of €1 million.2017
The majority (75%) of municipalities in the Walloon region of Belgium use open source software and services which include LibreOffice. As of March 2017, over 20,000 public administration staff and many times more citizens use the services.
The Spanish autonomous region of Galicia announced plans to finalize its switch to LibreOffice at several central government services and ministries, making LibreOffice the only office productivity suite on 6,000 workstations.
The city of Rome, Italy, began installing LibreOffice on all of its 14,000 PC workstations, in parallel to the existing proprietary office suite. It is one of the planned steps to increase the city's use of free and open-source software, aiming to reduce lock-in to IT vendors.2018
Barcelona, Spain announced its transition to LibreOffice from Microsoft Office in January 2018. The change was part of a broader shift from proprietary to open-source software, and the city council aimed to eventually reach "full technological sovereignty" by eliminating its dependency on Microsoft products. During the announcement, Barcelona indicated that it would dedicate 70 percent of its software budget to open-source software.
The city of Kahramanmaraş, Turkey, is migrating all of its PC workstations, around 2,000, to Pardus and LibreOffice.
The city of Tirana, Albania, is finishing installing LibreOffice on all of the city's 1,000 PC workstations.2019
The city of Seixal, Portugal, migrated to LibreOffice on 1,100 workstations across all departments in Seixal City Hall.2020
The German state of Schleswig-Holstein wants to switch completely from Microsoft Office to LibreOffice by 2025 for its 25,000 employees. The transition will begin gradually in 2021.2021
Administration of several Russian nuclear power plants and subsidiaries of Rosatom are planning to switch to Astra Linux by the end of 2021, which includes LibreOffice; a total of 15,000 users.
Conferences
Starting in 2011, The Document Foundation has organized the annual LibreOffice Conference, as follows:
2011 – Paris, France – 12–15 October
2012 – Berlin, Germany – 17–19 October
2013 – Milan, Italy – 24–27 September
2014 – Bern, Switzerland – 3–5 September
2015 – Aarhus, Denmark – 23–25 September
2016 – Brno, Czech Republic – 7–9 September
2017 – Rome, Italy – 11–13 October
2018 – Tirana, Albania – 26–28 September
2019 – Almería, Spain – 11–13 September
2020 – web conferencing – 15–17 October
2021 – web conferencing – 23–25 September
2022 – Milan, Italy & remotely (hybrid) – 28 September–1 October
2023 – Bucharest, Romania – 20 September–23 September
Derivatives
Collabora Office and Collabora Online are enterprise-ready editions of LibreOffice. Most software development work on LibreOffice is by its commercial partners that includes Collabora, Red Hat and CIB/Allotropia, also providing long-term support, technical support, custom features, and Service Level Agreements (SLA)s.
EuroOffice is a derivative of LibreOffice with free and non-free extensions, for the Hungarian language and geographic detail, developed by Hungarian-based MultiRacio Ltd.
"NDC ODF Application Tools" is a derivative of LibreOffice provided by the Taiwan National Development Council (NDC) and used by public agencies in Taiwan.
NeoOffice 2017 and later versions are based on LibreOffice. Prior versions included stability fixes from LibreOffice, but were based on OpenOffice.
OxOffice is a derivative of LibreOffice (originally a derivative of OpenOffice.org) with enhanced support for the Chinese language.
OffiDocs is a derivative of LibreOffice online developed and supported by the OffiDocs Group OU with multiple applications to use LibreOffice in mobile apps.
See also
Comparison of office suites
List of free and open-source software packages
List of office suites
OpenDocument file format
Official website
LibreOffice at Curlie |
Shin Suk-ju (Korean: 신숙주, hanja: 申叔舟; August 2, 1417 – July 23, 1475) was a Korean politician during the Joseon Dynasty. He served as Prime Minister from 1461 to 1466 and again from 1471 to 1475. He came from the Goryeong Shin clan (고령 신씨, 高靈 申氏).
Shin was an accomplished polyglot, and was particularly well educated in the Chinese language. He served as a personal linguistic expert to King Sejong, and was intimately involved in the creation and application of the Korean alphabet known in modern times as Hangul. Shin used the newly created hangul system to create an accurate transcription of spoken Mandarin Chinese in 15th century Ming dynasty China.
These transcriptions haven proven accurate and reliable, and his transcriptions are now "an invaluable source of information on the pronunciations of Ming-era [Mandarin]."
Family
Great-Great-Grandfather
Shin Sa-gyeong (신사경, 申思敬)
Great-Grandfather
Shin Deok-rin (신덕린, 申德隣)
Grandfather
Shin Po-si (신포시, 申包翅) (1361 - 1432)
Grandmother
Lady Kim of the Gyeongju Kim clan (경주 김씨, 慶州 金氏); daughter of Kim Chung-han (김충한, 金忠漢)
Father
Shin Jang (신장, 申檣) (1382 - 8 February 1433)
Uncle - Shin Pyeong (신평, 申枰) (1390 - 1455)Aunt - Lady Yi of the Taean Yi clan (태안 이씨, 泰安 李氏); daughter of Yi Hoe (이회)
Aunt - Lady Ma of the Jangheung Ma clan (정부인 장흥 마씨, 貞夫人 長興 馬氏); daughter of Ma Cheon-mok (마천목, 馬天牧) (1358 - 14 March 1431)
Cousin - Lady Shin of the Goryeong Shin clan (정부인 고령 신씨, 貞夫人 高靈 申氏) (? - 1504); Yun Gi-gyeon's second wife
Cousin-in-law - Yun Gi-gyeon (윤기견, 尹起畎)
First Cousin - Deposed Queen Yun of the Haman Yun clan (폐비 윤씨) (15 July 1455 – 29 August 1482)
Uncle - Shin Je (신제, 申梯)
Mother
Lady Jeong of the Naju Jeong clan (나주 정씨, 羅州 丁氏)Grandfather - Jeong Yu (정유, 鄭有)
Siblings
Older brother - Shin Maeng-ju (신맹주, 申孟舟)
Older brother - Shin Jung-ju (신중주, 申仲舟) (1412 - 1447)
Older sister - Lady Shin of the Goryeong Shin clan (고령 신씨, 高靈 申氏)
Brother-in-law - Jo Hyo-mun (조효문) (? - 1462)
Younger brother - Shin Song-ju (신송주, 申松舟) (1419 - 1464)
Younger brother - Shin Mal-ju (신말주, 申末舟) (1429 - 1503)
Sister-in-law - Lady Seol (설씨)
Younger sister - Lady Shin of the Goryeong Shin clan (고령 신씨, 高靈 申氏)
Brother-in-law - Choi Seon-bok (최선복)
Wife and children
Princess Consort Musong of the Musong Yun clan (무송군부인 무송 윤씨) (? - 23 January 1456); daughter of Yun Gyeong-yeon (윤경연, 尹景淵)Son - Shin Ju (신주, 申澍) (1434 - 21 February 1456)
Daughther-in-law - Lady Han of the Cheongju Han clan (청주 한씨, 淸州 韓氏)Grandson - Shin Jong-heub (신종흡, 申從洽) (1454 - ?)
Grandson - Shin Jong-ok (신종옥, 申從沃) (1455 - )
Grandson - Shin Jong-ho (신종호, 申從濩) (1456 – 1497)
Granddaughter-in-law - Lady Yi of the Jeonju Yi clan (전주 이씨, 全主 李氏) (? - 1539)Great-Grandson - Shin Hang (신항) (1477 - 1507)
Great Granddaughter-in-law - Yi Su-ran, Princess Hyesuk (혜숙옹주, 惠淑翁主) (1478–?)Adoptive Great-Great-grandson - Shin Su-gyeong (신수경, 申秀涇) (1501 - ?)
Adoptive Great-Great-Great-grandson - Shin Ui, Lord Yeongchan (영천위, 靈川尉 신의, 申檥) (1530 - 1584)
Adoptive Great-Great-Great Granddaughter-in-law - Yi Ok-hyeon, Princess Gyeonghyeon (경현공주) (1530 - 1584)
Son - Shin Myeon (신면, 申沔) (? - 21 May 1467)
Daughter-in-law - Lady Jeong (정씨)
Grandson - Shin Yong-gwan (신용관, 申用灌) (1459 - ?)
Grandson - Shin Yong-gae (신용개, 申用漑) (5 October 1463 - 1519)
Granddaughter - Lady Shin of the Goryeong Shin clan (고령 신씨, 高靈 申氏)
Grandson-in-law - Kang Han-son (강학손, 姜鶴孫)
Son - Shin Chan (신찬, 申澯)
Granddaughter - Lady Shin of the Goryeong Shin clan (고령 신씨, 高靈 申氏)
Grandson-in-law - Jeong Yu-kang (정유강, 鄭有綱)
Son - Shin Jeong (신정, 申瀞) (1442 - 24 April 1482)
Daughter-in-law - Lady Yi of the Jeonju Yi clan (전주 이씨)Grandson - Shin Yeong-hong (신영홍, 申永洪) (1469 - ?)
Grandson - Shin Yeong-cheol (신영철, 申永澈) (1471 - ?)
Son - Shin Jun (신준, 申浚) (1444 - ?)
Daughter-in-law - Lady Yu (유씨, 柳氏)
Grandson - Shin Bok-sun (신복순, 申復淳) (1464 - ?)
Granddaughter - Lady Shin of the Goryeong Shin clan (고령 신씨, 高靈 申氏)
Grandson-in-law - Yi Byeon, Prince Geumcheon (금천군 이변)
Son - Shin Bu (신부, 申溥) (1446 - ?)
Granddaughter - Lady Shin of the Goryeong Shin clan (고령 신씨, 高靈 申氏)
Grandson-in-law - Jo Su-kang (조수강, 趙壽崗)
Son - Shin Hyeong (신형, 申泂) (1449 - 1487)
Daughter-in-law - Lady Jeong of the Yeonil Jeong clan (연일 정씨, 延日 鄭氏); daughter of Jeong Bun (정부, 鄭溥)Grandson - Shin Gwang-yun (신광윤, 申光潤) (24 September 1468 - 15 October 1554)
Grandson - Shin Gwang-taek (신광택, 申光澤)
Grandson - Shin Gwang-han (신광한, 申光漢) (28 July 1484 - 2 November 1555)
Granddaughter-in-law - Lady Oh; daughter of Oh Ok-jeong (석성현감 오옥정, 吳玉貞)
Great-Granddaughter - Lady Shin of the Goryeong Shin clan (고령 신씨, 高靈 申氏)
Great Grandson-in-law - Sim Sun (심순, 沈荀) (1525 - 1572)
Great-Great-Granddaughter - Lady Sim of the Cheongsong Sim clan (청송 심씨)
Great-Grandson - Shin Hyeok (신혁, 申㴒)
Great-Grandson - Shin Jin (신진, 申津) (1527 - ?)
Great-Granddaughter - Lady Shin of the Goryeong Shin clan (고령 신씨, 高靈 申氏)
Great Grandson-in-law - Yi Sun-shin (이순신, 李純臣)
Son - Shin Pil (신필, 申泌) (1454 - ?)
Grandson - Shin Se-yeon (신세연, 申世淵) (1473 - ?)
Grandson - Shin Se-gwang (신세광, 申世洸) (1474 - ?)
Daughter - Lady Shin of the Goryeong Shin clan (고령 신씨, 高靈 申氏) (1455 - ?)
Son-in-law - Shin Myeong-su (신명수, 申命壽)
Concubine
Lady Bae (배씨, 裵氏)
Son - Shin Pil (신필, 申潔)
Daughter - Royal Consort Suk-won of the Goryeong Shin clan (숙원 신씨, 淑媛 申氏)
Son-in-law - Sejo of Joseon (조선 세조) (2 November 1417 – 23 September 1468)
Popular culture
Portrayed by Lee Hyo-jung in the 2011 KBS2 TV series The Princess' Man.
See also
Han Myung-hoi
Jeong In-ji
Gwon Ram
Hong Yun-seong
Hong Dal-son
Footnotes
Works CitedHandel, Zev (2014). "Why Did Sin Sukju Transcribe the Coda of the Yào 藥 Rime of 15th Century Guānhuà with the Letter ㅸ <f>?". Studies in Chinese and Sino-Tibetan Linguistics: Dialect, Phonology, Transcription and Text, eds. Richard VanNess Simmons, Newell Ann Van Auken. Language and Linguistics Monograph Series 53. Taipei: Academia Sinica, pp. 293–308.
Shin Suk-ju (in Korean)
Shin Suk-ju:britannica (in Korean)
Shin Suk-ju:Nate (in Korean) |
Chinese era names were titles used by various Chinese dynasties and regimes in Imperial China for the purpose of year identification and numbering. The first monarch to adopt era names was the Emperor Wu of Han in 140 BCE, and this system remained the official method of year identification and numbering until the establishment of the Republic of China in 1912 CE, when the era name system was superseded by the Republic of China calendar. Other polities in the Sinosphere—Korea, Vietnam and Japan—also adopted the concept of era name as a result of Chinese politico-cultural influence.
Description
Chinese era names were titles adopted for the purpose of identifying and numbering years in Imperial China. Era names originated as mottos or slogans chosen by the reigning monarch and usually reflected the political, economic and/or social landscapes at the time. For instance, the first era name proclaimed by the Emperor Wu of Han, Jianyuan (建元; lit. "establishing the origin"), was reflective of its status as the first era name. Similarly, the era name Jianzhongjingguo (建中靖國; lit. "establishing a moderate and peaceful country") used by the Emperor Huizong of Song was indicative of Huizong's idealism towards moderating the rivalry among the conservative and progressive parties regarding political and social reforms.
The process of declaring an era name was referred to in traditional Chinese historical texts as jiànyuán (建元). Declaring an era name to replace an existing era name was known as gǎiyuán (改元; lit. "change the origin"). Instituting a new era name would reset the numbering of the year back to year one or yuán (元). On the first day of the Chinese calendar, the numbering of the year would increase by one. To name a year using an era name only requires counting years from the first year of the era. For example, 609 CE was the fifth year of Daye (大業; lit. "great endeavour"), as the era began in 605 CE; traditional Chinese sources would therefore refer to 609 CE as Dàyè wǔ nián (大業五年).
The numbering of the year would still increase on the first day of the Chinese calendar each year, regardless of the month in which the era name was adopted. For example, as the Emperor Daizong of Tang replaced the era name Yongtai (永泰; lit. "perpetual peace") with Dali (大曆; lit. "great era") in the eleventh month of the Chinese calendar in 766 CE, the first year of Dali thus only consisted of the last two months of that particular year; the second year of Dali began on the first day of the Chinese calendar the following year, just two months after its initiation.
When a new monarch ascended to the throne, he could either declare a new era immediately or inherit the usage of the existing era name from his predecessor. For example, the era name Wutai (武泰; lit. "exalted martial") of the Emperor Xiaoming of Northern Wei was immediately replaced with Jianyi (建義; lit. "establishing justice") when the Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei took the throne. On the other hand, the era name Tianxian (天顯; lit. "heavenly intent") was originally proclaimed by the Emperor Taizu of Liao but its usage was continued by the Emperor Taizong of Liao upon assuming the throne.
There were numerous era names that saw repeated use throughout Chinese history. For instance, the era name Taiping (太平; lit. "great peace") was used on at least seven occasions. In such cases, Chinese sources would often affix the name of the dynasty or the ruler before the era name.
Most Chinese era names consisted of two Chinese characters, even though era names with three, four and six characters also existed. Shijianguo (始建國; lit. "the beginning of establishing a country") of the Xin dynasty, Tiancewansui (天冊萬歲; lit. "Heaven-conferred longevity") of the Wu Zhou, and Tiancilishengguoqing (天賜禮盛國慶; lit. "Heaven-bestowed ritualistic richness, nationally celebrated") of the Western Xia are examples of Chinese era names that bore more than two characters.
Era names were symbols of political orthodoxy and legitimacy. Hence, most Chinese monarchs would proclaim a new era upon the founding of a new dynasty. Rebel leaders who sought to establish independence and legitimacy also declared their own era names. Often, vassal states and tributary states of Imperial China would officially adopt the era name of the reigning Chinese monarch as a sign of subordination—a practice known as fèng zhēng shuò (奉正朔; lit. "following the first month of the year and the first day of the month"). For example, Korean regimes like Silla, Goryeo and Joseon had at various times formally adopted the era names of the Tang, Wu Zhou, Later Liang, Later Tang, Later Jin, Later Han, Later Zhou, Northern Song, Liao, Jin, Yuan, Northern Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties of China for both domestic and diplomatic purposes.
History
The Emperor Wu of Han is conventionally regarded as the first ruler to declare an era name. Prior to the introduction of the first era name in 140 BCE, Chinese monarchs utilized the Qianyuan (前元), Zhongyuan (中元) and Houyuan (後元) systems to identify and number years.
Prior to the Ming dynasty, it was common for Chinese sovereigns to change the era name during their reigns, resulting in the use of more than one era name for one ruler. For instance, Emperor Xuan of Han used a total of seven era names during his reign.
The Hongwu Emperor started the tradition of having only one era name for one monarch—known as the yí shì yì yuán zhì (一世一元制; lit. "one-era-name-for-a-reign system"). Thus, modern historians would frequently refer to monarchs of the Ming and Qing dynasties by their respective era name. Notable exceptions to this "one-era-name" tradition included Zhu Qizhen who proclaimed two era names for his two separate reigns, Aisin Gioro Hong Taiji who used two era names to reflect his position as khan of the Later Jin and later as emperor of the Qing dynasty, as well as Aisin Gioro Puyi who adopted three era names in his capacity as emperor of the Qing dynasty and subsequently as ruler of Manchukuo.
With the establishment of the Republic of China in 1912 CE, the Chinese era name system was superseded by the Republic of China calendar which remains in official use in Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, and Matsu Islands. The Republic of China calendar, while not an era name, is based on the era name system of Imperial China. Numerous attempts to reinstate monarchical rule in China had resulted in the declaration of additional era names after the founding of the Republic, but these regimes and their associated era names were short-lived.
The concept of era name also saw its adoption by neighboring Korea and Vietnam since the middle of the 6th century CE, and by Japan since the middle of the 7th century CE. Notably, Japan still officially retains the use of era names today.
Era system versus Western dating system
While the era system is a more traditional system of dating that preserves Chinese and Japanese culture, it presents a problem for the more globalized Asian society and for everyday life.
For example, even though within the nation people will know what era they are in, it is relatively meaningless for other nations. In addition, while the Republic of China (ROC) and Japan only recognize documents dated in the Era System, their treaties with other countries are in the Dionysian Era (AD) system. In modern times, only Republic of China and Japan still continue to use the ancient Chinese era naming system.
Even in the domestic arena, the era system can present difficult dilemmas. For example, in Japan, it is difficult to keep track of the age of people who were born in the previous era. Also, while the ROC and Japan both continue to use the ancient Chinese era system, since they have partially adopted the Gregorian calendar for non-governmental use, it is more difficult to track down dates that fall on February 29 leap year in the Western calendar.
Furthermore, in Japan, in theory it is difficult to mention future dates since it is sometimes hard to tell whether the current emperor will live long enough for its citizens to use that era name. However, in practice, documents like driver's licenses and 50-year leases use era dates without regard to this problem.
On the other hand, others suggest that the AD system has too much Christian connotation behind it and it is a form of cultural imperialism when an essentially European system of dating is forced upon other civilizations with their own long-used and equally legitimate dating systems. However, with globalization, the AD system is becoming more acceptable in Japan and the ROC.
Modern history researchers do not care about era names except for supporting other arguments, such as figuring out the biases and attitudes of a particular historian; however, era names are useful for dating events that were unique in Chinese history. Most Chinese dictionaries have a comprehensive list of era names, while booklets of more detailed and often searchable lists can be found in libraries.
See also
Comparative historical timelines and era names of China, Japan and Korea (in Japanese) |
Elaine Ng Yi-lei (born 23 September 1972), sometimes credited as Elaine Wu, is a Hong Kong actress. She was the winner of Miss Asia in 1990.
She announced that she was pregnant in 1999, and disclosed the affair with Jackie Chan after public speculation. Soon afterwards, Chan admitted he had "only committed a fault that many men in the world commit". She gave birth to a daughter, Etta Ng Chok Lam, on 18 January 1999. Ng raised her daughter without Chan's involvement. Her daughter came out as a lesbian at 17.
Filmography
Elaine Ng at IMDb |
Leung Man-tao (Chinese: 梁文道; pinyin: Liáng Wéndào;, born 26 December 1970) is a Hong Kong writer, critic and host.
Life
Leung was born in a Catholic family in Hong Kong on December 26, 1970, with his ancestral home in Shunde, Guangdong. Leung was raised primarily in Taiwan, returning to Hong Kong only during high school.Leung graduated from Chinese University of Hong Kong, where he majored in philosophy at the Chung Chi College.In 1998, Leung hosted Teacup in a Storm in Metro Broadcast Corporation.
In 1999, Leung joined the Phoenix Television and began attending Qiangqiang Sanrenxing (also referred to as Behind the Headlines with Wentao) hosted by Dou Wentao since that year.In 2008, Leung converted to Theravada Buddhism.
Works
Wo Zhi (in Chinese). Guangxi: Guangxi Normal University. 2009. ISBN 9787563383870.
Reader (in Chinese). Beijing: Law Publishing House. 2009. ISBN 9787503698965.
Too Much Noise (in Chinese). Guangzhou: Huacheng Publishing House. 2009. ISBN 9787536056008.
Common Sense (in Chinese). Guangxi: Guangxi Normal University. 2009. ISBN 9787563379637.
Official website |
Nobody's Child may refer to:
Film and television
Nobody's Child (1919 film), a British silent film directed by George Edwardes Hall
Nobody's Child (1970 film), a Philippine film featuring Vilma Santos
Nobody's Child (1986 film), an American television film directed by Lee Grant
Nobody's Child (2004 film), a Singaporean film directed by Lin Wenhui
Literature
Nobody's Child, a 1996 romantic novel by Pat Warren
Nobody's Child, a 1997 romantic novel by Ann Major
Nobody's Child, a 2003 children's novel by Marsha Skrypuch
Nobody's Child, a 2007 autobiography by Michael Seed
Nobody's Child, a 2014 crime novel by Libby Fischer Hellmann
Music
Nobody's Child: Romanian Angel Appeal, a 1990 charity album
"Nobody's Child" (Hank Snow song), 1949; covered by Tony Sheridan and the Beatles (1964), the Traveling Wilburys (1990), and others
"Nobody's Child" (Penny McLean song), 1976
"Nobody's Child", a song by Electric Light Orchestra from Eldorado, 1974
"Nobody's Child", a song by Mark Knopfler from Down the Road Wherever, 2018
See also
No One's Child, a 2014 Serbian film
Nobody's Children (disambiguation) |
1 (one, unit, unity) is a number representing a single or the only entity. 1 is also a numerical digit and represents a single unit of counting or measurement. For example, a line segment of unit length is a line segment of length 1. In conventions of sign where zero is considered neither positive nor negative, 1 is the first and smallest positive integer. It is also sometimes considered the first of the infinite sequence of natural numbers, followed by 2, although by other definitions 1 is the second natural number, following 0.
The fundamental mathematical property of 1 is to be a multiplicative identity, meaning that any number multiplied by 1 equals the same number. Most if not all properties of 1 can be deduced from this. In advanced mathematics, a multiplicative identity is often denoted 1, even if it is not a number. 1 is by convention not considered a prime number; this was not universally accepted until the mid-20th century. Additionally, 1 is the smallest possible difference between two distinct natural numbers.
The unique mathematical properties of the number have led to its unique uses in other fields, ranging from science to sports. It commonly denotes the first, leading, or top thing in a group.
As a word
One is most commonly a determiner used with singular countable nouns, as in one day at a time. One is also a pronoun used to refer to an unspecified person or to people in general as in one should take care of oneself. Finally, one is a noun when it refers to the number one as in one plus one is two and when it is used as a pro form, as in the green one is nice or those ones look good.
Etymology
One comes from the English word an, which comes from the Proto-Germanic root *ainaz. The Proto-Germanic root *ainaz comes from the Proto-Indo-European root *oi-no-.Compare the Proto-Germanic root *ainaz to Old Frisian an, Gothic ains, Danish en, Dutch een, German eins and Old Norse einn.
Compare the Proto-Indo-European root *oi-no- (which means "one, single") to Greek oinos (which means "ace" on dice), Latin unus (one), Old Persian aivam, Old Church Slavonic -inu and ino-, Lithuanian vienas, Old Irish oin and Breton un (one).
As a number
One, sometimes referred to as unity, is the first non-zero natural number. It is thus the integer after zero.
Any number multiplied by one remains that number, as one is the identity for multiplication. As a result, 1 is its own factorial, its own square and square root, its own cube and cube root, and so on. One is also the result of the empty product, as any number multiplied by one is itself. It is also the only natural number that is neither composite nor prime with respect to division, but is instead considered a unit (meaning of ring theory).
As a digit
The glyph used today in the Western world to represent the number 1, a vertical line, often with a serif at the top and sometimes a short horizontal line at the bottom, traces its roots back to the Brahmic script of ancient India, where it was a simple vertical line. It was transmitted to Europe via the Maghreb and Andalusia during the Middle Ages, through scholarly works written in Arabic.
In some countries, the serif at the top is sometimes extended into a long upstroke, sometimes as long as the vertical line, which can lead to confusion with the glyph used for seven in other countries. In styles in which the digit 1 is written with a long upstroke, the digit 7 is often written with a horizontal stroke through the vertical line, to disambiguate them. Styles that do not use the long upstroke on digit 1 usually do not use the horizontal stroke through the vertical of the digit 7 either.
While the shape of the character for the digit 1 has an ascender in most modern typefaces, in typefaces with text figures, the glyph usually is of x-height, as, for example, in .
Many older typewriters lack a separate key for 1, using the lowercase letter l or uppercase I instead. It is possible to find cases when the uppercase J is used, though it may be for decorative purposes. In some typefaces, different glyphs are used for I and 1, but the numeral 1 resembles a small caps version of I, with parallel serifs at top and bottom, with the capital I being full-height.
Mathematics
Definitions
Mathematically, 1 is:
in arithmetic (algebra) and calculus, the natural number that follows 0 and the multiplicative identity element of the integers, real numbers and complex numbers;
more generally, in algebra, the multiplicative identity (also called unity), usually of a group or a ring.Formalizations of the natural numbers have their own representations of 1. In the Peano axioms, 1 is the successor of 0. In Principia Mathematica, it is defined as the set of all singletons (sets with one element), and in the Von Neumann cardinal assignment of natural numbers, it is defined as the set {0}.
In a multiplicative group or monoid, the identity element is sometimes denoted 1, but e (from the German Einheit, "unity") is also traditional. However, 1 is especially common for the multiplicative identity of a ring, i.e., when an addition and 0 are also present. When such a ring has characteristic n not equal to 0, the element called 1 has the property that n1 = 1n = 0 (where this 0 is the additive identity of the ring). Important examples are finite fields.
By definition, 1 is the magnitude, absolute value, or norm of a unit complex number, unit vector, and a unit matrix (more usually called an identity matrix). The term unit matrix is sometimes used to mean a matrix composed entirely of 1s.
By definition, 1 is the probability of an event that is absolutely or almost certain to occur.
In category theory, 1 is sometimes used to denote the terminal object of a category.
In number theory, 1 is the value of Legendre's constant, which was introduced in 1808 by Adrien-Marie Legendre in expressing the asymptotic behavior of the prime-counting function. Legendre's constant was originally conjectured to be approximately 1.08366, but was proven to equal exactly 1 in 1899.
Properties
Tallying is often referred to as "base 1", since only one mark – the tally itself – is needed. This is more formally referred to as a unary numeral system. Unlike base 2 or base 10, this is not a positional notation.
Since the base 1 exponential function (1x) always equals 1, its inverse does not exist (which would be called the logarithm base 1 if it did exist).
In many mathematical and engineering problems, numeric values are typically normalized to fall within the unit interval from 0 to 1, where 1 usually represents the maximum possible value in the range of parameters. Likewise, vectors are often normalized into unit vectors (i.e., vectors of magnitude one), because these often have more desirable properties. Functions, too, are often normalized by the condition that they have integral one, maximum value one, or square integral one, depending on the application.
Because of the multiplicative identity, if f(x) is a multiplicative function, then f(1) must be equal to 1.
There are two ways to write the real number 1 as a recurring decimal: as 1.000..., and as 0.999.... 1 is the first figurate number of every kind, such as triangular number, pentagonal number and centered hexagonal number, to name just a few.
1 is also the first and second number in the Fibonacci sequence (0 being the zeroth) and is the first number in many other mathematical sequences.
The definition of a field requires that 1 must not be equal to 0. Thus, there are no fields of characteristic 1. Nevertheless, abstract algebra can consider the field with one element, which is not a singleton and is not a set at all.
1 is the most common leading digit in many sets of data, a consequence of Benford's law.
1 is the only known Tamagawa number for a simply connected algebraic group over a number field.
The generating function that has all coefficients equal to 1 is a geometric series, given by
1
1
−
x
=
1
+
x
+
x
2
+
x
3
+
…
{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{1-x}}=1+x+x^{2}+x^{3}+\ldots }
The zeroth metallic mean is 1, with the golden section equal to the continued fraction [1;1,1,...], and the infinitely nested square root
1
+
1
+
⋯
.
{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {\sqrt {1+{\sqrt {{\text{ }}1+\cdots {\text{ }}}}}}.}
The series of unit fractions that most rapidly converge to 1 are the reciprocals of Sylvester's sequence, which generate the infinite Egyptian fraction
1
=
1
2
+
1
3
+
1
7
+
1
43
+
⋯
{\displaystyle 1={\frac {1}{2}}+{\frac {1}{3}}+{\frac {1}{7}}+{\frac {1}{43}}+\cdots }
Primality
1 is by convention neither a prime number nor a composite number, but a unit (meaning of ring theory) like −1 and, in the Gaussian integers, i and −i.
The fundamental theorem of arithmetic guarantees unique factorization over the integers only up to units. For example, 4 = 22, but if units are included, is also equal to, say, (−1)6 × 123 × 22, among infinitely many similar "factorizations".
1 appears to meet the naïve definition of a prime number, being evenly divisible only by 1 and itself (also 1). As such, some mathematicians considered it a prime number as late as the middle of the 20th century, but mathematical consensus has generally and since then universally been to exclude it for a variety of reasons (such as complicating the fundamental theorem of arithmetic and other theorems related to prime numbers).
1 is the only positive integer divisible by exactly one positive integer, whereas prime numbers are divisible by exactly two positive integers, composite numbers are divisible by more than two positive integers, and zero is divisible by all positive integers.
Table of basic calculations
In technology
The resin identification code used in recycling to identify polyethylene terephthalate.
The ITU country code for the North American Numbering Plan area, which includes the United States, Canada, and parts of the Caribbean.
A binary code is a sequence of 1 and 0 that is used in computers for representing any kind of data.
In many physical devices, 1 represents the value for "on", which means that electricity is flowing.
The numerical value of true in many programming languages.
1 is the ASCII code of "Start of Header".
In science
Dimensionless quantities are also known as quantities of dimension one.
1 is the atomic number of hydrogen.
+1 is the electric charge of positrons and protons.
Group 1 of the periodic table consists of the alkali metals.
Period 1 of the periodic table consists of just two elements, hydrogen and helium.
The dwarf planet Ceres has the minor-planet designation 1 Ceres because it was the first asteroid to be discovered.
The Roman numeral I often stands for the first-discovered satellite of a planet or minor planet (such as Neptune I, a.k.a. Triton). For some earlier discoveries, the Roman numerals originally reflected the increasing distance from the primary instead.
In philosophy
In the philosophy of Plotinus (and that of other neoplatonists), The One is the ultimate reality and source of all existence. Philo of Alexandria (20 BC – AD 50) regarded the number one as God's number, and the basis for all numbers ("De Allegoriis Legum," ii.12 [i.66]).
The Neopythagorean philosopher Nicomachus of Gerasa affirmed that one is not a number, but the source of number. He also believed the number two is the embodiment of the origin of otherness. His number theory was recovered by Boethius in his Latin translation of Nicomachus's treatise Introduction to Arithmetic.
In sports
In many professional sports, the number 1 is assigned to the player who is first or leading in some respect, or otherwise important; the number is printed on his or her sports uniform or equipment. This is the pitcher in baseball, the goalkeeper in association football (soccer), the starting fullback in most of rugby league, the starting loosehead prop in rugby union and the previous year's world champion in Formula One. 1 may be the lowest possible player number, like in the American–Canadian National Hockey League (NHL) since the 1990s or in American football.
In other fields
Number One is Royal Navy informal usage for the chief executive officer of a ship, the captain's deputy responsible for discipline and all normal operation of a ship and its crew.
1 is the value of an ace in many playing card games, such as cribbage.
List of highways numbered 1
List of public transport routes numbered 1
1 is often used to denote the Gregorian calendar month of January.
1 CE, the first year of the Common Era
01, the former dialling code for Greater London (now 020)
For Pythagorean numerology (a pseudoscience), the number 1 is the number that means beginning, new beginnings, new cycles, it is a unique and absolute number.
PRS One, a German paraglider design
In some countries, a street address of "1" is considered prestigious and developers will attempt to obtain such an address for a building, to the point of lobbying for a street or portion of a street to be renamed, even if this makes the address less useful for wayfinding. The construction of a new street to serve the development may also provide the possibility of a "1" address. An example of such an address is the Apple Campus, located at 1 Infinite Loop, Cupertino, California.
See also
−1
+1 (disambiguation)
List of mathematical constants
One (word)
Root of unity
List of highways numbered 1
The Number 1
The Positive Integer 1
Prime curiosities: 1 |
HBM may refer to:
Science and technology
HBM (gene), a human gene
High Bandwidth Memory, a computer memory standard
Health belief model
Hierarchical Bayes model
Human-body model (HBM) in the realm of electrostatic discharge (ESD).
Other uses
Havelock-Belmont-Methuen, a township in Peterborough County, Ontario, Canada
His or Her Britannic Majesty
Hitman: Blood Money, a video game
Hudbay, a Canadian mining company
Hummingbird Medal, a state decoration of Trinidad and Tobago
Habitation à bon marché, the predecessor of the French HLM housing program |
Radical 107 or radical skin (皮部) meaning "skin" or "hide" is one of the 23 Kangxi radicals (214 radicals in total) composed of 5 strokes.
In the Kangxi Dictionary, there are 94 characters (out of 49,030) to be found under this radical.
皮 is also the 119th indexing component in the Table of Indexing Chinese Character Components predominantly adopted by Simplified Chinese dictionaries published in mainland China.
Evolution
Derived characters
Literature
Fazzioli, Edoardo (1987). Chinese calligraphy : from pictograph to ideogram : the history of 214 essential Chinese/Japanese characters. calligraphy by Rebecca Hon Ko. New York: Abbeville Press. ISBN 0-89659-774-1.
Lunde, Ken (Jan 5, 2009). "Appendix J: Japanese Character Sets" (PDF). CJKV Information Processing: Chinese, Japanese, Korean & Vietnamese Computing (Second ed.). Sebastopol, Calif.: O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-51447-1.
Unihan Database - U+76AE |
Shoko Nakagawa (中川 翔子, Nakagawa Shōko, born May 5, 1985) is a Japanese media personality, singer, actress, voice actress, illustrator, and YouTuber. Also known by her nickname Shokotan (しょこたん), she is best known as the presenter of Pokémon Sunday, and as the performer of the opening theme from the anime Gurren Lagann.
Biography
Born to actor and musician Katsuhiko Nakagawa, a celebrity in Japan in the 1980s, she was raised in Nakano by her mother after her father's death from leukemia in 1994. Nakagawa found escape from bullies by connecting with Pokémon when she was in 5th grade. "When I was a kid, I didn't have friends, but I did have Pokémon."In the 2006 book Shokotan Manual (しょこ☆まにゅ, Shoko Manyu), she wrote that her legal name was Shiyōko (しようこ) rather than Shōko (しょうこ), which she had been using for most of her life. At the time of her birth, she and her mother had to remain in the hospital, and her maternal aunt was left with registering her in the koseki. Her mother's intended name of "Shōko" (薔子) was declined due to 薔 not being included in the list of jōyō kanji or jinmeiyō kanji that are approved for use in Japanese names. The aunt wrote Shōko (しょうこ) in hiragana instead, but because she wrote very quickly, the small yo appeared larger than intended and the name was recorded as Shiyōko (しようこ).She made her entertainment debut in 2001, winning the Grand Prix award at the Popolo Girl Audition and representing the Jackie Chan talent agency. Later, on the "Yume-Ga-Oka Residence" programme on SKY PerfecTV!, she was given a Jackie Chan photobook by Midorikawa Shobō, who were guests on the show. She commented "I thought he was an enemy of Bruce Lee's", apparently referring to Enter the Dragon.
In 2002, she was chosen as Miss Shōnen Magazine.Her official blog, Shokotan * Blog, opened in 2004, and by April 2006 it had received a total of 100 million hits. On February 2, 2008, the daily Japanese newspaper Mainichi Shimbun reported that her blog had been accessed 1 billion times.In 2004, she made a guest appearance in the 38th episode of Tokusou Sentai Dekaranger, after having previously appeared as a child in Chikyuu Sentai Fiveman. She later appeared with Katsumura on Men B.
She appeared in a brief section of "Kangaeru Hito" ("People who think") on the Fuji TV network in 2004 as an illustrator, after which she appeared regularly on the later version of the programme which started with minor changes in early 2005, "Kangaeru Hitokoma" ("Thinking about one frame [of a cartoon strip]"). On the Fuji TV show Kangaeru Hitokoma, on which she is an occasional guest, she drew in the style of Kazuo Umezu.
For one year starting in May 2005, she appeared as a regular on the TBS programme "Ōsama no Brunch". In July 2006, she released her debut single "Brilliant Dream". It entered the Oricon chart at number 29, with initial sales of 6313 copies. Nakagawa performed at Anime Expo 2008 at the Los Angeles Convention Center.Some of her work was shown on the May 11, 2006, edition of Downtown Deluxe on the Nippon TV network, She was a member of the judging panel in the "Jump Damashii" section of the Shūeisha publication Weekly Shōnen Jump, starting from Jump number 13 of 2006.
On the May 30, 2006, airing of Kasupe!, in the section entitled Fuji Ginkō Geinōjin Satei-Gakari (フジ銀行 芸能人査定係), "Fuji Bank Celebrity Evaluator", it was discovered that she liked the manga Kachō Shima Kōsaku, eliciting a comment from the host, Sayaka Aoki, that she had pretty "grown-up tastes".
In 2009, she opened a store called "mmts" with the theme of her hobby in Nakano Broadway.
In 2009–2010, she appeared in a series of commercials for Norton AntiVirus.In March 2014, Nakagawa's book of autobiographical essays, Neko no Ashiato ("Cats' Pawprints"), was published by Magazine House. In March 2015, the book was adapted as an anime series titled Omakase Mamitasu ("Leave It to Mamitasu") on NHK, which featured characters based on Nakagawa's cat and her late father and grandfather.In 2018, Nakagawa returned to Anime Expo to perform as part of Anisong World Matsuri.In 2019, Nakagawa performed the song "Kaze to Issho ni" (風といっしょに) with Sachiko Kobayashi, which was used as the theme song to the theatrical film Mewtwo Strikes Back: Evolution; it is a cover of a song originally performed by Kobayashi, which was used as the theme song to the 1998 film Pokémon: The First Movie.In 2020, the temporary loss of work due to the corona crisis was a turning point, and she started distributing videos on YouTube, separate from the channel that distributes music videos set up by the office. Since then, her blog has hardly been updated.
In 2021, she posted her swimsuit video on YouTube, and she became very popular with over 10 million views in two months.
On April 28, 2023, Nakagawa announced her marriage to a non-celebrity.
Filmography
TV
AX MUSIC-TV 00 (2003–2004)
Pokémon Sunday (ポケモン☆サンデー, Pokemon☆Sandē) (2006–2010)
Tokusou Sentai Dekaranger (特捜戦隊デカレンジャー, Tokusō Sentai Dekarenjā) (2004) as Falupian Yaako (guest appearance) Episode 38
Isshukan no Koi (一週間の恋) (2006)
Hou no Niwa (法の庭) (2007)
Honto ni Atta Kowai Hanashi (ほんとにあった怖い話) (2007)
Shūmatsu no Cinderella Sekai! Dangan Traveler (週末のシンデレラ 世界!弾丸トラベラー, Shūmatsu-no-shinderera Sekai! DanganToraberā) (2007–2012)
Waraiga Ichiban (笑いがいちばん, Waraiga Ichiban) (2007–2010)
Anmitsu Hime (あんみつ姫) (2008)
Anmitsu Hime 2 (あんみつ姫2) (2009)
Pokémon Smash! (ポケモンスマッシュ！, Pokemon Sumasshu!) (2010–2013)
Pokémon Get TV (ポケモンゲット☆TV, Pokemon Getto Terebi) (2013–2015)
Gunshi Kanbei (軍師官兵衛) (2014) as Okita
Mare (まれ) (2015)
Meet Up at the Pokémon House? (ポケモンの家あつまる?, Pokémon no Uchi Atsumaru?) (2015–present)
Yuusha Yoshihiko to Michibikareshi 7-nin (勇者ヨシヒコと導かれし七人) (2016)
Anata no Koto wa sore hodo (あなたのことはそれほど) (2017)
Tokyo Vampire Hotel (東京ヴァンパイアホテル) (2017)
Films
Kabuto-O Beetle (2005)
Umezu Kazuo: Kyofu Gekijo – Zesshoku (2005)
Koala Kacho / Executive Koala (2005)
The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift (2006)
X-Cross (2007)
Gothic Lolita Battle Bear (2013)
Stageplays
Maybe Happy Ending (2020)
Anime
Pokémon films
Nakagawa also has voiced characters in every Pokémon movie since 2007 (except Pokémon the Movie: Genesect and the Legend Awakened and Pokémon: Mewtwo Strikes Back—Evolution):
Video games
Dragon Quest Heroes (2015) – Alena
Dragon Quest Heroes II (2016) – Alena
Toukiden 2 (2016) – Gwen
Itadaki Street: Dragon Quest and Final Fantasy 30th Anniversary (2017) – Alena
Kingdom Hearts III (2019) – Rapunzel
Japanese dub
Live-action
Moon Geun-young
Innocent Steps – Jang Chae-min
My Little Bride – Bo-eun
Silent Hill (2006) – Alessa Gillespie (voice-over for Jodelle Ferland)
Transformers: Age of Extinction (2014) – Tessa Yeager (voice-over for Nicola Peltz)
Ra.One (2015) – Desi/Dawsal (voice-over for Priyanka Chopra)
Venom (2018) – Anne Weying (voice-over for Michelle Williams)
Venom: Let There Be Carnage (2021) – Anne Weying (voice-over for Michelle Williams)
Animation
Tangled The Series (2017–2020) – Rapunzel
Tangled (2010) – Rapunzel
Ralph Breaks the Internet (2018) – Rapunzel
Puss in Boots: The Last Wish (2023) – Goldilocks
Discography
Shoko Nakagawa is signed to Sony Japan.
Singles
Collaboration Singles
Cover albums
Mini albums
Best albums
Albums
Other songs
"Moeyo Giza Mimi Pichū!" (Ending for Pokémon the Series: Diamond and Pearl)
"Dori Dori" (Ending for Pokémon the Series: XY)
"Kaze to isshu ni" (Ending for Pokémon: Mewtwo Strikes Back—Evolution)
"Taipu: Wairudo" (Ending for Pokémon the Series: Sun & Moon)
Printed media
Photobooks
Blogs
Official website (in Japanese)
Watanabe Entertainment profile (in Japanese)
Official website of Shoko Nakagawa's label (in Japanese)
Shoko Nakagawa's brand (in Japanese)
Shoko Nakagawa's blog (in Japanese)
Shoko Nakagawa's pet cat blog (in Japanese)
Shoko Nakagawa on Twitter
Shoko Nakagawa on Instagram
Shoko Nakagawa OFFICIAL YouTube CHANNEL on YouTube (in Japanese, mainly music videos)
Shoko Nakagawa's "wo" on YouTube (in Japanese, game play, food repo, makeup, etc.) |
Radical 192 or radical sacrifical wine (鬯部) meaning "sacrifical wine" is one of the 8 Kangxi radicals (214 radicals in total) composed of 10 strokes.
In the Kangxi Dictionary, there are eight characters (out of 49,035) to be found under this radical.
鬯 is not listed as a Simplified Chinese indexing component in the Table of Indexing Chinese Character Components
Evolution
Derived characters
Literature
Fazzioli, Edoardo (1987). Chinese calligraphy : from pictograph to ideogram : the history of 214 essential Chinese/Japanese characters. calligraphy by Rebecca Hon Ko. New York: Abbeville Press. ISBN 0-89659-774-1.
Lunde, Ken (Jan 5, 2009). "Appendix J: Japanese Character Sets" (PDF). CJKV Information Processing: Chinese, Japanese, Korean & Vietnamese Computing (Second ed.). Sebastopol, Calif.: O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-51447-1.
Unihan Database - U+9B2F |
AA2 or AA-2 may refer to:
Vympel K-13 missile, known as the AA-2 Atoll in NATO terminology
USS T-2 (SS-60/SF-2), an AA-1-class submarine in the service of the United States Navy, was first known as USS AA-2
American Aviation AA-2 Patriot, a light aircraft
Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney − Justice for All, the second video game of the series
America's Army 2, the second video game of the series
AA2 is Gardiner's designated symbol for the hieroglyph that represents a pustule
Aa2 is the third highest credit rating given by Moody's Investors Service
Ascent Abort-2, a 2019 flight test of the launch abort system of NASA's Orion spacecraft |
AA4 or AA-4 could mean:
AA-4 Awl, NATO reporting name for the Raduga K-9
AA4, Gardiner's designated symbol for a hieroglyph
Aa4,a credit rating given by Moody's Investors Service |
AM1, AM-1, or variation, may refer to:
AM1 may refer to:
Austin Model 1, a model used in quantum physics
BMW AM1, a version of the 1932 BMW 3/20 car
British Rail Class AM1, a class of electric multiple unit train
Socket AM1, a CPU socket from AMD for APUs with an integrated chipset
Air mass 1 solar energy spectra through one atmosphere thicknessAM-1 may refer to:
EOS AM-1, a multi-national NASA scientific research satellite in a sun-synchronous orbit around the Earth
Ekspress AM-1, a Russian Ekspress satellite launched on 30 October 2004
Sega AM-1, a computer software development studio
USS Lapwing (AM-1), a 1918 U.S. Navy minesweeper
AM-1, a designation of the 1946 AM Mauler aircraft
Arp-Madore 1, a star-cluster
АМ-1, "Атом Мирный", the first civilian nuclear power reactor in the world.
See also
AM (disambiguation) |
Myc box-dependent-interacting protein 1, also known as Bridging Integrator-1 and Amphiphysin-2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the BIN1 gene.This gene encodes several isoforms of a nucleocytoplasmic adaptor protein, one of which was initially identified as a MYC-interacting protein with features of a tumor suppressor.
Isoforms that are expressed in the central nervous system may be involved in synaptic vesicle endocytosis and may interact with dynanim, synaptojanin, endophilin, and clathrin.Isoforms that are expressed in muscle and ubiquitously expressed isoforms localize to the cytoplasm and nucleus and activate a caspase-independent apoptotic process.Studies in mouse suggest that this gene plays an important role in cardiac muscle development. Alternate splicing of the gene results in ten transcript variants encoding different isoforms. Aberrant splice variants expressed in tumor cell lines have also been described.
Clinical significance
In humans, mutations in BIN1 have been associated with skeletal myopathies including centronuclear myopathy causing muscle weakness and myotonic dystrophy causing progressive muscle wasting, myotonia, cataracts, and heart conduction defects. An association has also been found between BIN1 mutations and Alzheimer's disease. Knockdown of BIN1 produces a cardiomyopathy phenotype in zebrafish, and in sheep BIN1 may be responsible for the loss of T-tubules seen in heart failure.
Interactions
BIN1 has been shown to interact with Phospholipase D1, SNX4 and PLD2.
Further reading
Human BIN1 genome location and BIN1 gene details page in the UCSC Genome Browser. |
Cruel Intentions 3 is a 2004 American teen drama film directed by Scott Ziehl and released direct-to-video in 2004. Despite its name, the film has almost no relation to the previous films in the series, except for the shared themes and the lead character in this film, Cassidy Merteuil, who is a cousin of one of the characters from the first film, Kathryn Merteuil.
Plot
Cassidy Merteuil is a beautiful, manipulative student at an exclusive Santa Barbara college. Jason Argyle and Patrick Bates are roommates there.
They pull off a devious plan where Patrick beds Cassidy and disrupts a potential relationship she had been pursuing with a British prince. This then helps Jason win a bet he made with Cassidy (which turns out to have been Patrick's bet all along). When Patrick (who also reveals his awkwardness and social ineptitude to be an act) and Jason reveal their deception to her, she is devastated.
She later encourages them to compete against each other. Jason has to seduce Sheila, who is in a steady relationship with Michael, and Patrick has to seduce Alison, who is already engaged.
Jason succeeds in his part, but Patrick is rejected by Alison, who says she does not want to cheat, and does not find him sexually attractive. When classmate Brent Patterson shows an interest in Allison after being rejected by Cassidy, she succumbs to temptation and sleeps with him, not knowing Patrick is taking photos. Patrick blackmails Alison, using the photos of her cheating on her fiancé. He tells her how he succeeded before he throws her on her bed, pulls down her white thong and rapes her in order to fulfil his part of the bet.
Meanwhile, Jason and Cassidy strike up a relationship. As Patrick is left unsatisfied and angry by the rape, he attempts to seduce Cassidy, but she rejects him. So, he convinces Cassidy that the man she loves, Jason, is only staying with her because he wants to win the bet he and Patrick had made, which was to see who could sleep with Cassidy first.
Seemingly angry with Jason, she succumbs to Patrick, and Jason walks in on them. Patrick snidely remarks that both Jason and Cassidy have been victims of his cruel game to show them that they underestimated the evil in themselves. They ask him if he has ever been a victim, and he tells them no. Cassidy reveals that this had been her plan all along. She began the little charade so Patrick and Jason would seduce Alison and Sheila; before sleeping with Patrick, she took one of his sleeping pills, planning to tell the policemen that he had drugged and raped her.
As Patrick is led away by the police, bewildered and protesting his innocence, he is warned that another victim has come forward, and he will get the punishment he deserves for raping Alison. In the end, Jason and Cassidy are shown together, making another bet with each other, over the British prince from the opening of the film.
Cast
Kerr Smith as Jason Argyle
Kristina Anapau as Cassidy Merteuil
Nathan Wetherington as Patrick Bates
Melissa Yvonne Lewis as Alison Lebray
Natalie Ramsey as Sheila Wright
Tom Parker as Michael Cattrall
Charlie Weber as Brent Patterson
Michael Pemberton as Christopher Newborn
Tara Carroll as Valeria Caldas
Reception
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has 2 reviews, 1 positive, 1 negative. Common Sense Media rated the film 1 out of 5 stars.
Cruel Intentions 3 at IMDb
Cruel Intentions 3 at AllMovie |
Cài (Chinese: 蔡) is a Chinese-language surname that derives from the name of the ancient Cai state. In 2019 it was the 38th most common surname in China, but the 9th most common in Taiwan (as of 2018), where it is usually romanized as "Tsai" (based on Wade-Giles romanization of Standard Mandarin), "Tsay", or "Chai" and the 8th most common in Singapore, where it is usually romanized as "Chua", which is based on its Teochew and Hokkien pronunciation. Koreans use Chinese-derived family names and in Korean, Cai is 채 in Hangul, "Chae" in Revised Romanization, It is also a common name in Hong Kong where it is romanized as "Choy", "Choi" or "Tsoi". In Macau, it is spelled as "Choi". In Malaysia, it is romanized as "Choi" from the Cantonese pronunciation, and "Chua" or "Chuah" from the Hokkien or Teochew pronunciation. It is romanized in the Philippines as "Chua" or "Chuah", and in Thailand as "Chuo" (ฉั่ว). Moreover, it is also romanized in Cambodia as either "Chhay" or "Chhor" among people of full Chinese descent living in Cambodia and as “Tjhai”, "Tjoa" or "Chua" in Indonesia.
History
The Chois are said to be the descendants of the 5th son of King Wen of Zhou, Ji Du. Ji Du was awarded the title of marquis (hóu) of the State of Cai (centered on what is now Shangcai, Zhumadian, Henan, China), and he was known as Cai Shu Du ("Uncle Du of Cai"). Together with Guan Shu and Huo Shu, they were known as the Three Guards. When King Wu died, his son King Cheng was too young and his uncle, the Duke of Zhou, became regent. Seeing that the power of the Duke of Zhou was increasing, the Three Guards got jealous and rebelled against Zhou together with Wu Geng. The Duke of Zhou suppressed the rebellion, and Cai Shu was exiled. King Cheng reestablished Cai Shu's son Wu or Hu as the new Duke of Cai. Some 600 years later in the Warring States period, the State of Chu conquered Cai in 447 BC and was itself conquered by the Qin state which, in turn, formed the Qin Empire, China's first empire. With the spread of family names to all social classes in the new empire, many people of the former state of Cai began to bear it as a surname.
The Cai descendants have undertaken the following two major migrations. During the Huang Chao Rebellion (AD 875) at the end of the Tang dynasty (AD 618–907), the Cai clan migrated to Guangdong and Fujian provinces. Another later migration occurred when Ming dynasty loyalist Koxinga moved military officials surnamed Cai and their families to Taiwan in the 17th century. As a result, the surname is far more common in these areas and in areas settled by their descendants (e.g., Southeast Asia) than in other parts of China.
Transliteration and romanization
Chinese
Cai is written the same (蔡) in both simplified and traditional Chinese characters.
In Mandarin Chinese, the surname is transliterated as Cài in pinyin and Tongyong Pinyin, Ts'ai in Wade-Giles, and Tsay in Gwoyeu Romatzyh. In Southern Min or Taiwanese, it is Chhoà in Pe̍h-oē-jī. In Cantonese (Hong Kong and Macau), it is Coi3 in Jyutping and Choi in Yale. (This should not be confused with the predominantly Korean family name Choi which has a different character [崔]). In Hakka it is Tshai in Pha̍k-fa-sṳ. (In Tongyong pinyin, it is Cai in Siyen Hakka and Ca̱i in Hoiliuk Hakka.) In Fuzhou dialect, it is Chái (in Bàng-uâ-cê).
Other languages
Koreans use Chinese-derived family names and in Korean, Cai is 채 in Hangul, Chae in Revised Romanization, and Ch'ae in McCune-Reischauer.
Vietnamese also use Chinese-derived family names. In Vietnamese, the name is Thái. The Chinese name 蔡 is usually transliterated via Sino-Vietnamese as Thái but sometimes as Sái.
Japanese do not use Chinese family names but for Chinese in Japan who carry the name, it is さい in Hiragana and Sai in the major romanization systems.
Romanization
Cai is romanized as Cai in the People's Republic of China, Tsai (or occasionally Tsay or Chai for Mandarin) or Tsoa in Taiwan, and Choi or Choy in Hong Kong and Malaysia. In Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei, the most common forms are Chua or Chuah for Teochew and Hokkien speakers, Chai for Hakka speakers, Choi or Tsoi for Cantonese speakers, and Toy or Toi for Taishanese speakers. In Indonesia, it is usually romanized as Tjoa/Tjhoa/Tjoea/Tjhoea (Hokkien & Teochew), Tjhoi (Cantonese) or Tjhai (Hakka) with Dutch spelling, or Tjua/Tjhua (Hokkien & Teochew) with old Indonesian spelling, or Chua (Hokkien & Teochew), Choy/Choi (Cantonese) or Chai (Hakka) with current Indonesian spelling. In the Philippines, it is Chua /ˈtʃuwa/ or Cua (/'kuwa/ or /kwa/). Chua is pronounced /ˈtʃwa/ in other Anglophone countries outside the Philippines.
Other variations include Chye and Coi.
Derivative names
In addition, some of the Chuas (Cais) who resided in the Philippines adopted Spanish names to avoid persecution by the Spanish rulers during the Philippines' Spanish colonial rule from the early 16th to late 19th century. Hispanicized forms of the name include Chuachiaco, Chuakay, Chuapoco, Chuaquico, Chuacuco, Tuazon, Chuateco, and Chuatoco. These names were formed from the surname, one character of the given name, and the suffix "-co", a Minnan honorific ko (哥), literally meaning "older brother".In Thailand, most Thais of Chinese descendance use Thai surnames. Legislation by Siamese King Rama VI (r. 1910–1925) required the adoption of Thai surnames which was largely directed at easing tensions with Chinese community by encouraging assimilation. Thai law did not (and does not) allow identical surnames to those already in existence, so ethnic Chinese formerly surnamed Chua incorporating words that sound like "Chua" and have good meaning (such as Chai, meaning "victory") into much longer surnames.
After Suharto came to power, his regime created many anti-Chinese legislations in Indonesia. One of them was 127/U/Kep/12/1966 which strongly encouraged ethnic Chinese living in Indonesia to adopt Indonesian-sounding names instead of the standard three-word or two-word Chinese names. Many Indonesianized names are Chinese surname syllables with western or Indonesian prefix or suffix – resulting in many exotic-sounding names. Although two Chinese individuals shared the same Chinese surname, they may employ different strategies for the Indonesian-sounding names. For example, Indonesianized forms of Cai include Tjuatja, Cuaca, Tjuandi, Cuandi, Tjahjana, Tjahja, etc. Despite the Indonesianization, the Chinese surnames are still used today by the Chinese-Indonesian diaspora overseas (mostly in the Netherlands, Germany, and USA); by those Chinese-Indonesians courageous enough during Suharto's regime to keep their Chinese names (e.g., Kwik Kian Gie), or by those who couldn't afford to process the name change through Indonesia's civil bureaucracy. After Suharto resigned from the presidency, subsequent governments revoked the ban on the ethnic Chinese from speaking and learning Chinese in public. Using the original Chinese surnames is no longer a taboo but only a small minority have decided to re-adopt the original Chinese surnames of their grandparents or to use the Mandarin Chinese pinyin romanization, pronunciation and spelling and most retain their changed names as the post-1965 generations have been culturally Indonesianized.
Notable people
Cai Cheng, a Chinese politician
Cai Chusheng, an early Chinese film director
Cai E, a Chinese revolutionary and warlord in early 20th century
Cai Feihu, Chinese professor, engineer and businessman
Cai Gongshi, a Chinese emissary killed by Japanese soldiers during the Jinan Incident
Cai Guo-Qiang, a Chinese contemporary artist and curator.
Cai Hesen, an early leader of the Chinese Communist Party and a friend and comrade of Mao Zedong
Cai Jing, a Song dynasty official and a character in the Chinese literature classic the Water Margin
Lady Cai, the wife of Han dynasty provincial governor Liu Biao
Cai Lun, the inventor of paper in the Han dynasty
Cai Mao, a man of the gentry who served under Han dynasty provincial governor Liu Biao, cousin of Cai He and Cai Zhong
Cai Pei, a diplomat and politician in the Republic of China
Cai Qi, a Chinese politician
Cai Qian, a Chinese pirate in the Qing dynasty
Cai Shangjun, a Chinese film director and screenwriter
Cai Shu, a Chinese high jumper
Cai Tingkai, a Chinese general during the Republican era
Cai Wenji, a Han dynasty poet and composer also known as Cai Yan, daughter of scholar Cai Yong
Cai Xiang, a calligrapher, scholar, official and poet during the Song dynasty also known as Cai Zhonghui
Cai Xitao, a Chinese botanist
Cai Xukun, a Chinese actor, singer and song composer, former leader and center of Chinese boy group Nine Percent
Cai Xuzhe, a Chinese astronaut
Cai Yong, a Han dynasty scholar and father of Cai Wenji
Cai Yuanpei, a chancellor of Peking University and first president of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (Academic Sinica)
Cai Yun, a Chinese badminton player
Cai Zhuohua, a Chinese Christian preacher
Chae Je-gong, a Joseon dynasty scholar, writer, politician
Chae Myung-shin, a South Korean army officer
Chae Su-chan, a South Korean politician and scholar
Chai Trong-rong or Trong Chai, a Taiwanese politician
Ada Choi, a Hong Kong actress
Charlene Choi, a Hong Kong singer, member of the Twins duo
Christine Choi, Secretary of Education in Hong Kong
Choi Chi-sum, a Hong Kong evangelist
Choi Kwok-wai, a Hong Kong actor
Fátima Choi, a Macanese government minister
Sandra Choi, an English creative director and designer for shoemaker Jimmy Choo Ltd
Sisley Choi, a Hong Kong actress
Richard Tsoi, a Hong Kong activist and polictican
Vin Choi, a Hong Kong actor
Choi York Yee, a Hong Kong footballer and sports commentator
Anna Choy, an Australian actress, TV presenter, and Australia Day Ambassador
Elizabeth Choy, a North Borneo-born Singaporean World War II heroine
Choy So-yuk, a Hong Kong politician
Choy Weng Yang, a Singaporean artist
Alfrancis Chua, a Filipino basketball coach
Amy Chua, an American academic and author of Filipino Chinese descent
Brent Chua, a Filipino model
Dexmon Chua, Singaporean murder victim
Chua Ek Kay, a Singaporean artist
Chua En Lai (born 1979), a Singaporean actor
Glen Chua, a Canadian film director, actor, and writer
Joi Chua (Joi Tsai), a Singaporean singer
Jonathan Chua (Jon Chua JX / Jonny X), a Singaporean musician & entrepreneur
Dino Reyes Chua, a Filipino politician and the current mayor of Noveleta, Cavite
Chua Jui Meng (born 1943), a Malaysian health minister and prominent politician
Chua Lam, a Singaporean-born Hong Kong columnist and movie producer
Chua Leong Aik, Singaporean murder accomplice
Leon O. Chua, an American professor and inventor of Chua's circuit
Simon Chua Ling Fung, a bodybuilder from Singapore
Mark Welson Chua, a Filipino murder victim
Paige Chua (born 1981), a Singaporean model and actress
Paul Chua, a Singaporean bodybuilder
Chua Phung Kim, a Singaporean weightlifter
Robert Chua, a Singapore-born Asian television executive
Chua Ser Lien, Singaporean kidnapper
Chua Sock Koong, a Singaporean telecom executive
Chua Soi Lek, a Malaysian health minister and prominent politician, former Member of Parliament for Labis
Chua Soon Bui, a Malaysian politician
Tanya Chua, a Singaporean singer
Chua Tee Yong, a Malaysian politician, former Member of Parliament for Labis
Chua Tian Chang, or Tian Chua, a Malaysian politician, former Member of Parliament for Batu
Chua Yee Ling, a Malaysian politician, former Member of Perak State Assembly for Kuala Sapetang
Chua Wei Kiat, a Malaysian politician, Member of Selangor State Assembly for Rawang and State Chairman for AMK's Selangor Chief
Xiao Chua, a Filipino historian
Tricia Chuah, a Malaysian squash player
Chuah Guat Eng, a Malaysian novelist
Hirokazu Nakaima, Governor of Okinawa Prefecture; Nakaima is descended from a Chinese family with the surname of Cai, one of the 36 Han Chinese Kumemura families who moved to Okinawa in 1392.
Sai On, a scholar-bureaucrat official of the Ryūkyū Kingdom
Sai Taku, a scholar-bureaucrat official of the Ryūkyū Kingdom
David Thai, a Vietnamese-American gangster
Minh Thai, a Vietnamese-American speedcuber
Thái Phiên, a Vietnamese scholar and revolutionary
Thái Quang Hoàng, a lieutenant general in the Army of the Republic of Vietnam
Thái Thanh, a Vietnamese-American singer
Thái Văn Dung, a Vietnamese Catholic activist
Vico Thai, a Vietnamese-Australian actor
Tjoa Ing Hwie or Tjoa Jien Hwie, the birth name of Surya Wonowidjojo, founder of Gudang Garam
Marga Tjoa, the real name of Indonesian writer Marga T
Tjoa To Hing, the birth name of Indonesian businessman Rachman Halim
Alex Tsai, a Taiwanese politician
Tsai Chia-Hsin, a Taiwanese badminton player
Tsai Chih-chieh, a Taiwanese footballer (soccer player)
Tsai Chih-Ling, American business professor and author
Tsai Chih Chung, a Taiwanese cartoonist
Tsai Chin, a Taiwanese popular music singer
Tsai, Emilio Estevez, a Canadian soccer player
Tsai Horng Chung, a Chinese-Sarawakan painter
Tsai Hsien-tang, a Taiwanese footballer
Tsai Hui-kai, a Taiwanese footballer (soccer player)
Tsai Ing-wen, president and former vice premier of Taiwan
Tsai Li-huei, a Taiwanese born American neuroscientist
Tsai Ying-wen, a Taiwanese Political scientist
Jeanne Tsai, an American academic
Jolin Tsai, a Taiwanese pop singer
Joseph Tsai, a Canadian businessman, lawyer and philanthropist
Kevin Tsai, a Taiwanese writer and television host
Lauren Tsai, an American illustrator, model, and actress
Tsai Min-you, the real name of a Taiwanese singer Evan Yo
Ming Tsai, an American chef and host of television cooking shows
Tsai Mi-ching, Deputy Minister of Science and Technology of the Republic of China
Tsai Ming-Hung, a Taiwanese baseball player
Tsai Ming-liang, a Taiwanese movie director
Tsai Ping-kun, Deputy Mayor of Taipei
Tsai Sen-tien, Vice Minister of Health and Welfare of the Republic of China (2016–2017)
Tsai Shengbai, a Chinese industrialist
Stephen W. Tsai, an American engineer
Tsai Wan-chun, a Taiwanese politician and founder of Cathay Life Insurance Company; brother of Tsai Wan-lin and Tsai Wan-tsai (qq.v.) and father of Tsai Chen-chou and Tsai Chen-nan (businessman)
Tsai Wan-lin, a Taiwanese billionaire and founder of Cathay Life Insurance Company; brother of Tsai Wan-chin and Tsai Wan-tsai (qq.v.) and father of Tsai Hong-tu and T. Y. Tsai
Tsai Wan-tsai, a Taiwanese billionaire, member of the Legislative Yuan and founder of Fubon Group; brother of Tsai Wan-chin and Tsai Wan-lin (qq.v.) and father of Daniel Tsai and Richard Tsai
Will Tsai, a Canadian magician
Tsai Yi-chen, a Taiwanese actress
Yu Tsai, an American photographer
See also
All pages with titles beginning with Cai
All pages with titles containing Cai
Cai (disambiguation)
Category:Tsai family of Miaoli, a prominent Taiwanese family
Choa Chu Kang (蔡厝港 Càicuògǎng, literally "Cai house harbor"), a suburban area in the West Region of Singapore
Choi Uk Tsuen (蔡屋村 Càiwùcūn, literally "Cai house village"), a village in the Yuen Long district of Hong Kong
Choy Gar (蔡家拳 Càijiāquán, literally "Cai family fist"), a Chinese martial art that was created by Choy Gau Yee (蔡九儀)
Choy Li Fut (蔡李佛拳 Càilǐfóquán, literally "Cai, Li, and Buddha's fist"), a Chinese martial arts system named to honor the Buddhist monk Choy Fook (蔡褔) among others
Choy Yee Bridge stop (蔡意橋站), a MTR Light Rail stop in Hong Kong
2240 Tsai, an asteroid named after Taiwanese astronomer Tsai Changhsien
Chua Clan Chiyang Association, Muar, Johor, Malaysia (馬來西亞柔佛麻坡蔡氏濟陽公所) website (in Chinese) |
Dim3, also known as Dimension 3, is a free and open-source 3D game engine created by Brian Barnes. It has been chosen as a staff pick for OS X development software by Apple. and featured as one of their "hot game building tools." dim3 has an entry in DevMaster's 3D engines database.dim3 uses OpenGL for rendering, JavaScript for scripting, XML for data and Simple DirectMedia Layer for resolution switching, input, and sound.
Components
dim3 includes four applications: Engine, Editor, Animator, and Setup.
The Engine is the deployment application that runs games created in dim3. The games (or "projects") are cross-platform and only require the proper engine to run on the proper platform. The engine runs on Mac OS X, Microsoft Windows, iOS, and can be compiled on Linux. All versions can play network games with each other.
The Editor is used to create levels by importing various 3D models into it. The Editor is capable of per-pixel lighting, bump and specular mapping, real-time lighting and/or baked lighting, particles and other special effects, skeletal animation, and customization through javascript.
The Animator is used to add loop animations and effects to models used with dim3. The Animator is used to add bones, setup poses for the bones, and to combine those poses into animations. The Animator uses a skeletal animation system. This makes character movement simplistic yet very realistic.
Setup is a utility that is used to change all other settings in the project, for example, the HUD, network, or particle settings.
A data folder, representing the game, contains all the maps, models, artwork, sounds, and scripts required to create a game in dim3. Each game is self-contained in up to 3 data folders, though only one is actually needed. All non-editor data is in standard formats: PNG, WAV, and mp3. A demonstration "game" is added to dim3, though it is not really a game in itself but shows most of the engine's capabilities.
Dim3 official website
Google Code for dim3 |
E6, E06, E.VI or E-6 can mean:
Science, mathematics and engineering
The E6 series (number series) of preferred numbers for electronic components
E6 (mathematics), a Lie group in mathematics
E6 polytope in geometry
E06, Thyroiditis ICD-10 code
E-6 process, a common photographic process for developing transparency film
E6 protein, a protein encoded by Human papillomavirus
Honda E6, one of the predecessors of Honda's ASIMO robot
Transport
E-6 Mercury, a US Navy derivative of the Boeing 707
E6 Series Shinkansen, a Japanese high-speed train
BYD e6, an electric car by BYD Auto
EMD E6, a diesel locomotive
E6 European long distance path, a long-distance hiking trail
Eggenfellner E6, an American aircraft engine design
European route E6, a European highway route
LB&SCR E6 class, a British steam locomotive
LNER Class E6, a class of British steam locomotives
London Buses route E6, a Transport for London contracted bus route
Pfalz E.VI, a World War I German aircraft
PRR E6, an American steam locomotive
Jōban Expressway, Sendai-Tōbu Road, Sanriku Expressway (between Sendaiko-kita IC and Rifu JCT) and Sendai-Hokubu Road, the E6 expressway in Japan
North–South Expressway Central Link, route E6 in Malaysia
NAIA Expressway, route E6 in the Philippines
Other uses
Motorola ROKR E6, a 2006 multimedia phone model
Nokia E6, a smartphone
E6, a London postcode district in the E postcode area
An error by the Shortstop in baseball
E-6 (rank), the sixth rank of enlisted soldier in the US armed services
The Elephant 6 Recording Company, a collective of independent American musicians
Electric Six, a Detroit rock band
E6, the first note of the whistle register
The E6 grade of difficulty in rock climbing
E6, a song by Norwegian band D.D.E. The song title is a reference to the European route E6.
E6 (short for Epic 6), a variant of Dungeons & Dragons v3.5 |
Le5 may refer to:
LE-5, a model of liquid rocket engine
Le5 Communications, a Canadian radio broadcasting company
LE5 Engine, model number of a 2.4 L General Motors Ecotec Internal Combustion Engine |
The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 (Russian: Микоя́н и Гуре́вич МиГ-15; USAF/DoD designation: Type 14; NATO reporting name: Fagot) is a jet fighter aircraft developed by Mikoyan-Gurevich for the Soviet Union. The MiG-15 was one of the first successful jet fighters to incorporate swept wings to achieve high transonic speeds. In aerial combat during the Korean War, it outclassed straight-winged jet day fighters, which were largely relegated to ground-attack roles. In response to the MiG-15's appearance and in order to counter it, the United States Air Force rushed the North American F-86 Sabre to Korea.When refined into the more advanced MiG-17, the basic design would again surprise the West when it proved effective against supersonic fighters such as the Republic F-105 Thunderchief and McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II in the Vietnam War of the 1960s.
The MiG-15 is believed to have been one of the most produced jet aircraft with more than 13,000 manufactured. The MiG-15 remains in service with the Korean People's Army Air Force as an advanced trainer.
Design and development
The first turbojet fighter developed by Mikoyan-Gurevich OKB was the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-9, which appeared in the years immediately after World War II. It used a pair of reverse-engineered German BMW 003 engines. The MiG-9 was a troublesome design that suffered from weak, unreliable engines and control problems. Categorized as a first-generation jet fighter, it was designed with the straight-style wings common to piston-engined fighters.
The Germans had been unable to develop airworthy turbojets with thrust over 1,130 kilograms-force (11,100 N; 2,500 lbf) capable of running for more than a few hours at the time of the surrender in May 1945, which limited the performance of immediate Soviet postwar jet aircraft designs. The Soviet aviation minister Mikhail Khrunichev and aircraft designer A. S. Yakovlev suggested to Premier Joseph Stalin that the USSR buy the reliable, fully developed, Nene engines from Rolls-Royce (having been alerted to the fact that the U.K. Labour government wanted to improve post-war UK-Russia foreign relations) for the purpose of copying them in a minimum of time. Stalin is said to have replied, "What fool will sell us his secrets?"However, he gave his consent to the proposal and Mikoyan, engine designer Vladimir Yakovlevich Klimov, and others travelled to the United Kingdom to request the engines. To Stalin's amazement, the British Labour government and its Minister of Trade, Sir Stafford Cripps, were perfectly willing to provide technical information and a license to manufacture the Rolls-Royce Nene. Sample engines were purchased and delivered with blueprints. Following evaluation and adaptation to Russian conditions, the windfall technology was tooled for mass-production as the Klimov RD-45 to be incorporated into the MiG-15.
To take advantage of the new engine, the Council of Ministers ordered the Mikoyan-Gurevich OKB to build two prototypes for an advanced high-altitude daytime interceptor to defend against bombers. It was to have a top speed of 1,000 kilometres per hour (620 mph) and a range of 1,200 kilometres (750 mi).Designers at MiG's OKB-155 started with the earlier MiG-9 jet fighter. The new fighter used Klimov's British-derived engines, swept wings, and a tailpipe going all the way back to a swept tail. The German Me 262 was the first fighter fitted with an 18.5° wing sweep, but it was introduced merely to adjust the center of gravity of its heavy Junkers Jumo 004 pioneering axial-compressor turbojet engines. Further experience and research during World War II later established that swept wings would give better performance at transonic speeds. At the end of World War II, the Soviets seized many of the assets of Germany's aircraft industry. The MiG team studied these plans, prototypes and documents, particularly swept-wing research and designs, even going so far as to produce a flying testbed in 1945 to investigate swept-wing design concepts as the piston-engined "pusher"-layout, MiG-8 Utka (Russian for "duck", from its tail-first canard design). The swept wing later proved to have a decisive performance advantage over straight-winged jet fighters when it was introduced into combat over Korea.
The design that emerged had a mid-mounted 35-degree swept wing with a slight anhedral and a tailplane mounted up on the swept tail. Western analysts noted that it strongly resembled Kurt Tank's Focke-Wulf Ta 183, a later design than the Me 262 that never progressed beyond the design stage. While the majority of Focke-Wulf engineers (in particular, Hans Multhopp, who led the Ta 183 development team) were captured by Western armies, the Soviets did capture plans and wind-tunnel models for the Ta 183. The MiG-15 bore a much stronger likeness to the Ta 183 than the American F-86 Sabre, which also incorporated German research. The MiG-15 does bear a resemblance in layout, sharing the high tailplane and nose-mounted intake, although the aircraft are different in structure, details, and proportions. The MiG-15's design understandably shared features and some appearance commonalities with the MiG design bureau's own 1945–46 attempt at a Soviet-built version of the Messerschmitt Me 263 rocket fighter in the appearance of its fuselage. The new MiG retained the previous straight-winged MiG-9's wing and tailplane placement while the F-86 employed a more conventional low-winged design. To prevent confusion during the height of combat the US painted their aircraft with bright stripes to distinguish them.The resulting prototypes were designated I-310. The I-310 was a swept-wing fighter with 35-degree sweep in wings and tail, with two wing fences fitted to each wing to improve airflow over the wing. The design used a single Rolls-Royce Nene fed by a split-forward air intake. A duct carried intake air around the cockpit area and back together ahead of the engine. Its first flight was 30 December 1947, some two months after the American F-86 Sabre had first flown. It demonstrated exceptional performance, reaching 1,042 kilometres per hour (647 mph) at 3,000 metres (9,800 ft).The Soviet Union's first swept-wing jet fighter had been the underpowered Lavochkin La-160, which was otherwise more similar to the MiG-9. The Lavochkin La-168, which reached production as the Lavochkin La-15, used the same engine as the MiG but used a shoulder-mounted wing and t-tail; it was the main competitive design. Eventually, the MiG design was favoured for mass production. Designated MiG-15, the first production example flew on 31 December 1948. It entered Soviet Air Force service in 1949 and subsequently received the NATO reporting name "Fagot". Early production examples had a tendency to roll to the left or to the right due to manufacturing variances, so aerodynamic trimmers called "nozhi" (knives) were fitted to correct the problem, the knives being adjusted by ground crews until the aircraft flew correctly.The MiG-15 was originally intended to intercept American bombers like the B-29. It was even evaluated in mock air-to-air combat trials with a captured U.S. B-29, as well as the later Soviet B-29 copy, the Tupolev Tu-4. To ensure the destruction of such large bombers, the MiG-15 carried autocannons: two 23 mm (0.91 in) with 80 rounds per gun and a single 37 mm (1.46 in) with 40 rounds. These weapons provided tremendous punch in the interceptor role, but their limited rate of fire and relatively low velocity made it more difficult to score hits against small and manoeuvrable enemy jet fighters in air-to-air combat. The 23 mm and 37 mm also had radically different ballistics, and some United Nations (UN) pilots in Korea had the unnerving experience of 23 mm shells passing over them while the 37 mm shells flew under. The cannon were fitted into a simple pack that could be winched out of the bottom of the nose for servicing and reloading, allowing pre-prepared packs to be rapidly swapped out. (Some sources mistakenly claim the pack was added in later models.) Despite the shortcomings of its armament, the MiG-15's simplicity, ruggedness, and particularly the absence of fuel tanks in its wings made it a formidable air-to-air adversary; its airframe has relatively few vulnerable areas, and shooting one down using the relatively fast-firing but less potent M2 Browning machine guns common in American aircraft almost invariably required multiple hits.An improved variant, the MiG-15bis ("second"), entered service in early 1950 with a Klimov VK-1 engine, another version of the Nene with improved metallurgy over the RD-45, plus minor improvements and upgrades. Visible differences were a headlight in the air intake separator and horizontal upper edge airbrakes. The 23 mm cannon were placed more closely together in their undercarriage. Some "bis" aircraft also adopted under-wing hardpoints for unguided rocket launchers or 50–250 kg (110–550 lb) bombs. Fighter-bomber modifications were dubbed "IB", "SD-21", and "SD-5". About 150 aircraft were upgraded to SD-21 specification during 1953–1954.
The MiG-15 arguably had sufficient power to dive at supersonic speeds, but the lack of an "all-flying" tail greatly diminished the pilot's ability to control the aircraft as it approached Mach 1. As a result, pilots had to take care not to exceed Mach 0.92, where the flight surfaces became ineffective. The instrument panel had a red warning light that would illuminate when this speed was reached, and during post-Korean War flight tests, American test pilots found that the aircraft would buffet heavily above Mach 0.92 and would pitch up at Mach 0.95. During a high-altitude, full-power dive to determine if the MiG-15 could exceed Mach 1, Chuck Yeager reached Mach 0.98, but the MiG would go no faster, and he lost roll control and did not begin to regain it until flying into denser air at 12,000 ft (3,700 m) of altitude; he had descended to 3,000 ft (910 m) by the time he fully regained control and recovered from the dive.Additionally, the MiG-15 tended to spin after it stalled, and often the pilot could not recover. According to American test pilots, this behavior was exacerbated by the lack of a noticeable stall warning. The MiG's proclivity towards sudden spins was deduced by UN pilots before the US was able to test one; during the Korean War, there were 56 recorded instances of UN pilots witnessing a MiG-15 entering a spin in combat, resulting in at least 25 crashes and ten ejections.
Operational history
Chinese Civil War
The baptism of fire for the MiG-15 was to occur during the last phases of the Chinese Civil War. During the first months of 1950, aircraft of the Nationalist ROCAF, operating from bases in Taiwan, attacked mainland China, including Shanghai. Mao Zedong requested assistance with air defense from the USSR.
In February 1950, the 50th Fighter Aviation Division (50 IAD) of the Soviet Air Defence Forces, equipped with the MiG-15bis, was deployed to southern China, to support the People's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF) and begin training Chinese pilots in the MiG-15. In April 1950, MiG-15s flown by Soviet pilots began operating over Shanghai, thwarting the Nationalist bombing campaign. On 28 April 1950, a Captain Kalinikov shot down a ROCAF P-38, in the first aerial victory for a MiG-15 pilot. Another followed on 11 May, when Captain Ilya Ivanovich Schinkarenko downed a B-24 Liberator flown by Li Chao Hua, commander of the 8th Air Group, ROCAF.
Soviet MiG-15s in the Korean War
Overview and background
For many years, the Soviet Union actively denied that its pilots flew in Korea during the Korean War; only China and North Korea took responsibility for Korean War operations. After the end of the Cold War, Soviet pilots who participated in the conflict began to reveal their roles. Books by Chinese, Russian and ex-Soviet authors, such as Zhang Xiaoming, Leonid Krylov, Yuriy Tepsurkaev and Igor Seydov revealed details of the actual pilots and operations. From the beginning, Soviet pilots were ordered to avoid flying over areas in which they might be captured. Soviet aircraft were adorned with North Korean or Chinese markings and pilots wore either North Korean uniforms or civilian clothes to disguise their nationality. For radio communication, they were given cards with common Korean words for various flying terms spelled out phonetically in Cyrillic letters. These subterfuges did not long survive the stresses of air-to-air combat, however. Pilots often inadvertently reverted to their native language. UN forces widely suspected the participation of Soviet aircrews, and intercepted radio traffic appeared to include combat pilots speaking Russian. In addition, USAF pilots claimed to have recognized techniques and tactics used by Soviet pilots, whom they referred to as "honchos" (from a Japanese term meaning "squad leader").When the Korean War broke out on 25 June 1950, the North Korean People's Air Force (KPAF) was equipped with World War II-vintage Soviet propeller-driven fighters, including 93 Il-10s and 79 Yak-9Ps, and "40–50 assorted transport/liaison/trainer aircraft". Propeller-driven, single-engine fighters were also numerically dominant amongst the air forces that would come under United Nations Command (UNC) – such as the North American P-51 Mustang, Vought F4U Corsair and Hawker Sea Fury. Initially, the numerical and technical superiority of UNC fighter units gave them air supremacy, and laid North Korean targets bare to the destructive power of United States Air Force (USAF) Boeing B-29 heavy bombers.
During 1950, the Kremlin agreed to supply China and North Korea with MiG-15s, as well as train their pilots. The 50th Fighter Aviation Division (50 IAD), equipped with the MiG-15, was already based near Shanghai, as it had taken part in the Chinese Civil War (see previous section). A detachment from the 50 IAD was moved to Antung, next to the border with North Korea in August 1950. They formed the 29th Guards Fighter Regiment (29 GvIAP). When China entered the war in support of North Korea, the Soviets agreed to provide 16 operational air regiments of MiG-15s, including combat pilots. In the meantime, more MiG-15 pilots were recruited; the squadrons earmarked for Korea were drawn from elite units. The pilots had to be younger than 27, and priority was given to World War II veterans. The first large Soviet aviation unit sent to Korea, the 324th IAD, was an air defense interceptor division commanded by Colonel Ivan Kozhedub, who, with 62 victories, was the top Allied (and Soviet) ace of World War II. In November 1950, the 151st and 28th IADs plus the veteran 50th IAD were reorganized into the 64th Fighter Aviation Corps (64 IAK).
Initially, the Soviet fighters operated close to their bases, limited by the range of their aircraft, and were guided to the air battlefield by good ground control, which directed them to the most advantageous positions. For political, security and logistical reasons, they were not allowed to cross an imaginary line drawn from Wonsan to Pyongyang, and never to fly over the sea. The MiG-15s always operated in pairs, with an attacking leader covered by a wingman. The northwestern portion of North Korea where the Yalu River empties into the Yellow Sea was dubbed "MiG Alley" and became the site of numerous dogfights.
MiG-15 pilots also proved very effective in the specific role for which the type was originally designed: intercepting formations of B-29s.
At the tactical level, large formations of MiGs would wait on the Chinese side of the border. When UN aircraft entered MiG Alley, the MiGs would swoop down from high altitude to attack. If they ran into trouble, they would try to escape back over the border into China. Soviet MiG-15 squadrons operated in big groups, but the basic formation was a six-aircraft group, divided into three pairs, each composed of a leader and a wingman:
The first pair of MiG-15s attacked the enemy Sabres.
The second pair protected the first pair.
The third pair remained above, supporting the two other pairs when needed. This pair had more freedom and could also attack targets of opportunity, such as lone Sabres that had lost their wingmen.After the MiG-15 entered the war, it was shown to be clearly superior to the best straight-wing jets operated by other countries, including the Gloster Meteor, Lockheed F-80, Republic F-84 and Grumman F9F. In most measures of performance, the North American F-86 Sabre – which was also a swept-wing design – was the only close contemporary that could match the MiG-15.
The USAF has claimed that the F-86 had the advantage in combat kills over Korea between 1950 and 1953. It has been acknowledged that many individual Soviet pilots had larger individual tallies than their UN counterparts, due to a number of factors, although the aggregated claims made by Soviet pilots were probably overstated.
According to Soviet/Russian sources, 335 Soviet-piloted MiG-15s were lost in Korea to all causes, including accidents, AA fire and ground attacks. Chinese sources claim that 224 Chinese-piloted MiG-15s were lost over Korea. North Korean losses are not known, but according to North Korean defectors, their air force lost around 100 MiG-15s during the war. Thus, around 659 MiG-15s are admitted as being lost. While an overwhelming majority of the losses to UN fighters involved F-86 pilots, several MiG-15s were lost in, or immediately after, combat with each of several other UN fighters: F-80s, F-84s, F9Fs, Gloster Meteors and even propeller-driven F4Us and Sea Furies.
The Soviet 64th Fighter Aviation Corps (64 IAK), which controlled all Soviet-piloted aircraft in the Korean War, claimed 1,106 aircraft shot down by MiG-15s. The records of USAF units confirm 139 US aircraft were shot down by MiGs, with another 68 lost due to unknown causes, 237 aircraft listed as missing due to unknown causes, and 472 aircraft classified as "other losses". Data-matching with Soviet records suggests that US pilots routinely attributed their own combat losses to "landing accidents" and "other losses".
November 1950 to January 1952
On 1 November 1950, the 50th IAD joined the war with its MiG-15s – their noses painted red and in North Korean markings. That day, eight MiG-15s intercepted about 15 USAF F-51D Mustangs, and First Lieutenant Fyodor V. Chizh shot down Aaron Abercombrie, killing the American pilot. The first-ever jet-versus-jet combat occurred that same day when three MiG-15s from the 50th IAD intercepted ten F-80 Shooting Stars. The F-80C piloted by 1st Lt Frank Van Sickle USAF was shot down by 1st Lt Semyon Fyodorovich Khominich, and Van Sickle was killed. However, the USAF incorrectly attributed the loss to North Korean AA artillery.However, on 9 November, the Soviet MiG-15 pilots suffered their first loss when Lieutenant Commander William T. Amen off the aircraft carrier USS Philippine Sea shot down and killed Captain Mikhail F. Grachev while flying a Grumman F9F Panther.To counter the MiG-15, three squadrons of the F-86 Sabre, America's only operational jet with swept wings, were quickly rushed to Korea in December. On 17 December, Lt Col. Bruce H. Hinton forced Maj. Yakov Nikanorovich Yefromeyenko to eject from his burning MiG. Five days later, Capt. Nikolay Yefremovich Vorobyov shot down the F-86A of Captain Lawrence V. Bach in his MiG-15bis. Both sides exaggerated their claims of aerial victories that month. Sabre fliers claimed eight MiGs, and the Soviets 12 F-86s; the actual losses were three MiGs and at least four Sabres.
The British Chief of the Air Staff, Air Chief Marshal Sir John Slessor, commented: "not only is it faster than anything we are building today, but it is already being produced in very large numbers [...] The Russians, therefore, have achieved a four year lead over British development in respect of the vitally important interceptor fighter".At the end of 1950, the Soviet Union assigned a new unit to support China, the 324th IAD (made up of two regiments: the 176th GIAP and 196th IAP). At that time, a MiG-15 interceptor regiment had 35 to 40 aircraft, and a division was usually composed of three regiments. When the new unit arrived at air bases along the Yalu River in March 1951, it had undergone preliminary training at Soviet bases in the neighboring Maritime Military Districts and started an intense period of air-to-air training in the MiG-15. The Soviets trained alongside Chinese and Korean pilots. Both regiments of the 324th IAD redeployed to the forward airbase in Antung and entered combat in early April 1951. The 303rd IAD of General Georgiy A. Lobov arrived in Korea in June of that same year and commenced combat operations in August.
Soviet MiG pilots were trained to attack enemy formations in coordinated attacks from different directions, using both height and high speed to their advantage. The first encounters established the main features of the aerial battles of the next two and a half years. The MiG-15 and MiG-15bis had a higher ceiling than all versions of the Sabre – 15,500 m (50,900 ft) versus 14,936 m (49,003 ft) of the F-86F – and accelerated faster than F-86A/E/Fs due to their better thrust-to-weight ratio – 1,005 km/h (624 mph) versus 972 km/h (604 mph) of the F-86F. The MiG-15's 2,800 m (9,200 ft) per minute climbing rate was also greater than the 2,200 m (7,200 ft) per minute of the F-86A and -E (the F-86F matched the MiG-15). A better turn radius above 10,000 m (33,000 ft) further distinguished the MiG-15. The MiG was slower at low altitude – 935 km/h (581 mph) in the MiG-15bis configuration as opposed to the 1,107 km/h (688 mph) of the F-86F. All Sabres could also turn tighter below 8,000 m (26,000 ft). Thus, if the MiG-15 forced the Sabre to fight in the vertical plane or in the horizontal one above 10,000 m (33,000 ft), it gained a significant advantage. Furthermore, a MiG-15 could easily escape from a Sabre by climbing to its ceiling, knowing that the F-86 could not follow. Below 8,000 m (26,247 ft), however, the Sabre had a slight advantage over the MiG in most aspects excluding climb rate, especially if the Soviet pilot made the mistake of fighting in the horizontal. The MiG also more powerful weaponry – one 37 mm N-37 cannon and two 23 mm NR-23 cannon, versus the six 12.7 mm (.50 in) machine guns of the Sabre. However, the Soviet World War II-era ASP-1N gyroscopic gunsight was less sophisticated than the accurate A-1CM and A4 radar ranging sights of the F-86E and -F.
The main mission of the MiG-15 was not to dogfight the F-86 but to counter the USAF Boeing B-29 Superfortress bombers. This mission was assigned to the elite of the Soviet Air Force (VVS), in April 1951 to the 324th IAD of Colonel Ivan Kozhedub, and later to the 303rd IAD of General Georgiy A. Lobov, who arrived in Korea in June of the same year.On 12 April 1951, 44 MiG-15s took on a USAF formation of 48 B-29 Superfortresses escorted by 18 F-86 Sabres, 54 F-84 Thunderjets and 24 F-80 Shooting Stars heading towards the bridge linking North Korea and Red China over the Yalu River in Uiju. The experienced Soviet fliers shot down or damaged beyond repair 10 B-29As, one F-86A and three F-80Cs for the loss of only one MiG. The Soviet air units claimed to have shot down 29 American aircraft through the rest of the month: 11 F-80s, seven B-29s and nine F-51s. 23 out of these 29 claims match acknowledged losses, but US sources assert that most of them were either operational or due to flak, admitting only four B-29s (a downed B-29, plus two B-29s and an RB-29 that crash-landed or were damaged beyond repair). US historians agree that the MiG-15 gained aerial superiority over northwestern Korea.US strategic bombers returned in the week of 22–27 October to neutralize the North Korean aerodromes of Namsi, Taechon and Saamchan, taking further losses to the MiG-15. On 23 October 1951, 56 MiG-15bis intercepted nine B-29s escorted by 34 F-86s and 55 F-84Es. In spite of their numerical inferiority, the Soviet airmen shot down or damaged beyond repair eight B-29As and two F-84Es, losing only one MiG in return and leading Americans to call that day "Black Tuesday". The most successful Soviet pilots that day were Lieutenant Colonel Aleksandr P. Smorchkov and 1st Lieutenant Dmitriy A. Samoylov. The former shot down a Superfortress on each of 22, 23 and 24 October. Samoylov added two F-86As to his tally on 24 October 1951, and on 27 October shot down two more aircraft: a B-29A and an F-84E. These losses among the heavy bombers forced the Far East Air Forces High Command to cancel the precision daylight attacks of the B-29s and only undertake radar-directed night raids.
From November 1951 to January 1952, both sides tried to achieve air superiority over the Yalu, or at least tried to deny it to the enemy, and in consequence, the intensity of the aerial combat reached peaks not seen before between MiG-15 and F-86 pilots. During the period from November 1950 to January 1952, no fewer than 40 Soviet MiG-15 pilots were credited as aces, with five or more victories. Soviet combat records show that the first pilot to claim his fifth aerial victory was Captain Stepan Ivanovich Naumenko on 24 December 1950. The honor falls to Captain Sergei Kramarenko, when on 29 July 1951, he scored his actual fifth victory. Approximately 16 out of those 40 pilots actually became aces, the most successful being Major Nikolay Sutyagin, credited with 22 victories, 13 of which were confirmed by the US; Colonel Yevgeny Pepelyaev with 19 claims, 15 confirmed; and Major Lev Shchukin with 17 credited, 11 verified.The MiG leaders, enjoying the advantage from the ground and the tactical advantage of an aircraft with superior altitude performance were able to dictate the tactical situation at least until the battle was started. They could decide to fight or stay out as they wished. The advantage of radar control from the ground also allowed the MiGs, if desired, to pass through the gaps in the F-86 patrol pattern.
January 1952 to July 1952
At the end of January 1952, the 303rd IAD was replaced by the 97th (16th and 148th IAP) and in February the 324th IAD was replaced by the 190th IAD (256th, 494th and 821st IAP). These new units were poorly trained, the bulk of the pilots having only 50–60 hours flying the MiG. Consequently, those units suffered great losses from the now better-prepared American Sabre pilots. At least two Soviet fliers became aces during that period: Majors Arkadiy S. Boytsov and Vladimir N. Zabelin, with six and nine victories respectively.During the six months of February to July 1952, they lost 81 MiGs, and 34 pilots were killed by F-86s, and in return, they only shot down 68 UN aircraft (including 36 F-86s). The greatest losses came on 4 July 1952, when 11 MiGs were downed by Sabres, with one pilot killed in action. Contributing to all this was the secret "Maple Special" Operation, a plan by Colonel Francis Gabreski to cross the Yalu River into Manchuria (something officially forbidden) and catch the MiGs unaware during their takeoffs or landings, when they were at disadvantage: flying slow, at a low level, and sometimes short of ammunition and fuel.
Even under these circumstances, MiG-15 pilots would score at least two important victories against US aces:
10 February 1952: Major George Andrew Davis, Jr., an ace credited with 14 victories, 10 confirmed by communist sources, was shot down and killed. The victor's identity was disputed between 1st Lieutenant Mikhail Akimovich Averin and Zhang Jihui.
4 July 1952: A few seconds after shooting down 1st Lieutenant M. I. Kosynkin, future ace Captain Clifford D. Jolley was forced to eject out of his crippled F-86E after being caught by surprise by MiG-15bis pilot 1st Lieutenant Vasily Romanovich Krutkikh.
July 1952 to July 1953
In May 1952, new and better trained PVO divisions, the 133rd and 216th IADs, arrived in Korea. They would replace the 97th and 190th by July 1952, and if they could not take aerial superiority away from the now well-prepared Americans, then they certainly neutralized it between September 1952 and July 1953. In September 1952, the 32nd IAD also started combat operations. Again, the figures of victories and losses in the air are still debated by historians of the US and the former Soviet Union, but on at least three occasions, Soviet MiG-15 aces gained the upper hand against Sabre aces:
7 April 1953: The 10-kill ace Captain Harold E. Fischer was shot down over Manchuria shortly after causing damage to a Chinese and a Soviet MiG over Dapu airbase in Manchuria. The attacker's identity was disputed between 1st Lieutenant Grigoriy Nesterovich Berelidze and Han Dechai.
12 April 1953: Captain Semyon Alekseyevich Fedorets, a Soviet ace with eight victories, shot down the F-86E of Norman E. Green, but shortly afterward was attacked by the future top American ace of the Korean War, Captain Joseph C. McConnell. In the ensuing dogfight, they shot each other down, ejecting and being rescued safely.
20 July 1953: During a raid deep into Manchuria, and after shooting down two Chinese MiGs, Majors Thomas M. Sellers and Stephen L. Bettinger (the second an ace with five kills) tried to catch by surprise two Soviet MiG-15s that were landing in Dapu. The Soviet fliers skillfully forced the Americans to overshoot, reversed direction and shot both down: Captain Boris N. Siskov forced Bettinger to bail out and his wingman 1st Lieutenant Vladimir I. Klimov killed Major Sellers. This was Siskov's fifth victory, making him the last ace of the Korean War. Those were also the last Sabres downed by Soviet fliers in the war.The MiG-15 threat forced the Far East Air Forces to cancel B-29 daylight raids in favor of night radar-guided missions from November 1951 onward. Initially, this presented a threat to Communist defenses, as their only specialized night-fighting unit was equipped with the prop-driven Lavochkin La-11, inadequate for the task of intercepting the B-29. Part of the regiment was re-equipped with the MiG-15bis, and another night-fighting unit joined the fray, causing American heavy bombers to suffer losses again. Between 21:50 and 22:30 on 10 June 1952, four MiG-15bis attacked B-29s over Sonchon and Kwaksan. Lieutenant Colonel Mikhail Ivanovich Studilin damaged a B-29A beyond repair, forcing it to make an emergency landing at Kimpo Air Base. A few minutes later, Major Anatoly Karelin added two more Superfortresses to his tally. Studilin and Karelin's wingmen, Major L. A. Boykovets and 1st Lieutenant Zhahmany Ihsangalyev, also damaged one B-29 each. Anatoly Karelin eventually became an ace with six kills (all B-29s at night). In the aftermath of these battles, B-29 night sorties were cancelled for two months. Originally conceived to shoot down rather than escort bombers, both of America's state-of-the-art jet night fighters – the F-94 Starfire and the F3D Skyknight – were committed to protecting the Superfortresses against MiGs.
The MiG-15 was less effective in getting past the Marine Corps ground-based two-seat F3D Skyknight night fighters assigned to escort B-29s after the F-94 Starfires proved ineffective. What the squat aircraft lacked in sheer performance, it made up for with the advantage of a search radar that enabled the Skyknight to see its targets clearly, while the MiG-15's directions to find bomber formations were of little use in seeing escorting fighters. On the night of 2–3 November 1952, a Skyknight with pilot Major William Stratton and radar operator Hans Hoagland damaged the MiG-15 of Captain V. D. Vishnyak. Five days later, Oliver R. Davis and radar operator D.F. "Ding" Fessler downed a MiG-15bis; the pilot, Lieutenant Ivan P. Kovalyov, ejected safely. Skyknights claimed five MiG kills for no losses of their own, and no B-29s escorted by them were lost to enemy fighters. However, the duel was not one-sided: on the night of 16 January 1953, an F3D almost did fall to a MiG, when the Skyknight of Captain George Cross and Master Sergeant J. A. Piekutowski suffered serious damage in an attack by a Soviet MiG-15bis; with difficulty, the Skyknight returned to Kunsan Air Base. Three and a half months later, on the night of 29 May 1953, Chinese MiG-15 pilot Hou Shujun of the PLAAF shot down an F3D-2 over Anju; Sgt. James V. Harrell's remains were found on a beach during the summer of 2001 just miles from the Kunsan base. Captain James B. Brown is still missing in action.In a Royal Navy Sea Fury flying from a light fleet carrier FAA pilot Lieutenant Peter "Hoagy" Carmichael downed a MiG-15 on 8 August 1952, in air-to-air combat. The Sea Fury would be one of the few piston-engined fighter aircraft following World War II's end to shoot down a jet fighter. On 10 September 1952, Captain Jesse G. Folmar shot down a MiG-15 with an F4U Corsair but was himself downed by another MiG.The figures given by the Soviet sources indicate that the MiG-15s of the 64th IAK (the fighter corps that included all the divisions that rotated through the conflict) made 60,450 daylight combat sorties and 2,779 night ones and engaged the enemy in 1,683 daylight aerial battles and 107 at night, claiming to have shot down 1,097 UN aircraft over Korea, including 647 F-86s, 185 F-84s, 118 F-80s, 28 F-51s, 11 F-94s, 65 B-29s, 26 Gloster Meteors and 17 aircraft of different types. According to U.S., 57 B-29s and reconnaissance variants were lost in combat during the Korean war, almost all by MiG-15s.
Chinese and Korean MiG-15s during the Korean War
The Soviet VVS and PVO were the primary users of the MiG-15 during the war, but not the only ones; it was also used by the PLAAF and KPAF (known as the United Air Army). Despite bitter complaints from the Soviet Union, which repeatedly requested the Chinese to accelerate the introduction of MiG-15 new units, the Chinese were relatively slow in this process at the time, and by 1951 there were only two regiments flying MiG-15bis as night fighters. Being not completely trained and equipped, both units were used only for the defence of China, but they became involved in the interception of USAF reconnaissance aircraft, some of which went very deep over China.
By September 1951, with enough MiG-15s in the Yalu area, Soviet and Chinese leaders were confident enough to begin planning the deployment of Chinese and new North Korean MiG-15 regiments outside Chinese sanctuaries. Excluding a brief episode in January 1951, the PLAAF did not see action until 25 September 1951, when 16 MiG-15s engaged Sabres, with pilot Li Yongtai claiming a victory, but losing a MiG and its pilot. The North Korean unit equipped with the MiG-15 got into action a year later, in September 1952. From then until the end of the war, the United Air Army claimed to have shot down 211 F-86s, 72 F-84s and F-80s, and 47 other aircraft of various types, losing 116 Chinese airmen and 231 aircraft: 224 MiG-15s, three La-11s and four Tupolev Tu-2s. Several pilots were credited with five or more enemy aircraft, such as Zhao Baotong with seven victories, Wang Hai with nine kills, and both Kan Yon Duk and Kim Di San with five.
Based on Soviet archival data, 335 Soviet MiG-15s are known to have been admitted as lost over Korea. Chinese claims of their losses amount to 224 MiG-15s over Korea. North Korean losses are not known, but according to North Korean defectors their air force lost around 100 MiG-15s during the war. Thus a total of 659 MiG-15s are admitted as being lost by all causes, while USAF claims of their losses amount to 78 F-86 Sabres in air-to-air combat. Overall UN losses to MiG-15s are credited as 78 F-86 Sabres and 75 aircraft of other types. However, one modern source claims that the USAF has more recently cited 224 losses (circa 100 to air combat) out of 674 F-86s deployed to Korea. Conversely, data-matching with Soviet records shows that US pilots routinely attributed their own combat losses to "landing accidents" and "other causes". According to official US data ("USAF Statistical Digest FY1953"), the USAF lost 250 F-86 fighters in Korea: 184 were lost in combat (78 in air-combat, 19 by Anti-aircraft gun, 26 were "unknown causes" and 61 were "other losses") and 66 in accidents.More recent research by Dorr, Lake and Thompson has claimed the actual ratio is closer to 2 to 1. The Soviets claimed to have downed over 600 Sabres, together with the Chinese claims. A recent RAND report made reference to "recent scholarship" of F-86 v MiG-15 combat over Korea and concluded that the actual kill:loss ratio for the F-86 was 1.8 to 1 overall, and likely closer to 1.3 to 1 against MiGs flown by Soviet pilots. However, this ratio did not count the number of aircraft of other types (B-29, A-26, F-80, F-82, F-84...) that were shot down by MiG-15s.
Defection
In April 1951, a crashed MiG-15 was spotted near the Chongchon River. On 17 April 1951, a USAF Sikorsky H-19 staging through Baengnyeongdo carried a US/South Korean team to the crash site. They photographed the wreck and removed the turbine blades, combustion chamber, exhaust pipe and horizontal stabilizer. The overloaded helicopter then flew the team and samples back to Paengyong-do, where they were transferred to an SA-16 and flown south and then to Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, for evaluation.In July 1951, the submerged remains of a MiG-15 were spotted by Royal Navy carrier aircraft from HMS Glory. The MiG-15 was broken up, a piece of the engine was visible aft of the center section, and the tail section was located some distance away. The wreck was located in an area of mudbanks with treacherous tides and at the end of a narrow channel that was supposedly mined, c. 160 km behind the front lines. The MiG-15 was retrieved, transported to Incheon and then to Wright-Patterson Air Force Base.
Eager to obtain an intact MiG for combat testing in a controlled environment, the United States launched Operation Moolah, which offered to any pilot who defected with his MiG-15, political asylum and a reward of US$100,000 (equivalent to $820,000 in 2021). Franciszek Jarecki, a Polish Air Force pilot, defected from Soviet-controlled Poland in a MiG-15 on the morning of 5 March 1953, allowing Western air experts to examine the aircraft for the first time. Jarecki flew from Słupsk to the field airport at Rønne on the Danish island of Bornholm. The whole trip took him only a few minutes. Specialists from the United States, called to the airfield by the Danish authorities, thoroughly examined the aircraft. According to international regulations, they then returned it by ship to Poland a few weeks later. Jarecki also received a $50,000 reward for being the first to present a MiG-15 to the Americans and became a US citizen.
Following this example, a total of four Polish MiG-15 pilots defected. No military maps showed foreign Baltic coastlines and so Franciszek Jarecki navigated using a basic school atlas, three of the four pilots managed to find the small island of Bornholm while one arrived at the Swedish Coast approximate 80 km North of Bornholm.
A North Korean pilot, Lieutenant Kenneth H. Rowe (born No Kum-Sok) defected at Kimpo Air Base on 21 September 1953. After landing he claimed to be unaware of the US$100,000 reward. This MiG-15 was minutely inspected and was test flown by several test pilots, including Chuck Yeager. Yeager reported in his autobiography the MiG-15 had dangerous handling faults and claimed that during a visit to the USSR, Soviet pilots were incredulous he had dived in it, this supposedly being very hazardous. No informed the Americans that spins in the aircraft were considered very dangerous, and that the KPAF instructed pilots to eject if unable to recover from a spin within three turns. Remarking on the MiG-15's unforgiving behavior, particularly in the hands of an inexperienced pilot, Yeager characterized it as a "flying booby trap". Lieutenant No's aircraft is now on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force near Dayton, Ohio.
The Cold War
During the 1950s, the MiG-15s of the USSR and their Warsaw Pact allies on many occasions, intercepted aircraft of the NATO air forces performing reconnaissance near or inside their territory; such incidents sometimes ended with aircraft of one side or the other being shot down. The known incidents where the MiG-15 was involved include:
16 December 1950: A USAF RB-29 was downed over Primore (Sea of Japan) by two MiG-15 pilots, Captain Stepan A. Bajaev and 1st Lieutenant N. Kotov.
19 November 1951: MiG-15bis pilot 1st Lieutenant A. A. Kalugin forced a USAF C-47 that had penetrated Hungarian airspace to land at the airbase at Pápa.
13 June 1952: Two naval MiG-15s, flown by Captain Oleg Piotrovich Fedotov and 1st Lieutenant Ivan Petrovich Proskurin, shot down an RB-29A near Valentin Bay, over the Sea of Japan. All 12 crew members perished (their bodies were not recovered).
13 June 1952, Catalina affair: A Soviet MiG-15 flown by Captain Osinskiy shot down a Douglas DC-3 reconnaissance aircraft of the Swedish Air Force piloted by Alvar Almeberg near Ventspils over the Baltic Sea. All eight crew members perished. One of the two Swedish military Catalina flying boats that conducted subsequent search and rescue for the downed DC-3 was also shot down by a MiG-15, though with no loss of life.
7 August 1952: Two MiG-15 pilots, 1st Lieutenants Zeryakov and Lesnov, shot down a USAF RB-29 over the Kuril Islands. The entire crew of nine died (the remains of one, Captain John R. Durnham, were returned to the United States in 1993).
18 November 1952: Four MiG-15bis engaged four F9F-2 Panthers off the aircraft carrier USS Oriskany (CV-34) near Vladivostok. One MiG-15 pilot, Captain Dmitriy Belyakov, managed to seriously damage Lieutenant Junior Grade David M. Rowlands's F9F-2, but seconds later he and 1st Lieutenant Vandalov were downed by Elmer Royce Williams and John Davidson Middleton. Neither Soviet pilot was found.
10 March 1953, Air battle over Merklín: Two MiG-15bis of the Czechoslovak Air Force intercepted two F-84Gs in Czechoslovak airspace. Lieutenant Jaroslav Šrámek shot down one of them; the F-84 crashed in Bavarian territory. The US pilot bailed out safely.
12 March 1953: Seven airmen were killed when the Royal Air Force Avro Lincoln they were flying in was shot down by a Soviet Air Force MiG-15 in the Berlin air corridor, near Boizenburg, 51 kilometres (32 mi) northeast of Lüneburg.
29 July 1953: Two MiG-15bis intercepted a RB-50G near Gamov, in the Sea of Japan, and instructed it to land at their home base. The RB-50 gunners opened fire and hit the MiG of 1st Lieutenant Aleksandr D. Rybakov. Rybakov and his wingman 1st Lieutenant Yuriy M. Yablonskiy then shot down the RB-50. One of the crew members (John E. Roche) was rescued alive, and three corpses were recovered. The remaining 13 crew members became missing-in-action.
17 April 1955: MiG-15 pilots Korotkov and Sazhin shot down an RB-47E north of the Kamchatka peninsula. All three crew members perished.
27 June 1955: El Al Flight 402 was shot down by two Bulgarian MiG-15 aircraft after penetrating Bulgarian airspace. All 58 passengers and crew perished in the attack.
Suez Canal Crisis (1956)
Egypt bought two squadrons of MiG-15bis and MiG-17 fighters in 1955 from Czechoslovakia with the sponsorship and support of the USSR, just in time to participate in the Suez Canal Crisis. By the outbreak of the Suez conflict in October 1956, four squadrons of the Egyptian Air Force were equipped with the type, although few pilots were trained to fly them effectively.They first saw aerial action on the morning of 30 October, intercepting four RAF Canberra bombers on a reconnaissance mission over the Canal Zone, damaging one. Later that day, MiG-15s attacked Israeli forces at Mitla Pass and El Thamed in the Sinai, destroying half a dozen vehicles. As a result, the Israeli Air Force (IAF) instituted a standing combat air patrol over the Canal, and the next attack resulted in two MiGs downed by IAF Mysteres, although the Egyptian aircraft were able to successfully hit the Israeli troops.
The next day, the MiGs evened the score somewhat when they badly damaged two IAF Ouragan fighters, forcing one of them to crash-land in the desert. British and French warplanes then began a systematic bombing campaign of Egyptian air bases, destroying at least eight MiGs and dozens of other Egyptian aircraft on the ground and forcing the others to disperse. The remaining aircraft still managed to fly some attack missions, but the Egyptians had lost air superiority.
During air combat against the IAF, Egyptian MiG-15bis managed to shoot down two Israeli aircraft: a Gloster Meteor F.8 on 30 October 1956, and a Dassault Ouragan on 1 November, which performed a belly landing – this last victory was scored by the Egyptian pilot Faruq el-Gazzavi. A third aircraft, an L-8 Piper Cub, was destroyed on the ground.
An Egyptian MiG-15 was damaged, but the pilot managed to ditch in Lake Bardawil, and the aircraft was salvaged by Israeli forces.
Taiwan Straits crisis
After the Korean War ended, Communist China turned its attention back to Nationalist China on the island of Taiwan. Chinese MiG-15s were in action over the Taiwan Strait against the outnumbered Nationalist Air Force (CNAF) and helped make possible the Communist occupation of two strategic island groups. The US had been lending support to the Nationalists since 1951 and started delivery of F-86s in 1955. Sabres and MiGs clashed three years later in the Quemoy Crisis.
Throughout the 1950s, MiG-15s of China's People's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF) frequently engaged Republic of China (ROC) and U.S. aircraft in combat; in 1958 a ROC F-86 fighter achieved the first air-to-air kill with an AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missile against a PLAAF MiG-15.
Vietnam
Vietnam operated a number of MiG-15s and MiG-15UTIs for training only. There is no mention of the MiG-15 being involved in any combat against American aircraft in the early stages of the Vietnam War.
Other events
The first man in space, Yuri Gagarin, was killed in a crash during a March 1968 training flight in a MiG-15UTI due to poor visibility and miscommunication with ground control.
MiG-17
The more advanced MiG-17 Fresco was very similar in appearance, but addressed many of the limitations of the MiG-15. It introduced a new swept wing with a "compound sweep" configuration: a 45° angle near the fuselage, and a 42° angle for the outboard part of the wings. The first prototype was flown in 1953 before the end of the Korean war. Later versions introduced radar, afterburning engines and missiles.
Production
The USSR built 1344 MiG-15, 8352 MiG-15bis and 3434 two-seaters. It was also built under license in Czechoslovakia as the S-102 (MiG-15, 821 aircraft), S-103 (MiG-15bis, 620 aircraft) and CS-102 (MiG-15UTI, 2012 aircraft) and Poland as the Lim-1 (MiG-15, 227 aircraft) and Lim-2 (MiG-15bis, 500 aircraft). No two-seaters have been built in Poland as such – the SB Lim-1 and SB Lim-2 variants were remanufactured from hundreds of Polish-, Czech- and Soviet-built single-seaters.
In the early 1950s, the Soviet Union delivered hundreds of MiG-15s to China, where they received the designation J-2. The Soviets also sent 847 MiG-15 engineers and specialists to China, where they assisted China's Shenyang Aircraft Factory to prepare to build jet fighters. It was originally planned to build the MiG-15bis fighter at Shenyang, but China decided to build the more advanced MiG-17 fighter instead, together with the MiG-15UTI trainer (designated JJ-2). China never produced a single-seat fighter version, only the two-seat JJ-2, although during the Korean War, Shenyang was used for the repair of battle-damaged MiG-15. The number of JJ-2s built remains unknown and the estimates vary between 120 and 500 aircraft.
The designation "J-4" is unclear; some sources claim Western observers mistakenly labelled China's MiG-15bis a "J-4", while the PLAAF never used the "J-4" designation. Others claim "J-4" is used for MiG-17F, while "J-5" is used for MiG-17PF. Another source claims the PLAAF used "J-4" for Soviet-built MiG-17A, which were quickly replaced by license-built MiG-17Fs (J-5s).
Variants
I-310
Prototype.
MiG-15
First production version.
MiG-15P
Single-seat all-weather interceptor version of the MiG-15bis.
MiG-15SB
Single-seat fighter bomber version.
MiG-15SP-5
Two-seat all-weather interceptor version of the MiG-15UTI.
MiG-15T
Target-towing version.
MiG-15M
Target UAV, converted from all single-seat MiG-15 (that were withdrawn from service).
MiG-15bis
Improved single-seat fighter version.
MiG-15bisR
Single-seat reconnaissance version.
MiG-15bisS
Single-seat escort fighter version.
MiG-15bisT
Single-seat target-towing version.
MiG-15UTI
Two-seat dual-control jet trainer.
UTI MiG-15P
Two-seat dual-control jet trainer, heavily modified in Czechoslovakian Aero to accommodate RP-1 Izumrud-1 radar. Used for MiG-17PF (Fresco D) a MiG-19P/PM (Farmer B/E) crew training. One built.
J-2
(Jianjiji – fighter) Chinese designation of USSR production MiG-15bis single-seat fighter.
JJ-2
(Jianjiji Jiaolianji – fighter trainer) Chinese production of MiG-15UTI two-seat jet trainers. Exported as Shenyang FT-2.
BA-5
un-manned target drone conversions of J-2 fighters.
Lim-1
(Licencyjny myśliwiec - licensed fighter aircraft) MiG-15 jet fighters built under license in Poland, powered by Lis-1 (licensed RD-45F). 227 built at WSK-Mielec factory from 1952 to 1954.
Lim-1A
Polish-built reconnaissance version of the MiG-15 with AFA-21 camera.
Lim-2
MiG-15bis built under license in Poland. 500 built from 1954 to 1956, with first 100 powered by Soviet-built VK-1A engines and remaining aircraft powered by Polish-built Lis-2 engines.
Lim-2R
Polish-built reconnaissance conversion of Lim-2 with camera replacing the N-37 cannon.
SBLim-1
Polish Lim-1 converted to equivalent of MiG-15UTI jet trainers, with Lis-1 jet engines.
SBLim-1A
(originally SBLim-1Art): Conversion of SBLim-1 into two seat reconnaissance version with observer in rear seat.
SBLim-2
Polish Lim-2 or SBLim-1 converted to jet trainers with Lis-2 (VK-1) jet engines.
SBLim-2A
(originally SBLim-2Art): Conversion of SBLim-1 into two seat reconnaissance version with observer in rear seat.
SBLim-2M
Reconversion of SBLim2A to trainer, with dual controls reinstated.
S-102
MiG-15 jet fighters built under license in Czechoslovakia, with M05 (licensed RD-45) Motorlet/Walter engines.
S-103
MiG-15bis jet fighters built under license in Czechoslovakia with M06 (licensed VK-1) Motorlet/Walter engines.
CS-102
MiG-15UTI jet trainers built under license in Czechoslovakia.
Foreign reporting names
Fagot
The NATO reporting name for the single-seat MiG-15
Midget
The NATO reporting name for the two-seat MiG-15UTI
Operators
Current operators
North Korea
Korean People's Army Air Force
Former operators
AfghanistanAfghan Air Force AlbaniaAlbanian Air Force AlgeriaAlgerian Air Force AngolaPeople's Air and Air Defence Force of Angola BulgariaBulgarian Air Force CambodiaRoyal Cambodian Air Force ChinaPeople's Liberation Army Air Force
People's Liberation Army Naval Air Force Republic of the CongoCongolese Air Force CubaCuban Revolutionary Air and Air Defense Force CzechoslovakiaCzechoslovak Air Force East GermanyAir Forces of the National People's Army EgyptEgyptian Air Force FinlandFinnish Air Force GuineaGuinea Air Force HungaryHungarian Air Force IndonesiaIndonesian Air Force IraqIraqi Air Force Khmer RepublicKhmer Air Force MaliMalian Air Force MoroccoRoyal Moroccan Air Force MongoliaMongolian People's Army Air Force MozambiqueMozambique Air Force NigeriaNigerian Air Force North VietnamVietnam People's Air Force North YemenNorth Yemen Air Force PakistanPakistan Air Force PolandPolish Air Force
Polish Navy RomaniaRomanian Air Force SomaliaSomali Aeronautical Corps South YemenSouth Yemen Air Force Soviet UnionSoviet Air Forces
Soviet Air Defence Forces Sri LankaSri Lanka Air Force SyriaSyrian Air Force UgandaUgandan People's Defence Force Air Force United StatesUnited States Air Force – In the 1980s, the United States purchased a number of Shenyang J-4s along with Shenyang J-5s from China via the Combat Core Certification Professionals Company; these aircraft were employed in a "mobile threat test" program at Kirtland Air Force Base, operated by the USAF's 4477th Test and Evaluation Squadron. As of 2015, MiG-15UTIs and MiG-17s are operated by a civilian contractor at both the USAF and US Naval Test Pilot Schools for student training. VietnamVietnam People's Air Force
Civilian operators
Argentina
One ex-Polish Air Force CS-102 trainer variant, rebuilt in 1975 as a SB Lim2M and retired in 1987. Privately brought to Argentina in November 1997 and given the experimental registration LV-X216.
Surviving aircraft
Many MiG-15s are on display throughout the world. In addition, they are becoming increasingly common as private sport aircraft and warbirds. According to the FAA, there were 43 privately owned MiG-15s in the US in 2011, including Chinese and Polish derivatives, the first of which is owned by aviator and aerobatic flyer, Paul T. Entrekin.
Australia
As of July 2015, six privately owned MiG-15s are airworthy and on the Australian civil aircraft register. At least seven others are on static display in museums, including one in the Australian War Memorial.Bulgaria
One MiG-15 is on display in Sofia at the National Museum of Military History.Canada
A flying MiG-15UTI is operated at Region of Waterloo International Airport by Waterloo Warbirds.
One WSK-Mielec Lim-2 (Polish-built MiG-15bis, c/n 1B00316) is on display at Canada Aviation and Space Museum.
An Aero S-103 (Czechoslovakian-built MiG-15bis in fighter-bomber SB variant, c/n 713133) is on display at Edenvale Airport near Edenvale, Ontario, Canada.China
Several MiG-15s (including some in North Korean colours) are preserved at the China Aviation Museum outside Beijing.Cuba
A MiG-15UTI of the FAR (Fuerza Aérea Revolucionaria) is displayed at the Museo del Aire.Czech RepublicIn 2014 one two seat version of MiG-15 was restored into airworthy condition in Hradec Králové.
One Aero S-102 (Czechoslovakian-built MiG-15, c/n 231720, built 1953) is on display in Kbely Aviation Museum in Prague.FinlandThree MiG-15UTIs survive:
Päijänne Tavastia Aviation Museum in Lahti,
Hallinportti Aviation Museum at Kuorevesi,
Central Finland Aviation Museum in Jyväskylä.The Finnish nickname of the aircraft was Mukelo ("Ungainly"), after the FinnAF aircraft type designation code MU.
France
One MiG-15bis manufactured in Czechoslovakia is on display on the campus of the ISAE-Supaero school in Toulouse.Indonesia
Three Aero CS-102 (Czechoslovakian-built MiG-15UTI) are on display in Indonesia:
J-754 - Halim Perdanakusuma Air Force Base, East Jakarta, Jakarta
J-759 - Gedung Juang 45 Nganjuk, Nganjuk Regency, East Java
J-767 - Dirgantara Mandala Museum, Sleman Regency, Special Region of YogyakartaNorway
MiG-15UTI "RED 18"This aircraft is a SBLim-2 (Polish-built MiG-15UTI), produced by WSK-Mielec in 1952. The aircraft is operated by the Norwegian Air Force.
PolandFlyFighterJet.com offers a SBLim-2/MiG-15UTI for adventure flights in Poland
A MiG-15 is parked adjacent to the terminal building at what is now Zielona Góra Airport, near Babimost, Poland, reflecting the former airport's military origins.Republic of Korea
MiG-15UTI on display at the War Memorial Museum in Seoul.
This aircraft is a Chinese built MiG-15UTI flown by the DPRK.
Romania
A few Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 are on display in Romania:
244, Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15bis, ex-FAR, at the Army Museum in Bucharest.
246, Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15, ex-FAR, at the Aviation Museum, outside Bucharest.
727, Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15, ex-FAR, at the Aviation Museum, outside Bucharest.
766, Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15, ex-FAR, is preserved at Ianca
2543, Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15UTI, ex-FAR, at the Aviation Museum, outside Bucharest.
2579, Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15UTI, ex-FAR, at the Aviation Museum, outside Bucharest.
2713, Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15bis, ex-FAR, at the Aviation Museum, outside Bucharest.
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15, in the front yard of Traian Vuia Lyceum in Craiova. Google maps coordinates 44.309248, 23.812195SwedenWSK-Mielec Lim-2 (Polish-built MiG-15bis, c/n 1B00215) is displayed at Swedish Air Force Museum, Malmslätt-Linköping.United Kingdom
A WSK-Mielec Lim-2 (Polish-built MiG-15bis, c/n 1B01420) is displayed in North Korean colours at the Fleet Air Arm Museum.
A WSK-Mielec Lim-2 (Polish-built MiG-15bis, c/n 1B01120) in Polish colours with red 1120 number is on display at Royal Air Force Museum Cosford.
An Aero S-103 (Czechoslovakian-built MiG-15bis in fighter-bomber SB variant, c/n 613677) in Czechoslovakian colours is displayed at the National Museum of Flight, East Fortune, Edinburgh.United States
A North Korean MiG-15 (c/n 2015357) is on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton, Ohio. This is the aircraft flown to Kimpo Air Base in South Korea on 21 September 1953 by a defecting North Korean pilot who was given a reward of $100,000 (see above). The aircraft was flight-tested on Okinawa and then brought to the U.S. to be returned to its "rightful owners" (believed to be the Soviet Union, which denied participating in the Korean War). When this offer was ignored it was transferred to the NMUSAF in November 1957. It is on display in the museum's Korean War Gallery.
A MiG-15 is on display at the National Naval Aviation Museum, NAS Pensacola, Florida.
A MiG-15 operated by the People's Liberation Army Air Force is on display at The Museum of Flight in Seattle, WA
A MiG-15bis is on display at the Flying Leatherneck Aviation Museum located at Marine Corps Air Station Miramar in San Diego, California.
A MiG-15bis, number 83227, undergoing a restoration at the New England Air Museum, Bradley International Airport, Windsor Locks, CT.
A WSK-Mielec Lim-2 (Polish-built MiG-15bis, c/n 1B01016) (FAA Reg. Number N15YY) is on display at the Combat Air Museum in Topeka, KS
Two license-built MiG-15UTI are operated by Red Star Aviation - a WSK-Mielec SBLim-2 (Polish-built, c/n 1A03508, ex-Polish Air Force "358") on behalf of the US Naval Test Pilot School located at Patuxent River Naval Air Station and an Avia CS-102 (Czechoslovakian-built, ex-Romanian AF) on behalf of the US Air Force Test Pilot School located at Edwards Air Force Base. These aircraft are used to train test pilots from the US and other nations sending students to the two schools.
A MiG-15 is located at the Southern Museum of Flight, Birmingham–Shuttlesworth International Airport, Birmingham, Alabama.
A Chinese version of the MiG-15bis is on display at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center, Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum at Washington Dulles International Airport, Virginia
A WSK-Mielec SBLim-2 (Polish-built MiG-15UTI, c/n 1A06027, ex-Polish Air Force "627") is on display at the Valiant Air Command Warbird Museum, Titusville, Florida
A WSK-Mielec SBLim-2 (Polish-built MiG-15UTI, c/n 1A03506, ex-Polish Air Force "306") is on display at the Minnesota Air National Guard Museum, Minneapolis–St. Paul International Airport, Minnesota
A MiG-15 is on static display at the Commemorative Air Force Museum in Mesa, Arizona
North Korean MiG-15 079 under restoration at Palm Springs Air Museum, Palm Springs, California
A MiG-15 is on display at the Naval Air Station Wildwood Aviation Museum at Cape May airport in Cape May, New Jersey
Soviet built MiG-15bis serial #2292 built in 1954 and supplied to China as a J-2 is on indoor display at the Oakland Aviation Museum Oakland, California.
2 MiG-15s, in flyable condition at Western Sky Aviation Warbird Museum in St. George, Utah.
A MiG-15 is on display at the Kalamazoo Aviation History Museum.
Specifications (MiG-15bis)
Data from OKB Mikoyan, MiG: Fifty Years of Secret Aircraft DesignGeneral characteristics
Crew: 1
Length: 10.102 m (33 ft 2 in)
Wingspan: 10.085 m (33 ft 1 in)
Height: 3.7 m (12 ft 2 in)
Wing area: 20.6 m2 (222 sq ft)
Airfoil: root: TsAGI S-10; tip: TsAGI SR-3
Empty weight: 3,681 kg (8,115 lb)
Gross weight: 5,044 kg (11,120 lb)
Max takeoff weight: 6,106 kg (13,461 lb) with 2x600 L (160 US gal; 130 imp gal) drop-tanks
Fuel capacity: 1,420 L (380 US gal; 310 imp gal) internal
Powerplant: 1 × Klimov VK-1 centrifugal-flow turbojet, 26.5 kN (5,950 lbf) thrustPerformance
Maximum speed: 1,076 km/h (669 mph, 581 kn) at sea level1,107 km/h (688 mph; 598 kn) / M0.9 at 3,000 m (9,843 ft)Maximum speed: Mach 0.87 at sea level
Cruise speed: 850 km/h (530 mph, 460 kn) Mach 0.69
Ferry range: 2,520 km (1,570 mi, 1,360 nmi) at 12,000 m (39,370 ft) with 2x600 L (160 US gal; 130 imp gal) drop-tanks
Service ceiling: 15,500 m (50,900 ft)
Rate of climb: 51.2 m/s (10,080 ft/min)
Wing loading: 296.4 kg/m2 (60.7 lb/sq ft)
Thrust/weight: 0.54Armament
Guns: 2 × 23 mm Nudelman-Rikhter NR-23 autocannon in the lower left fuselage (80 rounds per gun, 160 rounds total)
1 × 37 mm Nudelman N-37 autocannon in the lower right fuselage (40 rounds total)
Hardpoints: 2 , with provisions to carry combinations of:
Bombs: 100 kg (220 lb) bombs
Other: drop tanks, or unguided rockets
See also
Boeing B-29 Superfortress
Clement Attlee
Stafford Cripps
Artem MikoyanRelated development
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17
Raduga KS-1 KometAircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era
Arsenal VG 70
Canadair Sabre
Dassault Ouragan
FMA IAe 33 Pulqui II
Grumman F9F Panther
Hawker P.1052
Lavochkin La-15
McDonnell F2H Banshee
North American F-86 Sabre
Saab 29 Tunnan
Supermarine Attacker
Yakovlev Yak-30 (1948)
Related lists
List of military aircraft of the Soviet Union and the CIS
List of fighter aircraft
Bibliography
Belyakov, R.A. and J. Marmain. MiG: Fifty Years of Secret Aircraft Design. Shrewsbury, UK: Airlife Publishing, 1994. ISBN 1-85310-488-4.
Butowski, Piotr (with Jay Miller). OKB MiG: A History of the Design Bureau and its Aircraft. Earl Shilton, Leicester, UK: Midland Counties Publications, 1991. ISBN 0-904597-80-6.
Butowski, Piotr. "Poland's MiGs: The story of the Lim family". Air Enthusiast, No. 49, March–May 1993. pp. 16–35. ISSN 0143-5450.
Cooper, Tom (2017). Hot Skies Over Yemen, Volume 1: Aerial Warfare Over the South Arabian Peninsula, 1962-1994. Solihull, UK: Helion & Company Publishing. ISBN 978-1-912174-23-2.
Cooper, Tom; Grandolini, Albert (2018). Showdown in Western Sahara, Volume 1: Air Warfare over the Last African Colony, 1945-1975. Warwick, UK: Helion & Company Publishing. ISBN 978-1-912390-35-9.
Cooper, Tom; Weinert, Peter; Hinz, Fabian; Lepko, Mark (2011). African MiGs, Volume 2: Madagascar to Zimbabwe. Houston: Harpia Publishing. ISBN 978-0-9825539-8-5.
Davis, Larry. 4th Fighter Wing in the Korean War. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, 2001. ISBN 978-0-7643-1315-8.
Davis, Larry. MiG Alley Air to Air Combat over Korea. Warren, Michigan: Squadron/Signal Publications Inc., 1978. ISBN 0-89747-081-8.
Doran, Jamie and Piers Bizony. Starman: The Truth Behind the Legend of Yuri Gagarin. London: Bloomsbury Publishing plc, 1998. ISBN 0-7475-3688-0.
Dorr, Robert F., Jon Lake and Warren Thompson. Korean War Aces(Aircraft of the Aces). London: Osprey Publishing, 1995. ISBN 978-1-85532-501-2.
Fitzsimons, Bernard, ed. "MiGs." Modern Fighting Aircraft. Fallbrook, California: Arco Publishing, 1985. ISBN 0-668-06070-0
Gordon, Yefim. Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15: The Soviet Union's Long-Lived Korean War Fighter. Hinkley, UK: Midland Publishing, 2001. ISBN 1-85780-105-9.
Gordon, Yefim and Peter Davison. Mikoyan Gurevich MiG-15 Fagot (WarbirdTech Volume 40). North Branch, Minnesota: Speciality Press, 2005. ISBN 1-58007-081-7.
Gordon, Yefim and Vladimir Rigmant. Warbird History: MiG-15 – Design, Development, and Korean War Combat History. St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks, 1993. ISBN 978-0-87938-793-8.
Gordon, Yefim et al. MiG-15 Fagot, all variants (bilingual Czech/English). Prague 10-Strašnice: MARK I Ltd., 1997. ISBN 80-900708-6-8.
Gordon, Yefim and Dmitry Komissarov. Chinese Aircraft. Manchester, UK: Hikoki Publications, 2008. ISBN 978-1-902109-04-6.
Gunston, Bill. The Osprey Encyclopedia of Russian Aircraft: 1875–1995. London: Osprey Aerospace, 1996. ISBN 1-85532-405-9.
Higham, Robin, John T. Greenwood and Von Hardesty. Russian Aviation and Air Power in the Twentieth Century. London: Frank Cass, 1998. ISBN 978-0-7146-4380-9.
Karnas, Dariusz. Mikojan Gurievitch MiG-15. Sandomierz, Poland/Redbourn, UK: Mushroom Model Publications, 2004. ISBN 978-83-89450-05-0.
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Krylov, Leonid and Yuriy Tepsurkaev. Soviet MiG-15 Aces of the Korean War. Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Publications, 2008. ISBN 1-84603-299-7.
Kum-Suk, No and Roger J. Osterholm. A MiG-15 to Freedom. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Co. Publishers, 1996. ISBN 0-7864-0210-5.
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Nicolle, David. Phoenix over the Nile: A History of Egyptian Air Power 1932–1994 (Smithsonian History of Aviation & Spaceflight). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian, 1996. ISBN 1-56098-626-3.
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Stapfer, Hans-Heiri. MiG-15 Fagot Walk Around (Walk Around 40). Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications Inc., 2006. ISBN 0-89747-495-3.
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Thompson, Warren E. and David R. McLaren. MiG Alley: Sabres vs. MiGs over Korea. North Branch, Minnesota: Specialty Press, 2002. ISBN 978-1-58007-058-4.
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Zaloga, Steven J. "The Russians in MiG Alley: Their part in the Korean War." Air Force Magazine, Volume 74, Issue 2, February 1991.
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MiG-15 in Korea
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MiG-15 Fagot at FAS
Cuban MiG-15
MiG Alley USA, Aviation Classics, Ltd Reno, Nevada |
M2, M-2, M.2 or M02 may refer to:
Entertainment
M² (album), a 2001 album by jazz musician Marcus Miller
m² (artist), an ambient project of Mathis Mootz
M2 (TV channel), a Hungarian TV channel
M2 (Ukraine), a Ukrainian music television channel
M2, a South Korean music television channel
M2 (game developer), Japanese game developer
Computing
M.2, a specification for internally mounted expansion cards
Apple M2, a central processing unit in the Apple M series
Socket M2, a CPU socket
Memory Stick Micro, a removable flash memory card format
Fast Universal Digital Computer M-2, an early Russian digital computer (1957)
Opera Mail, formerly known as M2
Modula-2, a computer programming language
Macaulay2, a free computer algebra system
Military
Vehicles
M2 (missile), a French submarine-launched ballistic missile
M2 Bradley, an armored fighting vehicle
M2 half-track car
M2 light tank
M2 medium tank
HMS Havelock (1915) (M2), a WWI British Royal Navy monitor
HMS M2, a 1919 submarine
HSwMS M2, a Swedish Navy mine sweeper
HSwMS Älvsborg (M02), a Swedish Royal Navy mine layer
Miles M.2 Hawk, a 1930s British two-seat light monoplane
M2 High Speed Tractor, M2 High Speed Tractor aircraft tug
Weapons
M2 Ball, ammunition
M2 Browning, a heavy machine gun in use since the 1920s
M2 carbine, a select-fire carbine
M2 flamethrower
M2 Hyde, submachine gun
M2 mine, a World War II land mine
M2 mortar, a 60 mm infantry mortar
M2 4.2-inch mortar, a 107mm infantry mortar
M2 tripod, a weapon mount
Mauser M2, semi-automatic handgun
M2 Aiming Circle, an optical survey device to measure deflection angles and elevation off a predefined azimuth
M2 compass (Brunton compass), used for mortars and field artillery; uses 6400 mils as opposed to 360 degrees
M2 howitzer, the WW2 designation for the M101 howitzer
M2/M4 Selectable Lightweight Attack Munition (SLAM), a land mine
Anti-Aircraft Target Rocket M2, a World War II training rocket
Transport
Bus routes
M2 (New York City bus), a New York City Bus route in Manhattan
Route M-2 (MTA Maryland), a bus route in Baltimore, Maryland and its suburbs
Metro lines
M2 (Copenhagen), a line of the Copenhagen Metro, colored yellow on the map
M2 (Istanbul Metro), a metro line in Turkey
M2 (Lausanne), part of the Lausanne Metro in Switzerland
Paris Métro Line 2, part of the Paris Metro in France
Bucharest Metro Line M2, part of the Bucharest Metro, Romania
Line 2 (Budapest Metro), the second line of Budapest Metro, Hungary
Line M2 (Warsaw Metro), the second line of Warsaw Metro, Poland
Line M2 - Milan Subway (Metropolitana di Milano)
Roads
List of M2 roads
M2 (Brisbane), Australia
M2 (Johannesburg), a Metropolitan Route in Johannesburg, South Africa
M2 (Pretoria), a Metropolitan Route in Pretoria, South Africa
M2 (Sydney), Australia
M2 motorway (Great Britain)
Vehicles
M2 (railcar), a Metro-North Railroad railcar
BMW M2, a variant of the BMW 2 Series
Freightliner M2, a cubetruck and chassis variants
Kubicek M-2 Scout, a Czech ultralight aircraft
LNER Class M2, a class of British steam locomotives
Science
M2 protein, an ion channel in the cell membrane of the influenza A virus
ATC code M02, Topical products for joint and muscular pain, a subgroup of the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System
British NVC community M2, a mire biological community in the United Kingdom
Messier 2, a globular cluster in the constellation Aquarius
Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M2, a muscarinic receptor for acetylcholine found mainly in the heart
M2 or M2, the principal lunar semi-diurnal constituent of tides on Earth
M2, a form of high speed steel in the tungsten-molybdenum series
M2 macrophage, a phenotype of macrophage
M2 (economics), a measure of the money supply
Other
M2 (Mazda), a marketing approach by Mazda
M2 Group, an Australian seller of telecommunications services, power, gas, and insurance products
M-2 visa, a type of United States visa for the dependents of an individual with an M-1 visa
Leica M2, a 35 mm rangefinder camera introduced in 1957
Panasonic M2, a video game console design
m2 or square metre, a unit of area
M2, one of the ISO metric screw thread sizes
M2 World Championship, the second esports Mobile Legends: Bang Bang World Championship held in 2021
M2, a difficulty grade in mixed climbing
M2 Competition (team), a New Zealand auto racing team
All pages with titles containing M2s
All pages with titles containing m2
All pages with titles containing m-2
M² (disambiguation)
MII (disambiguation)
Model 2 (disambiguation)
MM (disambiguation)
2M (disambiguation) |
M4 or M-4 most often refers to:
M4 carbine, an American carbine
M4 Sherman, an American World War II medium tankM4, M04, or M-4 may also refer to:
Arts and entertainment
M4 (EP), a 2006 EP by Faunts
M4 (video game), a 1992 computer game developed for the Macintosh
M.IV ("Matrix IV"), the fictional Warner Brothers videogame project inside the 2021 film The Matrix Resurrections
Military
Weapons
Benelli M4 Super 90, an Italian semi-automatic shotgun
M4 cannon, an American 37 mm automatic gun
M4 Selectable Lightweight Attack Munition (SLAM), an American land mine
M4 SLBM, a French submarine-launched ballistic missile from 1985
M4 Survival Rifle, an American rifle in aircraft survival gear
Spectre M4, an Italian submachine gun
M4 bayonet, an American World War II bayonet used for the M1 Carbine
Gross-Basenach M IV, a pre-WWI German military semi-rigid airship
Aircraft, ships and vehicles
HSwMS Carlskrona (M04), a 1980 Swedish Navy minelayer, later redesignated as ocean patrol vessel P04
HSwMS M4, a Swedish Navy mine sweeper
HMS Roberts (1915) (M4), a WWI British Royal Navy monitor
HMS M4 (1919), a British M-class submarine
M4 Tractor, a U.S. Army artillery tractor from 1943
Myasishchev M-4, a 1950s Soviet strategic bomber aircraft
Meusel M-IV, a German glider; see List of German gliders
Other uses in military
M4 flame fuel thickening compound, a substance used in fire bombs and incendiary weapons
M4 (German Navy 4-rotor Enigma), a variant of the Enigma cryptography machine
M04, desert variant of M05, a camouflage pattern used by the Finnish Defence Forces
Science and technology
Biology, medicine and organic chemistry
ATC code M04, Antigout preparations, a subgroup of the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System
British NVC community M4, a type of mire plant community in the British National Vegetation Classification system
M4, the FAB classification of acute myelomonocytic leukemia
Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M4, a protein
Computing and electronics
m4 (computer language), a macro processing language
M4, part number for a 1N400x general purpose diode
Sony Xperia M4 Aqua, a mobile phone
ARM Cortex-M#Cortex-M4, a processor family
Other uses in science and technology
Messier 4 (M4), a globular cluster in the Scorpius constellation of stars
Leica M4, a 1967 35 mm camera
M4, an ISO metric screw thread
Foton-M No.4, a Russian microgravity and bioscience research spacecraft launched in July 2014
Transportation
Air
Covington Municipal Airport (Tennessee), FAA location identifier M04
Maule M-4, a 1960 American four-seat cabin monoplane aircraft
Miles M.4 Merlin, a 1930s British five-seat cabin monoplane aircraft
Rail
Bucharest Metro Line M4, Romania
Line 4 (Budapest Metro), Metro 4 or M4, Hungary
M4 (Copenhagen), a future expansion of the Copenhagen Metro, Denmark
M4 (Istanbul Metro), a subway line on the Asian side of Istanbul, Turkey
M4, variant of M2 (railcar), an American railcar on the Metro-North Railroad
Milan Metro Line 4, rapid transit line in Milan, Italy
Sri Lanka Railways M4, a class of diesel-electric locomotive
Road
BMW M4, a car
M4 Vacamatic, a 1941 semi-automatic transmission made by Chrysler
M4, a bus route of Fifth and Madison Avenues Line, New York City, U.S.
Mid-engine, four-wheel-drive layout, or M4 layout, an automotive design
List of M4 roads
Other uses
Héctor David Delgado Santiago (1975–2013, alias El Metro 4, sometimes M4), deceased Mexican drug lord
M4, a measure of money supply
M4-, M4+ and M4x, disciplines in men's rowing
MLBB M4 World Championship, the fourth esports world championship for the mobile game Mobile Legends: Bang Bang held in 2023
M4, a difficulty grade in mixed climbing
All pages with titles containing M4
All pages with titles beginning with M4
MIV (disambiguation)
4M (disambiguation) |
M6, M06, M.6, or M-6 may refer to:
Military
M6 bayonet, a bayonet for the M14 rifle
M6 Bomb Truck, a truck used to move bombs during World War II
M6 Gun Motor Carriage, a United States wheeled Tank Destroyer of the Second World War
M6 gun, a 3" towed artillery piece
M6 heavy tank, a World War II heavy tank design that never entered full production
M6 Linebacker, an anti-aircraft variant of the M2 Bradley infantry fighting vehicle
M6 mine, a United States metal-cased, circular anti-tank landmine
M6 Mosegris, Danish designation for C15TA Armoured Truck
M6 Tractor
M6-640, a 60 mm mortar used by the British Army
Hirtenberger M6C-210 Commando, a 60 mm mortar used by various armies
LWRC M6, a series of United States military carbines based on the M4 carbine
Survival guns
M6 Aircrew Survival Weapon, a .22 Hornet over .410 gauge combination gun
Springfield Armory M6 Scout, a .22 LR over .410 gauge combination gun
Chiappa M6 Survival Gun, a 12 gauge over .22 LR combination gun
Entertainment
Groupe M6, a French media holding company
M6 (TV channel), a French television channel
Mike + The Mechanics, the sixth album by Mike & The Mechanics
People
Raúl Meza Ontiveros, Mexican suspected drug lord, nicknamed "M6"
Technology
M6 (cipher), a block cipher used by Digital Transmission Content Protection
M6, a British peak programme meter standard used for measuring the volume of audio broadcasts
Meizu M6 miniPlayer, flash-based portable media player
M6, a diode electrical component
Transport
Automobiles
BMW M6, a high-performance version of the 6 Series automobile.
BYD M6, an MPV produced by BYD Auto
M06 or BMW M30, a 1968 2.5 L-2.8 L straight-6 engine
M6 Presto-Matic, a semi-automatic transmission made by Chrysler
McLaren M6A, a racing car built by McLaren for the Can-Am series
Haima M6, a saloon
Refine M6, an MPV
Aviation
Amerijet International (IATA airline designator: M6), a cargo airline based in the United States
Fokker M.6, a 1916 German two-seat experimental aircraft
M06, Havre de Grace Seaplane Base FAA LID
Macchi M.6, a 1917 Italian flying boat fighter prototype
Miles M.6 Hawcon, a 1930s British experimental monoplane
M-6 aero-engine 1920 Soviet copy of the 220 kW (300 hp) Hispano-Suiza 8Fb V-8 aero engine
Public transport
Bucharest Metro Line M6, a planned metro line of the Bucharest Metro
M6 (New York City bus), a former New York City Bus route in Manhattan
M6 (Istanbul Metro), a short metro line in Istanbul, Turkey
M6, a Washington, D.C. Metrobus route
Sri Lanka Railways M6, a diesel-electric locomotive used in Sri Lanka
M6 (railcar), a Metro-North Railroad railcar
Roads
Frederik Meijer Trail, formerly the M-6 Trail, a bike trail running along the M-6 freeway in the Grand Rapids, Michigan area
Highway M06 (Ukraine), a road in Ukraine
M6 motorway, a motorway in Great Britain
M6 Toll, a toll motorway which relieves traffic on the neighbouring M6
M-6 (Michigan highway), a state highway in the Grand Rapids, Michigan area
M6 highway (Russia), another name for the Caspian Highway
M6 motorway (Hungary), a north–south motorway connecting Budapest to Pécs and Croatia
M6 motorway (Ireland), a motorway forming part of the N6 Dublin to Galway national primary route
M6 Road (Zambia), a road in Zambia
M6 (Cape Town), a Metropolitan Route in Cape Town, South Africa
M6 (Johannesburg), a Metropolitan Route in Johannesburg, South Africa
M6 (Pretoria), a Metropolitan Route in Pretoria, South Africa
M6 (Port Elizabeth), a Metropolitan Route in Port Elizabeth, South Africa
M6 Motorway (Sydney), a proposed motorway in New South Wales, Australia
Other uses
Butterfly Cluster, catalogued as Messier 6 or M6, an open star cluster in the constellation Scorpius
shorthand for king Mohammed VI of Morocco
M6 ISO metric screw thread
Mark Sixma, Dutch trance and house producer
Leica M6, a rangefinder camera once popular among photojournalists
Canon EOS M6, a mirrorless digital camera
SureFire M6 Guardian, a flashlight
M6, a difficulty grade in mixed climbing |
In chemistry, a phosphate is an anion, salt, functional group or ester derived from a phosphoric acid. It most commonly means orthophosphate, a derivative of orthophosphoric acid, AKA phosphoric acid H3PO4.
The phosphate or orthophosphate ion [PO4]3− is derived from phosphoric acid by the removal of three protons H+. Removal of one proton gives the dihydrogen phosphate ion [H2PO4]− while removal of two ions gives the hydrogen phosphate ion [HPO4]2−. These names are also used for salts of those anions, such as ammonium dihydrogen phosphate and trisodium phosphate.
In organic chemistry, phosphate or orthophosphate is an organophosphate, an ester of orthophosphoric acid of the form PO4RR′R″ where one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced by organic groups. An example is trimethyl phosphate, (CH3)3PO4. The term also refers to the trivalent functional group OP(O-)3 in such esters. Phosphates may contain sulfur in place of one or more oxygen atoms (thiophosphates and organothiophosphates).
Orthophosphates are especially important among the various phosphates because of their key roles in biochemistry, biogeochemistry, and ecology, and their economic importance for agriculture and industry. The addition and removal of phosphate groups (phosphorylation and dephosphorylation) are key steps in cell metabolism.
Orthophosphates can condense to form pyrophosphates.
Chemical properties
The phosphate ion has a molar mass of 94.97 g/mol, and consists of a central phosphorus atom surrounded by four oxygen atoms in a tetrahedral arrangement. It is the conjugate base of the hydrogen phosphate ion H(PO4)2−, which in turn is the conjugate base of the dihydrogen phosphate ion H2(PO4)−, which in turn is the conjugate base of orthophosphoric acid, H3PO4.
Many phosphates are soluble in water at standard temperature and pressure. The sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium, and ammonium phosphates are all water-soluble. Most other phosphates are only slightly soluble or are insoluble in water. As a rule, the hydrogen and dihydrogen phosphates are slightly more soluble than the corresponding phosphates.
Equilibria in solution
In water solution, orthophosphoric acid and its three derived anions coexist according to the dissociation and recombination equilibria below
Values are at 25 °C and 0 ionic strength.
The pKa values are the pH values where the concentration of each species is equal to that of its conjugate bases. At pH 1 or lower, the phosphoric acid is practically undissociated. Around pH 4.7 (mid-way between the first two pKa values) the dihydrogen phosphate ion, [H2PO4]−, is practically the only species present. Around pH 9.8 (mid-way between the second and third pKa values) the monohydrogen phosphate ion, [HPO4]2−, is the only species present. At pH 13 or higher, the acid is completely dissociated as the phosphate ion, (PO4)3−.
This means that salts of the mono- and di-phosphate ions can be selectively crystallised from aqueous solution by setting the pH value to either 4.7 or 9.8.
In effect, H3PO4, H2(PO4)− and H(PO4)2− behave as separate weak acids because the successive pKa differ by more than 4.
Phosphate can form many polymeric ions such as pyrophosphate, (P2O7)4−, and triphosphate, (P3O10)5−. The various metaphosphate ions (which are usually long linear polymers) have an empirical formula of (PO3)− and are found in many compounds.
Biochemistry of phosphates
In biological systems, phosphorus can be found as free phosphate anions in solution (inorganic phosphate) or bound to organic molecules as various organophosphates.
Inorganic phosphate is generally denoted Pi and at physiological (homeostatic) pH primarily consists of a mixture of [HPO4]2− and [H2PO4]− ions. At a neutral pH, as in the cytosol (pH = 7.0), the concentrations of the orthophoshoric acid and its three anions have the ratios
[ H2PO−4 ] / [ H3PO4 ] ≈ 7.5 × 104
[ HPO2−4 ] / [ H2PO−4 ] ≈ 0.62
[ PO3−4 ] / [ HPO2−4 ] ≈ 2.14 × 10−6Thus, only [H2PO4]− and [HPO4]2− ions are present in significant amounts in the cytosol (62% [H2PO4]−, 38% [HPO4]2−). In extracellular fluid (pH = 7.4), this proportion is inverted (61% [HPO4]2−, 39% [H2PO4]−).
Inorganic phosphate can also be present as pyrophosphate anions [P2O7]4−, which give orthophosphate by hydrolysis:
[P2O7]4− + H2O ⇌ 2 [HPO4]2−Organic phosphates are commonly found in the form of esters as nucleotides (e.g. AMP, ADP, and ATP) and in DNA and RNA. Free orthophosphate anions can be released by the hydrolysis of the phosphoanhydride bonds in ATP or ADP. These phosphorylation and dephosphorylation reactions are the immediate storage and source of energy for many metabolic processes. ATP and ADP are often referred to as high-energy phosphates, as are the phosphagens in muscle tissue. Similar reactions exist for the other nucleoside diphosphates and triphosphates.
Bones and teeth
An important occurrence of phosphates in biological systems is as the structural material of bone and teeth. These structures are made of crystalline calcium phosphate in the form of hydroxyapatite. The hard dense enamel of mammalian teeth may contain fluoroapatite, a hydroxy calcium phosphate where some of the hydroxyl groups have been replaced by fluoride ions.
Medical and biological research uses
Phosphates are medicinal salts of phosphorus. Some phosphates, which help cure many urinary tract infections, are used to make urine more acidic. To avoid the development of calcium stones in the urinary tract, some phosphates are used. For patients who are unable to get enough phosphorus in their daily diet, phosphates are used as dietary supplements, usually because of certain disorders or diseases. Injectable phosphates can only be handled by qualified health care providers.
Plant metabolism
Plants take up phosphorus through several pathways: the arbuscular mycorrhizal pathway and the direct uptake pathway.
Adverse health effects
Hyperphosphatemia, or a high blood level of phosphates, is associated with elevated mortality in the general population. The most common cause of hyperphosphatemia in people, dogs, and cats is kidney failure. In cases of hyperphosphatemia, limitting consumption of phosphate-rich foods, such as some meats and dairy items and foods with a high phosphate-to-protein ratio, such as soft drinks, fast food, processed foods, condiments, and other products containing phosphate-salt additives is advised.Phosphates induce vascular calcification, and a high concentration of phosphates in blood was found to be a predictor of cardiovascular events.
Production
Geological occurrence
Phosphates are the naturally occurring form of the element phosphorus, found in many phosphate minerals. In mineralogy and geology, phosphate refers to a rock or ore containing phosphate ions. Inorganic phosphates are mined to obtain phosphorus for use in agriculture and industry.The largest global producer and exporter of phosphates is Morocco. Within North America, the largest deposits lie in the Bone Valley region of central Florida, the Soda Springs region of southeastern Idaho, and the coast of North Carolina. Smaller deposits are located in Montana, Tennessee, Georgia, and South Carolina. The small island nation of Nauru and its neighbor Banaba Island, which used to have massive phosphate deposits of the best quality, have been mined excessively. Rock phosphate can also be found in Egypt, Israel, Palestine, Western Sahara, Navassa Island, Tunisia, Togo, and Jordan, countries that have large phosphate-mining industries.
Phosphorite mines are primarily found in:
North America: United States, especially Florida, with lesser deposits in North Carolina, Idaho, and Tennessee
Africa: Morocco, Algeria, Egypt, Niger, Senegal, Togo, Tunisia, Mauritania
Middle East: Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Israel, Syria, Iran and Iraq, at the town of Akashat, near the Jordanian border.
Central Asia: Kazakhstan
Oceania: Australia, Makatea, Nauru, and Banaba IslandIn 2007, at the current rate of consumption, the supply of phosphorus was estimated to run out in 345 years. However, some scientists thought that a "peak phosphorus" would occur in 30 years and Dana Cordell from Institute for Sustainable Futures said that at "current rates, reserves will be depleted in the next 50 to 100 years". Reserves refer to the amount assumed recoverable at current market prices. In 2012 the USGS estimated world reserves at 71 billion tons, while 0.19 billion tons were mined globally in 2011. Phosphorus comprises 0.1% by mass of the average rock (while, for perspective, its typical concentration in vegetation is 0.03% to 0.2%), and consequently there are quadrillions of tons of phosphorus in Earth's 3×1019-ton crust, albeit at predominantly lower concentration than the deposits counted as reserves, which are inventoried and cheaper to extract. If it is assumed that the phosphate minerals in phosphate rock are mainly hydroxyapatite and fluoroapatite, phosphate minerals contain roughly 18.5% phosphorus by weight. If phosphate rock contains around 20% of these minerals, the average phosphate rock has roughly 3.7% phosphorus by weight.
Some phosphate rock deposits, such as Mulberry in Florida, are notable for their inclusion of significant quantities of radioactive uranium isotopes. This is a concern because radioactivity can be released into surface waters from application of the resulting phosphate fertilizer.
In 2021 Norway discovered phosphate deposits almost equal to those in the rest of Earth combined.In December 2012, Cominco Resources announced an updated JORC compliant resource of their Hinda project in Congo-Brazzaville of 531 million tons, making it the largest measured and indicated phosphate deposit in the world.In July 2022 China announced quotas on phosphate exportation.The largest importers in millions of metric tons of phosphate are Brazil 3.2, India 2.9 and the USA 1.6.
Mining
The three principal phosphate producer countries (China, Morocco and the United States) account for about 70% of world production.
Ecology
In ecological terms, because of its important role in biological systems, phosphate is a highly sought after resource. Once used, it is often a limiting nutrient in environments, and its availability may govern the rate of growth of organisms. This is generally true of freshwater environments, whereas nitrogen is more often the limiting nutrient in marine (seawater) environments. Addition of high levels of phosphate to environments and to micro-environments in which it is typically rare can have significant ecological consequences. For example, blooms in the populations of some organisms at the expense of others, and the collapse of populations deprived of resources such as oxygen (see eutrophication) can occur. In the context of pollution, phosphates are one component of total dissolved solids, a major indicator of water quality, but not all phosphorus is in a molecular form that algae can break down and consume.Calcium hydroxyapatite and calcite precipitates can be found around bacteria in alluvial topsoil. As clay minerals promote biomineralization, the presence of bacteria and clay minerals resulted in calcium hydroxyapatite and calcite precipitates.Phosphate deposits can contain significant amounts of naturally occurring heavy metals. Mining operations processing phosphate rock can leave tailings piles containing elevated levels of cadmium, lead, nickel, copper, chromium, and uranium. Unless carefully managed, these waste products can leach heavy metals into groundwater or nearby estuaries. Uptake of these substances by plants and marine life can lead to concentration of toxic heavy metals in food products.
See also
US Minerals Databrowser provides data graphics covering consumption, production, imports, exports and price for phosphate and 86 other minerals
Phosphate: analyte monograph – The Association for Clinical Biochemistry and Laboratory Medicine |
Space Empires IV is a turn-based 4X strategy computer game developed by Malfador Machinations and published by Strategy First as part of the Space Empires series in which players control an alien race in an attempt at galactic conquest.
Gameplay
The gameplay is similar to Civilization style games in the sense that one controls the overall organization of the alien race on a scale far above that of controlling individual persons. Combat is not necessitated by the game itself and players are free to engage in political negotiations with their rivals. The mechanics of the game allow players to either improve their planets' resource production through the construction of facilities or build more ships with which to defend their empires.
There are multiple ways that players can conquer other empires, depending on the setting enabled by the player during set up. The most direct way is destroying the colonies and home world of their rivals using ever more devastating weapons. Further along the tech tree this is facilitated by technology, allowing the player to destroy planets whole and manipulate stars turning entire systems into black holes or storms. Other ways to win include diplomatic allying with all races and maintaining peace throughout the universe (a difficult feat with rival computer players fighting amongst themselves).
Mechanisms
In Space Empires IV the galaxy is represented by a number of discrete areas called "systems" which represent complete star systems. These are usually connected to each other by "warp points" through which a ship or fleet can travel to another system. The standard system comprises a number of stars, planets, asteroids, storms and warp points. Some stars may be more prone to going supernova which will destroy the entire system, or may cause effects to ships passing by. Planets are either ice, rock or gas types, with an atmosphere of none, hydrogen, oxygen, methane or carbon dioxide. They range in size of tiny, small, medium, large, and huge. Planets also have "conditions", the quality of which affects the rate of reproduction for inhabitants and their happiness on the world. A planet also has a number of values for "mineral", "organic" and "radioactive" content. Once colonized, a player may build facilities to mine these resources on a world. The rate of production of each resource is modified by the values for each planet.
Races
Space Empires IV allows the player to select one of a variety of alien races to represent them and then compete against a selection of the others. As well as the usual human race, the Terrans, there are a number of races which are otherwise notable due to their propensity for successful play. The Praetorian empire will often become a very formidable rival due to their expansionist tendencies and peaceful nature. Likewise the Eee consortium's high intelligence will often grant them technological superiority in the late game. By contrast the Xi-Chung hive's aggressive tendencies and technologies generally make them dangerous foes in the early game only.
Technology
In Space Empires IV an empire's facilities and ships become steadily more powerful, efficient and varied as they conduct scientific research. This is simulated by the turn-by-turn production of research points which can be channeled towards specific projects. When the project is completed the player is rewarded with new or better facilities, ship components or new research projects. Most fields can be advanced multiple times, becoming progressively more expensive but yielding better results. The large size of the "technology tree" system allows for a high degree of technological variation between empires.
Some empires have access to special research lines known as the "racial techs". In the standard games the racial techs are Organic, Crystalline, Psychic, Temporal and Deeply Religious. By researching these lines the empire gains access to facilities and ship components not available to other empires. Often these are very powerful, such as the Organic Armor, Religious Talisman and Allegiance Subverter ship components.
Reception
In 2003, writer Mark H. Walker noted that Shrapnel Games had "made serious money" with Space Empires IV. He cited Shrapnel itself as a success story for Internet-based game distribution, alongside Battlefront.com.The editors of Computer Gaming World nominated Space Empires IV as the best strategy game of 2000, although it lost to Sacrifice. They described Space Empires IV as "very old-school", and noted its "almost obsessive level of micromanagement."
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SI2 may refer to:
Silicon Integration Initiative
Storm from the Shadows, the second book in David Weber's Saganami Island series.
SI2, a grade of diamond clarity
Solar Impulse 2, 2nd generation solar powered plane |
SO2 may refer to:
In science:
Sulfur dioxide (SO2), an oxide of sulfur, a chemical compound
to a Sulfonyl group (R-SO2-R)
The special orthogonal group of degree 2
oxygen saturation (SO2), in medicine of blood oxygenation
S2 (star), aka SO-2, is the name of a star near the central black hole at the center of the Milky Way galaxy that takes 16 years to orbit that black hole.
2015 SO2, an Aten asteroid in a horseshoe orbit co-orbital with EarthIt may also refer to:
A staff officer of the second class, often a commissioned officer of lieutenant commander, major or squadron leader rank
A London Metropolitan Police Specialist Operations command division
Special Operations 2 – Operational, of SOE (Special Operations Executive, British, World War II)
Star Ocean 2, a video game
SO2 (album), a 2010 album by Shinichi Osawa
An abbreviation of "Shout-out to"
All pages with titles beginning with SO2
All pages with titles containing SO2
Soso (disambiguation)
Soo (disambiguation)
SO (disambiguation) |