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Grasses are among the most familiar and important flowering plants. They are used primarily as foodstuffs. Humans consume grasses directly as CEREALS (eg, wheat, corn, barley, rye, oats) or as sweetening (eg, sugar from sugar cane, molasses from sorghum). Most meat and dairy products are derived from grass-eating domesticated animals. Many wild animals are also grass eaters. Grasses contribute to the aesthetic environment as turfs gracing playing fields, golf courses and lawns, and as ornamental garden grasses. They stabilize soil and prevent erosion. Emergence of Grasslands Grasslands began to appear about 25 million years ago, changing the face of much of the world and providing food for grazing animals. Grasses and grazers evolved together. Grasses benefit because grazers control the growth of competing species and provide fertilizers. Grasses owe their success largely to peculiarities of their structure. They consist of vegetative structures (roots, stems and leaves) and reproductive structures (flowers and associated modified leaves). Although most grass parts are like those of other flowering plants, certain structures are unique. Usually, the stems (culms) are hollow, except at points (nodes) where leaves are attached. However, some well-known grasses do not have hollow internodes, eg, corn (Zea mays ) and big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii ) of the Canadian prairies. The characteristic grass leaf consists of a sheath (basal portion of the leaf) surrounding the stem for some distance above the node. The part of the leaf that diverges away from the stem is the blade. At the junction of sheath and blade, there is often a small structure (ligule) forming a continuation of the sheath. Sheaths of grass leaves may be open (with edges overlapping but not fused) or closed (with fused edges). Closed sheaths are less common but are found in the widespread bluegrasses (Poa ) and bromegrasses (Bromus Grasses range in size from 3 cm (eg, Aira praecox of Vancouver Island) to 2 m (eg, Elymus cinereus of BC and Alberta). Their life cycle may be completed in a single year, as in many annual crop plants, or they may survive for hundreds of years, as do native prairie perennials. Canadians usually associate grasses with prairie vegetation, although they occur in all habitats except in the densest woods. Some grasses (eg, 3-awn grass, Aristida longiseta ) are found in arid regions of British Columbia, others (eg, wild rice, Zizania aquatica ) in eastern Canadian lakes. Certain genera (eg, Arctagrostis ) are native to the Canadian Arctic. Turf grasses are developed from species that show desirable characteristics, eg, density of growth, fast growth after seeding, ability to remain green, etc. In Canada cold-hardiness and frequently drought resistance are also important. Popular Canadian lawn grass mixtures often include species of Poa (eg, Kentucky bluegrass, roughstalk bluegrass) and Festuca (especially creeping red fescue, chewing fescue), although other useful species have been developed. Grasses consist of vegetative structures (roots, stems and leaves) and reproductive structures (flowers and associated modified leaves) (artwork by Claire Tremblay). A. Arber, The Gramineae (1959). Links to Other Sites The Plant List Search this online database for information about one million plant species from around the world. Also, click on "major plant groups" at the bottom of the page to browse descriptions of species of interest. Fungi and algae are excluded. From the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, in the UK and the Missouri Botanical Garden in the US. A glossary of commonly used terms relating to geography, agriculture, and the environment. A Government of Manitoba website. Flora of North America The FNA website features information on the names, taxonomic relationships, continent-wide distributions, and morphological characteristics of all plants native and naturalized found in North America north of Mexico. Glossary: Grassland Conservation Glossary of ecological terms related to grassland conservation. From the website for the Grasslands Conservation Council of BC. Planting the Seed A guide to establishing prairie and meadow communities in Southern Ontario. From Environment Canada. Information page about snow mold, a fungus that can infect cereal plants and residential lawns. From the University of Saskatchewan. The website for FLORA Ontario Integrated Botanical Information System. Search the database for information about specific plant species. Droughts in Canada: An overview Watch an online presentation about research into the occurrence of drought in Canada’s prairie region, as well as a discussion on causes, monitoring, and management strategies relating to drought conditions. From the website for the Drought Research Initiative. Tree of Life Explore the diversity of Earth's life forms at the Tree of Life website. Also includes beautiful photographs, an extensive glossary of biological terms, and "Treehouses" for younger readers.

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Over the next several days, CRN will publish five weblog installments analyzing nanotechnology and risk, covering both existing and near-future nanoscale technologies as well as medium-future molecular manufacturing. We will compare and contrast the two fields that take the name "nanotechnology", and finish with our recommendations for managing the risks presented by nanotechnology. Part 1 (today) is an overview of existing nanoscale technologies. Part 2 will assess the risks of nanoscale technology. Part 3 is an overview of molecular manufacturing, and Part 4 addresses the risks of molecular manufacturing. Part 5 will be a conclusion with recommendations. Part 1: Nanoscale Technologies Overview Nanoscale technologies include many diverse fields. This installment will give a flavor of what the technology is about and how it works. Nanoscale features are used in a variety of applications including computers, disinfectants, self-cleaning surfaces, stronger plastics, medicines, solar cells, biological research, and materials science. These applications depend on a surprising variety of physical principles and means of manufacture. One way to make nanoscale particles is simply to vary existing manufacturing processes. Grinding bulk materials finer, or condensing gases more quickly, can create smaller particles. Nanoscale structures can also be made chemically. Chemists have learned to make large, precise, branching molecules called dendrimers. Some chemicals can self-assemble into larger patterns, sticking together as regions of the chemical attract each other in particular ways. Non-molecular particles can also stack up, forming quasicrystalline arrays. Then there are a variety of ways, collectively called lithography, to form nanoscale features on an existing surface. New physical and chemical structures can display new features. For example, smaller particles of a catalyst can be more active, not just because of increased surface area, but because of increased strain between the atoms. Other particles may trap electrons in ways that make them glow in specific colors or make them useful for new computer circuit designs. Sometimes, simply arranging nanoscale objects more precisely can be helpful. New techniques for making single layers of molecules can be used for better semiconductors, sensors, surface characteristics, structural properties, and displays. Tools to deal with the nanoscale also are called nanotechnology, because they sense or manipulate on the nanometer scale. These tools may not actually incorporate many nanoscale components. For example, the only nanoscale part of a scanning tunneling microscope (other than in the computer chips) is the scanning probe tip. And that is sometimes made by the low-tech technique of cutting a wire with an ordinary pair of scissors. Carbon nanotubes are a hot topic in nanotechnology. Conceptually, a carbon nanotube is formed by rolling a thin strip of graphite rolled into a tube and chemically stitching the edges together. Carbon nanotubes are extremely strong. Depending on how the graphite is twisted, they may be excellent conductors, semiconductors, or insulators. They are unusual in that they are single molecules, with precise chemical formulas, but may be thousands of nanometers long. Carbon nanotubes are being investigated for use in electronics as well as for reinforcing plastic and making it conductive. Tiny particles of gold absorb certain colors of infrared light, heating up as they do. If attached to a chemical that seeks out cancer cells, the particles will cluster around even tiny tumors. Shining infrared light on the patient will then overheat and kill the tumors without damaging the rest of the body. Nanoscale technology does not build complete products, only components. The wide diversity of applications means that substantial research is necessary to develop the new applications. But small size, new structures, and greater precision can improve performance in a variety of ways. Less material may be needed; stronger components can be made; new optical and electronic elements promise to shrink computers by a hundredfold; hybrids of molecules and nanoparticles can have significant medical uses including destroying tumors without harming surrounding tissue. This combination of improved performance and new applications makes nanoscale technologies well worth investigating, and a wide variety of large and small companies, as well as academic research institutions, already are doing so. Tune in tomorrow for Part 2: Risks of Nanoscale Technology.

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Print This Page Contribute to ReadWriteThink / RSS / FAQs / Site Demonstrations / Contact Us Home › Email Lesson Plan | Minilesson Author: Traci Gardner Draft letters ask students to think critically about their writing on a specific assignment before submitting their work to a reader. This lesson explains and provides models for the strategy. (A link to this page will be included in your message.) Back to this resource Send me a copy (Separate multiple e-mail addresses with commas. Limited to 20 addresses.) characters remaining 300 To help us eliminate spam messages, please type the characters shown in the image. © 2013 IRA/NCTE. All rights reserved. Technical Help | Legal | International Reading Association | National Council of Teachers of English

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Residues from a buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) green manure crop grown with phosphate rock influence bioavailability of soil phosphorus Arcand, M. M., Lynch, D. H., Voroney, R. P. and van Straaten, P. 2010. Canadian Journal of Soil Science. 90:257-266. Request A Paper If you would like a copy of this paper, we can send it directly to your inbox! Just fill out the form below. Low soil test phosphorus (P) concentrations are common in organically managed soils in Canada. This field study examined the effect of residues from a buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) green manure (GM) crop grown with an igneous and a sedimentary source of phosphate rock (PR) on in situ soil P supply, Olsen P, and soil microbial biomass P on an organic farm in Ontario, Canada. Phosphate rock application did not increase GM dry matter production, but did increase above-ground tissue P concentration with applications of the sedimentary PR (Calphos). In the following spring, in situ soil P supply and Olsen P were increased in GM residue-applied soils and in soils containing the Calphos PR, while microbial biomass P was largely unaffected. Release of P was detected when GM P concentration was greater than 2.9 g P kg-1. The results suggest the quality of the GM residues had more influence on P availability than the quantity applied to the soil; however, the low changes in available P (P supply and Olsen P) were not agronomically significant.

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On 11 October 2010, Lord Bates called on the government to support the traditional Olympic Truce for the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games. Lord Bates described how the Olympic Truce was originally established in around 776 BC to create a period during which athletes and their families could travel in safety to the Olympic games. He pointed out how violations of the truce were extremely rare in ancient times, whereas in recent years the games have been cancelled three times due to war. "In ancient Greece, people stopped fighting to take part in the Games; in the modern era we stop the Games in order to keep fighting," he said. "What is it that we have lost in 3,000 years of civilisation that makes even today the notion that combatants may exercise restraint during a period of truce such a distant dream?" The peer also called on the government to consider introducing a ninth millennium development goal with the aim of reducing the current 30 conflicts around the world by 2015. Since 1993 the Olympic Truce has been codified in a series of United Nations resolutions stating that member states should pursue "the peaceful settlement of all international conflicts". In theory, the Truce starts seven days before the Olympic games begins and ceases seven days after the close of the Paralympic Games. The resolution must be renewed prior to each winter and summer Olympics. Lord Hall of Birkenhead, chair of the said that the UK "has a lot to offer the world" on conflict resolution, highlighting Northern Ireland as an example. The former Paralympic athlete, Baroness Grey-Thompson, agreed that the Olympic Truce was a "wonderful ambition," but she also wanted peers to think about how sport can change the world. "Sport has such a strong power to influence society and bring about change," the crossbench peer said. "By hosting the Games in 2012 we have an opportunity to set a mark for the other countries that will follow us to try to reach." Baroness Rawlings, replying for the government, said the UK would call for a fresh UN resolution calling for observance of the Truce for the 2012 Games. She told peers that the resolution is likely to be adopted by October or November in 2011.

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A strip (2 × 20 m; Squares A–E; Figs. 1, 2) was excavated where bedrock drops precipitously from west to east in a number of terraces. Walls (W924, W930 and W934) that formed cells were built perpendicular to the bedrock slope. The cells were filled with soil that contained numerous potsherds dating to Iron I. Above the cells, fieldstone-built foundations that apparently supported mud-brick walls were exposed. These walls were apparently coated with red plaster, as evidenced by many plaster fragments found in the ruins. A round stone that may have been used as a column (Fig. 3) was incorporated in one of the wall foundations (W951). An accumulated layer of burnt soil and ash (thickness c. 1.5 m; Fig. 4), which contained many Iron I potsherds, attests to a mighty blaze that destroyed the buildings. A large building was constructed in the Late Roman period, atop the ruins of the Iron Age structures. The foundations of a wall (W902; preserved height 3.25 m) in the eastern part of the excavation were set on bedrock. Another wall (W912), which was overlain with a pilaster of ashlar stones (Fig. 5) and was probably constructed in the Phoenician building tradition, abutted W902. A floor overlain with stone collapse and pottery vessels from the Late Roman period abutted these walls. Two connected bell-shaped pits (Fig. 6) were hewn in chalk bedrock that was exposed below surface at the western end of the lot. The ceiling of the northern pit was entirely preserved and had an opening, blocked with stones; the ceiling of the southern pit had collapsed or was intentionally removed. Plaster remains were not traced in the pits, which were apparently used as silos or as a winery, rather than as water cisterns. The pits contained fragments of pottery vessels whose date ranged from the Roman to the Mamluk periods. A fieldstone paved surface (L922) in the center of the excavation area was most likely the courtyard of a house from the nineteenth century CE. A strip (2.5 × 20.0 m; Squares A–E; Figs. 7, 8) was excavated on a slope where bedrock moderately slanted from west to east, compared to its steep drop in Lot 9. Remains of buildings that dated to Iron I were found. Their exposed walls (W131, W133; Fig. 9) could not form a coherent plan due to the limited excavation area. Layers of burnt red soil and ash, which contained a large amount of pottery vessels from Iron I (Loci 127, 132), attest to the same violent destruction as evidenced in Lot 9. Settlement was renewed in the Late Roman period and new buildings were constructed on the ruins of the Iron Age. One of the walls of these buildings (W105; Fig. 10) was constructed from ashlar pilasters in the Phoenician building tradition. Two walls (W111, W114) were exposed above a bedrock terrace at the western end of the area. The walls formed a corner in which finds from the Byzantine period were uncovered. A wide pit that penetrated into the Roman layer was filled with collapse of small stones and numerous pottery fragments from the Mamluk period (L124), although no building remains from this period were found. A stone pavement (L113) that was found in the eastern part of the excavation was similar to the one revealed in Lot 9. The pavement was placed directly on the remains from the Roman period and next to it was a cluster of tools and iron horseshoes that probably belonged to residents of the moshava in the nineteenth century CE.

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Any assessment of the persistence and viability of species of conservation concern on military installations requires models that can project the demographic consequences for those populations in response to military training or other land use. For our purposes here, we define a population model as any model which describes the changes over time of a population occupying a single installation and it's immediate surroundings (see Metapopulation models for regional models that address Managing species across multiple installations ). Military use of the land (e.g., tracked vehicle training) often alters the quantity, quality, and spatial distribution of habitat used by threatened and endangered species or other species of conservation concern. Thus is it necessary that the population model translate spatial and temporal variability in habitat quantity and quality into changes in the number of individuals or population density. Population density alone can be a misleading indicator of habitat quality and population viability, and the relationship between habitat quality and simple population density may have weak predictive power (Van Horne 1983, Maurer 1986). Therefore, it is also desirable that the translation between habitat and population dynamics occur through the relationship between habitat and demographic parameters like fecundity, dispersal success, breeding success, survivorship, etc., which in turn determine population dynamics and persistence or extinction. Finally, because of the spatially distributed and spatially heterogeneous nature of training activity on what are generally large spatially heterogeneous installations, it is important that the population models include an explicit consideration of the effects of spatial structure and landscape pattern on population dynamics. We have developed a population model of this type for territorial migrant bird species, and we have implemented the model for two species of conservation concern: Henslow's sparrow (Ammodramus henslowii) at Fort Knox, Kentucky and Fort Riley, Kansas, and cerulean warbler (Dendroica cerulea) at the Department of Energy's Oak Ridge Reservation, Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Maurer, B. A. 1986. Predicting habitat quality for grassland birds using density habitat correlations. J. Wildl. Manage. 50:556566. Van Horne, B. 1983. Density as a misleading indicator of habitat quality. J. Wildl. Manage. 47:893901. Return to the Model Categories page Return to the Web Site Map Return to Ecological Modeling home page

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The epidemic of obesity in the United States has claimed one-third of adults — 33.8 percent. Obesity is defined as a body mass index (BMI) of 30 or higher. (Those with a BMI of 25-29.9 are considered overweight.) As the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention notes, “During the past 20 years, there has been a dramatic increase in obesity in the United States and rates remain high. In 2010, no state had a prevalence of obesity less than 20 percent. Thirty-six states had a prevalence of 25 percent or more; 12 of these states (Alabama, Arkansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas and West Virginia) had a prevalence of 30 percent or more.”1 The CDC’s Healthy People 2020 program aims for a 10 percent reduction in adult obesity over the next nine years.2 The agency, along with the healthcare industry, wants to stem the surge of obesity-related conditions that include heart disease, stroke, type 2 diabetes and certain types of cancer. Not only do these conditions cause premature death, they also generate enormous medical costs. In 2008, obesity-associated healthcare costs were estimated at $147 billion; the medical costs paid by third-party payers for obese people were $1,429 higher than for those of normal weight.3 HealthTeamWorks has developed a clinical guideline on adult obesity to help providers address this often-difficult issue with patients. Easy to use and comprehensive, it covers clinical assessment, diet, physical activity, weight-loss medications, surgery, tips for families, goal-setting and approaches to counseling that engage the patient. An associated action plan for patients allows providers to work with them to set goals for reaching a healthy weight. Goals pertain to nutrition and physical activity; the provider can assist with the care-team support section, which has spaces for referrals, medications and community resources. The guideline assists clinicians regardless of the cause of a patient’s obesity: genetics, inactivity, poor diet/eating habits, lifestyle, quitting smoking, pregnancy, lack of sleep, medication, age, socio-economic issues or medical problems.4 Because obesity represents such a major public health problem, and because losing even a modest amount of weight can prevent or improve morbidity, it’s imperative that clinicians address the issue with patients. 1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Overweight Obesity — U.S. Obesity Trends. www.cdc.gov/obesity/data/trends.html, accessed Nov. 15, 2011. 2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HealthyPeople.gov. Nutrition and Weight Status. http://healthypeople.gov/2020/topicsobjectives2020/objectiveslist.aspx?topicId=29#141, accessed Nov. 15, 2011. 3. Finkelstein EA, Trogdon JG, Cohen JW, Dietz W. Annual medical spending attributable to obesity: Payer- and service-specific estimates. Health Aff September/October 2009 vol. 28 no. 5 w822-w831. 4. Mayo Clinic. Obesity. www.mayoclinic.com/health/obesity/DS00314, accessed No. 22, 2011.

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To feel more at ease in meetings, it is necessary to be acquainted with the meeting terminology. The following terms are mostly applicable to formal meetings such as management committee meetings rather than workplace meetings. However terms such as agenda, apologies, minutes and business arising are common to most different meetings. The plan for a meeting, it lists the items to be discussed in the order in which they will be discussed. Proposed modification to a motion which is not in conflict with the general thrust of that motion. If the amendment is adopted it becomes part of the original motion (now called motion as amended or substantive motion) Formal notifications of inability to attend a meeting A technique used to gather ideas from a group, it involves the members of the group thinking of as many ideas as they can in a short period of time. Discussion on any matter recorded in the minutes of the previous meeting. The person who controls the conduct of the meeting, a sort of umpire. A type of group decision making. It involves coming to a decision acceptable to all members of the group without a vote being taken. A document setting out the fundamental principles governing the running of an organisation. It normally includes such things as the goals of the organisation, membership requirements, rights and fees, meeting times, voting rights and standing orders for meetings. More information on the constitution of an association The body of the meeting where the main objectives of the meeting are discussed The formal written record of a meeting. Copies are circulated to attendees and those who apologised (and sometimes to other interested parties), and formally confirmed at the next meeting as being a true record. A formal statement, usually involving some proposed action, put to a meeting for discussion and subsequent decision by vote. The proposer of a motion A formal statement involving some proposed action, put to a meeting for discussion and subsequent decision by vote. An item on the agenda (usually the last) that provides an opportunity for those present to suggest additional matters for discussion. A formal complaint (to the chair person) at a meeting that a speaker is being irrelevant, unduly repetitive, exceeding prescribed time, speaking out of turn or in some way violating standing orders. A motion aimed at changing the sequence or timing of events at a meeting, rather than one which addresses an agenda item. Minimum number (or percentage of those invited) required to be at a meeting for it to proceed legitimately. Someone who formally supports the mover of a motion An organisations rules that govern how its meetings should be run. The above meeting terminology is by no means the full list. However the above terms are commonly used in formal meetings and beneficial to learn. It is often the case that the constitution of the organisation will provide further explanation of the common meeting terminology.

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Imagine a world where anyone and anyplace outside the comforts of home elicit fear and anxiety so paralyzing that you shut down and cannot speak. That's the reality for 7-year-old Morgan Galie, who suffers from a childhood anxiety disorder called selective mutism. "They feel afraid," said Dr. Elisa Shipon-Blum of the Selective Mutism Anxiety Research & Treatment Center in Jenkintown, Pa. "Many of them say the words won't come out. Their voice box feels like it's closing up. Their stomach hurts. Their head hurts. Their body won't let them speak." "She describes it as the words get stuck in her toes," said Morgan's father, Vincent Galie. "So, it must be just nerve-wracking to not be able to talk when you want to." At home, Morgan is a different child, her parents say. "She's the loudest kid in the house, running around, you know, a normal kid, but very loud," Vincent Galie said. "She's a chatterbox," her mother, Colleen Galie, said. "She loves to talk. She loves to tell me about her day at school, all her friends." It's not surprising that Morgan acts so differently at home. Selective mutism is the result of extreme anxiety, usually in group settings or around strangers, Shipon-Blum said. What causes this disorder is not exactly known. What is known is that it has a genetic factor and usually appears when a child is first introduced into the social situation of preschool or school. It is, however, very different than everyday shyness. "The difference between shyness and selective mutism is ability to function," Shipon-Blum said. "Shy children function. Children with selective mutism have a difficulty socially, emotionally, academically." This widely misdiagnosed disorder is often ignored or dismissed as just a phase, leaving kids to suffer in silence. The Galies, who were previously unaware that Morgan suffered from selective mutism, initially saw their daughter's behavior at school as defiance. According to a recent study, selective mutism is almost twice as common as autism. "It's very frustrating, because how she is at home and then to hear that she's not talking in school," Colleen Galie said. "I thought she was doing it on purpose." "You feel really bad for yelling at her for not talking, to find that she can't talk." Although children with this disorder don't speak in public because they are paralyzed with fear, you won't observe them looking panic-stricken. That's because they are coping with the fear by not speaking. Morgan's mutism makes every class a challenge. In art class, she sometimes responds, but can't ask questions or make her needs known. In reading, she uses occasional gestures to communicate. "The primary thing that you're working on in first grade and second grade is reading," said Morgan's teacher, Ann Dieter. "And it's difficult to assess where she is in reading, if she's not reading for me." For the last three months, Shipon-Blum has been treating Morgan. The first goal of the treatment is not to get her to talk, but to help Morgan combat her anxiety and begin to engage socially in nonverbal ways. That's because the true problem is anxiety -- not the mutism itself, which is just a manifestation of that anxiety.

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When The Testing Is Done Most miscarriages take place within the first 20 weeks of pregnancy and between 10-15% of all pregnancies end up in miscarriage. Often the cause is attributed to chromosome abnormalities and is accepted as that. When multiple losses take place, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists has developed a standard for testing to determine if there may be other causes for the losses. The unfortunate thing is that testing to determine the cause of a missed pregnancy is not done until there have been multiple losses. It is possible that the causes of miscarriages could be discovered earlier and multiple losses avoided if testing was done after the first or second missed pregnancy. Early detection enhances the chances of a normal, healthy pregnancy and live birth. For losses before 15 weeks, the standard evaluation calls for three specific tests to determine cause - however, these tests often are not enough. Even after the standard testing, 50-75% of couples will remain without answers to their heartbreaking experience of losing multiple pregnancies. The ACOG suggests there be an evaluation of lupus anticoagulant and anticardiolipin antibodies in order to test for antiphospholipid syndrome, parental (as opposed to fetal) balanced chromosome abnormalities, and evaluation for uterine abnormalities. Sometimes answers are found in the standard evaluation, but often more tests are needed. Other tests and evaluations which are often included by many obstetricians are the evaluation of prolactin levels in order to test for luteal phase defect, TSH to test thyroid function and an evaluation for the presence of Factor V Leiden mutation. Even with all of these evaluations, there are still other possible considerations for the causes of miscarriage. Since research is considered somewhat inconsistent and/or treatment is controversial, some doctors don't test for other possible causes of miscarriage. Some of the other evaluations to consider are PCOS, polycystic ovarian syndrome, bacterial infections or viruses, possible uterine abnormalities and immunology disorders related to reproduction. After 15 Weeks While these tests and evaluations are mostly applicable to losses up to 15 weeks, they are also relevant for miscarriages which happen after that period. There are other factors to be considered in later losses and evaluations should include cervical incompetence and thrombophilias. It is very important to tell your obstetrician about any family history of miscarriages, especially if the losses were late in the pregnancy. This information could suggest conditions which are genetic and the history will help determine a course of treatment.

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en

Searching for the Skinny on Lipodystrophy A Ground-breaking Study Looks at the Causes and Cures for this Dangerous Side Effect Most of us are very familiar with the cluster of problems referred to as lipodystrophy; too familiar in fact. Faced with the prospects of body fat redistribution, increases in blood fats, and insulin resistance, some people are reluctant to start on anti-HIV drugs. However, several reports presented at conferences that cite examples of lipodystrophy in people who have not been on HAART, so what IS causing this problem? A new study beginning at the University of Washington may provide some answers. The study has three unique goals: to determine the mechanisms that cause lipodystrophy, to help predict who would be most at risk of developing this condition, and to identify possible treatments. The study was designed and will be conducted by two endocrinologists (specialists in glands and hormones), Scott Weigle MD and Jonathan Purnell MD. They will have assistance from infectious disease specialist Thomas Hooton, Medical Director of the Madison Clinic at Harborview Medical Center. Drs Weigle and Purnell have conducted many studies on the mechanisms of obesity and fat distribution in HIV-negative people. The researchers are working from the hypothesis that protease inhibitors cause the metabolic changes of lipodystrophy. They will investigate two possible mechanisms: increased cortisol (a hormone which regulates fat metabolism) in body tissues, and increased rates of fat cell development in the abdomen. Previous studies have shown that production of cortisol is closely linked with intra-abdomial fat in individuals without HIV infection. If the hypothesis is correct, people who develop lipodystrophy will have increased levels of cortisol production (known as hypercortisolism) or increased tissue sensitivity to cortisol. In the new study, participants will have cortisol production rates checked at their first visit to establish a baseline, and then at 2 and 12 months. If the assumptions are correct, people with elevated cortisol production at 2 months will begin to see an increase in abdominal fat and a reduction in peripheral fat (normally found in the face, arms, and legs) between 6 and 12 months. Researchers are hoping that it may be possible to use cortisol production levels to predict who is a risk for lipodystrophy as soon as 2 months after beginning therapy. If hypercortisolism is found to impact lipodystrophy, there is drug therapy capable of lowering cortisol production that might be used prevent lipodystrophy in people at risk. Researchers are also investigating another way that HAART might trigger lipodystrophy, by monitoring the activity of a hormone receptor sometimes referred to as the "master switch" for fat development. The master switch is called peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma 2, abbreviated PPARy2. The study will investigate whether protease inhibitors lead to increased levels of PPARy2 in the abdomen, as compared to the arms, legs and face. This would cause pre-fat cells in the abdomen to mature in to fat cells at a much higher rate. If this hypothesis proves correct, medications that lower PPARy2 levels might be used to prevent lipodystrophy. The study will be recruiting participants for 3 years, with the goal of recruiting a total of 180 people. Participants will be followed for 1 year and will need to spend 2 nights in the hospital on three occasions and to make one half-day visit. While in the hospital participants will have a constant intravenous line to draw blood to check cortisol and insulin levels. Participants will also have total body and abdominal fat content measured by both dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) and computerized tomographic (CT) scanning. Biopsies will also be performed on fat tissue collected from the leg and stomach by inserting a 16-gauge needle under the skin. (The researchers swear this doesn't hurt.) To compensate people for participating in the trial, $100 is offered for each study day, for a total of $1,000 for completion of 10 study days over 1 year! If you are interested in joining the study, please see ad on page 18, or contact Pat Breen RN at (206) 731-6749. The problem of lipodystrophy continues to be a concern when considering long-term drug therapy. It is crucial that the mechanism and cause of lipodystrophy be determined so that preventive therapy can be developed. This article was provided by Seattle Treatment Education Project. It is a part of the publication STEP Perspective.

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en

Mourning the loss of "Good old Sweden" Sweden's 2010 election brought the racist Sweden Democrats into the national parliament for this first time. Post-election discussions and analyses have tended to explain the presence of a racist party in the Swedish parliament as a reflection of dissatisfaction among certain voter segments, without taking into account any analysis of issues of race and whiteness. At the same time, there has been an eruption of official antiracism among the elites and within the Swedish establishment. However, a critical analysis of post-election Sweden in terms of race and whiteness has not been heard. Why not? How are we to understand the fact that whiteness and white privileges are maintained in a country ruled by progressive social policies, democratisation projects, gender equality and official antiracism? We argue that Sweden is currently undergoing a double crisis of Swedish whiteness. "old Sweden", i.e. Sweden as a homogeneous society, and "good Sweden", i.e. Sweden as a progressive society, are both perceived to be threatened by the presence of non-white migrants and their descendants. Both the reactionary and racist camp and the progressive and antiracist camp are mourning the loss of this double-edged Swedish whiteness. We also argue that our analysis of Swedish whiteness is also applicable to the situations in neighbouring Scandinavian countries, particularly to Norway after the Utøya massacre, which has prompted similar reactions to those in Sweden after the 2010 election. The foundations of Swedish whitenessIn contemporary Sweden, the idea of being white constitutes the central core and master signifier of Swedishness, and thus of being Swedish. A Swede is a white person and a non-white person is not a Swede. In other words, within the Swedish national imaginary the difference between the genetic concept of race and the cultural concept of ethnicity has collapsed completely: whiteness is Swedishness and Swedishness is whiteness. The conflation of race and ethnicity and the equivalence of Swedishness with whiteness is not only encountered by non-white migrants and their descendants, but also by adopted and mixed Swedes of colour with South American, African or Asian backgrounds. In spite of being more or less fully embedded within Swedishness on an ethnic, linguistic, religious and cultural level, these people experience racializing practices as a result of their "non-Swedish" bodies. The historical construction of Swedishness can be traced to the pre-eminence of the Swedes, along with the Norwegians and Danes, in the construction of the white race as the elite of homo sapiens. In a scientific discourse hegemonic for almost 200 years, the Swedes and other Scandinavians were considered the most physically and aesthetically perfect people on earth. The nation's scholars excelled in and contributed substantially to racial science: Carl Linnaeus created the first modern scientific system for race classification in the mid-1700s; Anders Retzius invented the skull or cephalic index – which became the principal method for racial science itself – in the 1850s; and the Swedish government founded the Swedish Institute for Racial Biology in 1922. In the mid 1930s, Sweden also installed one of the most effective sterilization programs ever, a eugenicist project that was both racialized, heteronormative, gendered and classed, and that affected more than 60 000 Swedes before being dissolved in the mid-1970s. However from the 1960s and 1970s, Sweden and the other Scandinavian countries arguably became the leading (western) voice and (white) supporter of decolonisation and anti-colonial, anti-segregation and anti-apartheid movements. In the process, the world's most radical proponent of social justice and gender equality transformed racism into a non-Swedish issue. In a feat of national branding, "good Sweden" was promoted as more tolerant and liberal than any other (western) country and (white) people in the world. One result was, for example, that Swedes have adopted proportionally the most children of colour from former colonies than any other western country; or that Swedes have entered into interracial marriages and relationships more frequently than other western nations. Sweden imagined itself as a non-racist and post-racial utopia with no colonial past. Swedish concepts of whiteness have developed since Sweden became a country of immigration. In everyday life, in the public sphere and in political discourse, people belonging to the 8 per cent of the total population with origins in a non-European, postcolonial or "Third World" country in Asia, Africa or South America are categorized as "immigrants", "foreigners" and "non-Swedes", and often as non-Christian or at least non-Lutheran. Immigrants from non-western countries began to arrive in Sweden and Scandinavia in small numbers in the 1950s, and then in larger numbers in the second half of the 1970s and particularly the 1980s and onwards, when refugee immigration took over from labour immigration. Not coincidentally, this is also when integration started to be described as a "failed" project. Since the 1990s, non-white and non-Christian immigrants have dominated immigration to Sweden. When it comes to the discrimination of migrants and their descendants, particularly non-white and non-European groups, Sweden barely differs from any other western country today. Particularly when it comes to housing, Sweden stands out for its highly racialized patterns of residential segregation. Against this historical background, notions of Swedish whiteness evolved alongside the image of Sweden developed during the Cold War, decolonization and the social revolution of 1968: that of Sweden as paradise on earth and utopia for human rights, democracy, gender equality and antiracism, where race as concept and as category has been rendered irrelevant and obsolete. The expanding boundaries of whitenessWhiteness is a pivotal concept for analysing the recent Swedish election. Swedish whiteness includes racists as well as antiracists, and ultimately all Swedes, regardless of political views. Swedish whiteness is similar to the hegemonic whiteness that Matthew Hughey analyses in his interviews with white antiracists and white racists in the US, which reveal, beyond ideological statements, many similarities in terms of white perspectives and privileges. When it comes to the construction and maintenance of Swedish whiteness, complicity exists on all sides, even that of migrants who believe in the image of Sweden as the most egalitarian and antiracist country in the world. Then there are the numerous non-Swedes who desire and seek (white) Swedes as partners and friends, purely because they are (white) Swedes and therefore the most beautiful and genetically valuable people on earth – according to the Nordic racial myth. Third World solidarity and antiracism has, in other words, gone hand in hand with white superiority and white homogeneity. It is this dual image of Sweden as an homogenous and white society that the Sweden Democrats mourn the loss of, and their response is to produce hatred towards migrants of colour. Meanwhile, it is the passing of the image of Sweden as an egalitarian and progressive society so dear to white antiracists that has provoked such a strong reaction among the Swedish elites after the election. Central to this analysis is an understanding of whiteness as a category that constantly expands. The boundaries of whiteness have always been reconstructed to include new members: for example Irish-Americans and Italian-Americans in the US. In the recent Swedish election, the expansion of the boundaries of whiteness blurred class differences, enabling the inclusion of white people from a range of class and cultural backgrounds to congregate around the notion of Swedish whiteness regardless of national origin. David Roediger has called this process "the wages of whiteness", referring to "compensation" of white US workers for their economic subordination with the public and psychological wage of being considered white and therefore "American". This means that race and racism are not merely the effect of class inequality, something that would necessarily disappear in a classless society. The expansion of the boundaries of whiteness helps explain the class-crossing practices found among the Sweden Democrats' voters, as well as among far-right voters in the other Scandinavian countries. Many Sweden Democrats are migrants or descendants of migrants from white, western, Christian countries, or of non-white mixed and adopted Swedes, who also may identify with being Swedish in order to be able to gain "the wages of whiteness". Gender equality and whitenessA central aspect of the construction of "good Sweden" has to do with the generous welfare state and achievements in gender equality. Along with other Scandinavian countries, Sweden has been regarded as exceptionally "woman-friendly" and ranked among the most gender-equal societies in the world. This ideal has been exported to other (Third World) countries through international development aid. However, the institutionalised gender equality discourse carries with it a sense of national identity that is intimately intertwined with whiteness and racial hierarchies, and that excludes migrants as Others. In order to maintain the supposedly uniquely Swedish construct of gender equality, non-whites are depicted as the "gender non-equal", in conjunction with a discourse of the "oppression of the Other". For Swedish white gender equality to exist, some-body is needed that is not Swedish, gender-equal and white. This might explain why two of Scandinavia's far-rightwing leaders are women, and why the Norwegian far-right terrorist Anders Behring Breivik was obsessed by gender and sexual issues. Gender equality, in its ideal form, is represented by the white heterosexual family. In Patricia Hill Collins' analysis, the white family model is a site where notions of first- and second-class citizenship, territory, "home", blood-ties, race, and nation are naturalized. The white heterosexual family ideal is upheld by segregation, discrimination, racialized nationalism and anti-immigration policies. This implies that feminists should remain sceptical towards the Swedish ideal associated with the construction of the gender equal family, since it builds upon and reproduces the social, discursive and geographical relegation of the "Others", often acted out as racialized integration through subordinating practices. White mourning and melancholiaThe normalized and naturalized hierarchies surrounding Swedishness and the double-binding power of Swedish whiteness through the mourning of the loss of "old Sweden" and "good Sweden" may explain the hysterical post-election anger among "progressives" about the "reactionaries'" electoral success. During the election campaign, the Sweden Democrats rallied under the slogan Ge oss Sverige tillbaka ("Give us Sweden back"), a slogan that appealed to both sides. It may also explain why the antiracist movement in Sweden and Scandinavia is so heavily dominated by white Swedes, in contrast to North America and the UK, where the antiracist movement is to a large degree composed of representatives of the minorities themselves. It may also explain why white Swedish feminists who identify with what has been called hegemonic feminism sometimes ally themselves with racist ideologies. The Sweden Democrats' longing for "old Sweden" is expressed as a wish to return to a time when there were no ethno-racial conflicts and no non-western "patriarchal excesses". For white antiracists, on the other hand, what is under threat is the image of Sweden as an antiracist and feminist country. Ultimately, these self-images are felt to be threatened by the presence of non-western migrants. The fact of having held the title of the world's most progressive and left-liberal country, combined with Sweden's perception of itself as the most racially homogenous and pure of all white nations, forms a double bind that makes it almost impossible to transform Swedishness into something that will also accept people of colour. When the object of love – i.e. antiracist Sweden and ethnically homogenous Sweden – is besieged or threatened with distnction, there is nothing left but an unspeakable melancholia filled with limitless pain. The notion of "lost Sweden" also excludes people who did not live in the country during the period being mourned, or people without biological ties to the "founders" of the ethos of solidarity. Thus, directly and indirectly, the image of left-liberal, antiracist and egalitarian Sweden is constructed around the image of a past in which diversity did not exist. In other words, the recent election took place at a time when Sweden is wracked by white mourning and melancholia. Nostalgia for a white past constructed around the welfare state and the longing for a homogenous future in which hybridity has been erased is the common feature of white melancholia, which has also made itself heard in the debate following the Utøya massacre in Norway. White melancholia, so painful to bear yet unspeakable, is a psychic state, a structure of connection to the nation, common to Swedes as well as to the image of Sweden in the world. It is as much about the humiliating decline of Sweden as frontrunner of egalitarianism, humanitarianism and antiracism as about the mourning of the passing of the Swedish population as the whitest of all white peoples. Any future attempt to disentangle Swedishness and whiteness will have to be able to deconstruct a Swedishness that bars non-whites and traps white Swedes through the double-edged images of "old Sweden" and "good Sweden". The hope is that a transformative moment will come about that allows the mourning for "old Sweden" and "good Sweden" to project itself towards a more constructive understanding of Swedishness. However in order to be able to accomplish this transformation, it is necessary to acknowledge the fact that the object of love is irretrievably and irrevocably lost, how painful that may be. - Tobias Hübinette and Carina Tigervall, "To Be Non-White in a Colour-Blind Society: Conversations with Adoptees and Adoptive Parents in Sweden on Everyday Racism", Journal of Intercultural Studies 30 (2009); Catrin Lundström, "'Concrete Bodies': Young Latina Women Transgressing the Boundaries of Race and Class in White Inner-City Stockholm", Gender, Place and Culture 17 (2010); Lena Sawyer, "Routings: Race, African Diasporas, and Swedish Belonging", Transforming Anthropology 11 (2002). - Maja Hagerman, Det rena landet. Om konsten att uppfinna sina förfäder [The Pure Country. On the Art of Inventing Ancestors] (Stockholm: Prisma, 2006); Katarina Schough, Hyberboré. Föreställningen om Sveriges plats i världen [Hyperbole. The Image of Sweden's Place in the World] (Stockholm: Carlsson, 2008). - Gunnar Broberg, Statlig rasforskning. En historik över Rasbiologiska institutet [State-Run Race Science. A History of the Institute for Race Biology] (Stockholm: Natur & kultur, 1995). - Mattias Tydén, Från politik till praktik. De svenska steriliseringslagarna 1935-1975 [From Policy to Practice. The Swedish Sterilization Laws 1935-1975] (Stockholm: Fritzes, 2000). - Matthew W. Hughey, "The (Dis)similarities of White Racial Identities: The Conceptual Framework of 'Hegemonic Whiteness'", Ethnic and Racial Studies 33 (2010). - France Winddance Twine and Charles Gallagher, "The Future of Whiteness: A Map of the 'Third Wave'", Ethnic and Racial Studies 31 (2009); Jonathan Warren and France Winddance Twine, "White Americans, the New Minority? Non-Blacks and the Ever-Expanding Boundaries of Whiteness", Journal of Black Studies 28 (1997). - David R. Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (London: Verso, 1991). - Suvi Keskinen, Salla Tuori, Sari Irni, and Diana Mulinari, eds., Complying with Colonialism. Gender, Race and Ethnicity in the Nordic Region (Farnham: Ashgate, 2009); Paulina de los Reyes and Diana Mulinari, Intersektionalitet. Kritiska reflektioner över (o)jämlikhetens landskap [Intersectionality. Critical Reflections on the Landscape of (In)equality] (Malmö: Liber, 2005). - Sarah Ahmed, Strange Encounters: Embodied Others in Post-Coloniality (London: Routledge, 2004). - Patricia Hill Collins, "It's All in the Family: Intersections of Gender, Race, and Nation", Hypatia 13 (1998). - Mia Liinasson, "Institutionalized Knowledge: Notes on the Processes of Inclusion and Exclusion in Gender Studies in Sweden", NORA – Nordic Journal of Feminist and Gender Research 18 (2010); de los Reyes and Mulinari, Intersektionalitet. Kritiska reflektioner över (o)jämlikhetens landskap [Intersectionality. Critical Reflections on the Landscape of (In)equality]. Original in Swedish Translation by Glänta First published in Glänta 2/2011 (Swedish version); Eurozine (English version) Contributed by Glänta © Tobias Hübinette, Catrin Lundström / Glänta

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en

John Wilkes Booth: The Story of Abraham Lincoln's Murderer A Gypsy's Prophecy "The spirit I have seen may be the devil..." During the winter seasons, the Booth children attended boarding school in Cockeysville, Md., where Wilkes seemed to be more interested in causing mischief than studying. His friends called him "Billy Bowlegs" to tease him; they knew that he wore long coats whenever possible to conceal that trait. But, he was nonetheless their leader and captained many pranks throughout the school halls, much to the chagrin of its Quaker principal, Professor Lamb. During summers on The Farm, however, he had few friends. Most of his siblings were older than he (Edwin had embarked on a stage career of his own), and Wilkes often turned for entertainment to the many ballades and novels his father had given him. On these glorious pages he discovered Ivanhoe, Hawkeye, William Tell, Robin Hood, Sir Lancelot, Don Quixote...heroes of the highest caliber whose colorful lives he wanted to emulate. His closest friend became his sister, Asia, to whom he confided his dreams of adventure. She would often see him midsummer nights, ripping his fathers horse Peacock down Churchville Road, a twig for a lance, shouting oaths to the trees that he fashioned as fire-breathing dragons or Cyclopes. It was with Asia that he attended a carnival in Harford County one autumn evening. Townsfolk from Bel Air and other neighboring burghs came out to enjoy the festivities. One of the sideshows that attracted the teenage Wilkes was a Gypsy fortune teller; amusedly, he wandered into her wagon. But, once she began reading his palm, his smile faded. Her prophesy was one of bad fortune: "Your lines are all criss-crass," she told him. "You will live a charmed life, but it will be brief and you will die violently." The old hags words frightened him. Asia laughed off the experience, but to Wilkes, who recalled his mothers vision the night he was born those rhetorical flames the Gypsys words were all too poignant. But, Asia had been observing something else in her brothers character, even stranger than what any Gypsy could have predicted. While her family had never shown any prejudice toward the few Negroes they hired out seasonally to harvest the fields indeed Junius had always treated them like his sons Wilkes began complaining of having to eat his meals with them after the days work. This sudden haughtiness, she felt, seemed to mirror the "master" and "slave" relationships of the Deep South. What they both did not understand at the time was that this prejudice was the first visible evidence of a bad root slinking below the surface towards what the Gypsy said would become manifest.

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For a small industrial city, Auburn has been home to an unusually high number of remarkable men and women. Among them are Logan, or Tahgahjute, the Iroquois orator; Harriet Tubman, the African American leader; William H. Seward, the visionary statesman; Thomas Mott Osborne, the pioneer of prison reform; and Theodore W. Case, the inventor of sound film. Tributes to all can be found in the city. Before the invasion of the whites, Auburn was a Cayuga Indian village established at the junction of two trails. Revolutionary War veteran Col. John Hardenbergh arrived in 1793 and built the area’s first gristmill. By 1810, the budding village boasted 90 dwellings, 17 mills, and an incorporated library containing 200 books. The opening of the Auburn State Prison in 1817 and the Auburn Theological Seminary in 1821 greatly stimulated growth, and by the mid-1800s, Auburn was thriving. It even entertained hopes of becoming the state capital. The impressive public buildings on Capitol Street and lavish private homes on State Street date back to those heady days. © Avalon Travel and Sascha Zuger from Moon New York State, 5th Edition

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After inheriting her Uncle’s land in Montana 16 year-old Hattie sets off to improve the land, stake a claim and finally have a place she can call home. Traveling from Iowa to Eastern Montana, Hattie narrates her struggle of cultivating 40 acres and setting 480 fence posts during a 10 month period. Hattie’s story is also revealed through a series of letters both to and from a friend who is off to war as well as newspaper clippings from back home in Iowa. Hattie braves the harsh weather, then endless hours of farm work, her homesickness, and her hopeless cooking and most of all she survives the locals who want to buy her land. Hattie’s biggest test lies in her standing up to locals who increase the pressure to be a “loyal American” during World War I and the bigotry towards a local German-American family that Hattie befriends. This novel is based on Kirby Larson’s great-grandmother who staked a claim on the Montana prairie. Please read the author’s note at the end of the novel. A wonderful parent-child book group selection that provides a magnificent setting and memorable characters, and a story that may cause you to search for your ancestors and family history.

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Ranema Flu is an interactive learning tool on the prevention and control of Highly pathogenic Avian Influenza. It has been developed by CIRAD (AGIRs) and FAO (AGAH / EMPRES). It includes information on the prevention, detection, control and eradication measures that you can take against HPAI and is made up of 5 chapters : - Chapter 1: Introduction to avian influenza - Chapter 2: Surveillance of the HPAI - Chapter 3: Avian Influenza and wild birds - Chapter 4: Introduction to Risk Analysis - Chapter 5: Resources For further information on the content of Ranema : 2008 version of Ranema Flu is access free on the following website (English and French version) : http://aquitaine.cirad.fr/ In order to improve the Ranema-Flu tool, please fill in the following questionnaire after use : CIRAD © 2007 All rights reserved - Disclaimer stating - contact - page updated : 22/03/2010

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en

Middle Bass Island is an island of the U.S. state of Ohio, located in Lake Erie. A small town, Middle Bass, lies on the island. The 805-acre (3.258 km²) island is shaped like the Big Dipper and is one of three Bass Islands located at the center of a group of 23 smaller islands. Some of its more famous neighbors are South Bass Island, with the town of Put-in-Bay, Kelleys Island, and Pelee Island. The island has a year-round population of 95 residents (2000 census). Seasonal population surges to near 1,500 residents during the summer. The island was landed upon by French explorer, Robert La Salle, in 1679. The abundance of wildflowers on the island impressed La Salle and his crew so much that they appropriately named it Isle des Fleures, the Floral Island. It would retain this name for the next 200 years until it was acquired by a German count in 1856. With the aid of immigrant German workers, the island was used for growing grapes. This proved to be a very successful undertaking. By 1875, Middle Bass Island's Golden Eagle Winery was reputed to be the largest wine producer in the United States. The Lonz family acquired the business in 1884 and owned and operated it until the death of George Lonz in 1968. Lonz Winery has often been compared with the wineries of the German Rhineland. The old castle-like structure has been visited by countless dignitaries including five American Presidents. The winery is now part of a corporation bearing the Lonz name. Since 1979, the wines have been made by Italian enologist Claudio Salvador. Lonz Winery was purchased by the state of Ohio with the intention of one day establishing a state park.

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Carers play a vital role in our community by looking after those who are in ill health, disabled, vulnerable or frail. Social Services recognises the immense value that carers provide in the care of others and our aim is to ensure that wherever possible the services provided are responsive to the needs and circumstances of the individual carer. To achieve this aim we believe it is important that the following principles are recognised in determining the needs of the carer: - There should be a common concern for the well-being of the person being ‘cared for’. - Carers should be supported to have a short break from the caring role. - Freedom for carers to have a life of their own. - Recognise the need to assist in maintaining the carer’s health. - Carers and those ‘cared for’ need to have confidence in services provided. - Carers need to have a say in service provision. - Carers have a wealth of knowledge and experience about the care they provide and will be seen as partners in the provision of this care. - Carers will be empowered to make more choices for themselves and have more control over their own lives, so that individual wishes can be respected. - Services will be equally accessible to people regardless of age, gender, disability, culture or race. - Carers will be respected and valued as people in their own right with their own needs as carers, separate from the needs of the people for whom they care. Who is a carer? A carer is anyone who provides a great deal of care on a regular basis for a member of their family or a friend – but is not employed to do so. Carers don’t choose top become carers, it happens because of an overwhelming concern and compassion for the person they care for. A carer is someone who provides help and support to a partner, child, relative, friend or neighbour, who could not manage without their help. This could be due to age, physical or mental illness, addiction or disability. A young carer is a child or a young person under the age of 18 carrying out significant caring tasks and assuming a level of responsibility for another person, which would normally be taken by an adult. Young carers face serious caring responsibilities and the physical and emotional strain is sometimes very demanding. They also have the added pressure of school and often a lack of understanding of the role they play. Any carer providing regular and substantial care is entitled to an assessment of their needs by Social Services. The Carer’s Assessment is an interview or a series of interviews with the carer, to see what help the carer may need to be able to go on looking after the person being ‘cared for’. It is not about judging the way you are caring for someone. It is a chance for you to make sure that we understand your needs as a carer from your point of view, and for us to tell you about the kinds of support that might assist you to care and also aid you in preserving your own health, enabling you to continue your caring role. What happens next? Following the assessment we will discuss the levels of help you provide. The assessment will list all of the tasks you do and from this we can agree how best to help you.

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World needs mixture of energy sources, expert says Geologist Scott Tinker said there isn't one perfect fuel for the world's electricity and transportation needs. Texas' state geologist said trying to pick one fuel source to power the world is a losing proposition. Geologist Scott Tinker maintains it is going to take a variety of fuels to meet the world's electricity and transportation needs. Tinker spotlighted the need for energy diversity in “Switch,” a 90-minute documentary filmed over two years with energy experts from 11 countries. Oklahoma Energy Secretary Mike Ming said the film offers one of the best explanations, showing why just one source is not sufficient to meet the world's energy needs. Tinker spoke Tuesday at Oklahoma City University about unconventional oil and natural gas reservoirs. Those resources — unlocked by horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing — have spurred a boom in domestic oil and gas production, but not without controversy, he said. Although there is no evidence hydraulic fracturing has contaminated groundwater, opponents of natural gas exploration continue to criticize the practice that involves injecting thousands of gallons of water and sand deep into the ground. Tinker, the director of the Bureau of Economic Geology at the University of Texas, said natural gas will be a large part of the world's energy future because it is cleaner than coal or crude oil. Tinker said he asks people who are opposed to fracturing, or fracking, if they favor nuclear power. The alternative to nuclear is coal, which is cheap and abundant, Tinker said, but burning it releases a lot of harmful emissions. Business Photo Galleriesview all - 90847Oklahoma weather: Severe storm updates - 47098Oklahoma tornadoes: 'It took it all' - 38051Oklahoma devastated by second round of twisters - 30921Oklahoma State football: Limiting Wes Lunt's transfer options makes Mike Gundy look bad - 13823Oklahoma City tornado so large, may not be recognized, officials say - 12196Several kids pulled out of Oklahoma school rubble alive - 11468How to help tornado victims

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For some people, it takes quite a few drinks to get a buzz or feel relaxed. Often they are unaware that being able to "hold your liquor" isn't protection from alcohol problems, but instead a reason for caution. They tend to drink more, socialize with people who drink a lot, and develop a tolerance to alcohol. As a result, they have an increased risk for developing alcoholism. The higher alcohol levels can also harm the liver, heart, and brain without the drinker noticing until it's too late. And all drinkers need to be aware that even moderate amounts of alcohol can significantly impair driving performance, even when they don't feel a buzz from drinking. Research shows that women start to have alcohol-related problems at lower drinking levels than men do. One reason is that, on average, women weigh less than men. In addition, alcohol disperses in body water, and pound for pound, women have less water in their bodies than men do. So after a man and woman of the same weight drink the same amount of alcohol, the woman's blood alcohol concentration will tend to be higher, putting her at greater risk for harm. For more information, see Alcohol: A Women's Health Issue. For some drinkers, the answer can be "yes," depending on the amount. Regular light to moderate drinking can lower the risk for coronary heart disease, mainly among middle-aged and older adults (other factors also cut the risk, including a healthy diet and weight, exercise, and not smoking). Heavy drinking can actually increase blood pressure and damage the heart. Not exactly—the weekly amounts may be the same, but the daily ones are different, and the recommendations serve different purposes for different types of drinkers. Low-risk drinking for healthy men under age 65 is no more than 4 drinks on any day and 14 per week and for healthy women (and men over 65) is no more than 3 drinks on any day and 7 per week. In the United States, most drinkers don't have a daily, low-level pattern of 1 or 2 drinks per day. Instead, they tend to have less on weekdays and more on weekends and holidays. Some heavier drinkers may look at the weekly limits of 14 or 7 drinks and wonder if they can have them all on one or two weekend days. As shown by the daily low-risk drinking levels, however, from a health standpoint, it's risky to have more than 4 drinks on any day for men or 3 for women. It's important to note that the low-risk drinking levels are not risk free. Light to moderate drinkers should not increase their intake beyond the moderate drinking guidelines, as this would increase their chances for alcohol-related problems. Some medicines that you might never have suspected can react with alcohol, including many that can be purchased “over the counter” without a prescription. Even some herbal remedies don't mix well with alcohol. The pamphlet Harmful Interactions: Mixing Alcohol with Medicines lists medications that can cause harm when taken with alcohol and describes the effects that can result. It does not include all possible medicines that may interact with alcohol, however. Protect yourself by avoiding alcohol if you are taking a medication and don't know its effect, or talk to your pharmacist or other health care provider. Not at all. There's a lot of mistaken “all or nothing” thinking about alcoholism. Many people assume there are two options: Either you don't have a problem with drinking, or you're a “total alcoholic” whose life is falling apart. The reality is not a simple black or white, but more of a spectrum with shades of gray. An “alcohol use disorder”—that is, alcohol abuse or alcoholism--can be mild, moderate, or severe. People with an alcohol use disorder can be highly functioning, highly compromised, or somewhere in between. One of the main purposes of this Web site is to help people to become aware of the risks of heavy drinking and the early symptoms of a problem, so they can prevent more serious problems down the road. A related "all or nothing" misconception is that all heavy drinkers are automatically alcoholics. Some are, some aren't. Those without problems at this point are still at risk for developing alcoholism and other conditions such as liver disease in the future. The concept of risk is sometimes difficult to grasp. An example is high cholesterol, which increases the chances for a heart attack. Similarly, heavy drinking raises the chances for developing alcoholism. Your individual risk depends in part on how much, how often, and how quickly you drink, along with how young you were when you had a first drink, and whether you have a family history of alcoholism. In any case, you can reduce your chances for harm in the future. If you do not already have symptoms of an alcohol-related problem, then cutting down to within the low-risk limits is a reasonable first step. If you already have symptoms of an alcohol problem, it's safest to quit. The quiz serves two purposes – one is to provide “norms” feedback that lets people know when they're drinking more than most U.S. adults, even if it's just once a year. This helps to counter a commonly held misconception that “everybody” drinks a lot. The second purpose is to show how different drinking patterns are linked with different rates of alcohol problems. The simple quiz generates some broad categories of results, and you describe a pattern that's at very low end of increased risk. For someone who has one heavy drinking day a year and otherwise stays well within low-risk limits, the risk of having or developing alcoholism would be minimal. However, if you have more than four drinks within a short period of time on any day, you may run the risk of injuring yourself or others, particularly if you drive too soon after drinking. And if you start to increase the number of “heavy drinking days” over time, your chances for alcohol-related harm will increase as well. There are no guarantees that anything will protect the liver from too much alcohol. Liver damage from heavy drinking happens in stages. Some relatively mild damage may happen after a single binge drinking episode, but this reverses itself if the heavy drinking stops. If heavy drinking continues, however, liver damage can progress through several more advanced stages, and repair becomes much more difficult, if not impossible. When the damage goes as far as cirrhosis, the only treatment is liver transplant. The best way to protect your liver’s health is by staying within the low-risk drinking limits or -- if you already have liver damage or any signs of an alcohol problem -- by quitting. Also, it’s best if drinkers avoid acetaminophen (found in Tylenol® and other medications). Even the standard recommended dose of acetaminophen can increase the risk of liver damage, particularly among heavy drinkers. For more information, see this report on alcohol-related liver disease and this advisory on acetaminophen and liver injury.

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Earthquake in the Valley? What are the Odds? The earthquake in Virginia came as a surprise to many. “I have lived here all my life and I have never experience an earthquake,” said one Virginia native. Most Rio Grande Valley residents haven’t either, but could an earthquake really hit the Valley? “There are earthquakes in Texas every year,” says Assistant Professor of Geology at UTB Elizabeth Heise. Fortunately these Texas earthquakes tend to happen further north. “Usually out in the Midland and Odessa area is the most common place for earthquakes in Texas,” says Heise. The closest area where an earthquake could happen in relation to the Valley is in San Antonio, which is located on several fault lines. “Wherever the fault and the release of energy is the closer you are the more shaking you are going to feel,” says Heise. Given the Valley’s distance from fault lines a large earthquake would barely be noticeable. “People in New York said they could feel the Virginia earthquake as far away as three hundred miles,” says Heise. “If a large earthquake were to happen in San Antonio we may feel something but it is nothing that is going to be damaging.” Still, safety is very important when dealing with an earthquake. “If you are in an earthquake you should go and stand in a doorway because it has the most support of any part of the structure,” says Heise. “Don't go outside because glass and bricks can fall on you.” Hopefully it will be advice Valley citizens never have to use.

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Allergy tests are performed to either confirm a suspected allergy, or to exclude a specific allergy as the cause for the symptoms. There are many allergy tests, but only two have been scientifically proven: the blood test and the skin prick test. These tests are complex and require a skilled professional (often only doctors or dieticians with a special interest in allergies) to interpret the results. What is a "blood Test"? A small sample of blood is taken from the arm and sent to a laboratory for testing. The blood test measures how many antibodies (called IgE) there are to a specific allergen (a food or substance that is causing the symptoms) in the blood. The IgG and ALCAT tests are also blood tests, but are not scientifically proven tests and are not recommended. The result is reported as a numerical value or "class" where 0 indicates a negative result and 6, a strongly positive result. Over 400 different specific IgE allergen tests, which encompass a range of pollen, food and occupational allergens, are commercially available. If the result is positive, it does not necessarily mean that you are allergic to that substance. However, the higher the IgE level to a substance, the more likely you will be allergic to it. Your doctor or dietician will need to take various factors, such as your type of symptoms and history of allergy to determine whether the substance is the likely cause. If the result to a specific substance is negative, it does not necessarily mean that the person is not allergic to that substance either. If you have been avoiding the food for a period of time, the amount of antibodies to that particular food becomes lower. Also, if you have an allergy that does not work through the specific IgE mechanism, the blood test would also not pick it up. This type of allergy is more difficult to diagnose and your doctor or dietician would need to use other methods such as an elimination diet and challenges. Ask your doctor or dietician for more details. What is a "skin prick test"? The skin prick test is just that. A drop of a liquid extract of the allergen is placed on the skin of the inside of your arm (or the back). The skin is then lightly pricked with a device such as a needle or lancet through this droplet so as to just puncture the skin. It is not painful; one can hardly feel it. Test results are available within 15 minutes of testing. A positive skin test is indicated by the development of a "wheal-and-flare" reaction where the skin was pricked. The "wheal-and-flare" reaction looks like a mosquito bite; the larger the size of the "mosquito bite", the more likely that you are allergic to that particular substance. Skin testing is simple, quick to perform, relatively safe and more cost-effective. The results are also immediate. There are around 25 allergens that you can choose from, but usually 3 - 6 are tested at a time. Although the amount of allergen introduced into the skin is very small, there have been rare reports of anaphylactic (life-threatening) reactions following skin prick testing, especially with allergens such as peanut and bee venom. As with the blood test, the interpretation of the results is not so straightforward. Positive tests indicate that IgE antibodies are present but do not, in isolation, prove that a reaction will occur upon eating the food. In fact, people who 'outgrow' their food allergy usually continue to get a positive test result to the food for many years. Which test should I make use of to diagnose my allergy? Each test has its own advantages and disadvantages. Advantages of the blood test - Blood tests are accurate, convenient and test a broader range of allergens than the skin tests. - The skin test's reliability can vary from one manufacturer to another, compared to the blood test which is standardised. - Antihistamines may interfere with skin tests, so blood tests are more appropriate where antihistamines cannot be discontinued for whatever reason. - For people with extensive skin disease, skin testing may not be possible. - Periodic blood testing can be useful in predicting when a child has developed outgrown an allergy or successfully avoiding the allergen. This is difficult with skin testing. - In people with a history of life-threatening reactions, blood tests are preferred, as contact with even a droplet of the allergen on the skin (as in the skin test) can result in a reaction, especially in allergens such as peanut. Advantages of the skin test - The blood test doesn't give an immediate result, as with skin tests. - Some allergens in foods such as fruits and vegetables are destroyed during the preparation of the extracts for blood tests. Testing blood samples for these allergens will therefore not be as accurate. Skin tests may be of benefit here as the fresh food can be used on the skin. (Don't try this at home though!) - Since the blood test involves drawing blood, it costs more than the skin tests.

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Science Fair Project Encyclopedia Steven Murray Truscott is a Canadian man who was convicted of murder in 1959. Since his release on parole in 1969, he has maintained that he was wrongfully convicted, and has recently campaigned to have his name cleared. Although no Canadian court has overturned Truscott's conviction, the Canadian government has made some moves to review the case. On June 9, 1959, 12-year-old Lynne Harper disappeared from the air force base at Vanastra, Ontario (not Clinton, Ontario as some may be lead to believe). Two days later, her body was discovered on a nearby farm. Truscott, then 14 and a classmate of Harper's, gave her a ride on his bicycle shortly before she was reported missing. Truscott stated that he had seen Harper get into a car as he was riding away after dropping her off, but on June 12, Truscott was charged with Harper's murder. In 1966, journalist Isabel LeBourdais published a book about the Truscott case, championing his innocence of the crime. The Supreme Court of Canada held hearings to review the case, and upheld the original verdict. On October 21, 1969, Truscott was released on parole and began living under an assumed name in Guelph, Ontario. He maintained a low profile until 2000, when an interview on the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's the fifth estate revived interest in his case. The fifth estate segment and a subsequent book both suggested that significant evidence in favour of Truscott's innocence had been ignored in the original trial. On November 28, 2001, lawyers for the Association in Defence of the Wrongly Convicted lead by James Lockyer filed an appeal to have the case reopened. On January 24, 2002, retired Quebec Justice Fred Kaufman was appointed by the government to review the case. The plot of Ann-Marie MacDonald's 2003 novel The Way the Crow Flies is based on a fictionalized version of the Truscott case, and the surrounding community's reaction to the incident. (MacDonald herself was raised in the same region, during the same time period as the Truscott case.) Several Canadians previously convicted of murder have had their convictions overturned after having had their cases reviewed due to similar claims of wrongful conviction. See also: The contents of this article is licensed from www.wikipedia.org under the GNU Free Documentation License. Click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details

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The first item to be put into the restricted category was sugar. Beginning late January 1942, each person was allowed 12 ounces per week. By May it was down to 8 ounces and tea and coffee were also on the shortage list. Consumers were asked to cut tea consumption by ½ and coffee by ¼. Shortly thereafter coupon rationing for the above foods was introduced. Not only households were obliged to comply – restaurants and other places serving food also had to abide by the new limits. Householders filled out applications and then waited for their ration books, which were mailed out across Canada on Monday 31 August 1942. Each book contained not only coupons for tea, coffee, and sugar, but also spare ones in the likelihood that other commodities would be placed under control. Butter was added to the list in December with each person being limited to ½ pound per week. Islanders were slow to apply for their books. An article published in a local paper was titled “Local Ration Office Has its Troubles.” According to M. F. Graves, the Rationing Officer for PEI, “there are still a great many people just beginning to realize that they must possess a card before they can obtain sugar, tea or coffee.” In November 1942, it was announced that Summerside would have its own rationing board. With headquarters in the Town Hall, it was to be headed by Mayor Lidstone with Neil Durant, the Town Clerk as secretary-treasurer. Ration Board No.C-3 began functioning at the end of January 1943 with J. M. Nicholson in charge. He was referred to as a retired businessman “who contributes his services purely as a part of his war effort.” The office opened just before the second ration book was issued. This time the books were to be given out via distribution centres. The new ration book was described in the press as having 17 pages with sheets of green, pink, orchid, buff and grey paper. Each coupon resembled a stamp and would have a small maple leaf in every corner. An article noted if all the books for Canada were piled singly they would reach 11 miles. When later ration books were released, the design of the stamps changed. As the first day of distribution approached –19 February 1943 – more details about the books were revealed. People were apprised that the serial number from the front cover of Ration Book No.1 was to be an individual’s identification for the duration of the war. These original books had to be shown before the second one could be issued. Members of the armed forces could apply for ration books while they were on leave or after discharge. Service personnel could also apply for liquor rations despite provincial prohibition. The new books would be available over nine days at the Town Hall, which was also the distribution centre for Wilmot and St. Eleanors. The Board in Summerside was in charge of 11 distribution points in eastern Prince County. At the end of the distribution campaign, 6,829 books had been issued in Summerside. The success of the venture was credited to “the public spirited citizens who make up these Boards and on the many volunteer workers who gave so generously of their time in handling the job.” Ration Book No.2 had dates printed on the back of every stamp, the first to become due 6 March 1943. The first ration book expired 31 March. The used ration coupons became the responsibility of banks across Canada. They were charged with “acting as an agent of the Ration Administration, Wartime Prices and Trade Board, under carefully defined regulations.” The ration book contained an application for canning and preserving that had to be sent to local boards before 15 April. Extra sugar for the important household task of making jams and pickles was provided if an application was submitted. Meat was the next food item to be controlled. A ration of two pounds per person per week became effective in May. Consumers needed to present small blue tokens to receive the rationed portion from a meat dealer. On 4 May “Meatless Tuesday” for public eating-places was introduced. Anyone keeping meat in a cold storage locker had to declare it by 30 June. On top of these controls, it became mandatory for butchers to follow new rules for cutting meat. It wasn’t long before Ration Book No.3 was introduced, overlapping with the second book, which was to expire 31 December 1943. Book 3 was distributed from 25-28 August. Mr. Nicholson who had replaced the late Neil Durant as secretary of the local board had J. A. O’Holloran as his assistant. They were helped by a large number of local women. Just two days after the distribution, more items were added to the list – maple syrup products, table syrups, molasses, apple or honey butter, and canned fruits. On 23 August, 1943 jams, jellies, marmalades, and honey were put in the rationed category. By October evaporated milk was just for priority use. In November 1942, when the Summerside ration office opened, J. M. Nicholson’s assistant was named in the press as Mrs. A. M. Douglas. No doubt they were kept busy answering questions and solving problems. The government alleviated some of the confusion about the coupons by publishing a weekly “Ration News” in newspapers across Canada. The first time the series appeared in the Summerside Journal was on 18 March 1943. The government also developed the “Consumer’s Ration Coupon Calendar” to keep householders aware of which coupons became valid or expired on certain dates. An amendment in November 1943 to the Wartime Prices and Trade Board ration order legalized the exchange of rationed foods. Small quantities could be traded among neighbours, something that probably had been going on undetected for quite some time. On 17 January 1944, canned salmon made the ration list and on 1 July 1944, canned blueberries, blueberry pie filling, and canned crabapples were added. At some point cheese was also included. Still more books were issued. Book No. 4 came into use 13 April 1944 and Book No.5 was distributed between 14-21 of October the same year. The latter was to cover a period of fifty weeks, the longest of any issue. Books 3 and 4 expired 31 December 1944. Late in 1944, sugar rationing became even more stringent. An article in the press revealed the need for sugar in the production of shells and bombs and molasses for synthetic rubber. Molasses was a special food item for Maritimers. They had a long tradition of slathering it on bread and there was consternation when it first became short in 1943. A newspaper article written by the wife of an Air Force member in Summerside described her puzzlement and delight over the product. Rationing continued after the war ended. Meat, which had been taken off the list in February 1944, was back on in September 1945. The need for an increased supply for devastated Europe was urgent. An editorial in the Journal stated – "Paradoxical as it may appear, peace has created a greater food problem than there was at any time during the war." The last Ration Book was issued in September 1946. |Related Articles||Related Images||Related Memories||Related Websites||Inflation Calculator| |Home Page||Site Map||Contact Us||Wyatt Heritage

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The Korean War (1950-1953) Commitment of US Ground Troops On the night of the North Korean invasion, Truman convened the first Blair House Meeting of his closest advisors. Though the meeting did not focus solely on Korea, in fact it began with a discussion of the US policy toward the Nationalist Chinese in Formosa (an issue MacArthur believed to be of great importance) Truman allowed Dean Acheson to speak regarding the Korean situation. Gen. Omar Bradley summarized the group's feelings, saying that the US would have to "draw the line" somewhere, and that Korea seemed as good a place as any. The immediate results of the Blair House Meeting were orders to evacuate American civilians from Korea, to provide military supplies to the embattled South Korean army, and to move the 7TH US Fleet into the Formosa strait, blocking the People's Republic of China from invading Formosa while the US was distracted with Korea. MacArthur's reports grew worse over the next few days, describing the North Korean rout of ROK forces. The ROK army fled south, to the tip of the peninsula, in the direction of the port city of Pusan. On June 27, 1950 the US promised naval and air support to South Korea. Truman further hoped to discourage the Soviets or the Chinese Communists from getting involved in the war by integrating US troops into a force from the UN, and claiming the whole operation to be UN sanctioned and led. Fleeing across the Han River Bridge, the panicky South Koreans blew the bridge before all the fleeing South Korean soldiers could get across. Hundreds died, and men and equipment were stranded on the other side. Major-General John H. Clark and ROK chief-of-staff General Chae Byong Duk consolidated what remained of their forces to establish a headquarters at Suwon. In a personally dangerous move, MacArthur flew in to Suwon and drove up to the front to see the fighting for himself. Based on his trip to the front, MacArthur cabled Washington for authority to commit ground troops. Calling his decision a "police action", Truman allowed MacArthur to move a US regiment to Pusan. Truman did not, however, immediately send to Korea the number of troops MacArthur wanted. On June 30, with the ROK army in dire straits, Truman relented and gave MacArthur authorization to transfer 2 full divisions from Japan to Korea. For roughly two-and-a-half months, MacArthur simply tried to prevent the North Korean army from taking Pusan. Meanwhile, the US conducted a strategic bombing campaign and blockaded the coastline with warships. While Navy and Air power had little effect, MacArthur did manage to attain his main goal of holding Pusan. Also, during this delay, MacArthur was able to transform his out-of- shape occupation force into an army. By July 4, 1950, the balance had begun to swing toward the US. On July 7, the UN asked the US to appoint a UN commander. Truman quickly made MacArthur Commander in Chief of the UN Command (CINCUNC). MacArthur responded to this honor by demanding more troops. It was not log before Truman's Korean War budget neared the tripling of military expenditures recommended by NSC- 68. Trapped, backed into a corner against the sea, the situation continued to look bleak for the US/UN/ROK forces in South Korea. UN ground troops, under Lt.- general Walton H. Walker, commander of the UN ground troops in Korea, spent the bulk of their time working hard to build the "Pusan Perimeter", a fortress- like series of entrenchments in southeastern Korea. Still, these entrenchments offered little chance for US/UN/ROK counteroffensive. The anti-communist forces seemed stuck. Rather than asking for a declaration of war from Congress, Truman opted to claim that he was sending ships and planes at the request of the UN. This allowed Truman, rather than Congress, to take credit for responding to the Communist threat. Indeed, Congress, the Press, and the Gallup Polls all responded very favorably to Truman's policies. One side-effect that few considered was the following: since the 7TH Fleet was barring the PRC from invading Formosa, the PRC transferred most of its army to Shantung province, a location from which it would be easy to quickly become involved in the Korean conflict. The UN force that went to Korea was the first-ever "international peace-keeping force." But although its ideology of peace and non-aggression seem very positive, the peacekeeping force was in this case actually an instrument of the US. Only 16 countries actually sent men on the mission, and most of these were NATO countries, which were hardly neutral when it came to Communists. And the majority of the troops by a good margin were American: while 5.7 million American troops would ultimately serve in the Korean War, only about 40,000 troops from the other UN Peace-Keeping nations were involved, and of these, half were British. In fact, the tiny non-American units actually tended to get in the way and confuse American planning more than they actually helped the war effort. Chiang Kai-Shek offered 35,000 Chinese Nationalist troops, but Truman and Acheson rejected this, afraid the involvement of Chinese Nationalists might provoke the involvement of the much larger Red Army of the PRC. Clearly, the UN forces were an instrument of US policy designed to give the appearance of international consensus rather than a truly autonomous international organization. MacArthur's call for American ground troops was based on several factors. First of all, bad weather was limiting the accuracy of air power to defend the South Koreans. Second, the ROK troops could not now be given tanks and be expected to use them: only well trained US soldiers could operate the tanks and anti-tank weapons necessary to halt the advance of the Soviet T-34s operated by North Korean fighters. Although Truman did not immediately give MacArthur all the troops he wanted, once some ground troops were committed to Korea, it was inevitable that more would follow. Once committed in this battle against Communism, the US could not afford to lose for fear of losing its credibility with all of its allies, especially the NATO powers. The same scenario would play out a decade later in Vietnam. In this way, like a brush fire, "Limited Wars" in the modern-era often proved (and prove) very difficult to contain, to keep "limited." The American troops MacArthur brought in from Japan had not seen fighting in years, if ever. An occupation army, most of these troops were under-trained and out of shape. As he held on to Pusan, MacArthur's forces became more and more fit. The intense heat of summer was also a problem, and American morale was extremely low during this period. The worst was seen in "bug-out fever", where US troops would flee battle, throwing down weapons as they ran. The North Korean troops were battle-hardened veterans by comparison, used to the terrain, formidable fighters, and highly mobile. Once more, in the comparison of North Korean quick-strike capabilities and firm resolve versus an under-motivated and slow to react American army, this early phase of the Korean War foreshadowed the Vietnam War. Also, as in Vietnam, strategic bombing, which had played such a vital part in World War II, never worked very well against North Korea, which simply wasn't industrialized enough for bombing to have a devastating impact.

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You love sweet potatoes and you want to plant and grow them in your vegetable garden. When gardening, the thoughts of what to plant, the days from planting to maturity or picking the vegetables are vitally important. Planting and growing sweet potatoes is not hard, doing it organically might give you a challenge. Growing sweet potatoes will take some preparation and thought but once you have them planted they take little work, however, they do take 90-120 days to maturity and harvest time depending on the variety you choose to plant. Therefore, although you will need to purchase a potato (spade) fork, you will not be using it immediately. Varieties of Sweet Potatoes: - Growing sweet potatoes such as Georgia Jet, a vining type, has a 90-day maturity time and recommended for the northern states but also do well in the south. - Vardaman, a bush type sweet potato, has a 100-day maturity time also does well in the northern states. - Centennial has a 90-day maturity time, according to Vermont Bean Seed Company, “the most popular variety in the U.S. today. Always very sweet and tender” - Beauregard has a 100-day maturity - Porto Rico 110-day maturity Old time favorite Nancy Halls has 120-day maturity Sweet potato grown in our organic garden Growing sweet potatoes is subject to your climate and weather. Do your homework and choose the variety of tubers that suits your needs. Growing sweet potatoes will require no fertilizer and will grow in just about any soil anywhere. The only real concern would be planting them in the mound system so they get plenty of drainage. If you are limited on garden space, try growing sweet potatoes in containers such as an old bushel basket, flowerpots or buckets. You can purchase your sweet potato plants from you local nurseries or if you start early enough you can order you plants from one of the many catalog companies. After chance of frost is past in your area, make your mounding row and or rows and start planting your sweet potatoes 18 inches apart. Depending on the variety of sweet potatoes you chose to plant, you will soon be using that potato fork, you purchased, to dig them up. See growing sweet potatoes is not hard at all.

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Creative, inventive, fanciful and ingenious, complication watches treat time as a precision science. Dynamic and intelligent, they accentuate, repeat, awaken, and calculate. These watches have the power of reasoning, and the maker must obey an increasingly complex set of parameters. The perfection of the forms dreamt up and designed by the jeweller, combined with high-precision movements, will remain Cartier’s secret forever. The first watches appeared in the Cartier archives in 1853, and included fob watches either sober1 or more colourful2. At this time, the art of watchmaking was making great strides. Smaller sizes, simpler mechanisms, greater strength and reliability were achieved with small movements, while watches featuring large movements were not overlooked. All functions were tackled, and solutions were explored in the same way that we explore the ocean, the sky, and time itself. For Cartier, watchmaking was also an exercise in style, creating a setting for time, as displayed by this pocket watch in crystal, platine and black enamel4. A precision object, a piece of art, whose apparent simplicity disguises its complex mechanism. The audacious use of materials, the lightness of the guilloche detail, the luminous presence of a triangular ruby in the guise of a miniature hand, make this a truly modern object of the future. A pretext for countless creations, the timepiece fired Louis Cartier’s imagination, and he devoted an entire workshop to watchmaking. He added a collection of clocks to his watches, and was particularly interested in the wristwatch. At the time, Edmond Jaeger was one of the best watchmakers in Paris, and was passionate about extra-flat and complication movements. He became Cartier’s exclusive supplier of repeaters, chronographs, fly backs, perpetual calendars and other complications. This passionate collaboration between two highly talented artists spawned some incredible designs, each different, each reflecting a highly individual personality.

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http://www.thewatchquote.com/Cartier-No_7299.htm

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A Russian rocket will next year for the first time blast off from a European launch pad in South America, officials said Saturday, as the first rockets headed for the site on board a ship. Two Russian Soyuz rockets, the mainstay of its space programme, were later Saturday to depart the northern city of Saint Petersburg by ship bound for the French overseas department of French Guiana. Packed in containers, they will arrive 15 days later ahead of the first planned launches next year of Soyuz rockets from France's Kourou launch site in French Guiana. "We are in line for the first launch in the second quarter of next year," the chief executive of French aerospace firm Arianespace Jean-Yves Le Gall told AFP. Finally confirming the project is ready after a string of delays, he said that the first satellite to be launched by a Soyuz from French Guiana will be the Hylas telecommunications satellite of British firm Avanti Communications. The satellite will deliver broadband and corporate data network services across Europe, according to the company. Two other such launches are planned in 2010 -- the Pleiades Observation Satellite and a launch of two satellites in Europe's Galileo programme. The first Soyuz launch had been envisaged in 2009 but was delayed due to hold-ups in the delivery of the infrastructure that the rocket needs in order to function. The move to French Guiana is a major step for Russia, which has mostly relied on the Baikonur launch pad in Kazakhstan from where the first man-made object and the first astronaut were launched into space. Launching Russian rockets so close to the United States is likely to send a strong message about Russia's continued role in space. It brings several other advantages for Moscow, including reducing dependence on Baikonur, which has been the subject of periodic disputes with Kazakh authorities. French Guiana's closeness to the equator also enables heavier payloads -- three tonnes compared with 1.7 tonnes from Baikonur -- as launches can gain extra momentum from the Earth's own spinning motion. (c) 2009 AFP Explore further: Cassini imaging lead hopes for planet-wide celebration of the Pale Blue Dot

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The effect of base substitutions, or point mutations, on the messenger-RNA codon AUA, which codes for the amino acid isoleucine. Substitutions (red letters) at the first, second, or third position in the codon can result in nine new codons corresponding to six different amino acids in addition to isoleucine itself. The chemical properties of some of these amino acids are quite different from those of isoleucine. Replacement of one amino acid in a protein by another can seriously affect the protein’s biological function. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

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|BIALA PRUDNICKA: Opolskie| Alternate names: Biała Prudnicka [Pol], Zülz [Ger], Zuelz. 50°23' N, 17°39' E, in Upper Silesia, 56 miles SSE of Wrocław (Breslau), 24 miles SW of Opole (Oppeln), 5 miles NNE of Prudnik (Neustadt). Jewish population: 755 in 1840 and 12 in 1925. Shtetlink Cemetery photos. Cemetery video. By the end of the 1300s, the city had a large Jewish population. Eventually, the town became a possession of the barons of Proskau, who did not forcibly expel the Jewish population when the rest of Silesia except Głogów did. Under 1601 petition of the barons, the Holy Roman Empire extended special protective privileges to the Jewish population of Zülz. Special commercial rights granted the city in 1699 allowed local Jews to do business with Bohemia, Silesia, and the rest of Poland, rights equal to local Christian merchants. An 18th century Jewish immigration into Zülz resulted. After the 1742 partition of Silesia, Zülz became part of Prussia, ending the second-class status of Jews. Many Jews thus left Zulz for larger cities. The city was connected to the railroad in 1896 via a seven mile spur from Prudnik and a sixteen mile spur to Gogolin. By 1914, the Jewish community in Zülz was largely gone. After World War II, the town that belonged to Germany since 1816 became part of Poland and was renamed Biała. 2006 population: 2,653 with no Jews. [March 2009] Jewish presence in Biala Prudnik dates from the end of 15th century, but written documentation is from 1543 onwards when nine Jewish families lived there.Jewish settlers later came from Silesia and in the second half of the 17th century came Polish Jews fleeing the Swedish army. Before, Głogów was the only city in Silesia in which Jews were tolerated and allowed to live. An imperial decree on April 13, 1601allowed Jews in the suburbs of Wies Neisse. In the next few years, some purchased houses in the city and engaged in small trading, trade fairs, and peddling. The wooden synagogue built probably at the end of the seventeenth century,1724 Jewish population was six Jews, 30% of the total. By 1742, 61 Jews and 60 Christians, and in 1812 reached 1,096. Besides trades, they sold silk and lace, Silesian wool, wax, and honey. Increasing Jewish population forced the Jewish community to build a new prayer house plus the wooden synagogue burned on April 22, 1769 that seated 250-300 and 100 on the balcony. The new brick Baroque synagogue opened in 1774 with blue painted walls with gold motifs and a special room holding a the dish of precious metals. After 1812, Jewish population declined until five remained n the mid-nineteenth century, twenty in 1910, and nine in 1926. The Jewish community was dissolved on August 15, 1914. All the valuables were transferred to the Prudnik synagogue and the other Jews in Wies Prudnicki or passed to the care of the village. [April 2009] BOOK: Gruber, Ruth Ellen. Jewish Heritage Travel A Guide to East-Central Europe . New York: John Wiley &Sons, Inc., 1992. P. 74 CEMETERY: Possibly at the beginning of the 16th century to the north of the city walls (Przedmieściu Nyskim) was the first cemetery because preserved on a hill called Kirkut Kopcem (in German: Schwedenschanze) with the oldest preserved matzevot dated no later than 1621 that makes this is the largest and oldest Jewish cemetery in the Opole Voivodeship. The area of approximately 0.54 ha is on the west slope of the hill in an irregular quadrilateral of 188 m. and leads down steeply over the meadow toward the Biala River. The cemetery was enlarged several times until in 914 it belonged to the municipality. That same year, together with other Bialskie objects were transferred into the custody of the Prudnik kehilla and on February 23,1943 to the Nazis. With the number about 3,900 burials, the oldest preserved (sandstone) gravestone is that of Esther bat Symchy, who died in 5382 [1621/1622] . It was found in the river. The inscription says: "A modes,t devout and brave woman, Esther, daughter of our teacher Symchy (blessed memory), the year 382." The last burial took place in 1938. From the mid-17th century to the first years after WWII, the cemetery was surrounded by a wooden fence on the brick posts. To this day a few parts remain. The foundation of the caretaker or preburial house built in 1826 remains and a heavily damaged main gate. In 2002, the cemetery was organized by young people, acting under the "Antyschematy". Directions: To get to the Jewish cemetery near the exit of the city (park) in the west (Prudnik), turn right. Look for the sign.See website..[April 2009] US Commission No. POCE000059 Date of earliest known Jewish community was end of 16th century. 1925 Jewish population was 14. Expulsion of Jews from all Silesia except from Biala (Zuelz) and Glogow (Gross) Glogau was in 16th century. After that, Biala was an important Jewish center until the 1830's. The Jewish cemetery was established before 1622 with last known Orthodox Jewish burial in 1938. Prudnik (Neustadt), 12 km. away, in the first half of the 19th century and Kozle Cosel/Kosel), 50 km. away, until 1814 used this cemetery. The cemetery is landmarked, but no details were given. The isolated suburban hillside has Hebrew inscriptions on gate or wall. Reached by turning directly off a public road, access is open to all with no wall or fence but a non-locking gate. Size of cemetery before and after WWII: about 0.6 hectares. 500-5000 gravestones, with 20-100 not in original locations and less than 25% toppled or broken, date from the 17th to 20th centuries. The oldest known gravestone is 1621/22. The marble, (1) granite, limestone, and sandstone finely smoothed and inscribed stones or multi-stone monuments, some with damaged metal fences around graves, are inscribed in Hebrew and/or German. The cemetery contains no known mass graves. Within the limits of the cemetery is a pre-burial house ruin. The property, now a closed Jewish cemetery, is owned by the municipality. Properties adjacent are agricultural and residential. Rarely, local residents visit for varying purposes. The cemetery was not vandalized in the last ten years. Local/municipal authorities cleared vegetation in Spring 1991. The hillside is eroding with no current care. Security is a slight threat. Weather erosion is a serious threat. Vegetation is a very serious threat because massive growth of trees damaging graves and gravestones. Jan Pawel Woronzcak, Sandomierska 21m1, 02-567 Warsawa, tel. 49-54-62 completed survey on 6 September 1991 using an unpublished complete documentation of cemetery by Jerzy Woronczak. The site was visited for the survey in 1981, '82, '83, '84 and 1991. photos [April 2009] |Last Updated on Monday, 27 April 2009 21:17|

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http://www.iajgsjewishcemeteryproject.org/poland/biala-opolskie.html

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A regular reader of this blog (thank you) suggested I write on the topic of directional orientation in maps. Why are most maps oriented to the north? How did this practice originate? Is it necessary? Is it universal? The concept of a consistent northward orientation in all maps is neither as standardized nor as universal as it might seem at first glance. Even in modern times, it is more practical for many maps to have orientations other than north. The standard map of New York City for example, a variant of which is the classic New York Subway map, is commonly oriented to the northeast. In some non-western cultures with highly developed cartographic traditions, such as Japan, directional orientation is often not even a factor – but we will return to this at a later point. In the west, if it can be called that, the tradition of orienting maps to the north began, as did so many things cartographic, with the 5th century Alexandrian geographer Claudius Ptolemy. Ptolemy’s work, the Geographica, is considered the first known geography. While the Geographica as it has come down to us today has no maps in it, it does contain detailed instructions for the construction of a map. These include a well laid out coordinate system and considerable geographic description.The world as it was known to Ptolemy would have been centered on a relatively narrow latitudinal swath of land focused around the Mediterranean. The known lands at that time would have extended from the Strait of Gibraltar eastward as far as India. The southern lands beyond the Sahara and most of northern Europe and Asia were, for all intent and purposes, unknown. Thus, in order for Ptolemy to fit his map on a long narrow scroll, it would have been oriented to either the north or the south. Some scholars argue that this alone was sufficient motivation for Ptolemy to orient his map to the north. However, upon a closer examination of Ptolemy’s work, we can see that the real reasons behind his choices are more complex. Ptolemy was very much aware that the world was spherical and that his home in Alexandria was in the Northern Hemisphere. With this knowledge in hand Ptolemy went about assembling his coordinate system. Ptolemy realized that for his coordinate system to be consistent, he needed a mathematical formula that would enable him to map the globular world on a flat surface – a projection. While Ptolemy did not invent the idea of a projection system, he did refine it considerably. Ptolemy’s intention was that his projection “above all the semblance of the spherical surface be retained” and that “it would be well to keep lines representing the meridians straight”. What he came up with is today referred to as a conical projection, with all longitudinal lines meeting at the north pole and radiating outward towards the equator, at which point they again radiate inwards, this time towards the South Pole. While Ptolemy could have, in theory, calculated his meridians to meet at any point on the globe, the north pole was the most practical choice. The reason behind this is as follows. First, the Ptolemaic world was a band focused on the central part of the northern hemisphere. It did not extend exceptionally far either north or south. Since the meridians on his projection converged as the map went further north, the room for detail decreased – which was fine, since he didn’t know what was there anyway – leaving the plenty of room for detail in the known central parts of the maps. Second, the Ptolemaic world was divided into various climatic zones, the inhospitable frigid zones (near the poles), the hospitable temperate zones (the northern of which occupied much of the known world), and the inhospitable torrid zone on either side of the equator. With such a zonal layout intact, Ptolemy knew his focus must be on the habitable zones of the northern hemisphere and consequently he designed his projection to reflect this. Third, as an astronomer, Ptolemy would have made regular celestial observations and therefore been familiar with the movements of the heavens around the fixed point of Polaris, the North Star. Therefore, as a matter of making his projection mathematically simpler, of encapsulating his known world, and of aligning the globe with the celestial spheres, the choice of a northward orientation would have been obvious.With the fall of the Roman Empire and the collapse of European civilization in to the middle ages, Ptolemy was, for all intent in purposes, forgotten. This world map, known as the Beatus Map, dates to c. 1050 and is one of the oldest surviving medieval maps. It is also a beautiful example of the mapping conventions that developed during this period. This maps offers a religious view of the cosmos and, though interesting on many levels, has little of the cartographic sophistication of Ptolemy’s Geographica. The map depicts the world as a flat disk centered on Jerusalem. Most medieval scholars believed that the Garden of Eden lie at the extreme eastern end of the world. Being closely associated with heaven, Eden the Earthly Paradise was naturally placed at the top of the map. Most other maps of the period followed suit. It was not until the Renaissance that the works of Ptolemy were rediscovered. With their coordinate system and scientific approach, Ptolemy’s maps were quickly recognized by Renaissance scholars as superior to most contemporary material. With the development of printing, Ptolemy’s maps were mass produced and, relatively speaking, widely available. These maps re-established the convention of a northward orientation. It is also around this time that the Great Age of Exploration truly gets underway and maps suddenly were given a new purpose – navigation. Early sailors tended to either hug the coast or, when entering the open sea, travel in a straight line along a directional path. Consequently, what navigators need was a map that presented the entire world on a flat plane such that any two points could be connected with a straight line. In this way, a ship need only be oriented in the correction direction, and after a period of sailing, should, in theory, arrive at the desired destination. Enter the Mercator Projection. Mercator’s projection was essentially a navigational tool that sacrificed proportion for the ability to accurately connect all points with straight lines. These lines, which appear on most navigational maps, are called rhumb lines. The use of Mercator Projections, rhumb lines, and the compass for navigation solidified the convention established by Ptolemy. Even so, not all maps were oriented to the north. Mapmakers regularly, though not frequently, oriented maps in other directions. Sometimes the decision to use an alternate orientation was based upon the need to fit a region of a certain form onto and appropriately sized sheet. Maps of the Holy Land, for example, were frequently oriented to the East. Several important maps of North America, including Blaeu’s Nova Belgica et Anglia Nova, also use unusual orientations. It is not until the 19th century that almost all new maps being made were given a northward orientation. All the above applies to European cartography. Mapmaking in other parts of the world, like Japan for example, did not use an established directional orientation. Many Japanese maps from the Edo Period, what might be considered the Golden Era of Japanese Cartography, radiate outward from the center, so that to read the map, you would simply orient it to the direction you are facing. This has some practical advantages for getting around but was most useful only on smaller scale maps and city plans. In the Meiji period (late 19th century), European cartographic norms began to exert an influence on traditional Japanese Cartography. By the turn of the century, most Japanese maps had adopted a northerly orientation. To recap, the convention of orienting maps to the north comes down to us from Ptolemy, for whom it was a practical choice given the style in which his maps were made, the extant of the world he attempted to cover, and the nature of his projection. While briefly abandoned in the middle ages, the northerly convention was re-established during the renaissance and reaffirmed with the advent of navigational cartography in the 16th century. Related Maps in our Inventory:

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And I don’t mean the pretty horses people ride, but the hippocampus (or sea horse) circuits in your brain, which are crucial to memory. New research in PLoS One, Association between Income and the Hippocampus, demonstrates a link between lower socioeconomic status and lower hippocampal grey matter density. In Wednesday’s round-up I linked to Philip Cohen’s post, Income gradient for children’s mental health. Here’s the opening graph so you can get a sense of the gravity of the situation. The percentage of children with serious mental or behavioral difficulties is shown as a percentage on the left. The drop-off as income rises is dramatic. In 2008 we documented that poverty poisons the brain: As the article explained, neuroscientists have found that “many children growing up in very poor families with low social status experience unhealthy levels of stress hormones, which impair their neural development.” The effect is to impair language development and memory — and hence the ability to escape poverty — for the rest of the child’s life. So now we have another, even more compelling reason to be ashamed about America’s record of failing to fight poverty. And then in 2009, we focused on how it’s really the social side of things doing the poisoning: Empirical research on the connection between poverty and intellectual development can cut both ways—leading some to write off poverty as biological destiny, and others to look deeper into missed opportunities to lift youth over economic barriers… While I advocate for the role that brain processes can play in social theory, the sword cuts both ways. Referencing the brain as central mediator of poverty hides the truth, and distorts our understanding. To take a more extreme example to illustrate the same point, it’s like saying that slavery is both harmful to people and morally wrong because it impacts brains. This new research brings us back to a focus on the brain. The article, whose lead author Jamie Hanson is a graduate student in psychology at Wisconsin-Madison, brings a broader focus than just stress, through cortisol, acting as poison to the developing brain. Facets of the post-natal environment including the type and complexity of environmental stimuli, the quality of parenting behaviors, and the amount and type of stress experienced by a child affects brain and behavioral functioning. Poverty is a type of pervasive experience that is likely to influence biobehavioral processes because children developing in such environments often encounter high levels of stress and reduced environmental stimulation. This study explores the association between socioeconomic status and the hippocampus, a brain region involved in learning and memory that is known to be affected by stress. We employ a voxel-based morphometry analytic framework with region of interest drawing for structural brain images acquired from participants across the socioeconomic spectrum (n = 317). Children from lower income backgrounds had lower hippocampal gray matter density, a measure of volume. This finding is discussed in terms of disparities in education and health that are observed across the socioeconomic spectrum. Here is the summary of their conclusions at the start of the discussion: This study was designed to examine the possible association between household family income and the hippocampus, a brain region central to many important cognitive and emotional processes. We identified an association with the hippocampus and income, as hypothesized. The hippocampus has previously been found to be associated with quality of environmental input and stress. Taken together, these findings suggest that differences in the hippocampus, perhaps due to stress tied to growing up in poverty, might partially explain differences in long-tern memory, learning, control of neuroendocrine functions, and modulation of emotional behavior. And one graph so you can get a sense of the data, this one a scatterplot that shows the association between left hippocampal gray matter and income. This research was done in the US. Given how Hadley and Patil have shown a link between food insecurity and mental health, and Panter Brick and colleagues have shown how inequality, mediated through trauma, links to mental distress, the fact that poverty poisons the brain around the world should be a strong working hypothesis. That means that increasing human potential means supporting human development and reducing inequality. As I showed last fall, experience gets under the skin, particularly things like poverty, inequality, and stress, as well as social relationships. Hertzman and Boyce outline one major study they have undertaken in British Columbia on early child development, including physical, social, emotional, language/cognitive and communication domains, and measured through the early development instrument (EDI), given to kindergarten teachers to assess children in these different domains. These rankings are then linked to neighborhood socioeconomic characteristics. What is striking, especially given how social causation is described, is that these neighborhood characteristics have general explanatory power, even if in specific domains the linkage can be less. More than 40% of the variance for vulnerability on one or more scales can be explained by neighborhood socioeconomic characteristics, which clearly demonstrates the strength of the emerging gradient in basic developmental competencies (334). The links between poverty, inequality, stress, and brain development are no longer ideal speculation. This is robust research, even if political powers want to either ignore it or favor strategies aimed at the middle class to get votes and support early schooling as a stop-gap band-aid against the larger reality. The brain shows it. If only we could see what’s all around us, beyond our own skin, our own children, our own neighborhood. Link to PLoS One article by Jamie Hanson et al., Association between Income and the Hippocampus

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Ancestry can refer to either a person's ethnic origins or descent, "roots", or heritage or the place of birth of a person or that person's ancestors. These maps are based on data from the 1990 Census. They show an estimate of how many people of a certain ancestry will live in each of Minnesota's cities and townships (MCDs) and in each county in the United States. These maps are intended to give the viewer some idea of the location, concentration, and historical settlement patterns of some of the largest ancestry groups in Minnesota and the United States. Each of the maps in this library varies in size from 15 K to 33 K. These maps show how many people in each city or township (MCD) in Minnesota identify with certain ancestry groups per 1,000 persons living in that city or township. These maps show how many people per county nation wide identify with certain ancestry groups per 1,000 persons living in that county The data used to create these maps comes from questionnaire item 13, which asks respondents to identify the ancestry groups with which they identified most closely. All data comes from respondents who reported a single ancestry (although multiple responses were accepted for this question). Some multiple responses (such as French Canadian or Scotch-Irish) are treated as a single response, reflecting their status as a unique ancestry group.

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HIV infection can result in stroke via several mechanisms, including opportunistic infection, vasculopathy, cardioembolism, and coagulopathy. However, the occurrence of stroke and HIV infection might often be coincidental. HIV-associated vasculopathy describes various cerebrovascular changes, including stenosis and aneurysm formation, vasculitis, and accelerated atherosclerosis, and might be caused directly or indirectly by HIV infection, although the mechanisms are controversial. HIV and associated infections contribute to chronic inflammation. Combination antiretroviral therapies (cART) are clearly beneficial, but can be atherogenic and could increase stroke risk. cART can prolong life, increasing the size of the ageing population at risk of stroke. Stroke management and prevention should include identification and treatment of the specific cause of stroke and stroke risk factors, and judicious adjustment of the cART regimen. Epidemiological, clinical, biological, and autopsy studies of risk, the pathogenesis of HIV-associated vasculopathy (particularly of arterial endothelial damage), the long-term effects of cART, and ideal stroke treatment in patients with HIV are needed, as are antiretrovirals that are without vascular risk. We aimed to audit the regional management of central nervous system (CNS) infection in children. The study was undertaken in five district general hospitals and one tertiary paediatric hospital in the Mersey region of the UK. Children admitted to hospital with a suspected CNS infection over a three month period were identified. Children were aged between 4 weeks and 16 years old. Details were recorded from the case notes and electronic records. We measured the appropriateness of management pathways as outlined by national and local guidelines. Sixty-five children were identified with a median age of 6 months (range 1 month to 15 years). Ten had a CNS infection: 4 aseptic meningitis, 3 purulent meningitis, 3 encephalitis [2 with herpes simplex virus (HSV) type 1]. A lumbar puncture (LP) was attempted in 50 (77%) cases but only 43 had cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) available for analysis. Of these 24 (57%) had a complete standard set of tests performed. Fifty eight (89%) received a third generation cephalosporin. Seventeen (26%) also received aciclovir with no obvious indication in 9 (53%). Only 11 (65%) of those receiving aciclovir had CSF herpes virus PCR. Seventeen had cranial imaging and it was the first management step in 14. Treatment lengths of both antibiotics and aciclovir were highly variable: one child with HSV encephalitis was only treated with aciclovir for 7 days. The clinical management of children with suspected CNS infections across the Mersey region is heterogeneous and often sub-optimal, particularly for the investigation and treatment of viral encephalitis. National guidelines for the management of viral encephalitis are needed. Encephalitis; Meningitis; Central nervous system infection; Aciclovir; Lumbar puncture Dengue viruses (DENV) cause countless human deaths each year, whilst West Nile virus (WNV) has re-emerged as an important human pathogen. There are currently no WNV or DENV vaccines licensed for human use, yet vaccines exist against other flaviviruses. To investigate flavivirus cross-reactivity, sera from a human cohort with a history of vaccination against tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV), Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) and yellow fever virus (YFV) were tested for antibodies by plaque reduction neutralization test. Neutralization of louping ill virus (LIV) occurred, but no significant neutralization of Murray Valley encephalitis virus was observed. Sera from some individuals vaccinated against TBEV and JEV neutralized WNV, which was enhanced by YFV vaccination in some recipients. Similarly, some individuals neutralized DENV-2, but this was not significantly influenced by YFV vaccination. Antigenic cartography techniques were used to generate a geometric illustration of the neutralization titres of selected sera against WNV, TBEV, JEV, LIV, YFV and DENV-2. This demonstrated the individual variation in antibody responses. Most sera had detectable titres against LIV and some had titres against WNV and DENV-2. Generally, LIV titres were similar to titres against TBEV, confirming the close antigenic relationship between TBEV and LIV. JEV was also antigenically closer to TBEV than WNV, using these sera. The use of sera from individuals vaccinated against multiple pathogens is unique relative to previous applications of antigenic cartography techniques. It is evident from these data that notable differences exist between amino acid sequence identity and mapped antigenic relationships within the family Flaviviridae. Mortality from adult bacterial meningitis exceeds 50% in sub-Saharan Africa. We postulated that—particularly in individuals infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)—herpes simplex virus, varicella zoster virus, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), and cytomegalovirus (CMV) in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) contribute to poor outcome. CSF from 149 Malawian adults with bacterial meningitis and 39 controls were analyzed using polymerase chain reaction. EBV was detected in 79 of 149 bacterial meningitis patients. Mortality (54%) was associated with higher CSF EBV load when adjusted for HIV (P = .01). CMV was detected in 11 of 115 HIV-infected patients, 8 of whom died. The mechanisms by which EBV and CMV contribute to poor outcome require further investigation. Acute encephalitis syndrome (AES) is commonly seen among hospitalized Nepali children. Japanese Encephalitis (JE) accounts for approximately one-quarter of cases. Although poor prognostic features for JE have been identified, and guide management, relatively little is reported on the remaining three-quarters of AES cases. Children with AES (n = 225) were identified through admission records from two hospitals in Kathmandu between 2006 and 2008. Patients without available lumbar puncture results (n = 40) or with bacterial or plasmodium infection (n = 40) were analysed separately. The remaining AES patients with suspected viral aetiology were classified, based on positive IgM antibody in serum or cerebral spinal fluid, as JE (n = 42) or AES of unknown viral aetiology (n = 103); this latter group was sub-classified into Non-JE (n = 44) or JE status unknown (n = 59). Bad outcome was defined as death or neurological sequelae at discharge. AES patients of suspected viral aetiology more frequently had a bad outcome than those with bacterial or plasmodium infection (31% versus 13%; P = 0.039). JE patients more frequently had a bad outcome than those with AES of unknown viral aetiology (48% versus 24%; P = 0.01). Bad outcome was independently associated in both JE and suspected viral aetiology groups with a longer duration of fever pre-admission (P = 0.007; P = 0.002 respectively) and greater impairment of consciousness (P = 0.02; P < 0.001). A higher proportion of JE patients presented with a focal neurological deficit compared to patients of unknown viral aetiology (13/40 versus 11/103; P = 0.005). JE patients weighed less (P = 0.03) and exhibited a higher respiratory rate (P = 0.003) compared to Non-JE patients. Nepali children with AES of suspected viral aetiology or with JE frequently suffered a bad outcome. Despite no specific treatment, patients who experienced a shorter duration of fever before hospital admission more frequently recovered completely. Prompt referral may allow AES patients to receive potentially life-saving supportive management. Previous studies have indicated supportive management, such as fluid provision, is associated with better outcome in JE. The lower weight and higher respiratory rate among JE patients may reflect multiple clinical complications, including dehydration. The findings suggest a more systematic investigation of the influence of supportive management on outcome in AES is warranted. The mosquito-borne Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) causes encephalitis in man but not in pigs. Complete genomes of a human, mosquito and pig isolate from outbreaks in 1982 and 1985 in Thailand were sequenced with the aim of identifying determinants of virulence that may explain the differences in outcomes of JEV infection between pigs and man. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that five of these isolates belonged to genotype I, but the 1982 mosquito isolate belonged to genotype III. There was no evidence of recombination among the Thai isolates, but there were phylogenetic signals suggestive of recombination in a 1994 Korean isolate (K94P05). Two sites of the genome under positive selection were identified: codons 996 and 2296 (amino acids 175 of the non-structural protein NS1 and 24 of NS4B, respectively). A structurally significant substitution was seen at NS4B position 24 of the human isolate compared with the mosquito and pig isolates from the 1985 outbreak in Thailand. The potential importance of the two sites in the evolution and ecology of JEV merits further investigation. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00705-011-1143-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. To investigate whether uncharacterized infectious agents were associated with neurologic disease, we analyzed cerebrospinal fluid specimens from 12 children with acute central nervous system infection. A high-throughput pyrosequencing screen detected human parvovirus 4 DNA in cerebrospinal fluid of 2 children with encephalitis of unknown etiology. viruses; human parvovirus; high throughput sequencing; PARV4; encephalitis; epidemiology; pediatrics; children; India; dispatch To identify potential environmental drivers of Japanese Encephalitis virus (JE) transmission in Nepal, we conducted an ecological study to determine the spatial association between 2005 Nepal JE incidence, and climate, agricultural, and land-cover variables at district level. District-level data on JE cases were examined using Local Indicators of Spatial Association (LISA) analysis to identify spatial clusters from 2004 to 2008 and 2005 data was used to fit a spatial lag regression model with climate, agriculture and land-cover variables. Prior to 2006, there was a single large cluster of JE cases located in the Far-West and Mid-West terai regions of Nepal. After 2005, the distribution of JE cases in Nepal shifted with clusters found in the central hill areas. JE incidence during the 2005 epidemic had a stronger association with May mean monthly temperature and April mean monthly total precipitation compared to mean annual temperature and precipitation. A parsimonious spatial lag regression model revealed, 1) a significant negative relationship between JE incidence and April precipitation, 2) a significant positive relationship between JE incidence and percentage of irrigated land 3) a non-significant negative relationship between JE incidence and percentage of grassland cover, and 4) a unimodal non-significant relationship between JE Incidence and pig-to-human ratio. JE cases clustered in the terai prior to 2006 where it seemed to shift to the Kathmandu region in subsequent years. The spatial pattern of JE cases during the 2005 epidemic in Nepal was significantly associated with low precipitation and the percentage of irrigated land. Despite the availability of an effective vaccine, it is still important to understand environmental drivers of JEV transmission since the enzootic cycle of JEV transmission is not likely to be totally interrupted. Understanding the spatial dynamics of JE risk factors may be useful in providing important information to the Nepal immunization program. Recent outbreaks of enterovirus in Southeast Asia emphasize difficulties in diagnosis of this infection. To address this issue, we report 5 (4.7%) children infected with enterovirus 75 among 106 children with acute encephalitis syndrome during 2005–2007 in southern India. Throat swab specimens may be useful for diagnosis of enterovirus 75 infection. Enterovirus 75; viruses; encephalitis; children; diagnostics; India; dispatch Japanese encephalitis (JE) is the most important form of viral encephalitis in Asia. Surveillance for the disease in many countries has been limited. To improve collection of accurate surveillance data in order to increase understanding of the full impact of JE and monitor control programs, World Health Organization (WHO) Recommended Standards for JE Surveillance have been developed. To aid acceptance of the Standards, we describe the process of development, provide the supporting evidence, and explain the rationale for the recommendations made in the document. A JE Core Working Group was formed in 2002 and worked on development of JE surveillance standards. A series of questions on specific topics was initially developed. A literature review was undertaken and the findings were discussed and documented. The group then prepared a draft document, with emphasis placed on the feasibility of implementation in Asian countries. A field test version of the Standards was published by WHO in January 2006. Feedback was then sought from countries that piloted the Standards and from public health professionals in forums and individual meetings to modify the Standards accordingly. After revisions, a final version of the JE surveillance standards was published in August 2008. The supporting information is presented here together with explanations of the rationale and levels of evidence for specific recommendations. Provision of the supporting evidence and rationale should help to facilitate successful implementation of the JE surveillance standards in JE-endemic countries which will in turn enable better understanding of disease burden and the impact of control programs. Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is a mosquito-borne alphavirus best known for causing fever, rash, arthralgia, and occasional neurologic disease. By using real-time reverse transcription–PCR, we detected CHIKV in plasma samples of 8 (14%) of 58 children with suspected central nervous system infection in Bellary, India. CHIKV was also detected in the cerebrospinal fluid of 3 children. chikungunya virus; central nervous system viral diseases; polymerase chain reaction; incidence; Japanese encephalitis vaccines; encephalitis; Japanese; dispatch Human enterovirus 71 (HEV71) can cause Hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) with neurological complications, which may rapidly progress to fulminant cardiorespiratory failure, and death. Early recognition of children at risk is the key to reduce acute mortality and morbidity. We examined data collected through a prospective clinical study of HFMD conducted between 2000 and 2006 that included 3 distinct outbreaks of HEV71 to identify risk factors associated with neurological involvement in children with HFMD. Total duration of fever ≥ 3 days, peak temperature ≥ 38.5°C and history of lethargy were identified as independent risk factors for neurological involvement (evident by CSF pleocytosis) in the analysis of 725 children admitted during the first phase of the study. When they were validated in the second phase of the study, two or more (≥ 2) risk factors were present in 162 (65%) of 250 children with CSF pleocytosis compared with 56 (30%) of 186 children with no CSF pleocytosis (OR 4.27, 95% CI2.79–6.56, p < 0.0001). The usefulness of the three risk factors in identifying children with CSF pleocytosis on hospital admission during the second phase of the study was also tested. Peak temperature ≥ 38.5°C and history of lethargy had the sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV) and negative predictive value (NPV) of 28%(48/174), 89%(125/140), 76%(48/63) and 50%(125/251), respectively in predicting CSF pleocytosis in children that were seen within the first 2 days of febrile illness. For those presented on the 3rd or later day of febrile illness, the sensitivity, specificity, PPV and NPV of ≥ 2 risk factors predictive of CSF pleocytosis were 75%(57/76), 59%(27/46), 75%(57/76) and 59%(27/46), respectively. Three readily elicited clinical risk factors were identified to help detect children at risk of neurological involvement. These risk factors may serve as a guide to clinicians to decide the need for hospitalization and further investigation, including cerebrospinal fluid examination, and close monitoring for disease progression in children with HFMD. Recurrent myositis triggered by infections is unusual, with only one other case reporting two attacks described in the literature. We report the case of a 24-year-old Caucasian woman with recurrent myositis triggered by sore throat, respiratory and urinary tract infections, over the past 18 years, up to four times a year. Myositis of this frequency and duration, apparently triggered by infections, has not been reported previously. We believe that this case adds to the understanding of myositis associated with infections being a triggered autoimmune response, and postulate that the pathogenesis in our patient is a non-specific immune response to a range of different precipitants, both bacterial and viral. As part of efforts to control Japanese encephalitis (JE), the World Health Organization is producing a set of standards for JE surveillance, which require the identification of patients with acute encephalitis syndrome (AES). This review aims to provide information to determine what minimum annual incidence of AES should be reported to show that the surveillance programme is active. A total of 12,436 articles were retrieved from 3 databases; these were screened by title search and duplicates removed to give 1,083 papers which were screened by abstract (or full paper if no abstract available) to give 87 papers. These 87 were reviewed and 25 papers identified which met the inclusion criteria. Case definitions and diagnostic criteria, aetiologies, study types and reliability varied among the studies reviewed. Amongst prospective studies reviewed from Western industrialised settings, the range of incidences of AES one can expect was 10.5–13.8 per 100,000 for children. For adults only, the minimum incidence from the most robust prospective study from a Western setting gave an incidence of 2.2 per 100,000. The incidence from the two prospective studies for all age groups was 6.34 and 7.4 per 100,000 from a tropical and a Western setting, respectively. However, both studies included arboviral encephalitis, which may have given higher rather than given higher] incidence levels. In the most robust, prospective studies conducted in Western industrialised countries, a minimum incidence of 10.5 per 100,000 AES cases was reported for children and 2.2 per 100,000 for adults. The minimum incidence for all ages was 6.34 per 100,000 from a tropical setting. On this basis, for ease of use in protocols and for future WHO surveillance standards, a minimum incidence of 10 per 100,000 AES cases is suggested as an appropriate target for studies of children alone and 2 per 100,000 for adults and 6 per 100,000 for all age groups. Human enterovirus 71 and coxsackievirus A16 are important causes of hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD). Like other enteroviruses, they can be isolated from a range of sterile and nonsterile sites, but which clinical sample, or combination of samples, is the most useful for laboratory diagnosis of HFMD is not clear. We attempted virus culture for 2,916 samples from 628 of 725 children with HFMD studied over a 3 1/2-year period, which included two large outbreaks. Overall, throat swabs were the single most useful specimen, being positive for any enterovirus for 288 (49%) of 592 patients with a full set of samples. Vesicle swabs were positive for 169 (48%) of 333 patients with vesicles, the yield being greater if two or more vesicles were swabbed. The combination of throat plus vesicle swabs enabled the identification of virus for 224 (67%) of the 333 patients with vesicles; for this patient group, just 27 (8%) extra patients were diagnosed when rectal and ulcer swabs were added. Of 259 patients without vesicles, use of the combination of throat plus rectal swab identified virus for 138 (53%). For 60 patients, virus was isolated from both vesicle and rectal swabs, but for 12 (20%) of these, the isolates differed. Such discordance occurred for just 11 (10%) of 112 patients with virus isolated from vesicle and throat swabs. During large HFMD outbreaks, we suggest collecting swabs from the throat plus one other site: vesicles, if these are present (at least two should be swabbed), or the rectum if there are no vesicles. Vesicle swabs give a high diagnostic yield, with the added advantage of being from a sterile site. In a malaria-endemic area of Africa, rabies was an important cause of fatal central nervous system infection, responsible for 14 (10.5%) of 133 cases. Four patients had unusual clinical manifestations, and rabies was only diagnosed postmortem. Three (11.5%) of 26 fatal cases were originally attributed to cerebral malaria. Rabies; central nervous system infection; Malaria; zoonosis; dispatch Since it emerged in Japan in the 1870s, Japanese encephalitis has spread across Asia and has become the most important cause of epidemic encephalitis worldwide. Four genotypes of Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) are presently recognized (representatives of genotypes I to III have been fully sequenced), but its origin is not known. We have determined the complete nucleotide and amino acid sequence of a genotype IV Indonesian isolate (JKT6468) which represents the oldest lineage, compared it with other fully sequenced genomes, and examined the geographical distribution of all known isolates. JKT6468 was the least similar, with nucleotide divergence ranging from 17.4 to 19.6% and amino acid divergence ranging from 4.7 to 6.5%. It included an unusual series of amino acids at the carboxy terminus of the core protein unlike that seen in other JEV strains. Three signature amino acids in the envelope protein (including E327 Leu→Thr/Ser on the exposed lateral surface of the putative receptor binding domain) distinguished genotype IV strains from more recent genotypes. Analysis of all 290 JEV isolates for which sequence data are available showed that the Indonesia-Malaysia region has all genotypes of JEV circulating, whereas only more recent genotypes circulate in other areas (P < 0.0001). These results suggest that JEV originated from its ancestral virus in the Indonesia-Malaysia region and evolved there into the different genotypes which then spread across Asia. Our data, together with recent evidence on the origins of other emerging viruses, including dengue virus and Nipah virus, imply that tropical southeast Asia may be an important zone for emerging pathogens. The use of the lumbar puncture in the diagnosis of central nervous system infection in acutely ill children is controversial. Recommendations have been published but it is unclear whether they are being followed. The medical case notes of 415 acute medical admissions in a children's hospital were examined to identify children with suspected central nervous system infection and suspected meningococcal septicaemia. We determined whether lumbar punctures were indicated or contraindicated, whether they had been performed, and whether the results contributed to the patients' management. Fifty-two children with suspected central nervous system infections, and 43 with suspected meningococcal septicaemia were identified. No lumbar punctures were performed in patients with contraindications, but only 25 (53%) of 47 children with suspected central nervous system infection and no contraindications received a lumbar puncture. Lumbar puncture findings contributed to the management in 18 (72%) of these patients, by identifying a causative organism or excluding bacterial meningitis. The recommendations for undertaking lumbar punctures in children with suspected central nervous system infection are not being followed because many children that should receive lumbar punctures are not getting them. When they are performed, lumbar puncture findings make a useful contribution to the patients' management. A new commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for the diagnosis of Japanese encephalitis virus infections showed a sensitivity of 88% with sera and 81% with cerebrospinal fluid and a specificity of 97% with sera from patients with primary and secondary dengue virus infections. Specificity was 100% when samples from nonflavivirus infections were tested. The performances of the MRL dengue fever virus immunoglobulin M (IgM) capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and the PanBio Dengue Duo IgM capture and IgG capture ELISA were compared. Eighty sera from patients with dengue virus infections, 24 sera from patients with Japanese encephalitis (JE), and 78 sera from patients with nonflavivirus infections, such as malaria, typhoid, leptospirosis, and scrub typhus, were used. The MRL test showed superior sensitivity for dengue virus infections (94 versus 89%), while the PanBio test showed superior specificity for JE (79 versus 25%) and other infections (100 versus 91%). The PanBio ELISA showed better overall performance, as assessed by the sum of sensitivity and specificity (F value). When dengue virus and nonflavivirus infections were compared, F values of 189 and 185 were obtained for the PanBio and MRL tests, respectively, while when dengue virus infections and JE were compared, F values of 168 and 119 were obtained. The results obtained with individual sera in the PanBio and MRL IgM ELISAs showed good correlation, but this analysis revealed that the cutoff value of the MRL test was set well below that of the PanBio test. Comparing the sensitivity and specificity of the tests at different cutoff values (receiver-operator analysis) revealed that the MRL and PanBio IgM ELISAs performed similarly in distinguishing dengue virus from nonflavivirus infections, although the PanBio IgM ELISA showed significantly better distinction between dengue virus infections and JE. The implications of these findings for the laboratory diagnosis of dengue are discussed. Japanese encephalitis (JE) occurs in rural settings in southern and eastern Asia, where diagnostic facilities are limited. For the diagnosis of JE virus (JEV) infection, we developed a nitrocellulose membrane-based immunoglobulin M (IgM) capture dot enzyme immunoassay (MAC DOT) that is rapid, simple to use, requires no specialized equipment, and can distinguish JEV from dengue infection. In a prospective field study in southern Vietnam, 155 cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and 341 serum samples were collected from 111 children and 83 adults with suspected encephalitis. The JEV MAC DOT, performed on site, was scored visually from negative to strongly positive by two observers, and the results were compared subsequently with those of the standard IgM capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. For the 179 patients with adequate specimens, the MAC DOT correctly identified 59 of 60 JEV-positive patients and 118 of 119 JEV-negative patients (sensitivity [95% confidence intervals], 98.3% [92.1 to 99.9%]; specificity, 99.2% [95.9 to 100.0%]; positive predictive value, 0.98; negative predictive value, 0.99). The MAC DOT also correctly identified three patients with dengue encephalopathy. Admission specimens were positive for 73% of JE patients. Interobserver agreement for MAC DOT diagnosis was excellent (kappa = 0.94). The JEV MAC DOT is a simple and reliable rapid diagnostic test for JE in rural hospitals.

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Green Mountain National Forest 231 North Main Street Rutland, VT 05701 Region 9 Regional Office 626 East Wisconsin Ave. Milwaukee, WI 53202 The Green Mountain National Forest (GMNF) is recognized as an area of significant ecological diversity in Vermont and northern New England. The National Forest includes over 400,000 acres of mostly forested land, and includes at least 69 unique natural communities. These communities range from small emergent marsh wetlands to stately stands of hemlock; from common communities such as northern hardwood forests to rare communities such as the small alpine meadow at the summit of Mount Abraham. While much of the Forest is dominated by maturing forests of between 70-120 years old, open wetlands, rocky outcrops, and cliffs comprise about 7,000 acres, or close to 2% of the Forest. All of these natural communities are nested within 16 landscapes (for instance, mountain slopes and valley bottoms) and 5 biophysical regions (for instance, the southern Green Mountains and the Taconic Mountains) in Vermont. These natural communities, landscapes, and biophysical regions provide a wide variety of habitats for native plants and animals, some of which are rare, threatened, or endangered. The study and management of this ecological diversity on the GMNF is divided among several program areas. The Wildlife and Fisheries Programs focus on animals and their habitats, while the Botany Program focuses on rare plants and their habitats, as well as on non-native invasive plants. The Vegetation Management Program focuses on management of woody vegetation and forest types. The Ecology Program focuses on management at the natural community and landscape levels, including the inter-relationships between plants, animals, soil, geology, and disturbances. The mission of the Ecology Program on the GMNF is to provide ecological information, analysis, and expertise to assist land managers in making management decisions. The program does this in several ways: The Ecology Program benefits from partnerships with several organizations, as well as the work of many volunteers. Follow the links below to learn more about our:

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Women from South Asian countries settled in Australia are found to be at higher risk of stillbirths, reveals a research being published in the Medical Journal of Australia. The risk was compared with Australian women and it was found that South Asian origin women are at double the risk of having stillbirths. In order to reach at the above conclusion, the study researchers assessed over 40,000 births, which took place at three Australian hospitals. The data was evaluated between 2001 and 2011, said Euan Wallace, Professor at Monash Medical Centre who was also part of the study. Wallace affirmed that women from India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and Bangladesh, had stillbirth rate 2.4 times high when compared with Australian origin women. "These results support observations in other Western populations that women of South Asian origin have a higher risk of stillbirth than other women", said Wallace. He affirmed that one of the ways is to make sure that women from all origins are provided quality care. However, it cannot be known which factors have made the stillbirth percentage to rise and a further research needs to be taken out. US Business News New Zealand News - After Suspected Botulism, CFIA Warns People - Health Care Education Necessary for the Future of Province: Analysts - B.C. Government Grants $700,000 for Managing Facial Deformities - Michelle Shocked delivers hate speech about homosexuality at her gig - Guess who Justin Bieber got burned by?!! His ex-girlfriend Selena Gomez

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Allium - Chives, Garlic, Leeks, Onion, Ramp, Scallion, Shallot DESCRIPTION: These hardy bulbs grow wild in many parts of the world. Many of the varieties are commonly known vegetables such as the Chives, Garlic, Leek, Onion, Ramp and Shallot. Many kinds are grown for their pretty clusters of flowers, which come in an array of colors during the spring and summer. Some of the smaller kinds are great for the rock garden and some in the flower border. A. Rosenbachianum is one of the prettiest grown for its flowers. It produces rose-purple flowers on 2½- to 3-foot stems in July. A. albo-pilosum grows 2 feet high and bears silvery lilac flowers in June. The following are descriptions of the varieties used as vegetables: Chives & Garlic Chives (A. Schoenoprasum & A. tuberosum, respectively) - Chives are found wild in Europe and Asia and the variety, sibiricum, in North America. They grow in close tufts consisting of slender, hollow, blue-green leaves. The flower stems are just taller than the foliage and they are topped with round heads of pale purple flowers in the summer. The young, tender leaves are used as a mild substitute for the Onion, chopped for seasoning in salads and soups. Garlic Chive, also called Chinese Chive or Oriental Chive, grows up to 12 inches high and wide. It has flat leaves and greenish-white flowerheads on stalks up to 30 inches high. It makes a pretty border plant and its tender green leaves add a mild garlic flavor to foods. Garlic (A. sativum) - This plant has narrow foliage, 6-12 inches high, and is a native of southern Europe. All parts of this vegetable have a very strong taste and it is widely used for culinary purposes. The bulb is composed of 10 to 12 cloves encased by a thin, papery, white or pink skin. The most popular kind is the Common White Garlic; the skin is silvery white. The pink variety is earlier than the white and the red Garlic has larger and flatter cloves. Leek (A. ampeloprasum) - This vegetable is valuable in the fall and winter. It is very hardy and is recommended to those whose gardens are in cold climates or in exposed, cold locales. The Leek resembles large Scallions with flattened leaves. They are milder than Onions and are grown mainly for their long, thick, tender white stems. Onion (A. cepa) - The Onion is a hardy, biennial native of western Asia. There are many varieties, which vary considerably in shape, coloring and size. They are commonly raised every year from seeds, either sown outdoors or inside, but they are often grown from small bulbs called Onion sets. These are raised from seeds sown in the summer of the previous year and if cultivated properly, will form good-sized bulbs by the end of the season. Onions grown this way, however, aren't as good as those from first-year seedling plants and they don't keep as well. Onion sets are great for producing an early crop of Scallions. (These are young Onions that haven't developed a bulb yet, though the base may be swollen. Scallions are pulled and eaten in salads and as greens. The term is also given to young Shallots and Leeks.) There are other types of Onion that are sometimes grown in gardens. One is the Potato Onion, which forms single bulbs or a cluster of bulbs beneath the soil. The Top, Tree or Egyptian Onion is interesting in that it produces small bulbs at the tops of stems above the ground. The bulbs of these are usually used for pickling. Another kind is the Welsh or Perennial Onion; it doesn't produce true bulbs, but instead is cultivated for the use of its stems and leaves, which are mainly used for flavoring. Ramp (A. tricoccum) - This plant is also called Wild Leek. This hardy, woodland perennial is found wild in eastern North America. Ramp is distinguished from other wild onions by its offensively strong smell, like that of leeks but much more potent. It was once used to flavor the strong, gamy meats eaten on the frontier. Mature plants are 12 inches high and ordinarily have 2 long, wide, smooth leaves on petioles. After the leaves wither, the plants send up stems bearing round bunches of greenish-yellow flowers, which are followed by black seeds. Ramp spreads by underground rhizomes or seeds. Shallot (A. ascalonicum) -The Shallot is a useful winter vegetable that is easily grown. The bulbs are mainly used for pickling. Each Shallot bulb produces a cluster of 6 or more bulbs. When the Shallots are lifted, the bulbs are separated before being stored. A sufficient number should be saved for replanting the next year. The ordinary Shallot is suitable for general purposes. Those who desire to grow large Shallots should choose the Giant or Russian variety. POTTING: The flowering varieties will grow easily in regular garden soil and are great for planting in the wild garden. The bulbs can be set out in the fall or early spring in a sunny area. Cover them with about 3 inches of soil, though the smaller ones shouldn't be set any deeper than 2 inches. They may be left undisturbed for several years until they become too crowded. They may then be lifted, separated and replanted as soon as the leaves wither. Chives - They will grow in any garden soil. In March, they should be planted, 6 to 9 inches apart. The clumps should be cut with a sharp knife often, even if they aren't wanted for use, in order to maintain a regular supply of fresh, young leaves. Plants can be dug up in the fall and potted in a greenhouse or window garden to supply leaves during the winter. Every 3 or 4 years the clumps should be lifted in the spring and pulled apart. The divided parts may be replanted as separate plants. Begin harvesting Chives in the spring when the first flower buds appear. Shearing at this time will prevent blooming and the subsequent drain of energy on the plant. Make additional cuttings during the summer, but stop harvesting in the winter. Chives lose their flavor when dried, so they are usually frozen and reconstituted for use in cooking. Their flavor is milder than that of green onions. The flower clusters are edible when young, before seeds grow. Cut the young flowering stems and hang them upside down to dry. For dried arrangements, hang flowers in a dark, airy room so they will keep their color. To harvest Garlic Chive, cut off clumps of young leaves at ground level. Chop and freeze the tender shoots for winter use. Stop harvesting in early fall to avoid weakening the plants. Use dried stalks in winter arrangements. Garlic - Cloves should be planted in drills, 2 to 3 inches deep and 3 inches apart, in well drained soil in full sun. Mid-spring is the best time for planting, except in the South and warm West, where late summer is better. Most bulbs will survive over winter except in very cold climates. The following summer, stop watering when the leaves turn yellow and break tops over at the base to speed up drying. After 2 to 3 weeks, when broken tops are brown and dry, carefully lift the bulbs and sun-dry them for a few days. The plants can then be plaited into garlic chains or the tops cut off and the bulbs stored in a dark area. Small cloves grow into unsegmented "rounds"; these can be replanted to grow into larger bulbs with the usual count of 7 to 10 cloves. Leek - A supply of Leeks for ordinary kitchen use can be grown with little trouble. They need deeply dug soil improved with manure or rich compost. They're usually planted in holes about 6 inches deep made with a dibbler. The Leek plant is set with its roots at the bottom of the hole and water is then poured in. This will wash in enough soil to anchor the roots; it's unnecessary to fill the hole with soil. When Leeks are grown to produce blanched stems of moderate length, they should be set 6 inches apart; further, will be necessary if blanched stems greater than 6 or 8 inches are needed. As they grow, push soil up around the stems; this will blanch them white. Since the Leek is hardy, it may be left in the ground to be dug up as desired for use, but in late winter, it is wise to lift the Leeks that remain and heel them in a shady east- or north-facing border to delay their going to seed. They may also be planted closely together in a root cellar. Another good reason for cultivating the Leek is that it resists pests and diseases. It is less trouble than most vegetables if care is taken to prepare the ground correctly and to plant the seedlings in their final positions early in the summer as possible. Failure at producing good Leeks is usually because they were sown too late and planted on poor land. If temperatures threaten to fall below 10 degrees, mulch with pine needles or straw. Onion - Started outside - When the seedlings that have been growing outdoors have been thinned to eight plants per foot, applications of nitrate of soda or commercial fertilizer at ½ oz. per yard of row during the growing season, once in a while, is advantageous. Onions need little attention throughout the summer, except to keep the rows free of weeds. Dilute liquid fertilizer should be given weekly when the bulbs are developing. Take care to guard against thrips and other pests. In August, when they are almost finished growing, it is smart to draw the soil away to expose them to air and sun as much as possible to aid in their ripening. When the leaves begin to yellow, they should be pushed over with the back of a rake to hasten drying. When the leaves have died, the bulbs are loosened with a spading fork and left to dry a few days in the field. They are then braided and hung in a chain, or the tops are cut off and the bulbs are stored in a mesh bag in a dry, dark place. Medium-sized, firm Onions with many layers of dry scales, but no thick neck, store best. The large, sweet slicing varieties aren't good for storing long. Started inside - When Onions that have been started inside are ready to be planted outdoors, take care not to plant them too deeply or else thick-necked Onions will result. The plants should be set so that the small bulbs are on the surface or are only partially covered; just deep enough to hold them upright. Onions need light and air to ensure proper development and to provide bulbs that keep well when stored. If the soil is loosened around the bulbs (from hoeing too closely), they may get covered up. Ramp - They should be planted in rich, humus soil and light shade. Saturate the soil once in a while during dry periods. In a good location, Ramp will spread, but not aggressively. Ramp forms thin underground stems resembling scallions. Pull these loose from the rhizomes and throw out the leaves and outer skin sheathing the stem. You won't be left with much, but a little goes a long way. Use sparingly to flavor meats or greens. Shallot - This vegetable grows best on deeply cultivated, moderately rich soil. After the ground has been prepared, the bulbs are pressed into the soil until they're covered about half way. They should be 6 inches apart in rows 10 to 12 inches apart. They should be planted as early in the spring as possible. Hoe them often throughout the summer to get rid of weeds and keep the soil "fine"; this prevents moisture from evaporating. When the leaves turn brown and have almost died down, they are lifted and set out to dry for a few days. The dead leaves and soil are removed and they're stored until needed. They will stay good in a cool shed or room. They are not stored in sand, soil or any other material. Chives - Divide the clumps. Garlic - Separate the bulbs and plant individually. Leek - In climates with harsh winters, start seeds early indoors in late winter and transplant the pencil-sized Leeks to the garden when it is safe. Where winters are mild, sow seeds directly outdoors on a small bed raked finely. They should be set in drills, ½-inch deep and 8 inches apart. When the seedlings have sprouted, the ground should be hoed often to keep down the weeds. The plants should be spaced 4 to 6 inches apart when they're large enough to handle. Onion - Starting outside - Large Onions can only be grown on deeply dug and manured soil in a sunny position. Dig or plow the soil and add liberal amounts of compost or animal manure. This preparation should be done in the fall and the surface left rough to allow full exposure to frost, wind and snow; this is beneficial to the garden ground. In early spring, wood ash and 3 oz. of good fertilizer per square yard should be scattered on the surface. These should be forked in, 9 inches deep. Firm the seedbed by treading it when sufficiently dry. All lumps and stones must be raked out to provide a fine surface to sow on. If the soil is light, it would be beneficial to roll the bed. Onions can be grown from seeds sown outdoors in drills ½-inch or so deep and a foot apart. Sprinkle them thinly, cover them and firm the soil. Finish off with a light raking. The best time to plant the seeds is in early spring as soon as the soil is dry enough to work with. It is very important to have fine soil and a firm surface. As soon as the seedlings have sprouted, the weeds must be kept down in between the rows by hoeing. Don't go so close to the seedlings that you loosen the soil around them. Weeds that come up among the plants should be pulled by hand very carefully. When they're a few inches high, they need to be thinned. Those being pulled out must be pulled out carefully, so those that remain are not disturbed. At the following thinnings, the seedlings that are pulled up will be large enough to be used as Scallions. Thinning should be continued until the Onions average about eight per foot of each row. Starting inside - When Onions are grown for exhibition, seeds are sown in late January or early February in a sunny greenhouse. A 60-degree temperature should be maintained. When the seedlings are an inch or so high, they need a temperature of 50 degrees. They should be repotted individually in 3-inch pots for best results. Usually, they're transplanted to flats 4 to 5 inches deep, filled with loamy soil that has had a bit of leaf mold, decayed manure and sand mixed in. They are set 2 inches apart, but don't cover up the tiny bulb. Only moisten the soil when it is fairly dry. When danger from frost has passed and they've formed a good supply of roots, they may be planted outdoors, 6 inches apart. Onions raised this way will most likely develop great for exhibition, but they usually don't keep well in storage. Starting outdoors in August - This is another way to raise Onions in areas with mild winters. The seedlings aren't disturbed except to thin out slightly if they're overcrowded. The following March or April they are set out in a bed of rich soil prepared as advised previously. Those not needed for planting may be used as Scallions. Pickling onions - These may be sown thickly on poor soil in April or May. The soil needs little cultivation, but it should be dug over and firmly treaded or rolled. The seeds may be sown broadcast or in drills about 8 inches apart. Sowing in drills is the best way, because it enables hoeing to be done conveniently and weeds to be kept down. Onion sets - The sets should be spaced about 4 inches apart in rows10 inches apart. Simply press them into the soil; don't cover them. The only attention needed during the summer is to hoe the rows often, but not close to the bulbs. The Top, Tree or Egyptian Onion - These are planted 5 to 6 inches apart in rows 10 inches apart. During the summer, keep the rows free of weeds. They need open, sunny spots; they won't thrive in shady places. Full-sized bulbs must be planted to produce clusters of bulbs at their tops. Small bulbs won't yield a crop the first season. Welsh or perennial Onions - This is increased by division; the clumps are split into small clusters and planted, 6 inches apart, in early spring. Ramp - Order seeds or plants from wildflower specialists. In early spring, plant seedlings or rhizome pieces. Shallot - The bulbs are separated and replanted. Grown for their flowers A. senescens glaucum; A. sativum (White, Pink or Red varieties). A. Cepa. Some varieties are: Ebenezer, Early Yellow Globe, Southport Red Globe, Southport White Globe, Southport Yellow Globe, Sweet Spanish, White Portugal or Silverskin, White Sweet Spanish and Yellow Globe Danvers. The Potato Onion or Underground Onion, the Top, Tree or Egyptian Onion and the Welsh or Perennial Onion. A. ascalonicum. There is the Giant or Russian variety. German White Stiffneck Garlic Chives - A. Schoenoprasum Go see DICTIONARY OF BOTANICAL NAMES. Back to our botanical home page.

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Did you know that trillions of cells are working together as you breathe, sleep, and think? Take a closer look at your cells and find out what is really happening every moment that you are alive. Throughout the exhibit you can meet scientists who are asking questions about cells and watch complex cell processes transformed into choreographed dances. - Virtual experiments using gold particles and stem cells - Giant walk-in cell - Videos of cells in action - Cells and the miracle of life - Control a time-lapse movie showing human fetal development. Use a magnifying glass to compare pig embryos to photos of a developing human embryo. Watch your arm move and muscle cells contract. Match a cell’s shape to its job. The world inside a cell See models of a cell membrane, nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, and lysosome inside a giant cell. Fly inside a virtual cell on a huge screen. Make protein shapes with your shadow. Play a computer game to see how proteins are made inside the nucleus. Cells and your health Compare an osteoporotic bone to a healthy bone, a smoker’s lungs and non-smoker’s lungs, and a clogged artery to a healthy artery. Use a virtual scalpel to cut a planaria in half and watch it regenerate. Design a cancer fighting nanoparticle in a virtual lab. Get moving and see how exercise affects your body at the cellular level.Cells: The Universe Inside Us was created and produced by the Maryland Science Center with funding from MetLife Foundation.

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Book Description: This book seeks to extend economic analysis to problems involving voting and the political process. The authors deal with two types of problems: one involving taxation and redistribution, the other involving information, credibility, and the costs of democracy. An introductory essay first describes the approach and its broader implications. The subsequent analysis treats voters' decisions in the polling place as similar to their decisions in the market place--they maximize subject to constraints. In determining the level of taxation and redistribution, voters consider the benefits and costs they bear. These include the loss of incentives as taxes increase and the gain in consumption as redistribution increases. The authors use this model to explain why redistribution is often in-kind instead of the type of negative income tax often favored by economists, why progressive taxes are found in many countries, and why the degree of progressivity varies across states and countries.

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protactinium (prōˌtăktĭnˈēəm) [key], radioactive chemical element; symbol Pa; at. no. 91; mass number of most stable isotope 231; m.p. greater than 1,600°C; b.p. 4,026°C; sp. gr. 15.37 (calculated); valence +4, +5. Protactinium is a malleable, shiny silver-gray radioactive metal. It does not tarnish rapidly in air. Known compounds include a chloride (PaCl4), a fluoride (PaF4), a dioxide (PaO2), and a pentoxide (Pa2O5). Protactinium has 24 isotopes of which only three are found in nature. The most stable is protactinium-231 (half-life about 32,500 years); it is also the most common, being found in nature in all uranium ores in about the same abundance as radium. Protactinium has been called the "mother" of actinium, which is formed by the alpha decay of protactinium. The first discovery of protactinium was in 1913 by Kasimir Fajans and O. Göhring, who found the isotope protactinium-234m (half-life 1.2 min), a decay product of uranium-238; they named it brevium for its short life. Protactinium-231 was first identified in 1918 by Otto Hahn and Lisa Meitner and independently by Frederick Soddy and John A. Cranston; the name protoactinium was adopted at this time. In 1927, Aristid V. Grosse prepared the pentoxide, and in 1934 isolated the metal from a purified sample of oxide. The name protactinium was adopted in 1949 by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. More on protactinium from Fact Monster: See more Encyclopedia articles on: Compounds and Elements

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What motivates student participation? This is a question a lot of teachers ask themselves when trying to figure out how to get (and keep) their students engaged in classroom activities. Think about what motivated you as a student. What could the teacher of done to make you want to learn and actively participate? Here you will find a variety of tips to help increase student participation in class. Use these ideas to help you create a welcoming environment, where your students feel comfortable engaging in classroom discussions. 1. Show Enthusiasm If you walk down the hall and look into a classroom and see twenty students doodling on their papers and the teacher texting on their phone, you might think to yourself, these kids are bored out of their mind! If teachers aren't enthusiastic about what they are teaching, how are the students going to be? Get off the phone and interact with your class. Show students how interesting and fun learning can be. Create hands-on activities that engage students in learning. Once the students see that you are excited to teach them, then they will be excited to learn. 2. Keep Students Focused with Visual Aids Use visual aids such as Smart-boards, iPads, overhead projectors or Power Point presentations to keep them focused. Did you ever notice that you have to repeat yourself ten times when teaching a lesson using no visual aid? This is because you are not stimulating them, their eyes can wander while you are talking. When you use a teaching aid to help get your point across, you will see that students will have something for their eyes to focus on. 3. Mix it Up and Change Your Routine Have you ever gotten bored from your daily routine? The alarm goes off at 7 am, take a shower, make coffee, blah, blah, blah. The same routine everyday. If you change your routine by just doing something a little different, it changes the monotony of things. This goes for your students too. If every morning you ask the students to come in and do the same morning work each day, they will eventually get sick of doing it and be less likely to participate. Try changing your routine every few months. This will keep your students on their toes and you will see they will be more willing to participate in the lesson. 4. Get Students Up and MovingIf you are sitting at a desk all day, you tend to get tired and bored and are less likely to participate in class discussions. Try using activity sticks to break up the day and get your students up and moving. Write different, 1 minute activities on colorful Pop-cycle sticks and every few hours choose an activity for the students to complete. Ideas for 1 minute Activities: - Dance party - Switch seats - Jumping jacks - Sign Language Alphabet - Follow the Leader - Copy Cat 5. Use the Multiple Intelligences Howard Gardner is widely known for the term multiple intelligences. He says that every child learns differently and has different learning styles. These styles he is referring to, can improve student performance and participation in class. These seven learning styles are: Use the multiple intelligence theory to find out what each students' learning style is. This will help you plan lessons and activities that will motivate each learner, and in turn you will see students wanting to participate in class discussions and activities. Look for Part 2 of the series, How to Increase Student Participation in Your Classroomwere you will learn 5 more ways to engage your students.

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As reported in the British Journal of Cancer, Swedish researchers discovered that people who consume four ounces of processed meat daily (including such delicacies as sausage and four slices of bacon) had a 19 percent increased chance of contracting pancreatic cancer. Right now, your lifetime risk of getting pancreatic cancer is 1.4 percent, Dr. Richard Besser told ABC News. If you have a serving of processed meat per day, your risk would go up to 1.7 percent -- still very small. Pancreatic cancer is relatively rare, affecting only one of 65 people, according to the National Cancer Institute. Defenders of the white meat would point out that eating pork is not the problem at all -- rather, the true culprits are the nitrites and nitrates used in the proccessing of meats (all types of meat). Indeed, processed meats have also been connected to bladder and colon cancers. Nonethless, the eating of pork has long been banned by at least three of the world’s major religions, Judaism, Islam and Hinduism. The prohibition on eating pigs stretches back to antiquity and, of course, it was not implemented due to cancer fears. In the Old Testament of the Bible, the Book of Leviticus states: “And the swine, though he divide the hoof, and be cloven-footed, yet he cheweth not the cud; he [is] unclean to you. Of their flesh shall ye not eat, and their carcass shall ye not touch; they [are] unclean to you.” Similarly, Deuteronomy advises: “And the swine, because it divideth the hoof, yet cheweth not the cud, it [is] unclean unto you: ye shall not eat of their flesh, nor touch their dead carcass.” In the Holy Quran, it is written: “He has only forbidden you dead meat, and blood, and the flesh of swine, and any (food) over which the name of other than Allah has been invoked.” With respect to Hinduism, eating pig is not specifically forbidden -- rather, all flesh and meat-eating is considered taboo. Culturally, pork was never a popular (or cheap) food alternative in India. Observant Hindus shun pork, as much as they avoid beef, alcohol or tobacco. While cows are considered sacred, pigs are generally considered unclean (as they are by Muslims and also Buddhists). Interestingly, pork is also forbidden (or considered taboo) by such diverse groups as Seventh-Day Adventists, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and even some Scottish Highlanders. However, eating pork is extremely popular in China – even though some ancient Chinese texts discouraged the practice. The Confucian Book of Rites from 3,000 years ago said: A gentleman does not eat the flesh of pigs and dogs. According to a report in the Los Angeles Times, the average Chinese person eats about 100 pounds of pork per year (double the rate as Americans). When someone says they're eating 'meat' in China, they mean they're eating pork, Feng Yonghui, an industry analyst, told the paper. Most people can't live without it. China is also the biggest pork producer on the planet, with 460-million pigs (half the global total). According to the China Association of Science and Technology (CAST), the risk of pancreatic cancer has been increasing in China in recent years. “For example in Shanghai, in 2000, the incidence rate reached 10.0 per 100,000 persons, an increase of 1.5 times higher than 20 years ago,” CAST stated. “In 2008, 1,800 new cases were reported among the regular inhabitants in Shanghai city proper. Since 2010, the rate has risen to 11.0 per 100,000 persons”

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Tennessee Valley Authority In 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt initiated a new agency which combined aspects of governmental and private organizations. Over time, the resulting agency, the Tennessee Valley Authority or TVA, has researched issues as far-ranging as malaria, reforestation, power, flooding, navigation, and erosion. In their own words, the TVA serves the "valley through energy, environment, and economic development." Admittedly, the TVA website was not designed for K-12 education. However, as a major initiative of the New Deal, it is an important milestone in U.S. history. For that reason, if you need to teach the New Deal, you may want to read From the New Deal to the a New Century: A Short History of TVA, which includes a link to the original TVA Act. The TVA Heritage archive focuses on more specific snippets of TVA history. Also worth a look is the TVA kids' site, which includes answers to questions like "Who developed the Cherokee alphabet?" and "In 1930, how many Americans living on farms had electricity?" Resources specifically developed for teachers lean toward the sciences.

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This treaty was negotiated between Canada and the United States in 1923. It provided a closed season for halibut and established a commission of four -- two from each country -- for investigating and recommending to the two Governments measures for restoring the dwindling stocks of halibut. The Convention was revised in 1930, when powers of making regulations subject to approval of the two governments were bestowed on the Commission. These powers were further extended in the 1937 revision of the Convention which is in effect today. During the past three years negotiations took place on the official level for a further revision of the Convention. After several drafts passed back and forth between us and the United States, the following new substantive provisions have met with general approval on both sides. (1) The name of the Commission, now known as "The International Fisheries Commission" is to be changed to that of "The International Pacific Halibut Commission". The reason for the change is to enable ready identification and to distinguish the Commission from other fishery commissions which we now have. (2) The number of commissioners is to be increased from four to six -- three from each country. This was a United States proposal. The reason for it is that in the United States, unlike in Canada, fishery jurisdiction is vested in each state and the federal Government only acquires some jurisdiction by virtue of a treaty made with another country. In this case the United States Government wanted to give Alaska representation on the Commission. The two commissioners now appointed represent the federal Government and the industry at large. (3) The Commission is to have power to establish more than one open season. There was some doubt as to the Commission's power to do this under the existing treaty. The granting of this power was considered necessary to allow the Commission to extend fishing over more than one period of time. The scientists of the Commission advanced the hypothesis that during a concentrated short season, some fishing grounds may be under-exploited. The experiment of dividing up the season would be useful to determine to some extent whether this hypothesis is correct. (4) Power to limit or prohibit the incidental catch of halibut that may be taken by vessels fishing for other species. The Commission already has power to regulate the catch of halibut taken incidentally during the closed season by boats fishing for other species. The additional power would give the Commission the right to regulate such incidental catch also during the open season. The Secretary of State for External Affairs concurs in this recommendation to Cabinet. It is our desire to have the treaty signed in Ottawa on March 2nd, that being the 30th anniversary of the signing of the first Halibut Convention. That was the first treaty to be signed by Canada in her own right and the Canadian signatory then was the father of the present Minister of Veterans' Affairs. I recommend therefore that the Canadian signatories on this occasion be the Honourable Hugues Lapointe and myself.

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Fig. H: Measuring total current drawn by the harp lasers. Fig. I: Wooden plug power connection to the laser pointer. Fig. J: Author Stephen Hobley plays his full-sized laser harp, which was a huge hit at the Bay Area Maker Faire in May (see page 86). 2. Connect the MIDI jack to your computer with a USB-MIDI interface. Launch MIDI-OX (or equivalent software) and open that port. You should see Note On and Note Off messages in the MIDI inspector. If not, then test the +5V, ground, and TX pins for If the MIDI test is OK, upload the laser theremin program MAKE_THEREMIN.pde to the Arduino. 5. Drill a hole through the detector holder where the laser will shine, tape the photosensor board to the outside with the sensor facing in, and glue a translucent tumbled rock over the hole in front (Figure D, previous page). The rock diffuses the light, which helps the sensor see it. 6. Next, attach the range sensor to the laser. I found that it worked better mounted vertically (Figure E) — 3. Take one of your laser pointers apart and measure when it was horizontal, I think the IR beam was the battery voltage. Adjust the variable regulator on reflecting off the laser pointer’s barrel and causing your power supply board until its output matches misreadings. Having a rangefinder too close to this voltage. This lets you run the laser from your a wall can also diminish accuracy. power supply board. One neat way to connect it is with alligator clips. 4. Now make the physical frame. I cut a long piece of scrap wood into 3 pieces: to make a base, a laser holder, and a detector holder. Drill the laser holder piece for the laser to fit through horizontally, and drill a smaller perpendicular hole for a screw to hold down its power button. 7. Connect the photosensor circuit’s output from the op-amp to pin 2 on the Arduino and connect the rangefinder’s output to Analog In 0. Connect your computer back to the MIDI out and run MIDI-OX. Switch everything on (Figure G). Adjust the pot on the detector board so that the LED just comes on. At this point, breaking the laser beam with your hand should switch it off, and MIDI-OX should show you Note On, Note Off, and Pitch Bend messages as 68 Make: Volume 15

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By PDADCO payday loan Written by Kathryn Gilliam, RDH Monday, 01 July 2002 00:00 More than 1,250,000 Americans are newly diagnosed with cancer every year. Approximately 500,000 of these individuals (40% annually) will develop oral complications from the therapy used to treat their cancer. Nearly one third of cancer patients undergoing radiation and/or chemotherapy treatment are susceptible to oral complications that may interrupt or even cancel their cancer therapy. Bone marrow and stem cell transplant patients are also at high risk for oral complications. Almost all patients who receive radiation for head and neck malignancies suffer from oral complications. Approximately 40% of patients receiving chemotherapy present with oral sequelae, and more than 75% of bone marrow transplant patients develop oral complications.1 COMMON ORAL COMPLICATIONS Oral complications common to both chemotherapy and radiation treatment include: - Mucositis/stomatitis: inflammation and ulceration of the mucous membranes; can increase the risk for pain, oral and systemic infection, and nutritional compromise. Mucositis is the number one reason patients have to stop chemotherapy. If we can prevent or control mucositis, we can positively affect the cure rate of cancer by enabling continuation of cancer treatment. - Infection: viral, bacterial, and fungal; results from myelosuppression, xerostomia, and/or damage to the mucosa from chemotherapy or radiotherapy. - Xerostomia/salivary gland dysfunction: dryness of the mouth because of thickened, reduced, or absent salivary flow; increases risk for infection and compromises speaking, chewing, and swallowing. Persistent dry mouth also increases the risk for dental caries. - Rampant dental decay and demineralization: rapid decay or erosion of the tooth’s surface as a result of changes in both the quality and quantity of saliva following cancer treatment. - Functional disabilities: impaired ability to eat, speak, or swallow because of mucositis, dry mouth, trismus (restriction of normal ability to open mouth), and infection. - Taste alterations: changes in taste perception of foods, ranging from unpleasant to tasteless (hypogeusia). - Nutritional compromise: poor nutrition from eating difficulties caused by mucositis, dry mouth, and taste loss. - Abnormal dental development: altered tooth development and/or craniofacial growth in children secondary to radiotherapy and/or high doses of chemotherapy prior to age 9 years. Additional complications of chemotherapy include: - Neurotoxicity: persistent, deep aching and burning pain that mimics a toothache, but for which no dental or mucosal source can be found. - Bleeding: oral bleeding from the decreased platelets and clotting factors associated with the effects of therapy on bone marrow. Additional complications of radiation treatment include: - Radiation caries: lifelong risk of rampant dental decay that may begin within 3 months of completing radiation treatment. - Trismus/tissue fibrosis: loss of elasticity of masticatory muscles that restricts normal ability to open the mouth. - Osteoradionecrosis: blood vessel compromise and necrosis of bone exposed to high-dose radiation therapy; results in decreased ability to heal if traumatized, and in extreme susceptibility to infection. DENTAL CARE FOR ORAL COMPLICATIONS OF CANCER THERAPY The following protocols have been developed for use in the general dental practice by the National Cancer Institute, CDC, and the National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research. Culture lesions to identify secondary infection. Prescribe topical anesthetics and systemic analgesics. Consult oncologist about prescribing antimicrobials for known infections. Advise the patient to avoid rough-textured foods and report oral problems early. Xerostomia/Salivary Gland Dysfunction Advise patient to soften or thin foods with liquid, chew sugarless gum, or suck ice chips or sugar-free hard candies. Suggest using commercial saliva substitutes and oral moisturizers or prescribe saliva stimulant drug. Refer to dietician or nutritionist. Bacterial. It is least likely to see this easily controlled type of infection in your cancer patients. Bacterial infections occur less frequently than fungal and viral infections among people with cancer. Use tetracycline after consultation with the oncologist. Typically, patients with bacterial infections do not have accompanying pain. To protect enamel, advise the patient to rinse his mouth with water and baking soda following vomiting. Use of fluoride gel or highly concentrated fluoride toothpaste, such as Prevident 5000 (Colgate Oral Pharmaceuticals), can be helpful. Demineralization and Radiation Caries Prescribe daily application of fluoride gel in fluoride tray and/or use of highly concentrated toothpaste, such as Prevident 5000. Fluoride varnish can be applied in office at each 3-month maintenance appointment. Continue fluoride use throughout the patient’s lifetime. Provide analgesics or systemic pain relief. Advise patient to clean teeth thoroughly with a toothbrush softened in warm water, or toothettes. Instruct patient to floss all teeth gently. Most oncologists recommend that patients do not floss at all, but dental professionals know that leaving bacteria interproximally will result in increased bleeding due to infection. Therefore, we recommend that patients continue to floss very gently, and we spend time instructing them on proper technique. Gentle use of stimudents or proxy brushes is helpful in reducing bleeding. Antimicrobial mouth rinses can be very helpful in reducing bacterial load and bleeding. Chlorhexidine and Kamillasan are very good anti-inflammatory agents, and are often used in combination. Instruct patient on stretching exercises for the jaw to prevent or reduce severity of fibrosis. If patient doesn’t retain ability to open normally, difficulty in eating, speaking, and maintaining oral hygiene may result. Avoid invasive surgical procedures involving irradiated bone, including extractions. If an invasive procedure is required, use of antibiotics and hyperbaric oxygen therapy prior to and following treatment should be considered. CANCER PRETREATMENT ORAL HEALTH EXAMINATION This is the most important dental visit for the cancer patient. Unfortunately, once a diagnosis of cancer is given to a person, the last thing on his mind is preventive dental care. That’s why is it critical to develop a good working relationship with local oncologists. It is crucial that they understand the importance of their patients being seen by a dental professional prior to beginning any cancer therapy. It is vitally important that dental professionals develop protocols to address the very specific needs of cancer patients, and that they establish an office policy of always seeing cancer patients immediately. The patient’s course of treatment and ultimate outcome of that treatment may be affected negatively by the patient having to wait for an opening in the dentist’s schedule. You may save a person’s life by committing to see these patients immediately. When his blood count is high enough to get his teeth cleaned or to allow for treatment, the patient should always be worked into the schedule. It can be a matter of life or death. Goals of Pretreatment Examination - Reduce the risk and severity of oral complications. - Allow for prompt identification and treatment of existing infections or other problems. - Improve likelihood that the patient will tolerate optimal schedule and doses of cancer treatment. - Prevent, eliminate, or reduce oral pain. - Minimize oral infections that could lead to potentially fatal systemic infections. Of all infections in cancer patients, 54% originate in the mouth. - Prevent or minimize complications that compromise nutrition. - Prevent or reduce later incidence of bone necrosis. - Preserve or improve oral health. - Provide an opportunity for patient education about oral hygiene during cancer therapy. - Improve quality of life. Objectives of the Precancer Treatment Examination 1. Establish a schedule for dental treatment. Begin at least 14 days prior to cancer therapy to allow for adequate healing. Postpone elective oral surgical procedures until cancer treatment is completed. Perform necessary oral surgery at least 2 weeks prior to the initiation of radiation therapy. For patients receiving radiation, this may be the only appropriate time to consider surgical procedures. For patients receiving chemotherapy, oral surgery should be performed 7 to 10 days before the patient becomes myelosuppressed. 2. Identify and treat sites of low-grade and acute oral infections: - Periodontal disease - Endodontic disease - Mucosal lesions. (Note: Ask all patients who are about to begin cancer treatment if they get recurrent oral ulcers or cold sores. If so, prescribe a prophylactic systemic antiviral regimen which they will continue throughout their cancer treatment.) 3. In adults, extract teeth that may pose a future problem or are nonrestorable to prevent later extraction- 4. In children, extract loose primary teeth and teeth that are expected to exfoliate during later treatment. 5. Identify and eliminate sources of oral trauma and irritation such as ill-fitting dentures, orthodontic bands, and other appliances. Orthodontic bands and brackets should be removed if highly stomatotoxic chemotherapy is planned or if the appliances will be in the field of radiation. 6. Before radiation treatment, identify and treat potential oral problems within proposed field of radiation. 7. Instruct patients about necessity to maintain impeccable oral hygiene. 8. Educate patients on preventing demineralization and dental caries. 9. Advise patients to report oral complications to you immediately so they can get relief before symptoms become acute and possibly interfere with or interrupt their cancer treatment. GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR ORAL CARE DURING CANCER TREATMENT Careful monitoring of oral health is critically important during cancer therapy to prevent, detect, and treat complications as soon as possible. Always consult with the patient’s oncologist prior to any dental procedures, including prophylaxis. The patient’s blood count will determine when and if a patient will be able to tolerate dental treatment. At various times during the course of chemotherapy, there are windows of opportunity that we can take advantage of, and there are other times when a patient’s health is too fragile to risk dental treatment. Open communication and a good working partnership with the cancer treatment team is vital in order to provide the best care for your patient. The following guidelines should be followed for every patient undergoing therapy for cancer: - See patient frequently to monitor the soft tissues for signs of inflammation, check patient’s plaque control, and monitor the development of caries or other complications. - Review patient’s home care routine, including ways to keep mouth moist. Continue to reinforce importance of optimal oral hygiene. Provide specific instructions. Advise patients to avoid alcohol and tobacco during cancer treatment. Patients must understand that good oral care during cancer treatment contributes to the success of the cancer treatment. - Provide analgesics for oral pain as needed, in consultation with oncologist. - Schedule dental work carefully, in consultation with oncology team. - Request that oncology team do blood work 24 hours prior to dental treatment to determine if patient’s platelet count and clotting factors are sufficient to allow oral treatment. - Consider possible oral causes of fever. Fever of unknown origin may be related to an oral infection. (Remember, 54% of infections originate in the mouth.) Normal signs of infection may be affected by immunosuppression related to chemotherapy. - Consult with oncologist about the necessity of prophylactic antibiotic coverage prior to dental treatment if the patient has a central venous catheter. The American Heart Association endocarditis prophylactic antibiotic regimen is considered appropriate coverage for patients with a central venous catheter. - Continually monitor pediatric cancer patients for abnormal growth and development of craniofacial and dental structures. - Conduct pretreatment oral health evaluation. - Schedule dental treatment in consultation with oncologist. - Schedule oral surgery 7 to 10 days before patient becomes myelosuppressed. - In patients with hematologic cancers, consult the oncologist before conducting any oral procedures; do not perform any treatment on patients who are immunosuppressed or have thrombocytopenia. - Consult oncologist prior to any dental procedures, including prophylaxis. - Ask oncologist to order blood work 24 hours before oral surgery or any invasive dental procedures. Postpone treatment when platelet count is less than 50,000/mm3 or abnormal clotting factors are present. Also postpone when neutrophil count is less than 1,000/mm3. - In patients with fever of unknown origin, check for oral source of viral, bacterial, or fungal infection. - Encourage consistent oral hygiene measures. - Consult oncologist about implementing the American Heart Association endocarditis prophylactic antibiotic regimen in patients with indwelling central venous catheters before any invasive or prophylactic dental procedures. Place patient on dental health maintenance schedule when chemotherapy is completed and all side effects, including immunosuppression, have resolved. Patients who comply with impeccable oral hygiene home care may eventually be seen on a 6-month schedule. - Conduct pretreatment oral health examination and prophylaxis. - Schedule dental treatment in consultation with radiation oncologist. - Extract teeth in the proposed radiation field that may be a problem in the future. - Prevent tooth demineralization and radiation caries: (1) Fabricate custom gel-applicator trays for patient; be sure trays cover all tooth structures without irritating gingival or mucosal tissues. (2) Prescribe a 1.1% neutral pH sodium fluoride gel or 0.4% standard, nonflavored fluoride gel (not rinses). (3) Have patients with porcelain crowns use a neutral pH fluoride. (4) Instruct patients in home application of fluoride gel. Patient should start a daily 5-minute application several days prior to the onset of radiation therapy. - Allow at least 14 days of healing for any oral surgical procedures. - Conduct all prosthetic surgery before treatment since surgical procedures are contraindicated on irradiated bone. - Monitor patient’s oral hygiene. - Monitor patient for trismus: check for pain or weakness in muscles of mastication in the field of radiation. Instruct patient to exercise three times a day, opening and closing mouth as much as possible without pain, repeating 20 times. Also, exert pressure on midline of mandible, then open mouth. After Radiation Therapy - For the first 6 months following radiation treatment, recall the patient for prophylaxis and home care evaluation every 4 to 8 weeks, or as needed. Gradually lengthen time between appointments until you level off at a 3-month interval. - Reinforce the importance of optimal oral hygiene. - After mucositis subsides, consult with the oncology team about the use of dentures and other appliances. Patients with friable tissues and xerostomia may never be able to use them again. - Watch for trismus, demineralization, and caries. Lifelong daily applications of fluoride gel are needed for xerostomic individuals. - Advise against oral surgery on irradiated bone because of osteoradionecrosis risk. Tooth extraction,if unavoidable, should be conservative, using antibiotic coverage and possibly hyperbaric oxygen therapy. PROTOCOL FOR PATIENTS RECEIVING BONE MARROW AND STEM CELL TRANSPLANTS - Conduct a pretreatment oral health examination. - Consult oncologist about scheduling dental treatment. - Schedule surgery at least 7 to 10 days before expected date of myelosuppression (absolute neutrophil count of less than 1,000/mm3 and/or platelet count of less than 50,000/mm3). - Prevent tooth demineralization and radiation caries: (1)Instruct patient in home application of fluoride gel (not rinses). (2) Instruct patient in oral hygiene regimen. •Watch for infections on the tongue and oral mucosa. Herpes simplex and Candida albicans are common oral infections. •Monitor the patient’s oral health for plaque control, tooth demineralization, dental caries, and infection. •Consult oncologist prior to any dental procedures, including prophylaxis. •Delay elective procedures for 1 year. •Follow patients for long-term oral complications. Such problems are strong indicators of chronic graft-versus-host disease. •Follow bone marrow transplant patients carefully for second malignancies in oral region. There are many outstanding cancer treatment facilities in the United States. In Houston, we are fortunate to have M. D. Anderson Hospital, which employs dental oncologists who meet with every patient who undergoes radiation to the head and neck, and with all oral cancer patients. All patients undergoing cancer treatment at M. D. Anderson are well educated in the possible dental ramifications of their treatment. By the time these patients come to our offices for initial dental therapy prior to cancer treatment, they understand their responsibility for compliance with the impeccable home care required to maintain their oral health. - Oral Health, Cancer Care and You: Fitting the Pieces Together. National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Oral Health Information Clearinghouse, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health. (877) 216-1019. - Calderbank S. The oral complications and the management of patients compromised by local and systemic cancer therapies. Presented at: Star of the South Dental Meeting; February 14, 2002; Houston, Tex. Dental Oncology Education Program website. Texas Cancer Council; 1992. www.doep.org/earlydetection.html. Access: March 30, 2002. Joshi VK. How to Treat Patients With Mouth Cancer. Restorative Dentistry Oncology Clinic website, www.dental-consults.com/rdoc/dentistsrole2.html. Access: April 4, 2002. Managing and treating the oral complications of cancer therapy. Journal of the Academy of General Dentistry website, www.agd.org/foundation/cancerproject.html. Access: March 20, 2002. Rosenbaum EH, Rosenbaum IR. Supportive Cancer Care: The Complete Guide for Patients and Their Families. Naperville, Ill: Sourcebooks, Inc; 2001. Toth BB, Chambers MS, Fleming TJ, et al. Minimizing oral complications of cancer treatment. Oncology. 1995;9:851-858. - Clinical Update - CE Articles - Dental Materials - Dental Medicine - Digital Impression Technology - Forensic Dentistry - Geriatric Dentistry - Infection Control - Interdisciplinary Dentistry - New Directions - Practice Management - Oral Cancer Screening - Oral Medicine - Oral-Systemic connection - Pediatric Dentistry - Pain Management - Post-and-Core Technique - Sleep Disorders - Sports Dentistry - Technique of the Week - Treatment Planning

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The legislative power of the Republic is exercised by the House of Representatives. Both Representatives and Ministers have the right to introduce Bills in the House, though Representatives are limited in one respect in the type of Bill which they may introduce. They are constitutionally inhibited from introducing any Bill which relates to an increase in budgetary expenditure. Since Cyprus has a presidential system, Members of the Government may not be Members of the House of Representatives. The two offices are incompatible, and if a Member of the House is appointed by the President to become a Minister he must relinquish his seat in the House. The President of the Republic and the Vice-President have the right to final veto on any law passed by the House which concerns the specified issues of foreign affairs, defense and security. As far as other types of legislation are concerned the President and the Vice-President jointly or separately have only delaying power. They may return law or other decision to the House. In such a case the House must again pronounce on the law within fifteen days or, if it concerns the budget, within 30 days. If the House persists in its decision, then the President and the Vice-President are bound to promulgate the law or decision in question by publishing it in the normal way in the Gazette of the Republic. TERM OF OFFICE The term of office of the members of the House of Representatives is five years. A general election must be held on the second Sunday of the month immediately preceding the month in which the term of office of the outgoing House expires. The outgoing House continues in office until the newly elected House assumes office, but during this time the outgoing House does not have the power to make any laws or take any decisions on any matter, unless it is a case of exceptional or unforeseen circumstances. The House may dissolve itself by its own decision before its term of office expires. Such a decision must also specify the date of the general election which must not be less than 30 or more than 40 days from the date of the dissolution decision and must also specify the first meeting of the newly elected House which must not be later than fifteen days after the general elections. MEMBERSHIP OF THE HOUSE The House has 80 seats. According to the Constitution (amended by the House in 1985) 56 Representatives are elected by the Greek Cypriot community and 24 by the Turkish Cypriot community, separately, from amongst their members respectively, by universal suffrage of adults over the age of 21, by direct and secret ballot which should be held on the same day for both communities. The original allocation of seats was 35 Greek Cypriots to 15 Turkish Cypriots. Since 1964 Turkish Cypriot Members have not attended the House, nor have elections been held according to the constitutional provisions among the Turkish Cypriot Community. Despite the fact that the abnormality has now lasted more than a quarter of a century, the House has retained the 24 seats allocated to the Turkish Cypriot community vacant. They remain at the disposal of Turkish Cypriot Representatives once they are elected according to the constitutional provisions. The Maronite, Armenian and Latin minorities also elect representatives who attend meetings without a right of participation in the deliberations. They are consulted in matters concerning particular affairs of these religious groups. The current electoral law provides for a reinforced representation system. The number of seats in each constituency has been determined by law. The constituencies coincide with the administrative districts. Seat allocations for the Greek Cypriot Community are as follows: Nicosia District 21 seats Limassol District 12 seats Famagusta District 11 seats Larnaca District 5 seats Paphos District 4 seats Kyrenia District 3 seats Each elector may vote for a party or an independent candidate, without having the possibility of selecting candidates from different parties. The parliamentary seats are then distributed according to the electoral strength of each party. The President of the House is Greek Cypriot and is elected by the Representatives elected by the Greek Cypriot community and a Vice President is constitutionally provided for, who would be a Turkish Cypriot and would be elected by the Turkish Cypriot community. PROCEDURES OF THE HOUSE The ordinary session of the House of Representatives lasts for a period beginning in September and ending in July the following year. The meetings of the House take place once a week, usually on Thursdays. The House is in quorum when at least one third of the total number of its Members are present. The laws and the decisions of the House are passed by a simple majority vote of the Members present and voting. The agenda must be distributed to the Members at least 24 hours prior to the meeting. The procedures of the House may perhaps best be outlined by explaining the agenda of an ordinary meeting. The agenda of a normal meeting of the House consists of the following chapters: Chapter A: Legislation Chapter B: Introduction of Bills and Documents Chapter C: Questions and Answers Chapter D: Subjects tabled by Representatives The parliamentary committees are set up by the Committee of Selection, which consists of the President of the House as chairman, the Vice President of the House as vice chairman, and eight other members elected by the House. The committees of the House are representative. Political party groups are adequately represented on them. The standing committees of the House generally correspond to the ministries of the Government.

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Learn About Type One Diabetes Symptoms Type one diabetes symptoms develops when your body makes little or no insulin. Type one diabetes symptoms also occurs when the body’s own immune system destroys the insulin-producing cells of the pancreas (called beta cells). When this happens, glucose can’t get into the cells for energy and remains in the blood, causing hyperglycemia (high blood sugar). Type one diabetes is an autoimmune condition. The type one diabetes symptoms take only a few weeks to develop. Most people develop type one diabetes symptoms before the age of 30, but it can also occur in older adults. If you living with the type one diabetes symptoms, learn about it now. Some people develop a type of diabetes (secondary diabetes) which is similar to type one diabetes symptoms, but the beta cells are not destroyed by the immune system but by some other factor, such as cystic fibrosis or pancreatic surgery. There are short and long term complications associated with diabetes. Short term problems are hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) and hyperglycemia (high blood sugar). Low blood glucose can occur if you exert yourself or don’t eat enough foods that contain glucose while taking insulin. It can also happen if you take too much insulin, which leads to your cells taking up more glucose and therefore blood glucose levels falling. If you have low blood glucose, generally defined as under 4 mmol/liter, you may feel faint, sweat and feel your heart pounding. If you don’t treat this by eating or drinking something sugary, it can lead to confusion, collapse and even coma. This is often called a ‘hypo’. Although some people have no symptoms, most people diagnosed with type one diabetes have the signs and symptoms of hyperglycemia (high blood sugar). Commons type one diabetes symptoms includes: * Weight loss * Excessive passing of urine * Constant thirst * Blurred vision * Itchy skin around your genitals or regular infections, such as thrush In particular, marked weight loss, often over a short period of two to eight weeks is the main distinguishing between type one diabetes symptoms and type two diabetes symptoms. The other symptoms can occur in either type. In some cases, emergency symptoms of very high blood sugar may develop. Either type one diabetes symptoms or type two can develop quickly – usually over a few weeks. If type one diabetes symptons found are not treated at this stage, the body begins to produce chemicals called ketones that build up in the blood. This condition called diabetic ketoacidosis which causes additional symptoms, include: vomiting, stomach pain, rapid breathing, increased pulse rate and sleepiness. Without a proper treatment, diabetic ketoacidosis can lead to coma or death. Before it’s too late, it is absolutely critical to get immediate emergency medical attention if you already develop type one diabetes symptoms. So get your blood glucose checked so that you can get the best treatment if you have a type one diabetes symptoms. Living with Type One Diabetes Symptoms

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When John Diefenbaker, Canada’s 13th prime minister, became chancellor of the University of Saskatchewan in 1969 he announced his intention to bequeath to his alma mater his personal and political papers, his library, and memorabilia realting to his political hero, Sir John A. Macdonald (1815-1891). The University accepted Diefenbaker’s offer and constructed the Diefenbaker Canada Centre to house these resources and educational exhibits concerning the life and times of "the Chief." The Diefenbaker archive, containing over three million documents, is a rich resource for anyone interested in the history of Canadian political advertising. In addition to saving the promotional materials he had used as a Conservative candidate and leader at both the provincial and federal levels, Diefenbaker collected examples of the “propaganda” produced by his political opponents in the Liberal and CCF parties. His collections also include examples of political advertising by earlier Conservative leaders including Macdonald and Sir Robert Borden (1854-1937). Born in Neustadt, Ontario on September 18, 1895, John G. Diefenbaker moved with his family to the Northwest Territories in 1903. Desirous of having their children attend secondary school and the newly-established University of Saskatchewan, William and Mary Diefenbaker moved the family, consisting of John and his younger brother, Elmer, to Saskatoon in 1910. Diefenbaker may have been the first person to receive three degrees from the University of Saskatchewan, taking a B.A. in 1915, an M.A. in 1916, and an L.L.B. in 1919. Diefenbaker established a law practice in Wakaw, Saskatchewan, in 1919, later moving his practice to Prince Albert, Saskatchewan, in 1924. Diefenbaker entered public life as a Conservative a year later, when he unsuccessfully contested the constituency of Prince Albert in the Federal Election of 1925. Diefenbaker contested Prince Albert again in 1926, placing second to Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King. Subsequently Diefenbaker refocused his attention to his legal career, building a successful law practice, and gaining a reputation as a highly effective defence counsel. Politics, however, remained his primary interest, and Diefenbaker turned his attention to provincial politics. He was a candidate for the Conservative Party of Saskatchewan in the riding of Prince Albert in the 1929 provincial election, in which he came within a few hundred votes of defeating Saskatchewan Attorney-General T.C. Davis. Diefenbaker became president of the Conservative Party of Saskatchewan in 1934, and its leader in 1936. The Conservative Party was shut out of the Provincial Legislature in the 1938 election. Despite giving strong consideration to leaving public life, Diefenbaker was persuaded to stand as the Conservative candidate in Lake Centre in the federal election of 1940, which he won. Diefenbaker took his seat in the House of Commons in May of that year, and subsequently won election to Parliament 12 more times, serving as a MP until his death in 1979. Diefenbaker was elected leader of the federal Conservative Party in 1956, remaining leader until 1967. In this capacity he served as Leader of the Official Opposition in 1956-1957, and 1963-1967, and as Prime Minister from 1957-1963. Diefenbaker’s accomplishments as Prime Minister included: giving Aboriginal Canadians the franchise and appointing James Gladstone of the Blood First Nation to the Canadian Senate; providing price supports to, and new markets for Canadian farmers; the construction of the South Saskatchewan Dam; forcefully advocating liberty for Eastern Europeans living under Soviet oppression; leading the movement for racial equality as a fundamental principle of the Commonwealth; creating the Canadian Bill of Rights; and fostering a diverse Progressive Conservative caucus, which included appointing the first female cabinet minister, the first Ukrainian-Canadian cabinet minister, and welcoming the first Chinese-Canadian MP.

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Earlier this week, the Walt Disney Co. took a step that should help improve the eating habits of many of the nation's children. It announced that it will ban ads for junk foods on its TV channels, radio stations and websites starting in 2015. The nation's youngsters -- heavier and more prone to life-threatening or lifelong illnesses than their peers in earlier generations -- should benefit greatly from the decision. So should their families and the nation. If kids eat healthier, they and the rest of their family should become less obese and more healthy over time. A healthier population eventually will become less of a drain on the nation's healthcare system. There have been tentative efforts from other entertainment providers to control advertising content on popular shows like Saturday morning cartoons, but none have been as far ranging as Disney's. Indeed, Michelle Obama, who leads a national campaign to slow or halt childhood obesity, called Disney's decision a "game changer." She's right. The entertainment giant's new rules are based on federal guidelines developed by health care professionals. They are worth noting: • Breakfast cereal (1 ounce by weight): 130 calories, 10 grams of sugar, 200 milligrams of sodium. • Snacks (1 ounce or 30 grams): 150 calories, 6.25 grams of sugar per 100 calories, 220 milligrams of sodium. • Juices (8 ounces): 140 calories, no added sugar, no added sodium. • Yogurt (4 ounces): 120 calories, 15 grams of sugar (sodium limit not applicable). • Complete meal: 600 calories, 2.5 grams of sugar per 100 calories, 740 milligrams of sodium. Disney also said it would roll out a series of public service announcements to promote exercise and healthy eating by kids. That, too, should prove beneficial. Given its reach across a variety of media platforms, Disney's influence over nutrition, especially among kids, is significant. Anyone who doubts that has not been to the grocery store with a kid, who clearly makes food choices based on what they see on TV. That should change as Disney's new rules take effect. Disney's decision to halt ads for foods high in sugar, fats, sodium and calories but low in nutritional value won't end the growing problem of obesity and related illnesses among children, but it is a step in the right direction. Other media companies should follow suit and food companies and fast-food outlets should match products to the new guidelines. Kids and the overall population will be a lot healthier if they do.

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Columbia, SC (WLTX) -- Ever wonder why you fly back in your seat when a ride takes off? Or why you spin out on a rotating ride? The answer lies in Science, and students from across the state learned there is more to the fair than games and rides. "Some people have problems comparing classroom things to real life situations and this really makes it realistic," said 11th grader Melissa Brock. About 3,000 high school students watched and participated in demonstrations with students and faculty from USC. They also did experiment on rides, and for many, seeing the science in action really struck a chord. "It's really gonna help me kind of understand it a little bit more, anything I didn't already get, it's just gonna make it a little bit more realistic," said Brock. Jeff Wilson, the event's organizer and a USC Physics professor says making science real is part of why they hold the event. "It ties in very well with what's in the classroom, they get to measure things, compare to what they're being taught in the classrooms, it keeps them engaged, they get to see why it is they should learn physics it's not some abstract book-learning activity," said Wilson. Nathan Sairam, a USC student volunteer experienced that first-hand. He attended physics day at the fair while in high school and now he's majoring in math and physics and hoping to share his love with others. "Every time I do a demonstration, I like it when I see the kids are really interested in what I'm saying or a spark goes off in their head like 'oh' that makes sense now," said Sairam. The annual event has been going on since 1997, more than 40,000 students have participated over the years.

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As a means of achieving greater national consistency in curriculum outcomes across the eight States and Territories, Ministers at the July 2003 meeting of MCEETYA requested that Statements of Learning be developed in English, mathematics, science and civics and citizenship. It was agreed that Statements of Learning would describe essential skills, knowledge, understandings and capacities that all young Australians should have the opportunity to learn by the end of Years 3, 5, 7 and 9. It was proposed that, once completed, Statements and their Professional Elaborations should be used by State and Territory departments or curriculum authorities (their primary audience) to guide the future development of relevant curriculum documents. Ministers requested that the Statements of Learning for English be developed first, with other domains to follow, depending on the success of the work on English. AESOC has overseen the development of this work, and the work has been project-managed by Curriculum Corporation. In February 2005, Ministers gave in principle support for the Statements of Learning for English and noted the associated Professional Elaborations. As a consequence of the conditions outlined in this new legislation, MCEETYA also requested AESOC to provide advice on the relationship between Statements of Learning and national standards and testing. This work is currently being progressed. While requesting this additional work MCEETYA did, however, endorse a position that testing would not be developed to match each of the junctures of the new Statements of Learning, and confirmed that the existing testing program would satisfy the relevant conditions of the new legislation. At this time MCEETYA also added requirements for a Year 9 cohort test for literacy and numeracy and for testing of the full range of abilities for literacy and numeracy, rather than only for the minimum Benchmark standard. After an intensive period of development during 2005 under the direction of AESOC and the project management of Curriculum Corporation, and with expertise contributed by all States and Territories, Ministers approved the Statements of Learning for mathematics, science, civics and citizenship and ICT in August 2006. MCEETYA has recently endorsed a process for jurisdictions to comply with the relevant section of the Australian Government Schools Assistance Act 2004 on ‘the implementation of Statements of Learning’. This process includes: ministerial ‘sign off’ (by no later than 1 January 2008) that syllabus and curriculum documents used to underpin learning programs in government and non-government schools within jurisdictions have addressed and incorporated the now endorsed Statements of Learning; the provision to the Australian Government Minister for Education of a detailed map, also by 1 January 2008, showing how the specific elements of the Statements of Learning are present in the relevant curriculum documents (mentioned above); jurisdictions having the ability, if they choose, to explicitly use Statements of Learning in the re-drafting of curriculum documents as a means of satisfying the mapping requirements for a domain. This option may suit jurisdictions that have a major curriculum/syllabus review planned prior to 1 January 2008.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

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en

B.F. Porter's Gin House B.F. Porter was an important individual around Tuscaloosa County, Alabama. Not only was he a practicing lawyer, but he owned a large crop of cotton and produced valuable gin. However, someone apparently had a problem with his extracurricular activities. On February 21, 1842, the Mobile Commercial Register reported that Mr. Porter's gin house, along with his entire cotton crop, went up in flames only a few days before. According to the paper, the fire appeared to have been intentionally set. From this article, it is unclear as to whether Mr. Porter was the victim of an enemy seeking revenge or a dogmatist attempting to make a statement for the temperance movement. What is clear about this time period is a great difference of opinion when it came to alcohol consumption. In the antebellum South, Charles Wilson explains that alcohol was a basic part of life in which isolated farmers, as Mr. Porter may have been, utilized distilling to retard spoiling, reduce bulk, and enhance the marketability of their crops. Even though the temperance movement had begun to gain speed in the nineteenth century, it was not yet able to get a foothold in the South. This was due to the economic circumstances of farmers like Mr. Porter and the perceived link between abolitionism and temperance. In Alabama specifically, the temperance movement took form prior to the Civil War but only strengthened along with the other reform movements during the twentieth century. Nevertheless, the 8 percent of antebellum southerners who did make temperance pledges were adamant and extreme in their views. Alcoholism brought a great number of dangers to southern society, including violence, economic insecurity, and even suicide. Therefore, the temperance movement was able to build a small base of support despite the customary position of alcohol in society. This small percentage was undoubtedly the most radical of the population, and their extreme views led to extreme action. Unfortunately, Mr. Porter may have been a victim of such action. - Mobile Commercial Register, February 21, 1842. - William Warren Rogers, Robert David Ward, Leah Rawls Atkins, and Wayne Flynt, Alabama: The History of a Deep South State (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1994), 370. - James M. Volo and Dorothy Denneen Volo, Encyclopedia of the Antebellum South (Westport: Greenwood Press, 2000), 310-311. - Charles Reagan Wilson and William Ferris, Encyclopedia of Southern Culture (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989), 1346-1347.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://historyengine.richmond.edu/episodes/view/2346

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en

A miscarriage is the spontaneous loss of a fetus before the 20th week of pregnancy. (Pregnancy losses after the 20th week are called preterm deliveries.) A miscarriage may also be called a "spontaneous abortion." This refers to naturally occurring events, not medical abortions or surgical abortions. Other terms for the early loss of pregnancy include: - Complete abortion: All of the products of conception exit the body - Incomplete abortion: Only some of the products of conception exit the body - Inevitable abortion: The symptoms cannot be stopped, and a miscarriage will happen - Infected (septic) abortion: The lining of the womb, or uterus, and any remaining products of conception become infected - Missed abortion: The pregnancy is lost and the products of conception do not exit the body See also: Threatened miscarriage Abortion - spontaneous; Spontaneous abortion; Abortion - missed; Abortion - incomplete; Abortion - complete; Abortion - inevitable; Abortion - infected; Missed abortion; Incomplete abortion; Complete abortion; Inevitable abortion; Infected abortion Causes, incidence, and risk factors Most miscarriages are caused by chromosome problems that make it impossible for the baby to develop. Usually, these problems are unrelated to the mother or father's genes. Other possible causes for miscarriage include: - Drug and alcohol abuse - Exposure to environmental toxins - Hormone problems - Physical problems with the mother's reproductive organs - Problem with the body's immune response - Serious body-wide ( systemic) diseases in the mother (such as uncontrolled diabetes) It is estimated that up to half of all fertilized eggs die and are lost (aborted) spontaneously, usually before the woman knows she is pregnant. Among those women who know they are pregnant, the miscarriage rate is about 15-20%. Most miscarriages occur during the first 7 weeks of pregnancy. The rate of miscarriage drops after the baby's heart beat is detected. The risk for miscarriage is higher in women: - Older age, with increases beginning by 30, becoming greater between 35 and 40, and highest after 40 - Who have had previous miscarriages Possible symptoms include: - Low back pain or abdominal pain that is dull, sharp, or cramping - Tissue or clot-like material that passes from the vagina - Vaginal bleeding, with or without abdominal cramps Signs and tests During a pelvic exam, your health care provider may see the cervix has opened (dilated) or thinned out (effacement). Abdominal or vaginal ultrasound may be done to check the baby's development, heart beat, and amount of bleeding. The following blood tests may be performed: - Blood type (if you have an Rh-negative blood type, you would require a treatment with Rh-immune globulin. See: Rh incompatibility) - Complete blood count (CBC) to determine how much blood has been lost - HCG (qualitative) to confirm pregnancy - HCG (quantitative) done every several days or weeks - WBC and differential to rule out infection When a miscarriage occurs, the tissue passed from the vagina should be examined to determine if it was a normal placenta or a hydatidiform mole. It is also important to determine whether any pregnancy tissue remains in the uterus. If the pregnancy tissue does not naturally exit the body, the woman may be closely watched for up to 2 weeks. Surgery (D and C) or medication (such as misoprostol) may be needed to remove the remaining contents from the womb. After treatment, the woman usually resumes her normal menstrual cycle within 4 - 6 weeks. Any further vaginal bleeding should be carefully monitored. It is often possible to become pregnant immediately. However, it is recommended that women wait one normal menstrual cycle before trying to become pregnant again. An infected abortion may occur if any tissue from the placenta or fetus remains in the uterus after the miscarriage. Symptoms of an infection include fever, vaginal bleeding that does not stop, cramping, and a foul-smelling vaginal discharge. Infections can be serious and require immediate medical attention. Complications of a complete miscarriage are rare. However, many mothers and their partners feel very sad. Seemingly helpful advice like ?you can try again,? or ?it was for the best? can make it harder for mothers and fathers to recover because their sadness has been denied. Women who lose a baby after 20 weeks of pregnancy receive different medical care. This is called premature delivery or fetal demise and requires immediate medical attention. Calling your health care provider Call your health care provider if vaginal bleeding with or without cramping occurs during pregnancy. Call your health care provider if you are pregnant and notice tissue or clot-like material passed vaginally (any such material should be collected and brought in for examination). Early, comprehensive prenatal care is the best prevention available for all complications of pregnancy. Many miscarriages that are caused by body-wide (systemic) diseases can be prevented by detecting and treating the disease before pregnancy occurs. Miscarriages are less likely if you receive early, comprehensive prenatal care and avoid environmental hazards (such as x-rays, drugs and alcohol, high levels of caffeine, and infectious diseases). When a mother's body is having difficulty sustaining a pregnancy, signs (such as slight vaginal bleeding) may occur. This means there is a possibility of miscarriage, but it does not mean one will definitely occur. A pregnant woman who develops any signs or symptoms of threatened miscarriage should contact her prenatal provider immediately. Katz VL. Spontaneous and recurrent abortion: etiology, diagnosis, treatment. In: Katz VL, Lentz GM, Lobo RA, Gershenson DM, eds. Comprehensive Gynecology. 5th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Mosby Elsevier; 2007:chap 16. Simpson JL, Jauniaux ERM. Pregnancy loss. In: Gabbe SG, Niebyl JR, Simpson JL, eds. Obstetrics: Normal and Problem Pregnancies. 5th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Elsevier Churchill Livingstone; 2007:chap 24. Laurino MY, Bennett RL, Saraiya DS, et al. Genetic evaluation and counseling of couples with recurrent miscarriage: Recommendations of the National Society of Genetic Counselors. J Genet Couns. June 2005;14(3). The information provided herein should not be used during any medical emergency or for the diagnosis or treatment of any medical condition. A licensed medical professional should be consulted for diagnosis and treatment of any and all medical conditions. Call 911 for all medical emergencies. Links to other sites are provided for information only -- they do not constitute endorsements of those other sites. ©1997-2013 A.D.A.M., Inc. Any duplication or distribution of the information contained herein is strictly prohibited. Sign Up for Free Newsletters Ask Your Doctor the RIGHT Questions! the most from your doctor visit. Emailed right to you! The Ask Your Doctor email series may contain sponsored content. 18+, US residents only please. Explore Original Articles About... Get the MOST from QualityHealth - Top Searches - 1. Arthritis Management: Nature Heals - 2. 5 Digestive To-Dos - 3. Men: Should You Shave It or Leave It? - 4. Today's Top Fitness Trends - 5. Sugar and Osteoarthritis : The Link - 6. Can't Afford Your Hospital Bills? - 7. Stay Energized All Day Long - 8. Phobias: Who Has Them and Why? - 9. 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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.qualityhealth.com/health-encyclopedia/multimedia/miscarriage

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en

We've put together a handy glossary of cooking terms and ingredients. Click the letters below to view the glossary of terms. Labna: A yogurt cheese ball. Lactic acid: A by-product of bacterial fermentation, used in the making of Sauerkraut, yoghurt and cheese. Lactose: The sugar found in milk, or the by products of milk. Ladies fingers: Another term for Okra. Ladle: A kitchen utensil and an ideal tool for portion control for service of food. Laksa: A classic, spicy Malaysian soup, containing rice and/or egg noodles, with a broth flavoured with coconut milk. Lamb: A sheep, under 12 months of age, with flesh that is finely grained and light red in colour. Lamb's lettuce or Corn Salad: A leafy green winter vegetable. Also, referred to as Corn salad. Lancashire cheese: A semi-hard Cow's milk cheese with excellent melting properties. Lancashire cheese has a white-colour, mild flavour and loose texture. Also, referred to as Leigh toaster. Land cress: A leafy vegetable with a light, peppery taste. Also, referred to as Watercress. Langue de chat: Flat finger shaped crisp biscuits served with cold desserts. Lard: Pork fat that has been melted and clarified. Its texture is softer than butter or margarine, yet has a high smoke point when used for frying. Lasagne: Wide, flat pasta sheets that can be smooth, ridged or ruffled used for making lasagne. Lasagnette: A thin, ruffled-edged version of lasagna, approximately 18 mm in length. Lassi: A traditional Indian yoghurt drink, available sweet or salty, and commonly flavoured with pistachios, cardamom, cumin or rose water. Latkes: Small potato cakes, common to Jewish cookery. Lavash or Lavosh: Unleavened bread made from white flour, salt and water. Commonly used in Middle Eastern cuisine. Lavender: A herb with aromatic grey leaves and spikes of mauve-coloured flowers, often used in conserves, vinegars and salads. Layer: A cocktail mixing term, meaning 'To pour the ingredients into a glass so that they remain in distinct layers, and do not mix'. Lebanese cucumber: A small long cucumber. Leek: With a distinct, mild onion flavour, Leeks are a popular vegetable. The lower part of the leave is white, turning to light and dark green toward the end of the leave. Legumes or Pulses: Members of the legume family include red kidney beans, cannelloni beans, aduko beans, black beans, borlotti beans, black-eyed beans, butter beans, ful Mesdames, garbanzo beans, chickpeas, flagolet beans, fava beans, haricot beans, lentils, lima beans, lupins, navy beans, mung beans, dried peas, pinto beans, soya beans. Legumes are available dried or canned. Leicester cheese: A semi-hard, cow's milk cheese with a mild, distinctive flavour. May also be referred to as Red Leicester. Lemon: A member of the citrus fruit family, Lemons are bright yellow, have thick skin and segmented flesh. Varieties include Lisbon, Eureka, Meyer and Villa Franca. Lemon aspen: A native Australian food, Lemon aspen is a tart, yellow citrus-flavoured fruit. Lemon grass: An essential ingredient in Thai cuisine, Lemon grass is available in stem form, or sold frozen and grated in Asian grocery shops. Only the tender inside part is used. Lemon myrtle: A native Australian herb, whose leaves contain a flavour that ranges between lemon, lime and lemon grass. Lemon oil: An infusion of lemon rind in oil. Lentil: A dried legume or pea, available in brown, red, yellow or green varieties. May also be called Continental lentil, Red lentil or Masoor dal. Lettuce: A green leaf vegetable, whose varieties include cos, or romaine, green coral, red coral, oak leaf, iceberg, butter head and crisp head. Leyden or Leiden cheese: A semi-hard cheese from Holland made with whole or skimmed milk. Often flavoured with herbs and spices, and sold with a dark yellow rind that has been coated in red wax. Also referred to as Leiden. Ligurian olive: A small black olive grown in the Ligurian province in Italy. Lillypilly: A variety of tree with small pink-coloured berries that are crisp and used to flavour desserts, jams and vinegars. Lima bean: A kidney shaped, flat bean, either green or white in colour, with a sweet flavour and floury texture. Limburger or Limbourg cheese: A soft, uncooked curd cheese from Belgium, with a yellow colour, pungent smell and flavour and irregular holes appearing in the cheese. Lime: This citrus fruit is usually lime green in colour, and affords a sharper flavour than lemon. Varieties of lemon include Persian or Tahiti, Mexican or West Indian. Lime leaves: Often sold dried, lime leaves add a refreshing lemon-lime flavour to dishes. Limousin Beef: A breed of cattle, with a flesh that is naturally lower in fat. Ling or Rockling: A fish May also be called kingclip, pinkling or rockling. Linguini: Long, thin strips of pasta that have been cut square at either end. Liqueur: A spirit or wine based liquor, sweetened and flavoured with aromatic substances. Historically, liqueurs have been consumed at the end of a meal. This term is also used to describe old brandies, ports and Muscat’s with moist flesh. Lisbon lemon: A variety of Lemon. Listeria monocytogenes: A food poisoning bacterium that can only be killed by high temperatures (pasteurisation levels are best). Liver: A form of offal. Liverwurst: A soft sausage made from pork, liver, onions and seasoning. May also be called Latin liverwurst. Lobster: A crustacean with the majority of its meat located within the tail section. Loganberry: A burgundy coloured fruit, and a hybrid of black blackberry and raspberry. Loin or Longe: a). the large fillet from fish like tuna and swordfish. B). A tender cut of meat from veal, pork or lamb, either on or off bone. Longan: Similar to the lychee, but with a dull, cream-coloured, translucent flesh. May also be called Lungan or Dragon's eyes. Long-grain rice: A variety of Rice. Long rice noodle or Rice Noodle or Asian noodle: A variety of rice noodle, similar in appearance to fettuccini. Loquat: A stone fruit with a stubby, bottle shaped appearance, yellow orange skin and yellow orange flesh. Also known as Japanese medler. Lotus root and Lotus flour: A root vegetable that can be steamed, pickled or made into a starch or flour. May also be called root starch and au far. Low-fat milk: Regular milk with the fat content reduced. Lucerne sprouts or Alfalfa sprouts: Fine, hair like sprouts with a yellow green stalk and small deep, green leaf top. May also be called Alfalfa sprouts. Lychee: A tropical stone fruit with a tough, spiky red skin and firm, translucent, creamy-pink flesh. May also be called a Chinese cherry, lichee, litchee, litchi or litchie. Lyonnaise: A classic sauce containing onions, and sometimes potatoes.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

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GCC for Embedded Engineers GCC, the GNU Compiler Collection, is a tool used by nearly every embedded engineer, even those who don't target Linux. In release since 1987, supporting every processor known to man, GCC is a juggernaut of software engineering that, because of its ubiquity and ease of use, doesn't get the admiration it deserves. When used in an embedded project, GCC capably does another trick, cross-compilation, without complaint. Simply invoke the compiler and the right things will happen. Under the covers, GCC is a very complex tool with lots of knobs to turn to fine-tune the compilation and linking process; this article looks at how to build a GCC cross-compiler, examines the process that GCC uses to compile a program and shares some productivity-boosting tips and tricks. When starting an embedded project, the first tool needed is a cross-compiler, a compiler that generates code intended to work on a machine different from the one on which the code generation occurred. Sometimes, it's possible to obtain a prebuilt cross-compiler (from a commercial or noncommercial source), short-circuiting the need to build from source; however, some projects require that all tools must be re-creatable from source. No matter why GCC needs to be built, there are several different approaches to building a cross-compiler. Quite possibly the easiest way is by using the crosstool Project, created by Dan Kegel and hosted at www.kegel.com/crosstool. Using this project involves downloading the source code and making one of the presupplied files feed the right parameters into the script that builds the compiler. The matrix of supported platforms and software versions can be found at www.kegel.com/crosstool/crosstool-0.43/buildlogs, and choosing something that's marked as working will yield a compiler in a few hours. crosstool will download the right software, even the patches, necessary to make the software work on the target platform. However, if the project requires support for an alternate C library, crosstool becomes more difficult to use. Because many developers want to use uClibc, a smaller implementation of the C library, it's fortunate that this project has something similar to crosstool, called buildroot, located at buildroot.uclibc.net. As a bonus, buildroot, along with building a cross-compiler, also can be used to build a root filesystem for the board based on the related BusyBox Project. The user configures a buildroot run using a process similar to that of the kernel configuration to ready the build. This project doesn't have a chart of known working configurations like crosstool, so finding a working configuration can be difficult. Finally, for the type of person who doesn't like the idea of wading through somebody else's build scripts when things don't work, building a cross-complier by hand isn't as daunting a process as one would expect. The following steps outline the process, where $TARGET is the target processor and $INSTALLAT is the directory where the compiler will reside after being built: 1. Download and build binutils: $ tar xzf binutils-<version>.tar.gz $./binutils-<version>/configure --target=$TARGET --prefix=$INSTALLAT $ make ; make install 2. Copy the include and asm from the board's kernel to the installation directory: $ mkdir $INSTALLAT/include $ cp -rvL $KERNEL/include/linux $KERNEL/include/asm $INSTALLAT/include 3. Download and build bootstrap GCC. At this point, it's best to build the bootstrap GCC in its own directory and not the directory where it has been unpacked: $ tar xzf gcc-<version>.tar.gz $ mkdir ~/$TARGET-gcc ; cd ~/$TARGET-gcc $../gcc-<version>/configure --target=$TARGET --prefix=$INSTALLAT --with-headers=$INSTALLAT/include --enable-languages="c" -Dinhibit_libc $ make all ; make install 4. Download and build glibc (or alternate libc) with the bootstrap compiler. Like GCC, the build of the library works best when you configure and make outside the source tree: $ tar xzf glibc-<version> --target=$TARGET --prefix=$INSTALLAT --enable-add-ons --disable-sanity-checks $ CC=$INSTALLAT/bin/$TARGET-gcc make $ CC=$INSTALLAT/bin/$TARGET-gcc make install 5. Build the final GCC. The bootstrap compiler was built to build the C library. Now, GCC can be built to use the cross-compiled C library when building its own programs: $ cd ~/$TARGET-gcc $../gcc-<version>/configure --target=$TARGET --prefix=$INSTALLAT --with-headers=$INSTALLAT/include --enable-languages="c" $ make all ; make install At the end of this process, the newly built cross-compiler will be at $INSTALLAT/bin. An oft-used strategy for those needing a specially configured GCC is to use crosstool or buildroot to download and patch the source files and then interrupt the process. At this point, the user applies additional patches and builds the components with the desired configuration settings. Before leaving this section, there's a frequently asked question from embedded engineers targeting Pentium machines doing development on desktops that are essentially same. In this case, is a cross-compiler necessary? The answer is yes. Building a cross-compiler for this configuration insulates the build environment and library dependencies from the development machine that happened to be used to build the source code. Because desktop systems can change revisions several times a year, and not all team members may be using the same version, having a consistent environment for compiling the embedded project is essential to eliminate the possibility of build configuration-related defects. |Designing Electronics with Linux||May 22, 2013| |Dynamic DNS—an Object Lesson in Problem Solving||May 21, 2013| |Using Salt Stack and Vagrant for Drupal Development||May 20, 2013| |Making Linux and Android Get Along (It's Not as Hard as It Sounds)||May 16, 2013| |Drupal Is a Framework: Why Everyone Needs to Understand This||May 15, 2013| |Home, My Backup Data Center||May 13, 2013| - Designing Electronics with Linux - Making Linux and Android Get Along (It's Not as Hard as It Sounds) - Dynamic DNS—an Object Lesson in Problem Solving - New Products - Using Salt Stack and Vagrant for Drupal Development - Validate an E-Mail Address with PHP, the Right Way - Build a Skype Server for Your Home Phone System - Why Python? - Tech Tip: Really Simple HTTP Server with Python - A Topic for Discussion - Open Source Feature-Richness? - Not free anymore 34 min 51 sec ago 4 hours 22 min ago - Reply to comment | Linux Journal 4 hours 30 min ago - Understanding the Linux Kernel 6 hours 44 min ago 9 hours 14 min ago - Kernel Problem 19 hours 17 min ago - BASH script to log IPs on public web server 23 hours 44 min ago 1 day 3 hours ago - Reply to comment | Linux Journal 1 day 3 hours ago - All the articles you talked 1 day 6 hours ago

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.linuxjournal.com/article/9904?quicktabs_1=0

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en

List of summaries, consolidations and regulations The Limitations Act Limitation law consists of the rules, applied in civil judicial proceedings, that limit the time that one person (the plaintiff) can bring a civil action against another person (the defendant). Limitation statutes recognize that a legal system cannot allow a person who is aware of a legal claim to do nothing for many years and then bring an action after the person against whom the action is brought may no longer be in a position to make a defense. Limitation periods are intended to ensure that defendants have a fair opportunity to contest claims; they are not intended to enable defendants to simply avoid liability. Limitation of actions legislation attempts to balance the interests of the plaintiff with those of the defendant. Society is interested in providing a fair and orderly process to obtain a remedy for injuries suffered by the plaintiff. The defendant is interested in being able to mount a reasonable defense to any claim made. The Limitations Act was passed in the 2004 Legislative Session and came into force on May 1, 2005. It replaces The Limitation of Actions Act, which was largely a collection of individual provisions in English statutes enacted between 1623 and the late 1800s, combined with some new initiatives. Special limitation periods found in many other statutes increased the chance that a limitation period would be missed. Ideally a limitation statute should include as few limitation periods as possible. This contributes to clarity and predictability for the parties. Most of the limitation periods in other statutes were eliminated when The Limitations Act came into force. The new Act clarifies and rationalizes limitation periods for legal actions. It provides a standard two year limitation period for civil legal actions. The two year period for actions starts to run when the person bringing the action first knew, or ought to have known, that: This is referred to as the discoverability principle. The new legislation includes an ultimate limitation period that bars all actions after 15 years after the events that gave rise to the action. This prevents an action being postponed for an indeterminate time due to the discoverability principle. The legislation includes provisions for special circumstances. It retains Saskatchewan=s current provision postponing the running of a limitation period for minors or mentally disabled persons who are not represented by a personal or property guardian. It provides that where a defendant fraudulently conceals the fact that injury occurred, the ultimate limitation period is suspended. In addition, it includes a provision that allows parties to contractually extend the limitation period. The Act provides that there is no limitation period for a proceeding where the claim results from sexual assault, and from assault, where the parties are in an intimate or dependant relationship.

<urn:uuid:7c887823-4b07-4945-9d29-059cff8c79bb>

CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.justice.gov.sk.ca/Limitations-Act

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en

Last night I forced myself to see Mel Gibson’s Apocalypto. As a specialist in the colonial period of American literature, I feel obligated to pay attention to Hollywood’s many renditions of that time period — from Pocahontas and The New World to The Crucible, The Patriot, and even National Treasure. Sometimes they are better than I expect them to be (as in the case of New World) and sometimes they are worse (as in 1996 version of The Crucible.) Of course, they always get their history wrong, but as a teacher, my hope is that Hollywood’s misrepresentations of history might at the very least be useful by giving me something to talk about in class. Interestingly, like me, Mel Gibson also seems also to have a special interest in the colonial period, since he was the voice of John Smith in the Disney version of Pocahontas, the patriot in The Patriot, and the producer of Apocalypto. I avoided Apocalypto after it came out in 2005 because I had heard terrible things about it, but I was finally compelled to see for myself. This is a hard movie for me to talk about, in part because the film reviews I’ve read seem to have covered almost everything I might say. So, what I’d like to do in this blog is move through a series of questions in order to consider several different ways of reading the movie. First, one simple and obvious question is how historically accurate is the movie? As many scholars immediately pointed out, Apocalypto gets its history very, very wrong. The list of errors is far too long for me to recount in my little blog, and a few film critics [here] and [here] and a few anthropologists [here] and [here] have already thoroughly done so at length anyway. The most bizarre error is that actually the Mayan Empire began to shrink in the 9th century, but Gibson has them collapsing five hundred years later, at the moment Columbus discovers America. Also, the Maya were known for their extensive agriculture and complex social organization, but the film only shows us hunters in a jungle. The Mayan Empire is also well-known to have been one of the most culturally, technologically, and economically advanced civilizations in the world at that time, but Gibson’s movie presents them as sadistic, superstitious, and insane. One could excuse Gibson by saying this was just a movie, but in the special features of the DVD he claims he tried to make his movie as “real” and “true” as possible, and he even hired specialists and experts in Mayan history to help him with the many various details. Gibson’s attention to historical accuracy make all the glaring inaccuracies stand out. It is not enough for us to simply dismiss these errors as simple mistakes or as necessary for an exciting plot. If he misrepresented history, he did it deliberately. But why would he do that? So, a more interesting question than the film’s accuracy is another question: was Gibson ideologically motivated, and what might his motivation be? Many Native Americans were very angry at the film and accused Gibson of racism and of deliberately misrepresenting their culture. See, for instance, [here] and [here]. Beyond simple racism, others have argued that the movie seems to excuse European colonization. This criticism of the movie is based on its beginning and ending. The movie opens with the quote “A great civilization is not conquered from without until it has destroyed itself within,” and it ends with the arrival of Columbus, whose arrival the hero of the movie heralds as a “new beginning.” (In fact, the word apocalypto means “new beginning” in Greek, and this new beginning is symbolized in the movie by the birth of his son and baptismal water.) In other words, the movie seems to suggest that the arrival of the Spanish would be good for the Native Americans who suffered under a brutal and corrupt Mayan Empire. Of course, anyone who’s ever read a history book knows that the opposite was true and that the Spanish committed acts of genocide, slavery, murder, rape, and torture (often in the name of Jesus Christ) on a scale far, far worse. In addition, one can make allegorical comparisons between the movie and the present moment. In 2005 when the movie came out, the United States was in the middle of conquering Iraq (also an ancient civilization like the Maya), and by analogy, one might compare the way Iraq was being represented in the mainstream media to the way the Mayan culture was being represented in Gibson’s movie. President George Bush II’s argument for going to war, after all, was precisely that the United States was liberating the Iraqis from a brutal, sadistic regime. Of course, one of the interesting things about movies is that their ideological meaning is never fixed or determinate, since one could just as easily decide instead to compare the United States to the corrupt Mayan empire that constantly attacked and brutalized its smaller neighbors. If read this way, the message of the movie might seem to be that the United States ought not go the way of the Mayan empire. And in fact, Gibson did publicly state his opposition to Bush’s war in Iraq by explicitly comparing Bush’s behavior to the brutal Mayan regime in his movie. (See [here].) So, if the movie can be read in opposite directions in relation to the Iraq War, it would appear that ideology is less clear than we may have initially thought. Stories and films can move audiences in different ways depending on the audience’s expectations and the stylistic elements of the film. And this leads me to a third question. My third question is whether form and style have any relationship to ideology. Defenders of the movie (including Quentin Tarantino) – see [here] and [here] — argue that the ideological content of the movie is less important than its cinematic style and technical innovation. But it seems to me that the artistic form is all too simple. The form is basically bad guys against good guys: act one being the attack, act two being the sacrifice, and act three being the escape and chase. To make this plot work, the Maya are characterized as irrationally and insanely brutal, and many of their actions are so disgusting and excessive that they don’t even make any sense as an expression or strategy of imperial domination. In contrast, the good guys are represented as relatively innocent and childlike. The bad guys are all bad, the good guys all good, and never do they ever have a conversation. Moreover, apparently, they had never had any cultural or commercial interaction before the attack – an aspect of the plot that makes no sense considering the size and proximity of the Mayan empire to this small tribe. How could the small tribe not be aware of the empire just up the river? The style follows from the form. This is quite possibly one of the most brutal and sadistic movies I’ve ever seen (and I’ve seen a lot), with almost two solid hours straight of graphic, pointless, and stomach-churning violence. I was barely able to sit through it, I found it so disgusting and offensive. It is important to think about this non-stop violence as an essential characteristic of the movie, because it is possible to imagine a different kind of story. Consider how American and European cinema tends to represent its own empires. For instance, the drama Rome that showed on BBC and on HBO from 2005 to 2007 (about the same time as Apocalypto) and is also about the corruption of an empire. But in this show, we see a very elaborate and complex political organization with a variety of characters who may do bad things but are all understandable as human characters. In contrast to the characters in Rome, the Maya in Apocalypto are totally inhuman and have no personality other than pure cruelty. Thus, the form and style of the movie Apocalypto contribute to the racist ideology of the content. Point being that we can imagine revising the form and style of the movie to be more realistic and human, and in so doing the ideology would in effect also change. Form and style matter just as much as content. OK, so far, I’ve criticized the movie pretty harshly. To be honest, it’s hard for me to find anything redeeming about it, but I’m going to try. What if we read the movie a different way? There are other ways this movie connects with its audience. For example, this is probably the first movie ever made entirely in the Mayan language, which is really cool and which is why some were excited about its production (see [here]). And gradually, the movie encourages the audience to identify with the Indian Jaguar Paw. And indeed, over the course of the movie, he becomes more and more likeable and cool. This is an interesting aspect, especially if we compare Apocalypto to the movie Avatar. Both movies are about empires destroying innocent nature people (and in both movies, the innocent victims are painted blue, LOL), but in Avatar the main character whom we identify with is an Anglo-Saxon American. (And you can read my analysis of Avatar [here].) Along these lines, even though Apocalypto seems to its critics to ideologically present a justification for Spanish colonization, it also does something else — we in the audience feel some nostalgia and longing for the Native American way of life before they were attacked by the Mayan Empire. We have no emotional attachment to the ships of Columbus that we see at the end, and neither does Jaguar Paw, who turns away from them. (This concluding moment has actually confused some critics who assumed Gibson was making a pro-Catholic propaganda film and wonder why Jaguar Paw doesn’t embrace European Christianity at the end. See this rather strange Time Magazine article, “What Has Mel Gibson Got Against the Church?“) Jaguar Paw’s turning away from Columbus at the end suggests that Gibson’s real desire is something of a fantasy — a desire for innocence and purity in the context of a brutal and complicated world. And so, in conclusion… I don’t know…. No comments yet. Leave a Reply

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Highland cattle are an ancient Scottish breed of cattle with long horns and shaggy pelts. The breed was developed in the Highlands and western coastal regions of Scotland, and breeding stock has been exported to Australia and North America for more than one hundred years. Highland Cattle Video Highland Cattle on the Meggernie Estate, Scotland. Highland Cattle on a hill above Killiecrankie, Scotland. School of the Moon: The Highland Cattle-raiding Tradition Behind the tales of cateran raiding in the Scottish Highlands was an age old practice, beloved of the clan warriors. Trained in the ways of the School of the Moon they liked little better than raiding other clans to lift their cattle and disappear into the wild mountains under the cover of darkness. If pursued and battle became necessary, that was no problem to the clansmen. This traditional practice of the Scottish Highland warriors, originating at least as far back as the Iron Age, has left us many grand stories, apocryphal and historical. Through investigating these stories Stuart McHardy came across material, some of it as yet unpublished, which leads to a startling new interpretation of what was going on in the Scottish Highlands in the years after Culloden. The British government called it cattle thieving but the men who returned to the ways of the School of the Moon were the last Jacobites, fighting on in a doomed guerrilla campaign against an army that had a garrison in every glen and town in Scotland.

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The Vietnam Era | The German Shepherd Noise. Chaos. The incredible heat of the tropics. The shadows and tangles of the jungles. The image that many people have in their mind of the Vietnam War – regardless of their political opinions – is of a mire of chaos and confusion. And the presence of dogs in the war made these struggles over unfriendly, enemy terrain easier. Dogs – both Labrador Retrievers and German Shepherd dogs – were used as scouts and combat trackers and sentry dogs alike, serving as the “eyes and ears” of their commanding officers as they crept through the jungle underbrush with celerity and agility, exhibiting far more stealth than a human being would be capable of. There were between 3,747 and 4,900 dogs used in Vietnam – the former is a number obtained by Dr. Howard Hayes, the Veterinarian of the National Institute of Health, by tracing the records of “brand numbers” of dogs – tattoos placed in the dogs' left ears. The military only began keeping records in 1968, however; thus the actual number is thought to be much higher than the extant figures.

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Tourism is a big, sometimes dominant, contributor to the GDPs of many nations, such as small island developing countries. Tourism is the world’s biggest industry -- indeed the biggest the planet has ever seen -- and it is growing rapidly. The number of international tourists worldwide grew from 170 million in 1971 to 635 million in 1998, while the amount they spent soared from US$ 21 billion to US$ 439 billion. By 2020, the World Tourism Organisation predicts, 1.5 billion of them will be spending $2 trillion a year -- or over $5 billion every day. Meanwhile, at least three times as many people take holidays within their own countries, [Page 23] predominantly in developed nations. Tourism is a big, sometimes dominant, contributor to the GDPs of many nations, such as small island developing countries. It already accounts for a quarter of the total economy of the Caribbean, and provides a fifth of all its jobs. If tourism is well planned, and is appropriate to local circumstances, it can do much for the sustainable development of coastal areas. Tourists are attracted to pristine seas, so there is a strong incentive to manage the environment properly. Tourism provides a renewable source of income for coastal communities, and can be used directly to subsidize environmental management; a fee specially levied on visitors to the Great Barrier Reef National Park, for example, produced over 28 percent of the revenue of the authority managing it in 1999, while its public aquarium and bookshop (used mainly by tourists) provided another 4.6 percent. However, tourism is usually not managed well from an environmental perspective. There are strong economic incentives to site hotels and other tourist facilities as near to attractive spots as possible, regardless of the aesthetic and environmental damage that may result. Building hotels, marinas and their supporting infrastructure -- roads, air-ports, car parks, harbours, jetties, breakwaters, sea walls, restaurants, golf courses etc. -- often greatly changes natural coastlines and their habitats. In extreme cases, whole ecosystems -- such as wetlands, estuaries, mangroves and coral reefs -- are destroyed or reduced to insignificance and, as a result, the very survival of key economic or ecological species is thrown into doubt. The sewage and rubbish that tourists produce add to the difficulties resident populations already have in managing their own debris, especially as the visitors each usually generate more solid waste than local people. The extra sewage they produce often ends up in the sea, with little treatment. This adds to eutrophication, and can increase the incidence of pathogens in waters used for swim-ming, boating and aquaculture. Large amounts of fertilizers and pesticides are used on coastal golf courses, and may get into the sea. Some far-sighted developers have solved both problems by using treated sewage to irrigate and fertilize their greens and fairways. Tourists want to eat local seafood and buy local curios, and so indigenous species are often overexploited to try to satisfy them. In many places habitats are commonly destroyed by people walking on reefs, diving or snorkelling or by the anchors and propellers of boats. Maritime tourism is increasing, posing special problems. Pleasure boat marinas are often built in attractive places, with no regard for the damage they do to wetlands, lagoons, coral reefs and other local habitats. Often they do not have adequate facilities for receiving, treating and disposing of wastes. Meanwhile many of the cruise ships’ favourite destinations cannot cope with the vast amount of wastes they generate. It is, indeed, often questionable whether the countries most visited by the ships get enough of an income from them to outweigh such costs. On the positive side, the emergence of ecotourism and cultural tourism has begun to introduce a new dynamic into the industry. People who choose such holidays encourage sustainable development by putting a high value on well-preserved environments and cultures, and undertaking to do as little damage as possible themselves. There are encouraging signs that environmental concerns are spreading from this niche market to big tour operators. Several now go out of their way to stress their green credentials, and check out the hotels and resorts they use for their impact on the natural world -- and there are some well-supported award schemes. But if tourism is to become truly sustainable these initiatives will have to spread much wider: the presumption must be that no part of the environment has an unlimited capacity to accommodate visitors or their activities.

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The Marshalls: Quickening the Pace FLINTLOCK Plans and Preparations1 GETTING ON WITH THE WAR During the series of Allied conferences that resulted in approval for the Central Pacific campaign, the first proposed objective was the Marshalls. Because of the lack of information concerning these islands and the shortage of men and materiel, the initial blow struck the Gilberts instead. After the capture of Apamama, Makin, and Tarawa, planes based at these atolls gathered the needed intelligence. As this information was processed, American planners prepared and revised several concepts for an offensive against the Marshalls. Like GALVANIC, the invasion of the Marshalls was the responsibility of the Commander in Chief, Pacific Ocean Areas, Admiral Nimitz. His principal subordinate planner was Admiral Spruance, Commander, Fifth Fleet and Central Pacific Force.2 Admiral Turner, Commander, V Amphibious Force, and General Holland Smith, Commanding General, V Amphibious Corps, were the officers upon whom Spruance relied for advice throughout the planning of the operation. EARLY PLANS FOR THE MARSHALLS The Marshalls consist of two island chains, Ratak (Sunrise) in the east and Ralik (Sunset) in the west. Some 32 atolls of varying size form the Marshalls group. Those of the greatest military importance by late 1943 were Mille, Maloelap, and Wotje in the Ratak chain, and in the Ralik chain, Jaluit, Kwajalein, and Eniwetok. Except for Jaluit, which was a seaplane base,3 all of these atolls were the sites of enemy airfields, and those in the Ralik chain were suitable as naval anchorages.4 (See Map 7.) In May 1943, at the Washington Conference, the CCS recommended to the Allied heads of state that an offensive be launched into the Marshalls. At this time, American planners believed that the services of two amphibious divisions and three months' time would be needed to neutralize or occupy all of the major atolls in the group and Wake Island, as well. The JCS considered the 1st, 2d, and 3d Marine Divisions available for immediate service and was certain that the 4th Marine Division, then training in the United States, would be ready for combat by the end of the year.5 After the Washington Conference had adjourned, the JCS directed Admiral Nimitz to submit a plan for operations against the Marshalls, and the admiral responded with a preliminary proposal,6 necessarily vague because he lacked adequate information on the area. Within three weeks after receiving Nimitz' views, on 20 July the JCS directed him to plan for an attack against the Gilberts, a move to be made prior to the Marshalls offensive. Thus, early planning for the Marshalls coincided with preparations for GALVANIC. By the end of August, Nimitz and his staff had carefully evaluated the proposed Marshalls operation. In their opinion, the United States was strong enough to undertake an offensive that would strengthen the security of Allied lines of communications, win bases for the American fleet, force the enemy to redeploy men and ships, and possibly result in a stinging defeat for the Imperial Navy. The attackers, however, would need to gain aerial superiority in the area and obtain accurate intelligence. A solution was required for the logistical problem of sustaining the fleet in extended operations some 2,000 miles west of Pearl Harbor. Finally, VAC would have to speed the training of the 35,000 amphibious troops required for the campaign. The proposed objectives were key islands in Kwajalein, Wotje, and Maloelap Atolls. Central Pacific amphibious forces were to seize all of these simultaneously while ships and aircraft neutralized Jaluit and Mille. Nimitz now requested specific authorization to seize control of the Marshalls, urging that "thus we get on with the war."7 At the Quebec Conference of August 1943, Allied leaders agreed that an effort against the Marshalls should follow the successful conquest of the Gilberts. Accordingly, the JCS on 1 September issued Nimitz a directive to undertake the operations he had recently proposed and, upon their completion, to seize or neutralize Wake Island and Eniwetok, as well as Kusaie in the Carolines. By this time, the 2d Marine Division was committed to GALVANIC, the 1st to the New Britain operation, and the 3d to the Solomons offensive. As assault troops for the Marshalls, the JCS made available, pending the completion of its training, the 4th Marine Division and also selected the 7th Infantry Division, which had seen action in the Aleutians, and the 22d Marines, then guarding Samoa.8 See Map I, Map Section.) THE SHAPING OF FLINTLOCK9 On 22 September, Nimitz handed Spruance a preliminary study in support of the course of action he had proposed to the JCS and directed him to prepare to assault the Marshalls on 1 January 1944. The study itself was not considered complete, so the objectives might be altered as additional intelligence became available.10 Because of this lack of information on the Marshalls area, Spruance began studying two alternatives to Nimitz' suggested course of action. All of these proposals called for simultaneous assaults, at sometime in the operation, upon three atolls, Maloelap, Wotje, and either Mille or Kwajalein.11 Although Nimitz on 12 October issued an operation plan for FLINTLOCK, the Marshalls Operation, he avoided selecting specific objectives. Within two days, however, he decided to employ the 7th Infantry Division against both Wotje and Maloelap and to attack Kwajalein with the 4th Marine Division and 22d Marines. He fixed 1 January 1944 as target date for the storming on Wotje and Maloelap and proposed to attack Kwajalein on the following day. General Holland Smith's VAC staff now prepared an estimate of the situation based on the preliminary plans advanced by Admirals Nimitz and Spruance. The likeliest course of action, according to the VAC paper, was to strike simultaneously at Wotje and Maloelap, with the Kwajalein assault troops serving as reserve. On the following day, or as soon as the need for reinforcements had passed, the conquest of the third objective would begin. Smith's headquarters drew up a tentative operation plan for such a campaign, but at this point the attack against the Gilberts temporarily halted work on FLINTLOCK. Prior to the GALVANIC operation, Admiral Turner had done little more than gather information concerning the proposed Marshalls offensive. Immediately following the conquest of the Gilberts, Turner's staff carefully examined the FLINTLOCK concept and concluded that Maloelap and Wotje should be secured before Kwajalein was attacked. Meanwhile, every planning agency in the Central Pacific Area was digesting the lessons of GALVANIC. Among other things, the theories regarding naval gunfire were revised. As an Army officer assigned to General Smith's staff phrased it, "Instead of shooting at geography, the ships learned to shoot at definite targets."12 After they had evaluated events in the Gilberts and assessed their own strength, Turner and Smith agreed that with the forces available Kwajalein could not be taken immediately after the landings on Wotje and Maloelap. Nimitz, acting on the same information available to his subordinates, also desired to alter FLINTLOCK, but in an entirely different manner. On 7 December, CinCPac proposed an amphibious thrust at Kwajalein in the western Marshalls, coupled with the neutralization of the surrounding Japanese bases. In a series of conferences of senior commanders that followed, General Smith joined Admirals Turner and Spruance in objecting to this bold stroke.13 Spruance, the most determined of the three, pointed out that immediately after the capture of Kwajalein units of his Central Pacific Force were scheduled to depart for the South Pacific. Once the fast carriers had steamed southward, he could no longer maintain the neutralization of Wotje, Maloelap, Mille, and Jaluit, and the enemy would be able to ferry planes to these Marshalls bases in order to attack the line of communications between the Gilberts and Kwajalein. Spruance also desired to ease the logistical strain by seizing an additional fleet anchorage in the Marshalls. To meet the last objective Nimitz included in FLINTLOCK the capture of a second atoll, one that was weakly defended. To cripple Japanese air power, he approved a more thorough pounding of the enemy bases that ringed Kwajalein.14 After informing the JCS of his change of plans, Nimitz on 14 December directed Spruance and his other subordinates to devise a plan for the assault on Roi and Kwajalein Islands in Kwajalein Atoll. The alternative objectives were Maloelap and Wotje, but whichever objectives were attacked, D-Day was fixed as 17 January 1944.15 On 18 December, Nimitz informed King that he had set back D-Day to 31 January in view of the need for additional time for training and the need to make repairs to the carriers USS Saratoga, Princeton, and Intrepid.16 The assignment of another reinforced regiment, the 106th RCT of the 27th Infantry Division, to the FLINTLOCK force increased the number of men available for the expanded plan, but Turner continued to worry about the readiness of the various units. On 20 December, he requested that D-Day be postponed until 10 February to allow the two divisions to receive the proper equipment and to enable the 4th Marine Division to hold rehearsals.17 No further delays were authorized, however, as the JCS had directed that the operation get under way "not later than 31 January 1944."18 Nimitz' headquarters on 20 December issued FLINTLOCK II, a joint staff study which incorporated the results of his recent conversations with Spruance. Carrier aircraft, land-based bombers, and surface ships were to blast the Japanese bases at Wotje and Maloelap. If necessary, the carriers would launch strikes to aid land-based planes in neutralizing Mille, Jaluit, Kusaie, and Eniwetok. The primary objectives remained Roi and Kwajalein Islands, but a secondary target, Majuro Atoll, was also included. Admiral Spruance, in reviewing the reasons that he recommended Majuro as an objective, stated: Airfields on Majuro would enable us to help cover shipping moving in for the buildup of Kwajalein, and it would give us a fire protected anchorage at an early date for fleet use, if the capture of Kwajalein were a protracted operation. We had been fortunate during the Gilberts operation in being able to fuel fleet forces at sea without having them attacked by submarines. This we did by shifting the fueling areas daily. There were too many islands through the Marshalls for that area to lend itself to this procedure."19 With the final selection on 26 December of an assault force for Majuro, the FLINTLOCK plan was completed. For a time, General Smith had considered using most of Tactical Group I, the 22d Marines and the 106th Infantry, against Majuro. A staff officer of Tactical Group I, who was present during the discussions of this phase of the operation, recalled that "General Holland Smith paced the floor of the little planning room, cigar butt in mouth or hand--thinking out loud." Thanks to additional intelligence, the choice by this time lay between employing an entire regiment or a smaller force. After weighing the evidence, Smith announced he was "convinced that there can't be more than a squad or two on those islands today . . . let's use only one battalion for the Majuro job."20 As a result, 2/106 was given the task of seizing Majuro, while the remainder of that regiment and the 22d Marines were designated the reserve for FLINTLOCK. ORGANIZATION AND COMMAND Task Force 50, commanded by Admiral Spruance, included all the forces assigned to the FLINTLOCK operation. Its major components were: Task Force 58, Rear Admiral Marc A. Mitscher's fast carriers and modern battleships; Task Force 57, Defense Forces and Land-Based Air, commanded by Rear Admiral John H. Hoover; Task Group 50.15, the Neutralization Group under Rear Admiral Ernest G. Small; and Admiral Turner's Task Force 51, the Joint Expeditionary Force. Admiral Spruance decided to accompany the expedition to the Marshalls, but he would not assume tactical command unless the Imperial Japanese Navy chose to contest the operation. Admiral Turner, as commander of the Joint Expeditionary Force, was primarily concerned with conveying the assault troops to the objective and getting them safely ashore. Within his command were: the Southern Attack Force, over which he retained personal command; the Northern Attack Force, entrusted to Rear Admiral Richard L. Conolly, a veteran of the Sicily landings; the Majuro Attack Group under Rear Admiral Hill, commander at Tarawa; Captain Harold B. Sallada's Headquarters, Supporting Aircraft, the agency through which Admirals Turner, Conolly, and Hill would direct aerial support of the landings; and General Smith's Expeditionary Troops. Among the 297 vessels assigned to Turner for FLINTLOCK were two new AGC command ships, 7 old battleships, 11 carriers of various classes, 12 cruisers, 75 destroyers and destroyer escorts, 46 transports, 27 cargo vessels, 5 LSDs, and 45 LSTs.21 As far as General Smith's status was concerned, Spruance's command structure for FLINTLOCK fit the situation and continued the primary responsibility of Admiral Turner for the success of the operation.22 Until the amphibious phase was completed and the troops were ashore, Admiral Turner would, through the attack force commanders, exercise tactical control. After the 7th Infantry Division had landed on Kwajalein Island and the 4th Marine Division on Roi-Namur, General Smith was to assume the authority of corps commander and retain it until Admiral Spruance declared the capture and occupation of the objectives to be completed. The authority of the Marine general, however, was as limited as it had been in the Gilberts operation, for he could not make major changes in the tactical plan nor order unscheduled major landings without the approval of Admiral Turner. Included in Expeditionary Troops with the two assault divisions were the 106th Infantry, 22d Marines, the 1st and 15th Marine Defense Battalions, Marine Headquarters and Service Squadron 31, and several Army and Navy units which would help garrison and develop the captured atolls. At Roi-Namur, objective of the Northern Attack Force, and at Kwajalein Island, where the Southern Attack Force would strike, Admirals Conolly and Turner were initially to command the assault forces through the appropriate landing force commander. As soon as the landing force commander knew that his troops had made a lodgement, he was to assume command ashore. The Majuro operation was an exception, for Admiral Hill, in command of the attack group, was in control from the time his ships arrived, throughout the fighting ashore, until Admiral Spruance proclaimed the atoll captured. APPLYING THE LESSONS OF TARAWA Everyone who took part in planning FLINTLOCK profited from the recent GALVANIC operation. To prevent a repetition of the sort of communications failures that had happened off Betio, the commander of each attack force was to sail in a ship especially designed to serve as a floating headquarters during an amphibious assault. The AGC Rocky Mount would carry Turner to Kwajalein, while Conolly would command the Roi-Namur assault from the AGC Appalachian. The Cambria, a transport equipped with additional communications equipment, was assigned to Admiral Hill for use at Majuro. Prior to the attack on Tarawa, Marine planners had requested permission to land first on the islands near Betio to gain artillery positions from which to support the main assault. The loss of surprise and the consequent risk to valuable shipping were judged to outweigh the tactical benefits to be gained from these preparatory landings, and the 2d Marine Division was directed to strike directly at the principal objective. Such was not the case in FLINTLOCK. Plans called for both the 7th Infantry Division and the 4th Marine Division to occupy four lesser islands before launching their main attacks. In addition to providing for artillery support of the major landings, planners sought to increase the effectiveness of naval gunfire. On D minus 1, while cruisers and destroyers of Task Force 51 bombarded Maloelap and Wotje, Admiral Mitscher's fast battleships were to hammer Roi-Namur and Kwajalein Islands. At dawn, elements of Task Force 58 would begin the task of destroying Japanese aircraft, making the flight strips temporarily useless, and shattering coastal defense guns. After pausing for an air strike, the ships were to resume firing, primarily against shore defenses. On D-Day, the landing forces would seize certain small islands adjacent to the main objectives. These operations were to be supported by naval gunfire and aerial bombardment in a manner similar to that planned for the assaults on Kwajalein Island and Roi-Namur. Plans also called for the American warships to maintain the neutralization of principal objectives while supporting the secondary landings elsewhere in the atoll. About 25 minutes before H-Hour for the main landings, cruisers, destroyers, and LCI(G)s were to begin firing into the assault beaches, distributing high explosives throughout an area bounded by lines 100 yards seaward of the edge of the water, 200 yards inshore, and 300 yards beyond both flanks. Admiral Turner directed that cruisers continue their bombardment until the landing craft were 1,000 yards from shore, destroyers until the assault waves were 500 yards or less from the island, and LCI(G)s until the troops were even closer to their assigned beaches. Since the plan depended upon the progress of the assault rather than on a fixed schedule, the defenders would not be given the sort of respite gained by the Betio garrison.23 The LCI(G)s which figured so prominently in Admiral Turner's plans were infantry landing craft converted into shallow-draft gunboats. These vessels mounted .50 caliber machine guns, 40mm and 20mm guns, as well as 4.5-inch rockets. Another means of neutralizing the beach defenses was provided by the armored amphibian, LVT(A)(1), which boasted a 37mm gun and five .30 caliber machine guns. One machine gun was located atop the turret, one was mounted coaxially with the cannon, a third was located in a ball and socket mount in the forepart of the hull, and the other two were placed on ring mounts to the rear of the turret.24 Protection for the crew of six was provided by ¼ to ½ inch of armor plate and by small shields fixed to the exposed machine guns. Neither the LCI(G)s nor the LVT(A)(1)s were troop carriers.25 A few LVT(2)s with troops embarked were equipped with multiple rocket launchers to assist in the last-minute pounding of Japanese shore defenses. Admiral Turner and General Smith also attempted to increase the effectiveness of supporting aircraft. The strikes delivered to cover the approaching assault waves were scheduled according to the progress of the LVTs. When the amphibian tractors reached a specified distance from the beaches, the planes would begin their attacks, diving parallel to the course of the landing craft and at a steep angle to lessen the danger of accidentally hitting friendly troops. During these pre-assault aerial attacks, both naval guns and artillery were ordered to suspend firing, Throughout the operation, carrier planes assigned to support ground troops were subject to control by both the Commander, Support Aircraft, and the airborne coordinator. The coordinator, whose plane remained on station during daylight hours, could initiate strikes against targets of opportunity, but the other officer, who received his information from the attack force commanders, was better able to arrange for attacks that involved close cooperation with artillery or naval gunfire. During GALVANIC, the airborne coordinator had performed the additional task of relaying information on the progress of the battle. This extra burden now fell to a ground officer, trained as an aerial observer, who would report from dawn to dusk on the location of friendly units, enemy strongpoints, and hostile activities.26 THE LANDING FORCE PLANS The objectives finally selected for FLINTLOCK were Majuro and Kwajalein Atolls. Measuring about 24 miles from east to west and 5 miles from north to south, Majuro was located 220 nautical miles southeast of Kwajalein. Admiral Hill, in command of the Majuro force, decided to await the results of a final reconnaissance before choosing his course of action. Elements of the VAC Reconnaissance Company would land on Eroj and Calalin, the islands that guarded the entrance to Majuro lagoon, then scout the remaining islands. Once Japanese strength and dispositions had been determined, the landing force, 2/106, could make its assault. Kwajalein Atoll, 540 miles northwest of Tarawa, is a triangular grouping of 93 small reef-encircled islands. The enclosed lagoon covers 655 square miles. Because of the vast size of the atoll, Admiral Turner had divided the Expeditionary Force into Northern and Southern Landing Forces. In the north, at the apex of the triangle, the recently activated 4th Marine Division, commanded by Major General Harry Schmidt, a veteran of the Nicaraguan campaign, was to seize Roi-Namur, twin islands joined by a causeway and a narrow strip of beach. The site of a Japanese airfield, Roi had been stripped of vegetation, but Namur, where the enemy had constructed numerous concrete buildings, was covered with palms, breadfruit trees, and brush. The code names chosen for the islands were CAMOUFLAGE for wooded Namur and for Roi, because so little of it was concealed, BURLESQUE.27 (See Map 8.) Crescent-shaped Kwajalein Island, objective of the Southern Landing Force, lay at the southeastern corner of the atoll, some 44 nautical miles from Roi-Namur. Major General Charles H. Corlett, who had led the Kiska landing force, would hurl his 7th Infantry Division against the largest island in the atoll. Here the enemy had constructed an airfield and over 100 large buildings. Although portions of the seaward coastline were heavily wooded, an extensive road net covered most of the island. Throughout the planning of the Marshalls operation, General Schmidt and his staff were located at Camp Pendleton, California, some 2,200 miles from General Smith's headquarters at Pearl Harbor. The problem posed by this distance was solved by shuttling staff officers back and forth across the Pacific, but division planners continued to work under two disadvantages, a shortage of time and a lack of information. These twin difficulties stemmed from Admiral Nimitz' sudden decision to attack Kwajalein Atoll, bypassing Wotje and Maloelap. The division staff, however, proved adequate to the challenge, and by the end of December its basic plan had been approved by VAC. The timing of approval and issue was so tight, however, that some units sailed for Hawaii without seeing a copy.28 The Northern Landing Force plan consisted of three phases: the capture of four offshore islands, the seizure of Roi-Namur, and the securing of 11 small islands along the northeastern rim of Kwajalein Atoll. The first phase was entrusted to the IVAN Landing Group, the 25th Marines, Reinforced, commanded by Brigadier General James L. Underhill, the Assistant Division Commander. These troops were to seize ALBERT (Ennumennet), ALLEN (Ennubirr), JACOB (Ennuebing), and IVAN (Mellu) Islands as firing positions for the 14th Marines, the division artillery regiment. The troops involved in this operation would land from LVTs provided by the 10th Amphibian Tractor Battalion. Company A, 11th Amphibian Tractor Battalion, which reinforced the 10th, along with Companies B and D, 1st Armored Amphibian Battalion, were chosen to spearhead the assaults. When this phase was completed, the LVT and artillery units would revert to division control, and the 25th Marines would become the division reserve for the next phase. The 23d Marines received the assignment of storming Roi while the 24th Marines simultaneously attacked Namur. Both regiments were to land from the lagoon, the 23d Marines over Red Beaches 2 and 3 and the 24th Marines on Green 1 and 2. In the meantime, the 25th Marines could be called upon to capture ABRAHAM (Ennugarret) Island.29 Detailed plans for the final phase were not issued at this time. General Schmidt organized his assault waves to obtain the most devastating effect from his armored amphibians and LCI gunboats. The LCI(G)s were to lead the way until they were about 1,000 yards from the beach. Here they were to halt, fire their rockets, and continue to support the assault with their automatic weapons. Then the LVT(A)s would pass through the line of gunboats, open fire with 37mm cannon and machine guns, and continue their barrage "from most advantageous positions."30 The troop carriers were directed to follow the armored vehicles, passing through the line of supporting amphibians if it was stopped short of the beach. The few LVT(2)s armed with rockets were to discharge these missiles as they drew abreast of the LCIs. The 7th Infantry Division faced fewer difficulties in planning for the capture of Kwajalein Island. General Corlett was experienced in large-scale amphibious operations, and two of his regiments, the 17th and 32d Infantry, had fought at Attu, while the third, the 184th Infantry, had landed without opposition at Kiska. The Army division easily kept pace with the changes in the FLINTLOCK concept, for its headquarters was not far from General Smith's corps headquarters. Like the Marine division in the north, General Corlett's Southern Landing Force faced an operation divided into several phases. The first of these was the capture of CARLSON (Enubuj), CARLOS (Ennylabegan), CECIL (Ninni), and CARTER (Gea) Islands by the 17th Infantry and its attached units. Once these objectives were secured and artillery emplaced on CARLSON, the 17th Infantry would revert to landing force reserve. Next, the 184th and 32d Infantry would land at the western end of Kwajalein Island and attack down the long axis of the island. The third phase, the seizing of BURTON (Ebeye), BURNET (unnamed), BLAKENSHIP (Loi), BUSTER (unnamed), and BYRON (unnamed), as well as the final operations, the landings on BEVERLY (South Gugegwe), BERLIN (North Gugegwe), BENSON (unnamed), and BENNETT (Bigej), were tentatively arranged, but the assault troops were not yet designated.31 (See Map 8.) The assault formations devised by Corlett's staff differed very little from those in the 4th Marine Division plan. Instead of preceding the first assault wave, the armored LVTs, amphibian tanks in Army terminology, were to take station on its flanks. Also, the Army plan called for the LVT(A)s to land regardless of Japanese opposition and support the advance from positions ashore. After the infantry had moved 100 yards inland, the amphibians might withdraw.32 When Admiral Nimitz first began planning his Marshalls offensive, he had little information on the defenses of those islands. Because the enemy had held the area for almost a quarter-century, the Americans assumed that the atolls would be even more formidable than Tarawa. The first photographs of the probable objectives in the western Marshalls were not available to General Smith's staff until after GALVANIC was completed. The corps, however, managed to complete its preliminary area study on 26 November. Copies of this document were then sent to both assault divisions. Throughout these weeks of planning, the 7th Infantry Division G-2 was a frequent visitor to General Smith's headquarters, and this close liaison aided General Corlett in drafting his landing force plan. Unfortunately, close personal contact with the 4th Marine Division staff was impossible, but corps headquarters did exchange representatives with General Schmidt's command. Carrier planes photographed Kwajalein Atoll during a raid on 4 December, but the pictures they made gave only limited coverage of this objective. Interviews with the pilots provided many missing details. Additional aerial photos of the atoll were taken during December and January. Reconnaissance planes took pictures of Majuro on 10 December. A final photographic mission was scheduled for Kwajalein atoll just two days before D-Day. Submarines also contributed valuable intelligence on reefs, beaches, tides, and currents of Kwajalein. The Seal photographed the atoll in December, and the Tarpon carried out a similar mission the following month. Plans called for Underwater Demolition Teams, making their first appearance in combat, to finish the work begun by the undersea craft. These units were to scout the beaches of Kwajalein and Roi-Namur Islands on the night of 31 January-1 February. After obtaining up-to-date hydrographic data, the swimmers would return to destroy mines and antiboat obstacles. By mid-January, VAC intelligence officers had concluded that Kwajalein Atoll, headquarters of the 6th Base Force and, temporarily, of the Fourth Fleet, was the cornerstone of the Marshalls fortress. Originally, most of the weapons emplaced on the larger islands of the atoll had been sited to protect the ocean beaches, but since the Tarawa operation, in which the Marines had attacked from the lagoon, the garrisons were strengthening and rearranging their defenses. Except for Kwajalein Island, where photographs indicated a cross-island line, the Japanese had concentrated their heaviest installations along the beaches. In general, the assault forces could expect a bitter fight at the beaches as the enemy attempted to thwart the landing. Once this outer perimeter was breached, the defenders would fight to the death from shell holes, ruined buildings, and other improvised positions. The atoll garrison was believed to be composed of the 6th Base Force, 61st Naval Guard Force, a portion of the 122d Infantry Regiment, and a detachment of the 4th Civil Engineers. Intelligence specialists believed that reinforcements, elements of the 52d Division, were being transferred from the Carolines to various sites in the Marshalls. The enemy's total strength throughout Kwajalein Atoll was estimated to be 8,000-9,600 men, 6,150-7,100 of them combat troops. General Smith's intelligence section predicted that the 7th Infantry Division would face 2,300-2,600 combat troops and 1,200-1,600 laborers. The enemy appeared to have built a defensive line across Kwajalein Island just east of the airfield, works designed to supplement the pillboxes, trenches, and gun emplacements that fringed the island. Photographs of Roi-Namur disclosed coastal perimeters that featured strongpoints at each corner of both islands. Very few weapons positions were discovered in the interior of either island. Namur, however, because of its many buildings and heavy undergrowth, offered the enemy an excellent chance to improvise a defense in depth. At both Kwajalein and Roi-Namur Islands, the installations along the ocean coasts were stronger than those facing the lagoon. No integrated defenses and only a small outpost detachment were observed on Majuro. (See Map V, Map Section.) Corps also had the task of preparing and distributing the charts and maps used by the assault troops, naval gunfire teams, defense battalions, and other elements of FLINTLOCK Expeditionary Troops. Each division received 1,000 copies of charts (on a scale of one inch to one nautical mile) and of special terrain maps (1:20,000), and as many as 2,000 copies of another type of special terrain map (1:3,000). On the 1:3,000 maps, the particular island was divided into north, east, west, and south zones. Within each zone, known gun positions were numbered in clockwise order, each number prefixed by N, E, W, or S to indicate the proper zone. All crossroads and road junctions also were given numbers. Besides the customary grid system, these maps also showed the number and outline of all naval gunfire sectors. By compressing so much information onto a single sheet, the corps devised a map that suited a variety of units. The information gathered, evaluated, and distributed by Admiral Nimitz' Joint Intelligence Center, General Smith's amphibious corps, and Admiral Turner's amphibious force was both accurate and timely. Sound intelligence enabled Nimitz to alter his plans and strike directly at Kwajalein. A knowledge of the enemy defenses made possible an accurate destructive bombardment and, together with hydrographic information, guided attack force and landing force commanders in the selection of assault beaches. COMMUNICATIONS AND CONTROL34 Generals Corlett and Schmidt planned to destroy the enemy garrison in a series of carefully coordinated amphibious landings. For this reason, success depended to a great extent upon reliable communications and accurate timing. Although the introduction of command vessels had given attack force and landing force commanders a better means of controlling the different phases of the operation, not every communications problem had been solved. The Marine assault troops assigned to FLINTLOCK used much of the same communications equipment that had proved inadequate in the Gilberts. The radios in the LVTs were not waterproofed, a fact which would greatly reduce communication effectiveness during the landing.35 Both the TBX and TBY radios, neither type adequately waterproof, had to be used again in the Marshalls. Eventually, it was hoped, these sets could be replaced, the TBX by some new, lighter, and more reliable piece of equipment and the TBY by the portable SCR 300 and mobile SCR 610 used by the Army. Although intended for infantrymen rather than communications men, the hand-carried MU radios were too fragile to survive the rugged treatment given them in rifle units. The SCR 610 worked well, but it too was vulnerable to water damage. No waterproof bags were available for either spare radio batteries or telephone equipment. In an attempt to insure unbroken communications, both the 4th Marine Division and the 7th Infantry Division were assigned Joint Assault Signal Companies (JASCOs). The Marine 1st JASCO was activated on 20 October 1943 at Camp Pendleton, California. The primary mission of this unit was to coordinate all supporting fires available to a Marine division during an amphibious operation. In order to carry out this function, the company was divided into Shore and Beach Party Communications Teams, Air Liaison Parties, and Shore Fire Control Parties. Early in December, the company joined VAC and was promptly attached to the 4th Marine Division. During training, the various teams were attached to the regiments and battalions of the division. Thus each assault battalion could become familiar with its shore and beach party, air liaison, and fire control teams. The Army 75th JASCO was attached in the same manner to the battalions of the 7th Infantry Division. Communications equipment, however, was but a means of control. If the landings were to succeed, they would have to be precisely organized and accurately timed. Unit commanders and control officers would have to be located where they could see what was happening and influence the conduct of the battle. For FLINTLOCK, the movement of assault troops from the transports to the beaches was carefully planned, and an adequate system of control was devised. Instead of transferring from transports to landing craft and finally to LVTs, as had been done at Tarawa, the first waves of assault troops were to move from the transports directly to the LSTs that carried their assigned tractors.36 The men would climb into the assault craft as the LSTs steamed to a position near the line of departure from which the ships would launch the amphibians. Next, the LVTs were to form waves, each one guided by a boat commander. At the line of departure, the commander of each wave reported to the control officer, a member of the V Amphibious Force staff. Among other vessels, each control officer had at his disposal two LCCs (Landing Craft Control vessels), steel-hulled craft similar in appearance to motor torpedo boats. These carried radar and other navigational aids and were designated as flank guides for the leading assault waves. After the first four waves had crossed the reef, the LCCs, which were incapable of beaching and retracting, would take up station in a designated area 2,000 yards from shore. Since reserve units were to follow a transfer scheme similar to that planned for Tarawa, officers in the LCCs now had to supervise the shifting of men from landing craft to returning LVTs, as well as the formation of waves, and the dispatch of tractors to the beach. A submarine chaser was assigned the control officer to enable him to move wherever he might be needed in the immediate vicinity of the line of departure. A representative of the landing force commander, the commander of the amphibian tractor battalion, a representative of the division supply officer, and a medical officer were embarked in the same craft. These men were given power to make decisions concerning the ship-to-shore movement, the landing of supplies, and the evacuation of wounded. A second submarine chaser, this one stationed continuously at the line of departure, carried a representative of the transport group commander. This officer saw to it that the waves crossed the line either according to the prearranged schedule, as the control officer directed, or in the case of later waves as the regimental commander requested. Off the beach his troops were assaulting, the regimental commander was to establish a temporary floating command post in a submarine chaser. While in this vessel, he would be able to contact by radio or visual signals the landing force commander, the various boat waves, and his battalions already ashore. As soon as the regimental commanders had established command posts ashore, the submarine chasers could be used by the division headquarters. The geographical separation of the units assigned to FLINTLOCK affected logistical planning as well as tactical training. The 4th Marine Division trained at Camp Pendleton and prepared to sail from San Diego, the 7th Infantry Division and 106th Infantry trained on Oahu, and the 22d Marines made ready in Samoa prior to its movement to the Hawaiian Islands. In spite of the distance involved, General Smith later reported that in the field of logistics "no major difficulties were encountered."38 There were, however, several minor problems. The 22d Marines, for example, was unable to obtain from Marine sources either 2.36-inch rocket launchers and ammunition for them, or shaped demolitions charges, but a last-minute request to Army agencies was successful.39 The 4th Marine Division had to revise its logistical plans in the midst of combat loading. Originally, Admiral Nimitz had prescribed that each division carry to the objective five units of fire for each of its weapons except antiaircraft guns. Officers of the 7th Infantry Division requested additional ammunition, but the admiral was reluctant to accept their recommendations. Not until 5 January did he approve 10 units of fire for 105mm howitzers and 8 for all other ground weapons. Nor was the 7th Infantry Division without its troubles, for the water containers provided by Army sources proved useless, and drums had to be obtained from the Navy. A total of 42 days' rations was scheduled to be carried to Kwajalein Atoll. Each Marine or soldier was to land with 2 days' emergency rations. A 4-day supply of the same type of food was loaded in LSTs, and an additional 6-day amount was lashed to pallets for storage in the transports. The cargo ships assigned to the expedition carried enough dried, canned, and processed food to last the assault and garrison troops for 30 days. Five day's water, in 5-gallon cans and 55-gallon drums, was stowed in the LSTs and transports. Logistical plans also called for a 30-day quantity of maintenance, medical, and aviation supplies, as well as fuels and lubricants. The assault divisions and the garrison units also brought with them large amounts of barbed wire, sandbags, and light construction material. Not all of this mountain of supplies and ammunition was combat loaded. Those items likely to be needed early in the operation were stowed in easily accessible places according to probable order of use. The remaining supplies were loaded deep within the cargo vessels in a manner calculated to conserve space. Some emergency supplies, including ammunition, water, and rations, were placed in LSTs. Admiral Conolly divided his transports into three groups, one per infantry regiment, each with four transports and a cargo vessel. The 105mm howitzers of the 4th Marine Division were loaded into LCMs, landing craft that would be ferried to Roi-Namur in an LSD. The 75mm pack howitzers were placed in LVTs, and these tractors embarked in LSTs. A second LSD carried the LCMs in which the 15 Shermans of the division medium tank company were loaded. All 36 light tanks of the 4th Tank Battalion were stowed in the transports. Admiral Turner, who had retained responsibility for conducting the 7th Infantry Division to Kwajalein Island, organized his shipping in much the same way. At Tarawa, the flow of supplies to the assault units had been slow and uncertain. Admiral Turner, in an effort to prevent a similar disruption, directed that beach party and shore party units sail in the same transports, draw up joint plans, and land rapidly. Skeleton beach parties and elements of shore parties were assigned to the fourth wave at each beach, and the remainder of the units were ordered to follow as quickly as possible. The corps directed the 7th Infantry Division to form shore parties from its 50th Engineer Battalion and elements of the Kwajalein Island garrison force, while the 4th Marine Division was to rely upon men from the 20th Marines, its engineer regiment. One shore party, reinforced by medical, quartermaster, ordnance, and other special troops, was attached to each infantry battalion. The principal weakness in this phase of the supply plan was the use of men from reserve combat units to bring the shore parties to their authorized strength of approximately 400. Pontoon causeways, broken into sections and loaded in LSTs, were made available for use at Roi-Namur, Kwajalein, and CARLSON Islands, and at Majuro Atoll. The pontoons could be joined together to serve as piers for the unloading of heavy equipment. Enough emergency supplies were loaded in LSTs to sustain the battle until the beaches were secured. At Roi-Namur, LVTs, the only amphibious cargo vehicles available to the Marine division, were to serve as the link between the LSTs and the battalions advancing inland. After the beaches had been secured, the transports would begin unloading. The 7th Infantry Division had, in addition to its amphibian tractors, 100 DUKWs. These 2½-ton amphibian trucks were called upon to perform at Kwajalein Island much of the work expected of LVTs at Roi-Namur. Sixty DUKWs were assigned to land the division artillery, and 40 of them, also stowed in LSTs, were to give logistical support to infantry units by bringing ashore emergency supplies. Some of the critical items were loaded in the trucks before the parent LSTs sailed from Hawaii. Admiral Turner's medical plan gave beachmasters authority over the evacuation of wounded. Theirs was the task of selecting the boats or amphibious vehicles that would carry away casualties. The medical section of the beach party was responsible for distributing the wounded among the cargo ships and transports. All of these vessels could receive the injured, but by D plus 3 all casualties would be collected in specified vessels or transferred to the hospital ships scheduled to arrive on that day. TRAINING FOR FLINTLOCK The 4th Marine Division was able to undergo amphibious training in conjunction with Admiral Conolly's support ships and transports. A division exercise was held on 14-15 December, before either the admiral or General Schmidt were certain what course FLINTLOCK would follow. Another exercise took place at San Clemente Island off the California coast on 2-3 January 1944. This second landing was in effect a rehearsal, for all amphibious shipping joined many of Conolly's warships and carriers in the exercise. The January landing also gave the division a chance to test its aerial observers. These were the ground officers who would be flown over Roi-Namur to report throughout the day on the progress of the battle. This aspect of the exercise was a complete success, but the work of the LVTs and LSTs was far less impressive. On 5 December, the division's 4th Amphibian Tractor Battalion was broken up, and four/seventh's of its men were used to form the cadre of the 10th Amphibian Tractor Battalion, reinforced by Company A, 11th Amphibian Tractor Battalion.40 The two units were then brought up to authorized strength by the addition of recruits and the transfer of trained crews from the 1st Armored Amphibian Battalion. By the time these changes had been made, less than a month remained in which to check the tractors, install armor plate, waterproof radios, train the new crews, lay plans for the landings, take part in the San Clemente rehearsal, load the vehicles into amphibious shipping, and make a final check to determine that the LVTs were fit for combat. These varied tasks had to be carried out simultaneously with the obtaining of supplies, processing of men, and the other duties routine to a unit preparing for action. Unfortunately, many of the LSTs were manned by sailors as inexperienced as the Marine tractor crews. Admiral Conolly recalled: A number of these ships were rushed from their Ohio River building yards straight to the West Coast. They had inadequate basic training, little or no time to work with their embarked troops, and, in some cases, arrived in San Diego a matter of a few days before final departure for the Marshalls.41 Although the San Clemente exercise was staged to promote close cooperation between the LSTs and LVTs, the sailors and Marines gained little confidence in one another. Some of the ships refused to recover any tractors except those they had launched; as a result several tractors ran out of gas and were lost. There also was one collision between an LST and an LVT. "All this," one participant drily observed, "was very poor for morale just before combat."42 The LSTs, loaded with amphibian tractors, sailed from San Diego on 6 January, to be followed a week later by the remainder of Admiral Conolly's attack force. At the time of its departure, the first convoy had not yet received copies of the final operations plans issued by Admirals Spruance, Turner, and Conolly. These documents did not arrive until 18 January, two days before the LSTs set sail for the Marshalls and two days prior to the arrival of the rest of Conolly's ships in Hawaiian waters. Since the two groups shaped different courses toward the objective, there was no opportunity for last-minute coordination.43 General Corlett, like General Schmidt, had carefully studied the lessons of Tarawa, so the 7th Infantry Division also was thoroughly trained for atoll warfare. The Army unit, however, had its share of problems in finding crews for its amphibian tractors. On 25 November, the division established a school to train members of the regimental antitank companies as LVT drivers and mechanics. The graduates of this course were selected to man the tractors that would carry the assault waves. The landings would be supported by the 708th Amphibian Tank Battalion which was attached to the division early in December. For FLINTLOCK the amphibian tractors were incorporated into the Army tank battalion and the resultant organization called the 708th Provisional Amphibian Tractor Battalion.44 By the time of its attachment to VAC for operational control, the 7th Infantry Division was well grounded in tank-infantry-engineer teamwork. The amphibious training of General Corlett's troops took place in December and January, with the most attention devoted to the comparatively inexperienced 184th Infantry. The division and the 22d Marines conducted their final rehearsals between 12 and 17 January. The troops landed at Maui's Maalaea Bay and made a simulated assault on Kahoolawe Island. The Majuro landing force, 2/106, made a practice landing on the shores of Oahu on 14 January. Aircraft of all services joined surface ships in a series of raids planned to batter Kwajalein Atoll, neutralize the Japanese bases that surrounded it, and gain information on the enemy's defenses. Mille, Jaluit, and Maloelap were the principal targets hit during November and December by Army and Navy planes of Admiral Hoover's command. During January, after the Gilberts fields had been completed, the heaviest tonnage fell on Kwajalein and Wotje. Land-based planes in December and January dropped 326 tons of explosives on targets in Maloelap Atoll, 313 on Kwajalein, 256 on Jaluit, 415 on Mille, and 367 on Wotje. The Japanese retaliated by loosing a total of 193 tons of bombs on Makin, Tarawa, and Apamama. In the meantime, patrol bombers from Midway were active over Wake Island. On 4 December, while Army bombers were raiding Nauru Island and Mille, carrier task groups commanded by Rear Admirals Charles A. Pownall and Alfred E. Montgomery launched 246 planes against Kwajalein and Wotje Atolls. The aviators sank 4 cargo ships, damaged 2 old light cruisers, shot down 19 enemy fighters, and destroyed many other planes on the ground. Japanese fliers, stung by this blow, caught the retiring carriers, and in a night torpedo attack damaged the USS Lexington. Except for an attack by carrier aircraft and surface ships against Nauru on 8 December, land-based planes swung the cudgel until 29 January. On that day, carriers and fast battleships returned to the Marshalls, attacking the Japanese bases in an unexpected thrust from the westward.46 Rear Admiral Samuel P. Ginder's carriers hit Maloelap, and Rear Admiral John W. Reeves sent his aircraft against Wotje, while carrier task groups commanded by Rear Admiral Frederick C. Sherman and Admiral Montgomery attacked Kwajalein and Roi-Namur Islands. Surface ships bombarded the targets in conjunction with the air raids. On 30 January, Reeves took over the preparatory attack against Kwajalein Island, while Sherman began a 3-day effort against Eniwetok Atoll.47 Ginder maintained the neutralization of Wotje, refueled, and on 3 February replaced Sherman. The task groups under Reeves and Montgomery continued to support operations at Kwajalein Atoll until 3 February. As these preparations mounted in intensity, the Northern and Southern Attack Forces drew near to their objectives. On 30 January, fire support ships of these forces paused to hammer Wotje and Maloelap before continuing onward to Roi-Namur and Kwajalein. Meanwhile, the supporting escort carriers (CVEs) joined in the preparatory aerial bombardment of the objectives. On 31 January, the 4th Marine Division and 7th Infantry Division would begin operations against island fortresses believed to be stronger than Betio. ROI-NAMUR, under bombing attack by Seventh Air Force planes, appears in an intelligence photo taken just prior to the pre-landing bombardment. (USAF B50003AC) THE DEFENSES OF KWAJALEIN ATOLL48 Just as he had startled his subordinates by proposing an immediate attack on Kwajalein, Nimitz also surprised his adversaries. "There was divided opinion as to whether you would land at Jaluit or Mille," a Japanese naval officer confessed after the war. "Some thought you would land on Wotje, but there were few who thought you would go right to the heart of the Marshalls and take Kwajalein."49 Unlike their leaders, the defenders of Kwajalein Atoll, dazed by a succession of air raids, quickly became convinced that their atoll ranked high on Nimitz' list of objectives. "I welcome the New Year at my ready station beside the gun," commented a squad leader in the 61st Guard Force. "This will be a year of decisive battles. I suppose the enemy, after taking Tarawa and Makin, will continue on to the Marshalls, but the Kwajalein defenses are very strong."50 Actually the Japanese high command had been slow to grasp the importance of the Marshalls. Prewar plans called principally for extensive mine-laying to deny the atolls to United States forces, but the effectiveness of medium bombers during the war against the Chinese had indicated that similar planes based on atolls could be a grave threat to shipping. A survey showed that the best sites for air bases were Wotje, Maloelap, Majuro, Mille, and Kwajalein. This last atoll, now the target of the American expeditionary force, was selected as administrative and communications center for the Marshalls area. During 1941, the 6th Base Force and the 24th Air Squadron of the Fourth Fleet51 were made responsible for defending the islands. The base force immediately set to work building gun emplacements and other structures at Kwajalein, Wotje, Maloelap, and Jaluit. By December 1941, the various projects were nearly complete, and the Japanese forces employed against the Gilberts and Wake Island were able to operate from the Marshalls.52 The number of troops assigned to the Marshalls grew throughout 1942, but the islands themselves began to diminish in strategic importance. Japanese planners came to regard the Marshalls, like the Gilberts, as outposts to protect the more important Carolines and Marianas. Although the Imperial Navy began, in the fall of 1943, to speed work on the defenses of the Carolines and Marianas, the Marshalls were not neglected. If attacked, the outlying atolls were to hold out long enough for naval forces and aircraft to arrive on the scene and destroy the American warships and transports. These were the same tactics that had failed in the Gilberts.53 Late in 1943, large numbers of Army troops began arriving in the Marshalls, and by the end of that year 13,721 men of the 1st South Seas Detachment, 1st Amphibious Brigade, 2d South Seas Detachment, and 3d South Seas Detachment were stationed on atolls in the group, on nearby Wake Island, and at Kusaie. Of these units, only the 1st South Seas Detachment had seen combat. lts men had been incorporated into the 122d Infantry Regiment and had fought for three months on Bataan Peninsula during the Japanese conquest of the Philippines. The enemy also sent the 24th Air Flotilla to the threatened area. This fresh unit served briefly under the 22d Air Flotilla already in the area, but at the time of the first preparatory carrier strikes, the remaining veteran pilots of the 22d were withdrawn and their mission of defending the Marshalls handed over to the newcomers.54 As the Kwajalein operation drew nearer, progressively fewer Japanese planes were able to oppose the aerial attacks. By 31 January, American pilots had won mastery of the Marshalls skies. At Roi-Namur, principal objective of the 4th Marine Division, was the headquarters of the 24th Air Flotilla, commanded by vice Admiral Michiyuki Yamada, who had charge of all aerial forces in the Marshalls. The enemy garrison was composed mainly of pilots, mechanics, and aviation support troops, 1,500-2,000 in all. Also, there were between 300 and 600 members of the 61st Guard Force, and possibly more than 1,000 laborers, naval service troops, and stragglers.55 Only the men of the naval guard force were fully trained for ground combat. In preparing the defenses of Roi-Namur, the enemy concentrated his weapons to cover probable landing areas, an arrangement in keeping with his goal of destroying the Americans in the water and on the beaches. The defenders, however, failed to take full advantage of the promontories on the lagoon shores of both Roi and Namur, sites from which deadly flanking fire might have been placed on the incoming landing craft. Both beach and antitank obstacles were comparatively few in number, although a series of antitank ditches and trenches extended across the lagoon side of Namur Island.56 Ten pillboxes mounting 7.7mm machine guns, a 37mm rapid-fire gun, a pair of 13mm machine guns, and two 20mm cannon were scattered along the beaches over which General Schmidt intended to land. Most of these positions were connected by trenches. Although two pair of twin-mounted 127mm guns were emplaced on Namur, these weapons covered the ocean approaches to the island. The enemy had no integrated defenses within the coastal perimeter, but he could fight, on Namur at least, from a myriad of concrete shelters and storage buildings. (See Map V, Map Section.) Kwajalein Island was the headquarters of Rear Admiral Monzo Akiyama's 6th Base Force,57 and its garrison was stronger in ground combat troops than that at Roi-Namur. About 1,000 soldiers, most of them from the Army 1st Amphibious Brigade, fewer than 500 men of the Navy 61st Guard Force, and a portion of a 250-man detachment from the Special Naval Landing Force were the most effective elements of the defense force. A few members of the base force headquarters and a thousand or more laborers also were available. In the southern part of the atoll, the enemy had some 5,000 men, fewer than 2,000 of them skilled combat troops. The defenses on Kwajalein Island, like those on Roi-Namur, lacked depth and were strongest along the ocean coast. The western end of Kwajalein Island, where General Corlett planned to land, was guarded by 4 twin-mounted 127mm guns (weapons emplaced to protect the northwest corner of the island), 10 pillboxes, 9 machine gun emplacements, and a few yards of trenches. The cross-island defenses noted in aerial photographs actually consisted of an antitank ditch, a trench system, and seven machine gun positions. The trenches, though, began near a trio of 80mm guns that were aimed seaward. Although he had few prepared positions in the interior of the island, there were hundreds of buildings from which the enemy might harry the attackers. Both of the principal objectives were weak in comparison to Betio Island. Few obstacles protected the assault beaches, and work on many installations was not yet finished. In spite of these deficiencies, the soldiers and Marines could expect bitter fighting. "When the last moment comes," vowed one of the atoll's defenders, "I shall die bravely and honorably."58 In happy contrast to Kwajalein Atoll was Majuro, where a Navy warrant officer and a few civilians had been left behind when the Japanese garrison was withdrawn.59 Table of Contents ** Previous Chapter (II-5) * Next Chapter (III-2) Unless otherwise noted, the material in this chapter is derived from: US PacFleet OPlan 16-43, rev, dtd 14Dec43; CenPacFor OPlan Cen 144, dtd 6Jan44; USAFPOA, Participation in the Kwajalein and Eniwetok Ops, dtd 30Nov43 (OAB, NHD ); TF 51 OPlan A6-43, dtd 3Jan44, hereafter TF 51 OPlan A6-43; VAC Rpt on FLINTLOCK, dtd 6Mar44, hereafter VAC AR FLINTLOCK; VAC AdminO 144, dtd 5Jan44; TF 52 AtO A1-44, dtd 14Jan44; TF 63 OpO A157-44, dtd 8Jan44; TF 53 Rpt of PhibOps for the Capture of Roi and Namur Islands, dtd 23Feb44, hereafter TF 53 AR Roi-Namur; 4th MarDiv OPlan 3-44 (rev), dtd 10Jan44, hereafter 4th MarDiv Oplan 3-44; 4th MarDiv Final Rpt of FLINTLOCK Op, dtd 28Mar44, hereafter 4th MarDiv AR; Crowl and Love, The Gilberts and Marshalls; LtCol Robert D. Heinl, Jr. and Lt Col John A. Crown, The Marshalls: Increasing the Tempo (Washington: HistBr, G-3, HQMC, 1954), hereafter Heinl and Crown, The Marshalls. Unless otherwise noted, all documents cited are located in the Marshalls Area OpFile and Marshalls Cmt File, HistBr, HQMC, The Central Pacific Force was, at this stage of the war, also known as the Fifth Fleet. After the Marshalls operation, the latter title was habitually used. RAdm Charles J. Moore cmts on draft MS, dtd 25Jan63, hereafter Moore comments Marshalls. VAC G-2 Study of the Theater of Ops; Marshall Islands, dtd 26Nov43, pp. 1-2. JCS 304, Ops in the Pac and Far East in 1943-1944, dtd 12May44 (OPD File, ABC Pac, WWH RecsDiv, FRC, Alexandria, Va.) CinCPac disp to CominCh, ser no. 0096, dtd 1Ju143, referred to in CinCPac disp to CominCh, ser no. 00151, dtd 20Aug43 (OPlan File, OAB, NHD). CinCPac disp to CominCh, ser no. 00151, dtd 20Aug43. JCS disp to CinCPac, dtd 1Sep43, Encl A to CinCPac disp to ComCenPac, ser no. 00190, dtd 22Sep43 (OPlan File, OAB, NHD). Originally, the Marshalls operation had been given the code name BANKRATE, but this title was abandoned early in the planning phase. CinCPac disp to ComCenPac ser no. 01900, dtd 22Sept43 (OPlan File, OAB, NHD). ComCenPac disp to Com VPhibFor and CG VAC ser no. 0053, dtd 10Oct43 (OPlan File, OAB, NHD). Col Joseph C. Anderson, USA, ltr to CMC, dtd 23Jan53, hereafter Anderson ltr. FAdm Chester W. Nimitz ltr to CMC, dtd 27Feb53; Adm Richmond K. Turner ltr to CMC, dtd 27Feb53, hereafter Turner ltr I. Turner ltr I; Adm Raymond A. Spruance ltr to CMC, dtd 12Jan53. CinCPac disp to ComCenPac, ser no. 001689, dtd 14Dec43 (OPlan File, OAB, NHD). CinCPac disp to CominCh, ser no. 0236, dtd 18Dec43 (OPlan File, OAB, NHD). Turner ltr I. CominCh memo to CinCPac, ser no. 002415, dtd 4Nov44 (OPlan File, OAB, NHD) . Adm Raymond A. Spruance ltr to ACofs, G3, HQMC, dtd 10Sep62, hereafter Spruance 62 ltr. Col Wallace M. Greene, Jr., ltr to CMC, dtd 23Nov52, hereafter Greene ltr I. CominCh, Amphibious Operations: The Marshall Islands, January-February 1944, dtd 20May44, p. 1:5, hereafter CominCh, Marshall Islands. Moore comments Marshalls. The executive officer of the 106th Infantry recalled that, during a briefing of principal commanders and staff officers at Pearl Harbor in January, Admiral Turner said, in effect: "I say to you commanders of ships--your mission is to put the troops ashore and support their attack to the limit of your capabilities. We expect to lose some ships! If your mission demands it, risk your ship!" Col Joseph J. Farley, AUS, ltr to Head, HistBr, G-3, HQMC, dtd 20Oct62. Col Louis A. Metzger ltr to Head, HistBr, G-3, HQMC, dtd 24Oct62, hereafter Metzger ltr. ONI, ND, Allied Landing Craft and Ships, Supplement No. 1 to ONI 226 (Washington, 1945), PhibVehsSec. CominCh, Marshall Islands, p. 2:7. BGen Homer L. Litzenberg ltr to CMC, dtd 31Jan63. Metzger ltr. The attack on ABRAHAM eventually was scheduled to precede the Roi-Namur landings. 4th MarDiv LdgSked, dtd 10Jan44, Anx M to 4th MarDiv OPlan 3-44. 7th InfDiv FO No. 1, dtd 6Jan44, FO Phase II, dtd 6Jan44, FO Phase III, dtd 12Jan44, FO Phase IV, dtd 12Jan44, FO Phase V, dtd 12Jan44, and FO No. 5, dtd 4Feb44. LVT Anx, dtd 8Jan44, Anx 8 to 7th InfDiv FO No. 1, dtd 6Jan44, hereafter 7th InfDiv FO 1. Additional sources for this section include: 4th MarDiv Est of Sit for Kwajalein Island, n.d.; IntelPlan, n.d., Anx 3 to 7th InfDiv FO 1. An additional source for this section is CominCh, Marshall Islands, pp. 6:1-6:4, 8:1-8:13. Metzger ltr. This method was to be used on D plus 1. The troops bound for the outlying island were scheduled to transfer at sea from LCVPs to LVTs. Additional sources for this section include: VAC Rpt of LogAspects of FLINTLOCK Op, dtd 23Mar44 hereafter VAC Rpt of LogAspects; LtCol S. L. A. Marshall, USA, "General and Miscellaneous Notes on Central Pacific: Supply." (Hist MS File, OCMH); CominCh, Marshall Islands, pp. 5:1-5:25, 6:13-6:16. VAC Rpt of LogAspects. Greene ltr I. LtCol Victor J. Croizat ltr to Drs. Jeter A. Isely and Philip A. Crowl, dtd 30Apr51, encl to Col Victor J. Croizat ltr to Head, HistBr, G-3, HQMC, dtd 13Sep62. VAdm Richard L. Conolly ltr to Dr. Jeter A. Isely, dtd 31Aug49, encl to Gen Harry Schmidt ltr to CMC, dtd 22Oct62. LtCol Louis Metzger ltr to CMC, dtd 13Nov52. Ibid.; Col William R. Wendt ltr to CMC, dtd 19Feb53; LtCol Victor J. Croizat ltr to CMC, dtd 10Nov52, hereafter Croizat ltr. Marshall notes, op. cit., pp. 41-42. Additional sources for this section include: CinCPac-CinCPOA WarDs, Nov43-Feb44 (CinCPac File, HistBr, HQMC) ; ComCenPac Rpt on FLINTLOCK Op, n.d.; CominCh, Marshall Islands, pp. 1:1-1:4; Craven and Cate, Guadalcanal to Saipan; Morison, Aleutians, Gilberts, and Marshalls. A feature of Admiral Spruance's plan was that the fast battleships and carriers would form up at Funafuti in the Ellice Islands well to the southeast of the Marshalls. Battleships arriving from the Atlantic anchored there in time to join the carriers and launch the pre-invasion attack. Japanese searches were conducted to the eastward. Moore comments Marshalls. The original CinPac plan for air support had called for the fast carriers to make a 2-day strike and then withdraw for several days before returning to cover the landings. Admiral Spruance objected to this plan and substituted his own, which insured that Japanese air was "taken out on all positions except Eniwetok on the first day," and that the airfields on Wotje, Taroa [Maloelap], and Kwajalein were "kept immobilized thereafter by naval gunfire on the runways." He sent Sherman's group to hit Eniwetok and "keep the air pipeline . . . inoperative while we captured Kwajalein." Spruance 62 ltr. Additional sources for this section include: JICPOA Bul 48-44, Japanese Defs, Kwajalein Island, dtd 10Apr44; 4th MarDiv IntelRpt on FLINTLOCK Op, n.d.; USSBS, Campaigns of the Pacific War (Washington, 1946), hereafter USSBS, Campaigns of the Pacific War. USSBS (Pac), NavAnalysis Div, Interrogations of Japanese Officials, 2 vols (Washington, 1946), Interrogation Nav No. 34, Cdr Chikataka Nakajima, IJN, dtd 21Oct45, I, p. 144, hereafter USSBS Interrogation, with relevant number and name. JICPOA Item No. 5913, Diary of Mimori. Chief, WarHistOff, DefAgency of Japan, ltr to Head, HistBr, G-3, HQMC, dtd 14Jan63. MilHistSec, Japanese RschDiv, HqAFFE, Japanese Monograph No. 173, Inner South Seas Islands Area Naval Operations, Part II: Marshall Islands Operations (Dec.44-Feb44). Hattori, Complete History, v, 3, pp. 50-51; Sako Tanemura, Confidential Diary of the Imperial General Staff Headquarters, tr by 165th MIS Co, 1952, hereafter Tanemura, Confidential Diary. USSBS Interrogation Nav No. 30, Cdr Goro Matsuura, IJN, dtd 20Oct45, I, p. 132. The 4th Marine Division counted 3,472 enemy dead on the various islands in the northern part of the atoll. Since other bodies lay sealed in bunkers, it was impossible to reconstruct the exact strength of the various components of the Roi-Namur garrison. Metzger ltr. For a brief time just prior to the American attack, Vice Admiral Mashashi Kobayashi had maintained on the island temporary headquarters for his Fourth Fleet. JICPOA Item No. 5913, op. cit. Aerial photographs of Majuro showed a fair-sized barracks area. Since the atoll seemed to be abandoned, Admiral Spruance's chief of staff suggested to Admiral Hill that these buildings not be bombarded. They were found in excellent shape and were useful to U.S. Forces. Moore comments Marshalls.

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Difficulty Level = 7 [What's this?] I built a remote-controlled robotics platform using a 4WD mobile platform, an Arduino (Seeeduino Mega), an Adafruit motor shield, and two XBee radios for communication. There are also some super-bright white LEDs on the front for headlights. The point of the project was to show how an XBee radio can be used to send joystick sensor data without using a microcontroller on the remote. The vehicle is very easy to control using a joystick and a couple of buttons to control the lights. First I’ll describe how the remote control unit works, then I’ll show how the vehicle was built. Here’s a picture of the remote control unit that I built on a breadboard. A Parallax joystick is used to control the vehicle, one button turns the headlights on/off, and another button puts the headlights in “scanner” mode, you know, like Kitt or like a cylon. The radio requires a 3.3V supply, but the analog pins cannot take more than 1.2V, so I used some precision resistors to form a voltage divider so that the analog input voltage was stepped down to less than 1.2V. Also note that the joystick is rotated 90 degrees so that it worked on a breadboard with this orientation. To make this work, one radio needs to be running the “coordinator” firmware, and the other running the “router” firmware. In this project, the coordinator is on the vehicle and the router is on the remote control, but it should not really ma I used the X-CTU tool from Digi to write the appropriate firmware to the radios and configure them. If you have not done this before, this is not a good project to start with. It is best to start with 2 radios that you already have working together using the API firmware. The XBee on the remote control unit is configured to send analog/digital sample packets every 100ms. Pins AD1 (pin 19) and AD2 (pin 18) are configured as analog inputs and are connected to the potentiometers in the joystick. Pins DIO3 (pin 17) and DIO4 (pin 11) are configured as digital inputs for the two buttons on the remote that control the lights on the vehicle. Here is a list of the configuration parameters that were set on the remote radio: - AD1/DIO1 = 2 (configured as analog input) - AD2/DIO2 = 2 (configured as analog input) - AD3/DIO3 = 3 (configured as digital input) - DIO4 = 3 (configured as digital input) - IR = 0×64 (sample rate set to 100ms) - PR = 0x1FFF (all pullup resistors enabled — this is the default) The wiring for the vehicle is fairly simple. Inside the 4WD platform are 5 AA batteries for powering the motors, and a 9V battery for the Arduino. I’m using a Seeeduino Mega because that’s what I had handy but any Arduino will work. The Adafruit motor shield is connected to the 4 DC motors inside the chassis. I used the 3.3V power supply on hte Arduino to power the XBee radio. The TX/RX lines of the radio are connected to the RX/TX pins on the Arduino. There’s a ribbon cable connecting 4 output pins to the LED headlights, and a ground wire running to the headlight assembly. Here is the bottom of the headlight assembly. These are 100 ohm resistors to keep the current draw below 20mA per LED. This code depends on the Adafruit library for using the motor shield, so download that and install it as an Arduino library. The Arduino sketch for this vehicle RobotVehicle.zip can be downloaded from here. Read the code for an explanation of how it works. The basic idea is to decode the incoming XBee API packets and map the joystick position information to the motor speeds. If the joystick is forward, all four wheels move forward. If the joystick is turned slightly to one corner, then the vehicle will move along an arc. If the joystick is hard left or right, then the wheels on the left side and right side will turn in opposite directions, causing the vehicle to rotate in place. By studying the code carefully, you should be able to understand how all of it works. Enjoy!

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Imagine A World Without AIDS Based on information published by UNAIDS in December 2007, there are over 6,800 new HIV infections every day. This translates into approximately 2.5 million new HIV infections worldwide every year. Nearly 330,000 children under age 15 will die of AIDS every year. Our goal is to help find a vaccine that prevents HIV infection or delays progression to AIDS after HIV infection. Developing a vaccine will save millions of lives worldwide. We need an HIV vaccine ASAP to stop the HIV pandemic. Together with Project ACHIEVE of the New York Blood Center, we make up the New York City HIV Vaccine Trials Unit (NYC HVTU). We are part of the HIV Vaccine Trials Network (HVTN). The HVTN is an international collaboration of over 30 research sites on four continents funded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH).

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Portuguese translation here 1. Fichte and the Destiny of the German Nation J. G. Fichte (1762–1814), the first of the great post-Kantian German Idealists, is an important figure in the rise of German nationalism – and has often been accused of being one of the founding fathers of National Socialism. Fichte came to nationalism, however, through a very unusual route. He began his career as follower of Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), but found the great philosopher’s restrictions on human knowledge to be intolerable. Famously (or, perhaps, infamously) Kant had argued that we only know things as they appear to us (phenomena), while things as they are in themselves are forever a mystery for us. Moreover, the phenomenal impressions we experience are the product of innate mental structures that “process” the data coming in from the senses, when things-in-themselves act upon us. Thus, we can say that the world as we experience it is partly a construction of our minds. Kant winds up being half idealist, half realist: there really is a world out there, but we only know how it appears to us – and that happens to be a function of how our minds are structured. It is truly ironic that Kant inaugurated a movement – German Idealism – which built upon his philosophy, while really seeking to overturn every philosophical victory he thought he had won. Kant believed that he had conclusively shown that our knowledge is limited to appearances; that we can never know things as they really are. He believed he had limited knowledge so as to make room for faith, and had thereby saved morality and religion (a story too involved to tell here). Fichte and the German philosophers who came after Kant and were influenced by him demanded Absolute Knowledge: knowledge of the Absolute, of reality as it truly is. This had been the aim of philosophy since Thales, and they were not about to exchange it for Kant’s scaled-back, sceptical, Pietistic humanism. And so Fichte was determined to get rid of the concept of things-in-themselves. But to eliminate the idea that there is a pen-in-itself that corresponds to the phenomenon I’m now experiencing – the appearance of a pen in front of me – means that there is only the phenomenon: that the pen is, in sense, wholly and entirely in my mind. This is indeed the route that Fichte takes. Suppose the pen exists only in my mind. Why do I experience it as real and objective? If my mind created it, I certainly have no recollection of this. Fichte argues, in fact, that the world I experience is not my creation. Instead, it issues from a deeper level that he calls the Absolute Ego. Essentially, this Absolute Ego – which is not at all to be identified with my personal self – projects a world out before me which I then experience. This way of putting things greatly simplifies – really, oversimplifies – what Fichte says. But in fact there is no general agreement as to how we should interpret Fichte’s philosophy, which he put forth in several different versions. But if Fichte is right, what’s the point? Why should Absolute Ego project a world before me? Surprisingly, Fichte’s answer to this is a moral one. The world exists before me in order for me to act upon and to perfect it; to change what is into what ought to be. The vocation of man is a moral one: we are the beings who transform nature and bring it into accord with our ideals. The world exists so that we can express those ideals and bring a moral order into being. And where, we might ask, is God in all this? Fichte actually lost his professorship in Jena in 1799 after he was accused of atheism, a charge he vehemently denied. To be sure, he does not believe in a personal God. One might expect him to identify God with the Absolute Ego, but he does not. Instead he conceives God simply as the moral world order, which humanity continually strives to realize here on earth, in the flesh. In effect, Fichte is arguing that it is humanity that incarnates God. The end or goal of the universe itself is achieved through the activity of humanity’s perfecting it and thereby bringing God into being. For Fichte, however, this is a never-ending process. He conceives the Ego not as a static entity but as a pure act, ceaselessly putting forth the world. And our empirical ego – the self that we are consciously aware of – is a kind of pure striving as well, ceaselessly striving to overcome otherness by stamping the ideal upon it. In words that call to mind Goethe’s Faust, one commentator writes that “inasmuch as the ego is infinite striving, it is unable to rest in any particular satisfaction or group of satisfactions. And we see it as reaching out towards an ideal goal through its free activity. Yet this goal always recedes.” So just what were the ideals Fichte wanted to stamp upon the other? Like other philosophers of the time (including Kant) he was enamored of the Enlightenment ideals of the French Revolution. Fichte believes in equality and the rights of man, universal brotherhood, and perpetual peace. This makes him sound very much like today’s leftists. And in his own time he certainly would have been seen as a radical. However he couples these ideals with others that would horrify today’s liberals: total knowledge and mastery of nature, and the dissemination of a single “Enlightened” culture to all peoples. Fichte’s philosophy took a new and unexpected turn, however, when Napoleon invaded Prussia in 1806. To put matters as succinctly as possible, Fichte realized for the first time that he was a German. Briefer still, Fichte became a nationalist. The result was his Addresses to the German Nation (Reden an die deutsche Nation), delivered in the winter of 1807–1808. Fichte did not abandon his Revolutionary ideals. Instead, he simply shifted his hopes for who might lead the way in enlightening mankind from the French to the Germans. The Germans were the true heirs of the Greeks, Fichte argued, leading Europe in science and philosophy. And they possessed that temperament that Spengler called Faustian: solemn interiority, matched by a yen to touch the Infinite. Fichte’s Addresses include lengthy discussions of the German national character. His sources included Tacitus’s Germania. In essence, Fichte now declared that the ceaselessly-striving moral ego that seeks to turn is into ought is preeminently a possession of the German people. Founding the moral world order here on earth and actualizing God now became, for Fichte, the mission of the German people. They would lead the way; they would teach the other nations the way to the Light. Fichte writes that The German spirit . . . will open up new shafts and bring the light of day into their abysses, and hurl up rocky masses of thoughts, out of which ages to come will build their dwellings. [The] German spirit is an eagle, whose mighty body thrusts itself on high and soars on strong and well-practiced wings into the empyrean, that it might rise nearer to the sun whereon it delights to gaze. Thus, the completion of God and perfection of the cosmos now becomes the mission, preeminently, of a single nation. (With Hegel, as we shall see, similar ideas are linked with race, with “the Germanic people” expanded to denote the European people as a whole.) 2. Romanticism and Pan-Germanism The rise of what is often called “pan-Germanism” was not only due to the (correct) perception that Germany was now leading Europe in the sciences, arts, and in philosophy. It was also attributable to a yearning for a true national unity that would not, in fact, become a reality until 1871. The Romantic movement played a crucial role in the rise of nationalism and the sense of a “national mission.” Novalis wrote in 1799: “In its slow but sure way Germany advances before the other European countries. While the other countries are preoccupied with war, speculation, and partisanship, the German diligently educates himself to be the witness of a higher epoch of culture; and such progress must give him a great superiority over other countries in the course of time.” Toward the end of his life Friedrich Schiller wrote: “Sundered from politics, the German has founded . . . an ethical greatness . . . independent of any political destiny. . . . Each people has its day in history, but the day of the German is the harvest of time as a whole.” Indeed, Romanticism was itself a quintessentially German movement and so it was no surprise that figures like the brothers Schlegel and Grimm, and Tieck, Novalis, and Herder should have concerned themselves so closely with German history, myth and folklore, and what they revealed about the national character. One author writes of the movement: Romanticism is Germanic and reached its purest expression in those territories which are freest from Roman colonization. Everything that is regarded as an essential aspect of the Romantic spirit, irrationalism, the mystic welding together of subject and object, the tendency to intermingle the arts, the longing for the far-away and the strange, the feeling for the infinite and the continuity of historical development – all these are characteristic of German Romanticism and so much that their union remains unintelligible to the Latins. What is known as Romanticism in France has only its name in common with German Romanticism. Most of the Romantics were, in one way or another, critics of Enlightenment. In this, Herder was one of the true pioneers, expressing völkisch, anti-Enlightenment views that paved the way for the movement known today as Radical Traditionalism. One recent author summarizes Herder’s critique of the Enlightenment in the following striking terms: Not only have [the Aufklärer] failed to educate the public: they have also suppressed the few seeds of culture that lie within them. They have criticized folk poetry, myth, and music as so much superstition and vulgarity, and they have elevated the artificial dramas of the French court into absolute norms. Even worse, by preaching their new gospel of the cosmopolitan individual, they have made people ashamed of their national identity. People no longer feel that they belong anywhere, because they are told they should belong everywhere. The result: the people are alienated from the living sources of their own culture, their national traditions, language, and history. Now, thanks to the Age of Enlightenment, people will become perfectly alike, the pale ethereal embodiments of a single universal nature. The Aufklärer preach tolerance only because they believe everyone shares in this abstract humanity. Never do they value cultural differences for their own sake. Such views no doubt scandalized Fichte, who associated himself with the Romantic circle while in Jena but had little sympathy for their ideas. Hegel had his own critique of the Enlightenment, but spurned Romanticism as well. In general, there were two strains of nationalistic German thought: the Romantic, characterized by irrationalism and völkischness, and the philosophical, characterized by rationalism (of a sort), and a kind of universalism — but with Germany leading the charge. These two strains cross-pollinated each other and to a limited extent the distinction between them is overcome in Hegel. National Socialism in the twentieth century can be seen as an attempt to meld the two. 3. Hegel and the Germanic Completion of History G. W. F. Hegel (1770–1831) was heavily influenced by his younger schoolmate F. W. J. Schelling (1775–1854). Indeed, in many ways Hegel’s philosophy can be seen simply as a systematic re-working of Schelling’s (though there are some substantive differences between the two). Schelling began as a follower of Fichte but rebelled against the master’s treatment of nature simply as raw material for human moral overcoming. He sought in nature some intrinsic value, and found it by essentially re-discovering and re-invigorating the Aristotelian “scale of nature” (or “great chain of being”). He saw all of nature as approximating to humanity, or to the consciousness of humanity, which is characterized uniquely by the capacity for self-consciousness. But this self-consciousness consists, in part, in coming to see how we ourselves are reflected in nature (or how nature anticipates us). Schelling had spoken of an “Absolute” beyond the distinction between subject and object. Hegel conceives instead of an Absolute which he refers to as the whole – and which he identifies with God. Hegel essentially takes over Schelling’s understanding of nature, which he argues is one aspect or moment of the whole. Hegel points out that since we ourselves are creatures of nature, when we achieve self-consciousness in knowing nature this really amounts to nature achieving consciousness of itself. Hegel regards nature as the concrete embodiment of God (or the whole), without which he is merely an inchoate idea. And the goal or telos of this embodiment is its achievement of self-relation. When human beings spring from nature and turn back and reflect upon it, this then constitutes the completion or consummation of God. Our cosmic role is to “complete” God or the whole. Hegel believes that human self-consciousness has developed through history – i.e., the completion of God or the whole takes time. Further, Hegel holds that certain races or peoples have developed farther than others, and the one that has developed the greatest capacity for self-consciousness (and all that this implies: science, philosophy, art, religion) is what he calls “the Germanic peoples.” He gives every indication that he believes that this is due to innate differences between human groups. Speaking of the course of history in The Philosophy of Right (1820), Hegel declares: The spirit now grasps the infinite positivity of its own inwardness, the principle of the unity of divine and human nature and the reconciliation of the objective truth and freedom which have appeared within self-consciousness and subjectivity. The task of accomplishing this reconciliation is assigned to the Nordic principle of the Germanic peoples. The editor of a recent edition of The Philosophy of Right informs us, correctly, that Hegel’s use of “Germanic” (germanisch) is very broad in its reference: it includes “Germany proper” (das eigentliche Deutschland) – which Hegel understands to include the Franks, the Normans, and the peoples of England and Scandinavia. . . . But it also encompasses the “Romanic” peoples of France, Italy, Spain, and Portugal (in which he includes not only the Lombards and the Burgundians, but also the Visigoths and Ostrogoths). . . . The Germanic world even includes the Magyars and the Slavs of Eastern Europe. . . . But the prominence he gives to Tacitus’ image of the Teutonic character and to the Lutheran Reformation indicates that Hegel gives a prominent role in the development of the modern spirit to German culture in a narrower sense. In short, by “Germanic peoples” Hegel essentially means “Europeans – especially the Germans.” Further, his conception of “Europeanness” is not merely cultural or linguistic; it is explicitly racial. Hegel endorses the Enlightenment idea of according equal rights and equal treatment to the members of the different races, but insists on natural differences between them: “The difference between the races of mankind is still a natural difference, that is, a difference which, in the first instance, concerns the natural soul.” The “natural soul” according to Hegel is the level of human identity that is largely fixed by heredity and environmental factors. In the same text, he writes that “national differences are just as fixed as the racial diversity of mankind; that the Arabs, for example, still everywhere exhibit the same characteristics as are related of them in the remotest times.” In his Philosophy of Spirit, Hegel includes an extensive discussion of the character of the different races, including physical features such as the shape of the skull. Of the Negroid race he writes: “Negroes are to be regarded as a race of children who remain immersed in their state of uninterested naïveté. They are sold, and let themselves be sold, without any reflection on the rights or wrongs of the matter.” Elsewhere he is less kind. In The Philosophy of History Hegel writes that “Among the Negroes moral sentiments are quite weak, or more strictly speaking, non-existent.” Academic Hegel scholars will often halfheartedly defend him by claiming that his position is that eventually all other peoples will ascend to the same heights as the Germans. But there is really nothing in Hegel’s writings or lectures that clearly suggests he took this position. Indeed, quite the opposite. He writes of the Negroid race that “their mentality is quite dormant, remaining sunk within itself and making no progress, and thus corresponding to the compact, undifferentiated mass of the African continent.” And elsewhere he asserts that their condition “is capable of no development or culture, and as we see them at this day, such have they always been.” What Hegel has to say about the Chinese — one of several Asian groups he discusses — echoes the writings of the sixteenth-century Jesuit missionary Father Ricci (who may indeed have been one of his sources). Hegel writes that “The Chinese are far behind in mathematics, physics, and astronomy, notwithstanding their quondam reputation in regard to them. They knew many things at a time when Europeans had not discovered them, but they have not understood how to apply their knowledge: as e.g. the magnet, and the art of printing.” Again echoing Ricci he states that the Chinese are “too proud to learn anything from Europeans, although they must often recognize their [the Europeans’] superiority. A merchant in Canton had a European ship built, but at the command of the governor it was immediately destroyed.” However, he rates the intellect of the Mongoloid races far above that of the Negroid. Of the Jews, Hegel writes It is true that subjective feeling is manifest [among them] – the pure heart, repentance, devotion; but the particular concrete individuality has not become objective to itself in the Absolute. It therefore remains closely bound to the observance of ceremonies and of the Law, the basis for which is pure freedom in its abstract form. The Jews possess that which makes them what they are through the One: consequently the individual has no freedom for itself. . . . On the whole the Jewish history exhibits grand features of character; but it is disfigured by an exclusive bearing (sanctioned in its religion), towards the genius of other nations (the destruction of the inhabitants of Canaan even being commanded) – by want of culture generally, and by the superstition arising from the idea of the high value of their peculiar nationality. It is not clear from Hegel’s writings how (or whether) he categorized the Jews racially. It should be noted that, notwithstanding the above critical remarks, Hegel hardly qualifies as an anti-Semite: he was a supporter of Jewish emancipation (see Philosophy of Right § 270, Hegel’s addition). Some of Hegel’s comments on the different races or ethnicities seem to be exclusively cultural criticism. It is quite clear, however, that he saw cultural differences as flowing, in part, from a basis in natural differences. Somewhat problematically, Hegel divides the Caucasian race into the “Western Asiatics” and “the Europeans,” remarking that “this distinction now coincides with that of the Mohammedans and the Christians.” Hegel’s remarkable description of the European soul is well-worth quoting at length: The principle of the European mind is . . . self-conscious Reason, which is confident that for it there can be no insuperable barrier and which therefore takes an interest in everything in order to become present to itself therein. The European mind opposes the world to itself, makes itself free of it, but in turn annuls this opposition, takes its other, the manifold, back into itself, into its unitary nature. In Europe, therefore, there prevails this infinite thirst for knowledge which is alien to other races. The European is interested in the world, he wants to know it, to make this other confronting him his own, to bring to view the genus, law, universal, thought, the inner rationality, in the particular forms of the world. As in the theoretical, so too in the practical sphere, the European mind strives to make manifest the unity between itself and the outer world. It subdues the outer world to its ends with an energy which has ensured for it the mastery of the world. Hegel tells us here that the European mind takes an interest “in everything,” so as to “become present to itself therein.” In other words, the European mind strives to know the whole – and in doing so knows itself. The European mind “makes itself free” of the world (or nature) – meaning that it rises above the level of the animal and sees nature as other. But it finds itself in this other and “annuls this opposition.” In short, the European mind achieves consciousness of itself in its study of nature, of the whole. But through that study, it is the whole (God) that simultaneously achieves knowledge of itself and completes itself. For Hegel it is not “mankind” that does this, but European man specifically – all other peoples can only approximate to what European man accomplishes. Much has been written arguing that Fichte, Hegel, and the Romantics (to say nothing of Nietzsche, who was actually not a nationalist) paved the way for National Socialist ideas. This is, of course, obviously true – and I have only told a very small part of the story here. (Readers interested in this topic should peruse Fichte’s The Closed Commercial State, and Hegel’s Philosophy of Right.) The efforts of embarrassed scholars to obscure this fact have been, for the most part, transparently disingenuous and unconvincing. The idea that the German nation has a special destiny to fulfill remained a fixture in German intellectual circles up until the fall of Hitler (though it was not always conjoined, as it is in Hegel, with racialism). For example, in Heidegger (who, of course, was a member of the NSDAP), we find the idea that the Germans are “the metaphysical people.” I will close with these words of Heidegger, written in 1936: We [the Germans] are sure of this vocation; but this people will gain a fate from its vocation only when it creates in itself a resonance, a possibility of resonance for this vocation, and grasps its tradition creatively. All this implies that this people, as a historical people, must transpose itself – and with it the history of the West – from the center of their future happening into the originary realm of the powers of Being. Precisely if the great decision regarding Europe is not to go down the path of annihilation –precisely then can this decision come about only through the development of new, historically spiritual forces from the center. See Frederick Copleston, A History of Philosophy, Vol. VII: Fichte to Nietzsche (New York: Image Books, 1985), p. 55. J. G. Fichte, Addresses to the German Nation, ed. George Armstrong Kelly, trans. R. F. Jones and G. H. Turnbull (New York: Harper and Row, 1968), pp. 73–74. It is often asserted by defenders of Fichte that his concept of the German nation is “linguistic” and “cultural” rather than “ethnic” or “racial.” In other words, the claim is that he is not in some way saying that the Germans are naturally or biologically superior. It is hard to know what to make of this. Certainly there is little in the Addresses that seems to take a position like that of the “biological nationalism” of the National Socialists. However, I am inclined to agree with critics of Fichte who hold that his nationalism, whether he was aware of it or not, was de facto ethnic. Arash Abizadeh writes, for instance, that Fichte’s “linguistic–cultural nationalism ultimately collapses into ethnic nationalism.” (See Arash Abizadeh, “Was Fichte an Ethnic Nationalist? On Cultural Nationalism and its Double” in History of Political Thought. Vol. XXVI. No. 2. Summer 2005: pp. 334–359.) Whatever Fichte may have thought, the very idea that cultural and linguistic identity is completely separable from biology is highly problematic. (Though this is typically not the claim of Fichte’s critics!) See The Early Political Writings of the German Romantics, trans. Frederick C. Beiser (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 73. Quoted in editor’s introduction to Fichte, Addresses to the German Nation, xxii. Gustav Pauli, quoted in Peter Viereck, Meta-Politics From the Romantics to Hitler (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1941), p.19. See Frederick C. Beiser, Enlightenment, Revolution, and Romanticism: The Genesis of Modern German Political Thought 1790–1800 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1992), p. 204. Hegel writes, famously, that “The true is the whole.” See Hegel, The Phenomenology of Spirit, trans. A. V. Miller (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977), p. 11. Actually this idea too is present in Schelling, though how Hegel fleshes it out is original. G. W. F. Hegel, Elements of the Philosophy of Right, ed. Allen W. Wood, trans. H. B. Nisbet (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), p. 379 (§ 358). Italics in original. Ibid., pp. 479–80. Hegel’s Philosophy of Mind, trans. William Wallace and A.V. Miller (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971), p. 41. Ibid., p. 46. Ibid., p. 42. G. W. F. Hegel, The Philosophy of History, trans. J. Sibree (Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, 1956), p. 96. Hegel’s Philosophy of Mind, p. 43. Philosophy of History, p. 98. Ibid., 136–38. Hegel discusses other races or ethnicities as well. Referring to “the original inhabitants of America,” Hegel writes that “When brought into contact with brandy and guns, these savages become extinct” (Hegel’s Philosophy of Mind, p. 45). He remarks that “Deceit and cunning are the fundamental characteristics of the Hindoo. . . . The Brahmins are especially immoral. According to English reports, they do nothing but eat and sleep. In what is not forbidden them by the rules of their order they follow natural impulses entirely” (Philosophy of History, p. 158). Philosophy of History, p. 197. Hegel’s Philosophy of Mind, p. 44. Ibid., p. 45. Martin Heidegger, Introduction to Metaphysics, trans. Gregory Fried and Richard Polt (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000), p. 41.

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Terminal hairs are thick, long, and dark, as compared with vellus hair. During puberty, the increase in androgenic hormone levels causes vellus hair to be replaced with terminal hair in certain parts of the human body. These parts will have different levels of sensitivity to androgens, primarily of the testosterone family. The pubic area is particularly sensitive to such hormones, as are the armpits which will develop axillary hair. Pubic and axillary hair will develop on both men and women, to the extent that such hair qualifies as a secondary sex characteristic, although males will develop terminal hair in more areas. This includes facial hair, chest hair, abdominal hair, leg and arm hair, and foot hair. Human females on the other hand can be expected to retain more of the vellus hair. - Marks, James G; Miller, Jeffery (2006). Lookingbill and Marks' Principles of Dermatology (4th ed.), Elsevier Inc., p. 11. ISBN 1-4160-3185-5 - Hiort, O. "Androgens and Puberty". Best Practice & Research Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 31–41. - Neal, Matthew; Lauren M. Sompayrac. How the Endocrine System Works. Blackwell Publishing, 2001, p. 75. - Randall, Valerie A.; Nigel A. Hibberts, M. Julie Thornton, Kazuto Hamada, Alison E. Merrick, Shoji Kato, Tracey J. Jenner, Isobel De Oliveira, Andrew G. Messenger. "The Hair Follicle: A Paradoxical Androgen Target Organ", Hormone Research, Vol. 54, No. 5–6, 2000. - Heffner, Linda J. Human Reproduction at a Glance. Blackwell Publishing, 2001, p. 33. - Robertson, James. Forensic Examination of Hair, CRC Press, 1999, p. 47. - Neal, Matthew; Lauren M. Sompayrac. How the Endocrine System Works. Blackwell Publishing, 2001, pp. 70, 75.

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By Dan Klepal Enquirer staff writer The National Audubon Society has put in writing what Ned Keller has been seeing for years: The population of birds in North America is in serious decline. In its first national "The State of the Birds" study, released last week, researchers say 30 percent of the country's bird populations are in significant decline because of man. Keller, a member of the Cincinnati Bird Club since the early 1980s, said there was precious little to document the decline that he and other bird watchers were witnessing before the report. "It's both alarming and not surprising," Keller said. "A general perception of birders is we don't see as many as we used to. That's something that has been going on for decades - the people a generation before me were saying the same thing." In its first comprehensive study of the nation's entire bird population, the National Audubon Society concludes there are fewer birds because there are fewer places for them to live. A loss of grassland and wetlands, poor forest management, pollution and sprawl contribute to the problem, it says. Greg Butcher, author of the report and director of conservation at the Audubon Society, said people should care about birds for at least two reasons: Birding and related activities generate huge sums of money for the local, state and federal governments, and bird health says a lot about the overall health of our environment. Nearly 3 million people watch birds and other wildlife in Ohio every year, with 898,000 of them coming from out-of-state. In 2001, more than $623 million was spent in Ohio on birding and related activities, according to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. But the second reason to care about birds is more important, Butcher said. "They need the same things we do - clean air, clean water and a good place to live," Butcher said. The report, which used national Breeding Bird Survey data compiled from 1966 through 2003, says many of the 654 species studied aren't getting those things. Hardest hit are grassland species of birds, such as the upland sandpiper, which lives throughout Southwestern Ohio. The report says 70 percent of all grassland species are in significant decline. But all species are having trouble - 36 percent of all shrubland birds; 25 percent of all forest birds; 13 percent of wetland birds; and 23 percent of urban birds have taken statistically significant population nosedives in the past 37 years. Ohio's most important bird areas are along Lake Erie, but the Ohio River corridor is also vital habitat. "Ohio is a stopover area for a major portion of the Mississippi flyway (migration route)," said John Ritzenthaler, director of habitat conservation for Audubon Ohio. "We have grassland and wetland species that are under assault by basic human activities. So we have to make good open-space decisions, and we have to promote the idea that environmental choices are as valuable as economic choices. In the end, they are economic choices." Birds contribute to the economy in subtle ways, such as providing free weed and pest control, distributing seeds and pollinating flowers and crops. The report makes a case for strengthening environmental protections in the law and stepping up enforcement. Partnerships with farmers and other private land owners, along with back-yard habitat programs are also suggested. "Like a canary in the coal mine, birds are an indicator of environmental and human health," National Audubon president John Flicker said, pointing out that huge population losses of bald eagles and brown pelicans warned us about the toxicity of DDT, and led to its ban in the early 1970s. "We simply cannot afford to ignore the state of the birds." Blackwell revels in the hot seat Edwards preaches to faithful Levy vote puts in question Drake's long-term prognosis Lawmakers get in position for leadership Dems out to clinch the Jewish vote Record high of 9 women hold governor's offices Senate campaign heats up Jefferson Co. Republicans won't use poll challengers Butler County tax levies face a host of unknowns N.Ky. a stronghold for Bush, poll says Bush, Kerry hammer home themes Ohio Supreme Court opponents disagree on revealing views Math professor challenging county treasurer Franklin voters consider merger Election 2004 section TOP LOCAL HEADLINES Gun victim has Mount Adams apprehensive Study confirms drop in number of birds Low-income kids told to wait for flu shot Pope to bless exhibit directors during audience Volunteers gather missed crops to feed hungry Local news briefs Quality counts for levy leader Northwest levy would target pay Hip-hop back at XU for first time since '99 Middletown woman fills days with service Friends, strangers gather to give hope to Madeira family Volunteers resume search for missing man Volunteers encouraged to pack care packages GOOD THINGS HAPPENING Award honors volunteers' efforts Stanley Osgood Jr., youth sports booster

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Lesson Plan: The Greatest Canadian Ask students whether they know about the CBC television programs that had viewers vote for the greatest Canadian and the greatest Canadian invention. According to these programs, Canadians ranked insulin as the number one Canadian invention, while Banting was ranked as the fourth greatest Canadian. You can find additional information online. As a class, develop a list of qualities and characteristics that a "great" person would possess. Students may find it helpful to refer to this list as they prepare their essay. Outline the Opportunity Have students view the clips titled "Banting and Best develop the 'miracle cure'", "Egos and ownership", "A life cut short: Sir Frederick Banting", and "Remembering Dr. Charles Best" on the topic Chasing a Cure for Diabetes on the CBC Digital Archives website. As they view these clips, they should note the information presented about the life of Banting as well as his connection to the discovery of insulin. Students might also want to view the clips titled "The Biography of Frederick Banting" and "Scientist, national hero, father - Using the information they have gathered, students will write a persuasive essay supporting or refuting Frederick Banting as the greatest Canadian. Before they write, students may wish to discuss and develop their ideas in small groups. Encourage students to read one another's essays and offer constructive criticism. You can assess student work using the Position Paper rubric in the Assessment Suite in the For Teachers section of the CBC Digital Archives website. Provide the rubric to students to help guide them as they write. Revisit and Reflect Have students read their essays to the class such that both points of view are represented. Ask: What characteristics constitute a great Canadian? Does a person have to be famous to be considered great? Students can research other notable scientific discoveries from the "history of science" perspective (e.g., Watson and Crick's discovery of the structure of DNA, Gregor Mendel's laws of genetics, Galileo's view of the universe).

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OUTDOOR FUN (How to maim your friends) (Apr, 1944) What, no lawn darts? THIS half-bow device is something different in the line of archery equipment. Its name is derived from the fact that its arrow is propelled by a whipping motion of the arm and bow. Arrows are made from dowels and may vary in length from 12″ to 18″. Bow string is twisted and waxed shoemaker’s thread or strong twine. Wrap cord on handle. HERE is a play version of the weapon used by the South American Gauchos. Two types of targets may be used for this rubber-ball Bolas; either bowling pins or six small, colored sticks placed in the ground 3″ apart. The object of the game is to see how many pins or sticks can be knocked down. To throw the Bolas, grasp it by the knot and whirl it rapidly over your head, releasing it toward the target. Your first throws may be wild but practice will make perfect.

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How We Present Philippines: Texting help and health in disaster response IRIN News Translate This Article 18 July 2012 MANILA (IRIN) - The Philippines looks set to expand its rapid monitoring system, based on mobile phone text messaging, to lessen the number of deaths and improve emergency response times. With over 7,000 islands and more than 100 million people, the archipelago experiences an average of 20 typhoons a year, with stronger storms in recent years. Surveillance in Post Extreme Emergencies and Disaster (SPEED), a project supported by the World Health Organization (WHO), uses SMS / text messages on mobile phones or the internet to alert emergency health officials to dangerous situations and send them health information, and receive data on health conditions in communities and reports of disaster damage. The system was set up in 2009 on a trial basis after the Philippines, one of the world's most disaster-prone countries, was battered by back- to-back typhoons. Ketsana dumped enough rain to flood more than 80 percent of the capital, Manila, when major rivers and waterways burst their banks, swallowing entire urban communities in the worst flooding in recent history. Exactly a week later, Parma ravaged the northern Philippines, triggering landslides and floods. More than 1,000 people were killed, 600,000 were displaced, and up to 10 million were affected by the storms, which caused an estimated US$43 billion in economic damage, according to the World Bank. As emergency workers struggled to help people in desperate conditions, an outbreak of deadly waterborne diseases, including Leptospirosis began ravaging survivors, infecting more than 3,380 people and killing 20. 'It was a wakeup call for us. It caught many health workers off-guard, because they too were victims of the flood,' said Carmencita Banatin, head of the Emergency Management section of the Health Department. 'So we decided to do something and improve monitoring in post-disaster [circumstances] and asked the WHO to help us put in place a surveillance system through text messaging.' WHO sent its Global Outbreak and Alert Response Network to Manila, which worked with local officials to establish the initial phase of SPEED, covering flood-affected areas. 'We realized that in the aftermath [of a disaster]... health managers needed to make quick decisions based on verifiable data on the ground to prevent more death from disease outbreaks,' Banatin said. SPEED can be activated within 24 hours of any disaster, including displacement caused by conflict, and works by tapping into the vast mobile phone network in the Philippines—official statistics say almost everyone has a handset. Where mobile phone systems are down, field reporters can use radios to send in statistics for their area, she said. Health and emergency 'reporters', usually disaster response or health officers at the barangay (the smallest administrative area) or municipal level, fan out to community health facilities, hospitals and evacuation centres to check on reported cases of the most common post-disaster diseases. This data and other information is then sent via mobile phone—using codes and formats specially designed for the system—to the central SPEED server based in Manila, where it is collated and analyzed before making the information accessible to emergency officials at all levels of government. The system also sends immediate 'notification alerts' to the mobile phones of designated recipients when the number and distribution of specified health conditions go over a specified threshold, 'signifying the potential development of a possible outbreak or epidemic, thereby allowing officials to respond quickly,' Banatin noted. WHO country representative in the Philippines, Soe Nyunt-U, said access to the SPEED website would be restricted to emergency officials who could make vital decisions, including mayors, governors, members of the executive department and emergency relief agencies. They would be able to pull up tables, graphs and maps to help them analyze trends and deploy help where it was most needed. 'The principle is to prevent more deaths and diseases. Disasters do happen, and deaths and injuries at the time of the incident, but through this system we would be able to prevent outbreaks that could lead to more fatalities,' Soe Nyunt-U told IRIN. He said the nationwide SMS-based surveillance system was unique to the Philippines, but other countries in the region were beginning to study the module. Localized surveillance systems had been put in place after major disasters, such as the 2004 tsunami that struck Aceh in Indonesia, but they were abandoned when the situation normalized. 'This is a very good example of harnessing technology for a noble cause,' said Soe Nyunt-U. 'With this tool, we can prevent outbreaks, prioritize movements, and health and emergency officials can pinpoint where to deploy help with immediacy.' Copyright © IRIN 2012 The material contained on www.IRINnews.org comes to you via IRIN, a UN humanitarian news and information service, but may not necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations or its agencies. Every day Global Good News documents the rise of a better quality of life dawning in the world from good news reported by the press; and highlights the need for introducing Natural Law based-Total Knowledge based-programmes to bring the support of Nature to every individual, raise the quality of life of every society, and create a lasting state of world peace. Translation software is not perfect; however if you would like to try it, you can translate this page using: Send Good News to Global Good News.

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Ask Google of what the best and healthiest foods are and you’ll get millions of different results. Much has been written and said about healthy eating that many people become a bit confused on which advice to follow. But a new report has looked into the scientific research about healthy eating and found some surprising answers. Consumers are advised by the government and health organisations to get their 5 portions of fruits a day to reduce the risk of stroke, cancer, heart problems, and obesity. Is this really true? To find out, researchers from the BMJ Group reviewed several studies and compared how certain diets affect people’s health. Here are their observations: Fruits and Vegetables and Heart Disease The researchers found that eating more fruits and vegetables reduces the risk of heart disease, but only by a small amount. In one study for example, it was revealed that those who ate five portions of fruits and vegetables on a daily basis reduced their chance of developing heart problems by about 6 in 1,000, as compared to those who ate three portions or fewer. Low-fat Diet and Cholesterol They also found that low-fat diet works to lower down one’s level of cholesterol but then again, by only a small amount. The researchers didn’t have a concrete knowledge on whether low-fat diet has the same effect for healthy people. Healthy Lifestyle and Cancer The best way to avoid cancer is to take lots of exercises, stay away from too much alcohol and from eating red meat. According to the BMJ group, there’s no magic or super food that can actually prevent cancer. In a large study in UK, it was shown that 1 in 3 cancers can be prevented if people follow a healthy diet, maintain regular health, and exercise regularly. Mediterranean Diet is among the Healthiest An expert once defined the Mediterranean diet as a lifestyle where good taste meets good health. It covers a wide range of healthy food choices such as fresh vegetables, fruits, nuts, legumes, a bit of poultry and fish, whole grains, and more. After analysing several studies, the BMJ group observed that people who follow this diet are less likely to suffer from heart attacks and cancer. The analysis was based on a number of studies but majority of said research where observational in nature. So even if they all establish a link between healthy eating and good health, there’s no cause-and-effect relationship that was proved. Meanwhile, the BMJ group suggests that when there are conflicting advices and ideas about healthy eating, it’s better to safely ignore the diet fads and stick to the natural, healthy food choices. Source of this article: Healthy eating – what does the evidence say? by BMJ Group

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Research in the area of Space Object Surveillance Technology (SOST) relates to measurements of objects orbiting the earth by either space-based or ground-based sensors. Understanding the intended function and current state of a “resident space object” (i.e. either a satellite or space junk orbiting the earth) is important – precise knowledge of the orbit will alter satellite operators of impending collisions. However, observations can be difficult due to observational considerations, including the size of the object, whether or not it is spinning, and the atmospheric and geometric conditions under which the object is observed. In addition to radar and optical observations, infrared measurements allow for the calculation of the object temperature and may provide clues to the composition and operational status of an object. Object obscuration due to environmental phenomena is a key challenge for robust target detection, tracking and characterization. While the spatial and temporal variability due to stressing environmental phenomena occurring within the atmosphere and ionosphere will have different effects on radio-frequency (RF), electro-optical (EO), and infrared (IR) sensors, maintaining a diverse collection of sensing systems can be costly and does not necessarily mitigate all impacts. Further, impacts are not strictly limited to sensors as environmental phenomena can also adversely impact communication links and GPS signals. Minimizing environmental impacts can be accomplished by using environmental forecast data within the algorithms used for sensor tasking, by weighting the environmental impact on each node’s performance and optimizing the overall capabilities of the network, or by accounting for these phenomena in the data exploitation algorithms. Stressing environmental conditions occur in different spatial regions and with different temporal scales, but can be modeled individually and forecast minutes, hours or days in advance. We have developed a prototype decision-aid toolkit which is capable of leveraging real-time attributes of the near-Earth terrestrial and space environment to manage tasking of a diverse sensor network. The toolkit utilizes a knowledge-base of satellite measurements and other data sources that quantify the intensity, duration, location, and extent of environmental phenomena. The set of supported phenomena include but not limited to auroral dosing, stratospheric warming, polar mesospheric cloud formations, tropospheric clouds, radar and optical scintillation and high-altitude ozone variability. The toolkit has been designed with generic interfaces that can accommodate the addition of new environmental modules, such as for ionospheric disturbances, and can interface easily with a variety of sensor networks. The toolkit makes use of supportive routines such as surface databases and employs across-the-spectrum radiative transfer capabilities; flexible, realistic climatological models are used for circumstances when real-time inputs are not available. Satellite Classes and Atmospheric Type Environmental Conditions That Affect Sensor Performance Environmental Impacts That Degrade Sensor Performance To learn more about AER's Space Object Surveillance Technology expertise, please contact us.

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The territory of the Murlo borough practically reproduces what was in the past centuries the "Bishop's land of Murlo". It consists of two main centres, "Vescovado" and "Casciano" and numerous smaller villages such as Castello, Miniere, Lupompesi, Montepescini, La Befa, to mention some of them, most with visible traces of their long history. No remarkable change has taken place over 700 years,and the area has a look of ancient times to the eyes of visitors, preserving innumerable traces of the civilisations who inhabited the territory over the centuries. The numerous tracks and roads crossing the area still maintain their primeval importance, being the only way to reach secluted places of remarkable historical, artistic and naturalistic importance. Along these routes the Cultural Association of Murlo organize the "Trips around home", naturalistic and cultural walks, during the Spring and the Autumn. The vegetation is influenced by exposure and by the lytologic substratum, as well as by the climate. 60% of the surface is covered by woods, mainly oaks, holm-oaks, Turkey oaks and, less frequent flowerishing ashes, cornel trees, black horn-beam and other mesophyte species. Reforestation with maritime pines, now typical of the area, have became quite frequent. Cork plantation, no longer exploted by men, are now sporadic. On the rocks faces garrigue is abundant, as well as other evergreen Mediterranean scrub such as heather and juniper.

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The Promise of Human Rights The real importance of the Human Rights Commission which was created by the Economic and Social Council lies in the fact that throughout the world there are many people who do not enjoy the basic rights which have come to be accepted in many other parts of the world as inherent rights of all individuals, without which no one can live in dignity and freedom. At the first meeting of the Economic and Social Council in London, early in 1946, a Nuclear Commission was named to recommend a permanent setup for the full Commission of Human Rights, and to consider the work which it should first undertake. These first members of the Nuclear Commission were not chosen as representatives of governments, but as individuals. Naturally, however, each government was asked to concur in the nomination from that country. There were nine members nominated, but two of them were not able to come; and one or two nations insisted on nominating their own representatives. I was one of the members of the original Nuclear Commission, and when we met at Hunter College, I was elected chairman. The other members were: Mr. Fernanda de Husse, Belgium; Mr. K. C. Neogi, India; Professor Rene Cassin, France; Dr. C. L. Haai, China; Mr. Dusan Brkish, Jugoslavia; Mr. Borisov, U.S.S.R. The representative from the U.S.S.R. was at first a young secretary from the Soviet Embassy. The other members of the Nuclear Commission did not realize that he was not the regular representative and was not empowered to vote. It was not until three days before the end of the meeting that the regular member, Mr. Borisov, arrived; and then we discovered that the representative of the U.S.S.R. who had been attending the meetings actually had no right to vote, and such votes had to be removed from the record. The Commission was a little disturbed because a number of concessions had been made in order to obtain unanimity. Also, this change made it impossible for any decision to be unanimous, since the Soviet representative had been told that he could not commit his government by a vote on any subject and therefore registered no vote on the first program of work. The Commission made a number of recommendations. For instance, we agreed that persons should be chosen as individuals and not merely as representatives of governments. We agreed that there should be 18 members of the full Commission-an example of a minor point on which we had made concessions to the representative of the U.S.S.R., because originally the various members of the group had differed as to what the proper size of the Commission should be. I had been told that it made very little difference to the United States whether the Commission numbered 12 or 25, but it was felt the number should not be less than 12 because unavoidable absences might cut it down to too small a group; and it was felt also that the number should not be more than 25, for fear a large group might make our work very difficult to accomplish. When I found out how many varieties of opinion there were, I made the suggestion as chairman that we might make the number 21, since we were apt to discuss some rather controversial subjects, and if there was a tie the chairman could cast the deciding vote. Most of the members agreed with this until we came to the representative of the U.S.S.R. He insisted that we should be 18, because our parent body, the Economic and Social Council, was made up of 18 members. As we did not feel that the size of the Commission was vitally important, and as he could not be induced to change, we agreed to recommend that the Commission consist of 18 members. Among a number of other recommendations in our report we suggested that the first work to be undertaken was the writing of a Bill of Human Rights. Many of us thought that lack of standards for human rights the world over was one of the greatest causes of friction among the nations, and that recognition of human rights might become one of the cornerstones of which peace could eventually be based. At its next meeting, the Economic and Social Council received our report, which I presented, and it was then studied in detail and a number of changes were made. The members of the Commission were made government representatives, chosen by their governments. The 18 governments to be represented on the Commission were chosen by the Economic and Social Council. The United States was given a four-year appointment and my government nominated me as a member. At present the following are represented on the commission: Australia, Belgium, Byelorussia, China, Chile, Egypt, France, India, Lebanon, Panama, the Philippines, Ukraine, the U.S.S.R., Jugoslavia, Uruguay, the United Kingdom and the United States. The first session of the full Commission was called in January 1947. The officers chosen at that time, in addition to myself as permanent chairman, were Dr. Chang of China as vice-chairman and Dr. Charles Malik of Lebanon as rapporteur. In that first meeting we requested that the Division of Human Rights in the Secretariat get out a yearbook on human rights, and receive all petitions and acknowledge them. Since we were not a court, we could do nothing actually to solve the problems that the petitions presented, but we could tell the petitioners that once the Bill of Human Rights was written, they might find that their particular problems came under one of its provisions. We considered some of the main points which should go into the drafting of the Bill of Human Rights, and we named a drafting committee which should present the first draft to the next meeting of the full Commission. This work was entrusted to the officers of the Commission, all of whom were available in or near Lake Success, and to Dr. John Humphrey, as head of the Division of Human Rights in the Secretariat. But when the Economic and Social Council received the report of this procedure considerable opposition to the appointment of so small a committee was expressed. As it had been understood in our meeting that the chairman of the committee was to call upon other members of the Commission for advice and assistance, I at once urged that the drafting committee be increased to eight members. This was done. The drafting committee then met in June 1947. The delegate from the U.S.S.R., Mr. Koretsky, and the delegate from Byelorussia, neither of whom was authorized to vote on an unfinished document and both of whom lacked instructions from their governments, participated very little in the general discussion of the drafting committee, though they did agree to the principles that all men are equal and that men and women should have equal rights. The second meeting of the full Commission was called in Geneva, Switzerland, because some members felt strongly that the Human Rights Commission should hold a session in Europe. We were scheduled to meet on December 1, 1947, but as many of the members were delayed in arriving we actually met on December 2. We mapped out our work very carefully. The position of the United States had been that it would be impossible in these initial meetings to do more than write a Declaration. If the Declaration were accepted by the General Assembly the next autumn, it would carry moral weight, but it would not carry any legal weight. Many of the smaller nations were strongly of the opinion that the oppressed peoples of the world and the minority groups would feel that they had been cruelly deceived if we did not write a Convention which would be presented for ratification, nation by nation, and which when accepted would be incorporated into law in the same way that treaties among nations are accepted and implemented. The Government of the United States had never, of course, been opposed to writing a Convention; it simply felt that the attempt would not be practical in these early stages. When it was found that feeling ran high on this subject, we immediately cooperated. The Commission divided itself into three groups. The group to work on the Declaration consisted of the representatives of Byelorussia, France, Panama, the Philippines, the U.S.S.R. and the United States. The group toe work on the Convention was made up of the representatives of Chile, China, Egypt, Lebanon, the United Kingdom and Jugoslavia. The third group, to work on methods of implementation, which would later, of course, be included in the Convention, consisted of the representatives of Australia, India, Iran, Ukraine and Uruguay. At the first meeting of the Commission, the representative from Australia made the suggestion that a Court of Human Rights be created. There had been a good deal of discussion of this idea in previous meetings. The general feeling was, however, that this action could not be taken under the Charter as it now stands and would raise the problem of revision of the Charter. At the start, the United Kingdom had brought to the drafting committee a Declaration and a Convention which included suggestions for implementation. The U.S.S.R., while still not committing itself to any vote, as the Soviet Government still insisted that until a finished document was prepared they could not vote on it, nevertheless was willing to participate in the discussions which concerned the writing of a Declaration. Their representative took an active part, particularly in the discussion and formulation of the social and economic rights of the individual which are considered in some detail in the Declaration. This was a hard-working committee, and I was extremely gratified both at the willingness of the members to put in long hours and at the general spirit of cooperation. In spite of the fact that a good many of the members must frequently have been very weary, there was always an atmosphere of good feeling and consideration for others, even when questions arose which called forth strong differences of opinion We finished our work at 11:30 P.M. on the night of December 17, and I think the documents which have now gone to all of the member governments in the United Nations are very creditable. A Declaration and a Convention were written. The group working on implementation made suggestions which, of course, must be more carefully considered before they are fully incorporated in the Convention. We now await the comments. These were requested in early April, so that the Human Rights Division of the Secretariat could go over them carefully and put them in shape for the drafting committee which will meet again at Lake Success on May 3, 1948. The full Commission will meet at Lake Success on May 17, to give final consideration to this Bill of Human Rights, or Pact, as our Government prefers to have it called. The Economic and Social Council received the report of the documents written in Geneva, and sent them to the governments in January. They will now make their comments and suggestions. The final opportunity for consideration by the Economic and Social Council will come at its meeting next July, and the pact or charter which is finally adopted at that meeting will be presented to the General Assembly in the autumn of 1948. Three Articles in the Declaration seem to me to be of vital importance. Article 15 provides that everyone has the right to a nationality; that is, all persons are entitled toe the protection of some government, and those who are without it shall be protected by the United Nations. Article 16 says that individual freedom of thought and conscience, to hold and change beliefs, is an absolute and sacred right. Included in this Article is a declaration of the right to manifest these beliefs, in the form of worship, observance, teaching and practice. Article 21 declares that everyone, without discrimination, has the right to take an effective part in the government of his country. This aims to give assurance that governments of states will bend and change according to the will of the people as shown in elections, which shall be periodic, free, fair and by secret ballot. Some of the other important Articles are broad in scope. For instance, Article 23 says that everyone has the right to work, and that the state has a duty to take steps within its power to ensure its residents an opportunity for useful work. Article 24 says that everyone has a right to receive pay commensurate with his ability and skill and may join trade unions to protect his interests. Other Articles in the Declaration set forth rights such as the right to the preservation of health, which would give the state responsibility for health and safety measures; the right to social security, which makes it the duty of the state to provide measures for the security of the individual against the consequences of unemployment, disability, old age and other loss of livelihood beyond his control; the right to education, which should be free and compulsory, and the provision that higher education should be available to all without distinction as toe race, sex, language, religion, social standing, financial means or political affiliation; the right to rest and leisure-that is, a limitation on hours of work and provisions of vacations with pay; the right to participate in the cultural life of the community, enjoy its arts and share in the benefits of science. Another Article asserts that education will be directed to the full physical, intellectual, moral and spiritual development of the human personality and to combatting hatred against other nations or racial or religious groups. If the Declaration is accepted by the Assembly, it will mean that all the nations accepting it hope that the day will come when these rights are considered inherent rights belonging to every human being, but it will not mean that they have to change their laws immediately to make these rights possible. On the other hand, as the Convention is ratified by one nation after another it will require that each ratifying nation change its laws where necessary, to make possible that every human being within its borders shall enjoy the rights set forth. The Convention, of course, covers primarily the civil liberties which many of the nations of the world have accepted as inherent rights of human beings, and it reaffirms a clause in the Charter of the United Nations which says that there shall be no discrimination among any human beings because of race, creed or color. The most important articles of the Convention are subjects with which every American high school student is familiar. Article 5 makes it unlawful to deprive a person of life except as punishment for a crime provided by law. Article 6 outlaws physical mutilation. Article 7 forbids torture and cruel or inhuman punishment. Article 8 prohibits slavery and compulsory labor, with exceptions permitted as to the latter in the case of military service and emergency service in time of disaster such as flood or earthquake. A provision which is new in an international constitutional sense, though not new in practice to Americans, is Article 11, which guarantees liberty of movement and a free choice of residence within a state, and a general freedom to every person in the world to leave any country, including his own. Article 20 makes all sections of the Convention applicable without distinction as to race, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, property status, or national or social origin; and Article 21 requires the states to forbid by law the advocacy of national, racial or religious hostility that constitutes incitement to violence. In general, every nation ratifying the Convention will have to make sure that within its jurisdiction these promised rights become realities, so it is the Convention which is of the greatest importance to the peoples throughout the world. A possible stumbling block to general ratification of the Convention is the fact that some federal states, like the United States, operate constitutional systems in which the primary laws affecting individuals are adopted by the constituent states and are beyond the constitutional power of the federal government. The Convention provides, in Article 24, that in such cases these federal governments shall call to the attention of their constituent states, with a favorable recommendation, those Articles considered appropriate for action by them. One of the questions that will come before the Human Rights Commission in May is whether all the Articles included in the Convention shall be submitted to the various nations for ratification in a single document, to be taken all in one gulp, so to speak, or shall be divided into separate conventions, in the thought that this procedure would avoid the rejection of the entire document because of objection to one or two articles, as might happen in many cases. Of course, it is quite evident that in the future there will have to be many conventions on special subjects, and that the work of the Human Rights Commission should be directed for years to come on those subjects as they arise. A convention on the subject of nationality and stateless persons seems to be knocking at our doors for consideration almost immediately. As I look back at the work thus far of our Human Rights Commission I realize that its importance is twofold. In the first place, we have put into words some inherent rights. Beyond that, we have found that the conditions of our contemporary world require the enumeration of certain protections which the individual must have if he is to acquire a sense of security and dignity in his own person. The effect of this is frankly educational. Indeed, I like to think that the Declaration will help forward very largely the education of the peoples of the world. It seems to me most important that the Declaration be accepted by all member nations, not because they will immediately live up to all of its provisions, but because they ought to support the standards toward which the nations must henceforward aim. Since the objectives have been clearly stated, men of good will everywhere will strive to attain them with more energy and, I trust, with better hope of success. As the Convention is adhered to by one country after another, it will actually bring into being rights which are tangible and can be invoked before the law of the ratifying countries. Everywhere many people will feel more secure. And as the Great Powers tie themselves down by their ratifications, the smaller nations which fear that the great may abuse their strength will acquire a sense of greater assurance. The work of the Commission has been of outstanding value in setting before men's eyes the ideals which they must strive to reach. Men cannot live by bread alone. From Foreign Affairs 26 (April 1948) 470-477. As edited by Allida M. Black. See her collection, What I Hope to Leave Behind: The Essential Essays of Eleanor Roosevelt. (Carlson Publishing, Inc., 1995)

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A NEW form of matter surrounds Saturn - a plasma put there by Enceladus, the planet's tiny moon. "It's a type of charged particle that has never been observed before," says Tom Hill of Rice University in Houston, Texas. Shortly after it arrived at the Saturn system in 2004, the Cassini spacecraft discovered that the small icy moon Enceladus was spouting a watery geyser. The plume contained water vapour, as well as micrometre-sized dust grains. Yet in 2009, Cassini saw something else in the plume: nanometre-sized grains that each carried an electric charge. That meant the plume was a powerful source of plasma, a form of matter in which positively and negatively charged particles move around separately. It seems that Enceladus provides most of the plasma in the magnetic bubble, or magnetosphere, surrounding Saturn. But it was unclear how the particles got their charges. Now, after three fly-bys during which Cassini's plasma detectors could investigate the nanograins, Hill and colleagues think they have an answer. The sun's ultraviolet light strips electrons from the gas and other material in the plume, creating a cloud of free electrons. As the uncharged nanograins leave Enceladus and move through this charged cloud, they pick up about one electron each to create a plasma. But that means that the structure of the plasma is backwards, says Hill. Most plasmas contain positive ions, which carry mass, and negative free electrons, which carry almost no mass. Here, most of the mass is in the form of negatively charged grains (Journal of Geophysical Research, DOI: 10.1029/2011JA017218). "That changes the basic behaviour of the plasma," says Hill - although we will have to wait until Cassini next flies by the plume in more than a year to see in what way. - New Scientist - Not just a website! - Subscribe to New Scientist and get: - New Scientist magazine delivered every week - Unlimited online access to articles from over 500 back issues - Subscribe Now and Save If you would like to reuse any content from New Scientist, either in print or online, please contact the syndication department first for permission. New Scientist does not own rights to photos, but there are a variety of licensing options available for use of articles and graphics we own the copyright to. Have your say Only subscribers may leave comments on this article. Please log in. Only personal subscribers may leave comments on this article

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Musical selection. (Or how to evolve a hit.) Science News examines one system for making music – by taking noise and using thumbs-up or thumbs-down votes to refine it: Inspired in part by long-running experiments probing the evolution of bacteria, computational biologist Bob MacCallum and colleagues decided to see if pleasant music could evolve from a cacophonous mess when human listeners acted as the force of natural selection. The researchers started with a loop of simple audio wave forms and let it randomly evolve to generate a starter population with variation on which selection could act. Then more than 6,000 people listened to the audio loops and rated how much they liked the sounds on a five-point scale. The audio loops rated more favorably were allowed to mutate or combine with others to make a next-generation clip; the bad ones died off. By 500 generations, the pieces developed into pleasant little ditties with chord structure and rhythm, MacCallum and his colleagues report online June 18 in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. They’re calling the project “DarwinTunes” and plan to extend the next phase to millions of users. So get your thumbs ready to compose….

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A BRIEF HISTORY OF UGANDA By Tim Lambert In 1875 the explorer Henry Stanley reached Uganda. At that time Uganda was divided into kingdoms. Shortly afterwards the first missionaries came to Uganda. The first Anglican missionaries arrived in Uganda in 1877. The first Roman Catholic missionaries arrived in 1879. Catholics, Protestants and Muslims all tried to convert the Ugandans. However there was much hostility to the new religions. In 1885 James Hannington the first bishop of Eastern Equatorial Africa was murdered. Nevertheless in the wake of missionaries came trade. In 1888 the British government gave the British East Africa Company control of Uganda. Meanwhile the European powers decided to divide up Africa among themselves. In 1890 Germany and Britain signed an agreement confirming that Uganda was in the British sphere of influence. Gradually the company took control of Uganda and the local chiefs were reduced to being puppet rulers. Finally in 1894 the British government made Uganda a protectorate (colony). However the traditional chiefs were kept as puppets. In 1904 cotton was introduced to Uganda and by 1914 huge amounts of cotton were being exported. Moreover in the 1920s large amounts of tea and coffee were grown in Uganda. Meanwhile the missionaries provided schools for Ugandans and literacy became increasingly common. In 1920 executive and legislative councils were formed in Uganda. The country continued to develop and in 1929 a railway joined Toror and Soroti. During World War II Uganda exported wood for the war effort. However the Ugandans were becoming restive. Riots took place in 1945 and in 1949. Yet in 1945 the first 3 Africans were appointed to the legislative council. In 1950 the number of African members was increased to 8. Furthermore after World War II the governor Sir John Hall (1944-1951) promoted mining in Uganda. In 1954 a hydroelectric plant was opened at the Owen Falls on the Nile. Meanwhile coffee and cotton exports boomed. A census in 1948 showed there were almost 5 million African Ugandans, almost 37,000 Asians and less than 3,500 Europeans. (From the end of the 19th century many Asians migrated to Uganda and they formed a middle class of traders and shopkeepers between the natives and the whites). Yet a 'wind of change' was blowing through Africa in the early 1960s and Uganda became independent from Britain on 9 October 1962. The first constitution was federalist. The first president of Uganda was Mutesa, King of Buganda and the first prime minister was Milton Obote. When Uganda became independent many Asians (but not all) migrated to Britain. However Milton Obote had no intention of sharing power with the president. In 1966 he staged a coup and the president fled abroad. Obote became dictator. However in January 1971 when Obote was in Singapore attending a meeting Idi Amin staged a coup. Amin turned out to be one of the worst tyrants of the 20th century. The number of people he murdered was at least 100,000 and possible many more. Apart from those Ugandans who were shot others were tortured to death or bludgeoned to death with sledgehammers or iron bars. Amin also decided to help himself to the Ugnadan Asian's wealth. There were about 70,000 Asians in Uganda in 1972 many of them shopkeepers and businessmen. Amin gave them 90 days to leave the country. They were forced to leave most of their property behind and it was shared among Amin's cronies. However as a result of the loss of the Asian's skills and the murders of many professional Ugandans the economy collapsed. Infrastructure such as roads and water supply deteriorated. In order to distract attention from the terrible economic situation in Uganda Amin decided to invade Tanzania on 30 October 1978. However the war turned into a disaster for Amin. Early in 1979 the Tanzanians invaded Uganda and Amin's forces fled. Unfortunately Amin was never brought to justice for his terrible crimes. He fled abroad and died in 2003. After the war elections were held and Obote became prime minister again. However the election was rigged so Obote's opponents formed a guerrilla army to fight him. It was called the National Resistance Army and soon it controlled a large part of western Uganda. Meanwhile Obote attempted to make himself a dictator once again. He introduced a repressive regime, imprisoning anyone who opposed him and muzzling the press. Western journalists were expelled from Uganda. However the National Resistance Army took more and more territory. Finally in 1986 they entered the capital and took over all of Uganda apart from parts of the north. Yet Obote's supporters in the north were eventually persuaded to lay down their arms. With the return of political stability economic growth began again in Uganda and during the 1990s Uganda prospered. Many of the Asians who had fled to Britain were persuaded to return to Uganda. However Yoweri Museveni the new president refused to allow political parties until 2005. Today Uganda is still mainly an agricultural country and its main export is coffee. Yet the economy of Uganda is growing strongly and there is every reason to be optimistic about its future. Today the population of Uganda is 35 million. A brief history of Tanzania A brief history of Malawi A brief history of Kenya A brief history of Zambia A brief history of Botswana Last revised 2013

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for National Geographic News A rare visit by archaeologists to a fifth-century imperial tomb offers hope that other closely guarded graves in Japan might soon be open to independent study. This month a group of 16 experts led by the Japanese Archaeological Association released results from their February visit inside Gosashi tomb. The event marked the first time that scholars had been allowed inside a royal tomb outside of an official excavation led by Japan's Imperial Household Agency. Archaeologists have been requesting access to Gosashi tomb and other imperial sites since 1976, in part because the tombs date to the founding of a central Japanese state under imperial rule. But the agency has kept access to the tombs restricted, prompting rumors that officials fear excavation would reveal bloodline links between the "pure" imperial family and Korea—or that some tombs hold no royal remains at all. Although the team's visit didn't lay any of those issues to rest, experts celebrated it as a first step toward expanded access to the mysterious tombs. (Related: "Stonehenge Didn't Stand Alone, Excavations Show" [January 12, 2007].) "The main achievement of the occasion was that for the first time we could enter to do [our own] research," said Koji Takahashi, a Toyama University archaeologist and spokesperson for the group. Gosashi tomb in western Japan's Nara Prefecture is revered as the resting place of Empress Jingu, the semi-legendary wife of the country's 14th emperor. Jingu is thought to have ruled as regent for her son starting around A.D. 200. During their two-and-a-half-hour visit, the team was allowed to explore the lower part of the 886-foot-long (270-meter-long) burial mound. SOURCES AND RELATED WEB SITES

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Suffering a trauma such as 9/11, assault, war, etc. can be extremely stressful and for weeks, months and sometimes even years afterwards, some people who have weathered such a trauma may have trouble coping, dealing with nightmares, panic attacks and so forth. This is called Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, or PTSD for short. Surviving PTSD often requires a combination of time, therapy and medication, but people do get better. Now a new study has evaluated whether there is any link between asthma and PTSD and the results suggest that there is. What experts do not fully understand is why or whether asthma increases the risk that someone who experiences a traumatic event will have PTSD or if people who have PTSD are just at greater risk for asthma. However, it's important to note that similar links have been noted in the past between asthma and anxiety and asthma and depression. So, apparently there is some kind of association between asthma and mental disorders that needs to be studied more for clarity. Here are the highlights of this recent study on PTSD and asthma: - 3065 male twin pairs who had both served in the Vietnam War were subjects - Twins had all lived together during childhood - Both identical and fraternal twins were included, with similar findings, so genetic influences for the results were ruled out - Factors such as cigarette smoking, obesity and socioeconomic status had no appreciable effect on the findings As a result of the study, researchers concluded that there is a definite link between asthma and PTSD. Specifically, those twins who suffered from the most PTSD symptoms were 2.3 times as likely to have asthma compared with those who suffered from the least PTSD symptoms. As stated above, the experts are not sure if traumatic stress, which has previously been linked to altered immune functioning, might lead to an increased susceptibility to immune system diseases such as asthma. Or, it might be that having asthma puts one at increased risk for exposure to a traumatic situation, due to the potentially life-threatening nature of the disease. That last point seems a bit of a stretch to me, but further studies should provide greater illumination as to the true nature of this link between PTSD and asthma. At any rate, the researchers encourage anyone who has asthma that suffers a trauma to seek professional help to ward off—or at least cope with—PTSD.

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This picture describes how commonly and how strongly the wind blows from different directions through a typical March. The biggest spokes point in the directions the wind most commonly blows from and the shade of blue implies the strength, with dark blue strongest. It is based on 1724 NWW3 forecasts of wind since since 2007, at 3hr intervals, for the closest NWW3 model node to Jockos Point, located 43 km away (27 miles). There are insufficient recording stations world wide to use actual wind data. Invevitably some coastal places have very localized wind effects that would not be predicted by NWW3. According to the model, the prevailing wind at Jockos Point blows from the NNW. If the rose graph shows a fairly circular pattern, it means there is no strong bias in wind direction at Jockos Point. On the other hand, dominant spokes illustrate favoured directions, and the more deep blue, the stronger the wind. Spokes point in the direction the wind blows from. Over an average March, the model suggests that winds are light enough for the sea to be glassy (the lightest shade of blue) about 4% of the time (1 days each March) and blows offshore just 31% of the time (10 days in an average March). In a typical March winds stronger than >40kph (25mph) are expected on 2 days at Jockos Point IMPORTANT: Beta version feature! Swell heights are open water values from NWW3. There is no attempt to model near-shore effects. Coastal wave heights will generally be less, especially if the break does not have unobstructed exposure to the open ocean.

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Darmstadtium, element 110, was first synthesized in 1994 at the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung (Institute for Heavy Ion Research) in Darmstadt, Germany by a team led by Sigurd Hofmann. The discoverers proposed the name after the city near which their facility was located. Darmstadtium was declared the element’s official name by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) in 2003.1 The chemical symbol for darmstadtium is Ds. 1”Element 110 is Named Darmstadtium,” IUPAC Press Release, 16 August 2003, http://old.iupac.org/news/archives/2003/naming110.html. Copyright 1997-2013, by David Wilton

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Learn something new every day More Info... by email Pneumatic actuators are mechanisms that convert the potential energy of a compressed gas, most frequently air, into mechanical energy to drive a piece of machinery. The compressed gas is directed into a space where its expansion drives a piston or shaft to initiate motion. Types of pneumatic actuators commonly found include single- or double-acting pneumatic cylinders, rotary actuators, and diaphragm actuators. Pneumatic cylinders can also operate based on a rodless design incorporating magnets, bands, or cables. Cylinder-type pneumatic actuators use a valve to inject compressed gas into a closed chamber with a piston. The expansion of the gas forces the piston down the length of the cylinder. The piston is normally connected to a rod that moves to begin a mechanical operation. Pneumatic cylinders are often used in manufacturing settings such as assembly lines, loading and unloading product, or otherwise aiding the motion control of a process. A single-acting cylinder uses a spring to return the piston to its starting position. A double-acting cylinder uses two different compressed gas streams, one at each end of the cylinder. One air stream pushes the piston away from the beginning point and the other pushes it back to the other end of the cylinder. Rotary pneumatic actuators take the potential energy of the compressed gas and convert it into torque, or rotary movement. The actuator drives a rod through an arc, usually between 45 and 180 degrees of rotation. The interior of the actuator may use rotary vanes to create the movement or a rack and pinion configuration. Rotary actuators can operate in a smaller space than a cylinder which requires length for the stroke of the piston. Another design is a diaphragm pneumatic actuator. In this configuration, a rod is connected to a diaphragm that divides a space into two chambers. Two separate compressed gas streams, one on each side of the diaphragm, create a pressure differential that causes the rod to be forced outward. Many of these actuators are fitted with a spring to return the rod to its original position. Rodless designs of pneumatic actuators can operate within a shorter length than a rod-type cylinder. The stroke force created by the compressed air is contained within the actuator. The cylinder is supported on slides or bearings to smoothly convey the movement to the process and maintain load support throughout the piston stroke. The movement is controlled with coupled magnets, a sealing band, or cables.

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Submitted by Prof. Erling Nordlund on June 7, 2010 - 13:17 Mining of deep seated deposits is associated with stress magnitudes which exceed the strength of the intact rock, geological structures and the rock mass (intact rock and discontinuities acting like a material with complex interactions between discontinuities and volumes of intact rock) resulting in an increased frequency of instability (e.g., fall-outs of blocks, collapse of underground openings) as well as phenomena such as extensive squeezing and seismic events. To ensure mining at great depth (> 1000 m) the behaviour of the rock has to be clarified. Ground control problems at great depth can be grouped into two extremes (i) weak rock (or weak/altered ore contacts in a hard rock mass) and squeezing/large deformations and (ii) hard rock mass and mining-induced seismicity. Vital for the stability and for successful design of underground openings is the understanding of the interaction between the rock mass and the rock support. The increased stress magnitudes will put new demands on the rock support systems as well as on the process of applying the rock support. Sublevel caving undermines the ore as well as the surrounding rock, resulting in ground surface deformation and cracking, often called subsidence. If mining takes place close to populated areas the subsidence may affect infrastructure and buildings. In order to be able to forecast the development of the subsidence, the rock mass behaviour has to be investigated and methodologies for prognoses have to be developed. As mining goes deeper an increasing volume of the rock mass will be affected. Fragmentation is a key component in mining. It spans from geomechanics (in-situ fracturing) over excavation and handling (blasting, haulage and crushing breakage) to the final preparation for beneficiation (milling). Blasting has to create regular breakage geometry and ore and waste pieces that can be treated economically downstream while avoiding waste rock dilution and environmental disturbances. In-situ fracturing governs the blast fragmentation, the internal cracking of fragments the energy efficiency of subsequent comminution. Efficient mining reduces the unit costs and increases the extraction viability of mineral resources. Until now too little interest has focused on the downstream effect of the primary extraction. The Deep Mining project is divided into four sub-projects • Ground deformation and subsidence • Mine-induced seismicity • Weak ground or non-violent failures • Blasting and fragmentation

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Scientific American Mind Features Prof. Matt Hertenstein's Research August 29, 2009 August 29, 2009, Greencastle, Ind. — "Pictures of grinning kids may reveal more than childhood happiness: a study from DePauw University shows that how intensely people smile in childhood photographs, as indicated by crow's feet around the eyes, predicts their adult marriage success," begins a story published in the September 2009 issue of Scientific American Mind. The magazine is the latest media outlet to report on research conducted by Matt Hertenstein, associate professor of psychology at DePauw University, and his students. "According to the research, people whose smiles were weakest in snapshots from childhood through young adulthood were most likely to report being divorced in middle and old age. Among the weakest smilers in college photographs, one in four ended up divorcing, compared with one in 20 of the widest smilers. The same pattern held among even those pictured at an average age of 10." Read the story -- "Kids' Smiles Predict Their Future Marriage Success" -- at the magazine's Web site. This spring, Dr. Hertenstein's project received worldwide attention in media outlets including the London Daily Mail, CNN, the UK's Economist, the New Straits Times of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia and NBC's Today. Earlier this month, another of Hertenstein's projects was featured in the New York Times. "Researchers have found experimental evidence that a touch can be worth a thousand words, that fleeting physical contact can express specific emotions -- silently, subtly and unmistakably," wrote Nicholas Bakalar. Learn more here. Visit Professor Hertenstein's Emotion Lab at DePauw online by clicking here.Back

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Jean de Brunhof, who was born this week in 1899 and who became famous for his picture books about Babar the elephant, didn't actually create the character himself. It was de Brunhof's wife, Cecile, who first invented a story about a little elephant for her children in 1930. The two de Brunhoff children were so excited about the story that they told it to Papa, and he, an accomplished artist, took over from there, developing the idea and giving the civilized little pachyderm his name. Not even de Brunhoff's children know how he came up with "Babar." It is one of life's mysteries. Before the Babar books, de Brunhof, who came from a family of art magazine publishers, was an established part of the French art scene. Though he was not an aesthetic revolutionary in his own painting, he did cause a kind of revolution, according to Maurice Sendak, the renowned American artist, in what it was possible to do in the children's picture book itself. Referring to those extra-large first editions of the Babar books, which are no longer available because of the printing costs, Sendak was amazed by "their huge, delectable formats and grand, spacious compositions" and by the fact that, when they first appeared, children could nearly '"climb into" a Babar book' they were so big. But de Brunhof also brought about a quiet, natural, understated revolution in terms of the seriousness of the content, like the death of Babar's mother, that could also be included in a picture book. The books began to be published in 1931, with The Story of Babar, which was soon followed by The The Travels of Babar, Babar the King, and Babar and His Children. The stories were immediately successful, and within a few years, de Brunhof was providing designs of Babar for the children's dining room on the French ocean liner, Normandie. But in the midst of the acclaim, de Brunhoff had also contracted tuberculosis, and by 1937 he had died, leaving two more Babar books nearly finished -- Babar and his Children and Babar and Father Christmas. His son, Laurent, would continue the Babar stories after World War II, and in fact Laurent is creating new Babar stories to this day. In children's books there has probably not been a more profound partnership or a truer continuity of vision than theirs. Jean de Brunhof hardly mentioned his illness. Instead, he has the Old Lady, the voice of wisdom in his books, speak for him when she says, at the end of Babar the King, after a string of calamaties: "Do you see how in this life one must never be discouraged? Let's work hard and cheerfully and we'll continue to be happy." Copyright © 2001 by John Cech |Search the transcripts by date or keyword. Wednesday, 04-Sep-2002 22:25:02 EDT

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From Ohio History Central Newton Diehl Baker was born in Martinsburg, West Virginia, in 1871. His father, a doctor, was also named Newton Diehl Baker, and his mother was Mary Ann Dukehart Baker. Baker attended Johns Hopkins University and graduated in 1892, before earning a law degree from Washington and Lee University in 1894 He briefly practiced law in his home town before becoming the private secretary of Postmaster General William L. Wilson. Baker moved to Cleveland, Ohio, sometime around the turn of the century. He set up a law practice in the town and, in 1903, was appointed the city's Director of Law. Baker believed strongly in the Progressive policies of Cleveland Mayor Tom L. Johnson. By 1905, Baker was a prominent member of the community and a leading figure within the local Democratic Party. He was elected to three consecutive terms as city solicitor beginning in 1905, and in 1911, he became mayor of Cleveland. Baker served as mayor from 1912 until 1916, when President Woodrow Wilson nominated him to be his Secretary of War. Wilson had previously asked him to serve as Secretary of the Interior, but Baker had refused that position. Baker made an interesting choice for Secretary of War, as he had previously been known as a pacifist. His time as Secretary of War proved to be a significant time in American history. Baker sent an American expedition to Mexico to capture the Mexican outlaw Pancho Villa in 1916, and he chaired the Council of Defense with its role of preparing the United States for potential involvement in World War I. As secretary, Baker appointed General John Pershing to command the American Expeditionary Force in France during World War I. When Wilson's term ended in 1921, Baker accompanied President Wilson to Paris to negotiate the Treaty of Versailles. Baker chose to return to private legal practice after the war. He became known as a successful and well-respected attorney throughout the United States, as well as serving on the board of several corporations. Baker also pursued an interest in adult education after the war, helping to organize the American Association of Adult Education (AAAE) as well as a number of other institutions. At the same time, Baker also remained an important figure within the Democratic Party. In 1928, President Calvin Coolidge appointed Baker to be a member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration, The Hague. The National Institute of Social Sciences presented him with an award "for service to humanity" in 1933. Baker wrote an account of his views on World War I in Why We Went to War, which was published in 1936. He died the following year on December 25, 1937. - Hofstadter, Richard. The Progressive Movement, 1900-1915. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1963. - Keegan, John. The First World War. New York, NY: A.A. Knopf, 2001. - Keene, Jennifer. The United States and the First World War. New York, NY: Longman, 2000. - McGerr, Michael. A Fierce Discontent: The Rise and Fall of the Progressive Movement in America, 1870-1920. New York, NY: Free Press, 2003.

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I interviewed two music therapists who work with autistic children. Their students don’t necessarily learn chord progression or how to play a song, but rather the priority is to learn essential skills: like motor skills, or how to interact with other students. Teaching with Video While we can think about the purpose of learning as having only one end–we learn music so that we can play music–this video illustrates the indirect benefits of learning. Just because we won’t all become professionals–professional musicians, professional writers, professional athletes–it doesn’t mean we can’t benefit from learning through music, or writing or sports. When we see the ends of learning as various–it isn’t just about becoming good at something or mastering something–then a new way of looking at how we learn emerges. What is the difference between a music therapy session and a regular music session? Audrey: With young classes a lot overlaps, when you are teaching a music class, even in an average class, a lot of what you are teaching isn’t music, you are teaching socialization, you are teaching so much more than learning a song or learning to play an instrument. In a private lesson, the goal is different. If I teach a private student, I’m talking about tone, intonation, rhythm, physically how you play the instrument. Whereas if I am in a music therapy session, that is secondary. If I need to teach a child to physically play the drums the most basic way to achieve what we are going to do next. Your purpose isn’t to have a beautiful performance; your purpose is whatever goal you setup ahead of time. Michael: There is a big difference. If you walked into a music lesson you’re going to see study, you are going to see repeat, repeat until you got better. You wont see that in a music therapy session. You are going to see a flow from one thought or idea to another. You will see some structure in that. Every session has its beginning and end very clearly. In between that the child or person you are working with. Can you give us an example of one of your best sessions? Audrey: I had a student who has very severe autism, hardly any language. At the end of the year he is completely engaged, he can try to approximate my name, he tells me hello, good-bye. These are things before, he had no interest in me even being in the room. Now I know when he requests a song, he says, I want. So he’s really developed a connection with me. A give and take. It’s not a high level, but it’s a big improvement over what he used to do. Another student with severe autism, she shuts down, she goes to sleep. She enjoys sleeping, she is in her own mind. And we have gotten her to come out. She will play instruments. Before she wouldn’t touch it or look at it. So we got her to start looking at it and then she put her hands on the drum. Now she will actually play independently. It may not see like a lot to an outside observer, but to someone who worked with her every day, it was a big exciting moment. Michael: If you are a really good therapist, or you really build a relationship over time. You reach a point where the child feels empowered and begins directing that session. When you reach that you feel like you’ve really got something here. In the beginning stages you set a foundation and helping lead the session. Music therapists play things like holding patterns, to keep doing, and that’s the place for the child to get comfortable and expand upon. Since we cant film a session can you give us an overview of what a typical session might look like? A basic overview – I always have a guitar. I always have a drum and various other instruments depending on what I am doing. This week I have been doing a lot of shakers. My kids love maracas. I have boom wackers. I always start with the hello song. I always go to an action activity, giving them instructions, getting them clued in. Some songs all I do is ask the kids to clap. That’s it. Other classes we do more steps. Always a movement song. I usually include a counting song. I try to keep it kinda connected. I always try to mix up listening and doing. If they listen to a song then they will play instruments. So it’s a good mix. I have kids for 30 minutes. Which doesn’t seem like a long time. If you have a 3 year old with an attention span of an 18 month old, change is good. Depending on the energy level of the class I end it on a dancing song. So we can get our wiggles out before the next thing, or if there are classes before their nap-time, we do a cool down song to slow down and get ready to go down to their mats. Then I always do a good-bye song. It’s relaxed, sedated, before they do their next thing. Michael: We are seeing more and more children on the Autism spectrum. So the issue is improving their socialization skills, improving their language skills. So clearly I go on in with some goals. I have a repertoire, so I will pull those tools in and out of the session. But there is a clear beginning and ending. There is a song where you greet…in between that are challenges. There is stuff that is grounding. I will always do something with a drum. You drum when I say 1, 2, 3, 4 and you clap with me. Beat with me. There is a point in every session that is going to challenge you. Each session that you come in and that may be something that is totally improvisational. So that is part of the creative process that is kind of a challenge with the kid you are working with. This may fall apart. This may sound terrible, but we don’t care in music therapy.

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Withdrawal of U.S. troops from Iraq The withdrawal of American military forces from Iraq was started in June 2009 and was completed by December 2011, bringing an end to the Iraq War. The withdrawal of American military forces from Iraq was a contentious issue within the United States for much of the 2000s, being debated fervidly since the beginning of the Iraq War in March 2003. As the war progressed from its initial invasion phase to a nearly decade-long presence, American public opinion shifted towards favoring a troop withdrawal; in May 2007, 55 percent of Americans believed that the Iraq War was a mistake, and 51 percent of registered voters favored troop withdrawal. In late April 2007, the U.S. Congress passed a supplementary spending bill for Iraq that set a deadline for troop withdrawal, but President Bush vetoed this bill soon afterwards. All American military forces were mandated to withdraw from Iraqi territory by 31 December 2011 under the terms of a bilateral agreement signed in 2008 by President Bush. The U.S. troop withdrawal from Iraq was completed on 18 December 2011 early Sunday morning. Immediately before and after the 2003 invasion, most polls within the United States showed a substantial majority supporting war, though since December 2004 polls consistently showed that a majority thought the invasion was a mistake. In the spring of 2007, surveys generally showed a majority in favor of setting a timetable for withdrawal. However, in this area responses can vary widely with the exact wording of the question. Surveys found that most preferred a gradual withdrawal over time to an immediate pullout. 2004 U.S. Presidential election The issue was one on which John Kerry and George W. Bush differed in the 2004 U.S. presidential election. Kerry said in August 2004 that he would make the withdrawal of all U.S. forces from Iraq a goal of his first presidential term. However, he did not offer a deadline or a timetable, and proposed an increase in deployment size in the immediate future. In the debate, he said that he reiterated that withdrawal was a goal, if an initial troop increase works. In the debate, Bush did not offer any timetable or estimate of troops, either increasing or decreasing, but said only that the commanders of the troops in Iraq had the ability to ask for whatever force they needed. In general, this is consistent with his earlier remarks. When questioned about troop strength, Bush and then-Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld said that they were using the troops asked for by the general staff. Congressional proposals and acts |U.S. Congressional opposition to American involvement in wars and interventions |1812 North America| |House Federalists’ Address| |1847 Mexican–American War| |1917 World War I| |Filibuster of the Armed Ship Bill| |1970 Southeast Asia| |Repeal of Tonkin Gulf Resolution| |1973 Southeast Asia| |War Powers Resolution| |House Concurrent Resolution 63| On 17 November 2005, Representative John Murtha introduced H.J.Res. 73, a resolution calling for U.S. forces in Iraq to be "redeployed at the earliest practicable date" to stand as a quick-reaction force in U.S. bases in neighboring countries such as Kuwait. In response, Republicans proposed a resolution that "the deployment of United States forces in Iraq be terminated immediately," without any provision for redeployment, which was voted down 403–3. On 16 June 2006, the House voted 256–153 in a non-binding resolution against establishing a deadline for the withdrawal of troops from Iraq. Republican then-House Majority Leader John Boehner, who argued against a deadline, stated "achieving victory is our only option", and "we must not shy away". On the other hand, Democratic then-House Minority Leader and current Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi argued that a deadline is necessary, and stated "'stay the course' is not a strategy, it's a slogan", and "it's time to face the facts." On 27 March 2007, Congress passed H.R. 1591, which called for the withdrawal of U.S. troops in Iraq by March 2008. However, President Bush vetoed the bill and the House of Representatives failed to override the veto. Congress then passed H.R. 2206, which provided funding for the Iraq War through 30 September 2007 and was signed into law by President Bush on 25 May 2007. H.R. 2206 included eighteen benchmarks for the Iraqi government to meet. On 9 May 2007, Representative Jim McGovern introduced H.R. 2237 to the House: "To provide for the redeployment of United States Armed Forces and defense contractors from Iraq." The bill failed with a vote of 255 to 171, thirteen of the Nays coming from Democrats representing districts won by John Kerry in 2004. On 12 July 2007 the House passed H.R. 2956 by a vote of 223 to 201, for redeployment (or withdrawal) of U.S. armed forces out of Iraq. The resolution requires most troops to withdraw from Iraq by 1 April 2008. On 18 July 2007, after an all-night debate, the Senate blocked the passage of a bill that would have set a troop withdrawal timetable with a vote of 52–47. The withdrawal would have started within 120 days, and would have required that all troops (except an unspecified number could be left behind to conduct a very narrow set of missions) be out of the country by 30 April 2008. McGovern-Polk proposal George McGovern and William R. Polk published a detailed proposal for U.S. withdrawal from Iraq in their book Out of Iraq: A Practical Plan for Withdrawal Now. (Simon & Schuster, 2006. ISBN 1-4165-3456-3) A sizable excerpt was published in the October 2006 edition of Harper's magazine. This plan was completely abandoned. Some of the basic features of their proposal included: - The first soldiers to be sent home should be private security contractors. - An international stabilization force of 15,000 soldiers to be established. Troops will be drawn from Morocco, Tunisia, and Egypt, funded by the U.S. This force would remain for two years after the departure of U.S. troops. - Transport, communications, and light arms equipment currently used by U.S. forces should be donated to the new multinational force. - In place of a new Iraqi army, a national reconstruction corps should be established, modeled on the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. - The immediate cessation of work on U.S. military bases. - U.S. withdrawal from the Green Zone. - Release of all prisoners of war. ANSWER, NION, UFPJ positions The 3 largest coalitions which organized demonstrations against the invasion of Iraq in 2003, United for Peace and Justice (UFPJ), Act Now to Stop War and End Racism (ANSWER), and Not in Our Name (NION), have all called for the immediate withdrawal of all U.S. troops, "out now." The anti-war movement has debated whether to support existing proposals in Congress. The UFPJ legislative working group has endorsed Murtha's redeployment proposal "because it is a powerful vehicle to begin the debate on the war," though the organization as a whole has not taken a position. ANSWER, on the other hand, has stated that "Murtha has not adopted an antiwar position. He wants to redeploy militarily to strengthen the hand of U.S. imperialism in the Middle East." Burner Plan The Burner Plan, formally entitled A Responsible Plan to End the War in Iraq, was a 36-page policy paper presented 17 March 2008 by Darcy Burner and other 2008 Democratic congressional candidates, in cooperation with some retired national security officials. The plan outlined policy measures the candidates pledged to support in the United States presidential election, 2008. 2008 U.S.–Iraq Status of Forces Agreement In 2008, the American and Iraqi governments signed the U.S.–Iraq Status of Forces Agreement which stipulates that all American forces should withdraw from Iraqi cities by 30 June 2009 and from Iraqi territory altogether by 31 December 2011. On 14 December 2008, then-U.S. President George W. Bush signed the security pact with Iraq. In his fourth and final trip to Iraq, the president appeared with Iraq's prime minister Nouri al-Maliki and said more work is to be done. President Obama's speech on 27 February 2009 On 27 February 2009, at Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune in North Carolina, President Barack Obama announced a deadline for the withdrawal of combat troops from Iraq. According to the president, by 31 August 2010, after nearly seven and a half years of United States military engagement in Iraq, all but a "transitional force" of 35,000 to 50,000 troops would be withdrawn from the Middle Eastern nation. President Obama defined the task of the transitional force as "training, equipping, and advising Iraqi Security Forces as long as they remain non-sectarian; conducting targeted counter-terrorism missions; and protecting our ongoing civilian and military efforts within Iraq". Under this plan, the majority of troops will be withdrawn just a month after the deadline in the signed agreement between former President George W. Bush and Prime Minister of Iraq Nouri al-Maliki where the majority of troops will be withdrawn at one point, and the entirety of troops to be out by 31 December 2011. August 2010 partial withdrawal On 19 August 2010, the 4th Stryker Brigade, 2nd Infantry Division was the last American combat brigade to withdraw from Iraq. About 50,000 American troops would remain in the country in an advisory capacity. According to the US, they'll help to train Iraqi forces in a new mission dubbed by the United States as "Operation New Dawn," which will run until the end of 2011. The mission that ended 19 August 2010 was dubbed by the US as "Operation Iraqi Freedom," at a projected cost of more than $900 billion and 4,415 U.S. military personnel killed in action. Over 100,000 Iraqi civilians were estimated to be killed, according to the Iraq Body Count website. President Obama announced the end of Operation Iraqi Freedom in his Oval Office address on 31 August 2010. Full withdrawal (2011) With the collapse of the discussions about extending the stay of any U.S. troops, on 21 October 2011, President Obama announced the full withdrawal of troops from Iraq as scheduled before. The U.S. will retain an embassy in Baghdad with some 17,000 personnel, consulates in Basra, Mosul and Kirkuk, which have been allocated more than 1,000 staff each and between 4,000 to 5,000 defense contractors. President Obama and al-Maliki outlined a broad agenda for post-war cooperation without American troops in Iraq during a joint press conference on 12 December 2011 at the White House. This agenda includes cooperation on energy, trade and education as well as cooperation in security, counter-terrorism, economic development and strengthening Iraq's institutions. Both leaders said their countries will maintain strong security, diplomatic and economic ties after the last U.S. combat forces withdraw at the end of 2011. President Barack Obama paid tribute to the troops who served in Iraq on 14 December 2011, at the Fort Bragg military base in North Carolina. As the last of the American troops prepared to exit Iraq, he said the United States was leaving behind a "sovereign, stable and self-reliant" Iraq. On 15 December, an American military ceremony was held in Baghdad putting a formal end to the U.S mission in Iraq. The last 500 soldiers left Iraq under cover of darkness and under strict secrecy on early morning of 18 December 2011 and formally ended the U.S. military presence in Iraq. At the time of withdrawal, the United States had one remaining soldier, Staff Sergeant Ahmed K. Altaie, still missing in Iraq since 23 October 2006, and had offered a $50,000 reward for his recovery. On 26 February 2012, his death was confirmed. About 160 embassy guards guard the U.S. embassy in Baghdad, just like all of the other American embassies around the world. See also - House Concurrent Resolution 63: Disapproval of troop surge - Kerry-Feingold Amendment - Opposition to the Iraq War - Strategic reset - "How Not to End a War". The Defense Department. Retrieved 23 December 2011. - "Quinnipiac University Poll". - "Senate passes Iraq withdrawal bill; veto threat looms". CNN. 26 April 2007. - "Bush vetoes war-funding bill with withdrawal timetable". CNN. 2 May 2007. - "US troops complete their withdrawal from Iraq". Herald Sun. Australia. Retrieved 18 December 2011. - "Iraq". Pollingreport.com. Retrieved 2012-12-25. - "Confidence in U.S. Foreign Policy Index". Publicagenda.org. Retrieved 2012-12-25. - "House rejects Iraq withdrawal deadline". MSNBC. 16 June 2006. Retrieved 2012-12-25. - Angle, Martha (12 July 2007). "Defying Bush, House Passes New Deadline for Withdrawal From Iraq". The New York Times. Retrieved 18 July 2007. - Warner, John (11 June 2007). "Excerpt of Senator Warner's Iraq benchmark provisions in H.R.2206, U.S. Troop Readiness, Veterans' Care, Katrina Recovery, and Iraq Accountability Appropriations Act, 2007.". United States Senate. Archived from the original on 30 June 2007. Retrieved 18 July 2007. - "H.R. 2237". Thomas.loc.gov. Retrieved 2012-12-25. - wcbstv.com – House Passes Troop Withdrawal Bill[dead link] - "House passes bill to bring troops home in '08 –". CNN. Retrieved 2012-12-25. - Flaherty, Anne (18 July 2007). "Senate Troop Withdrawal Bill Scuttled". Time. Retrieved 18 July 2007. - UFPJ Legislative Action Network National Conference Call 2-6-06, (mirror) - Act Now to Stop War & End Racism (ANSWER): A.N.S.W.E.R. Responds to UFPJ: Our Position on Unity in the AntiWar Movement, 16 December 2005, (mirror) - "Obama's Speech at Camp Lejeune, N.C.". The New York Times. 27 February 2009. - Staff Sgt Michael J Caden (15 December 2008). "Bush, Maliki Sign Security Pact in Baghdad". DVIDS. Retrieved 31 August 2010. - Abdul-Zahra, Qassim; Burns, Robert (21 August 2008). "Officials: Draft accord on troop pullback in Iraq". USA Today. Retrieved 12 May 2010. - Stone, Andrea (15 December 2008). "Bush signs security deal in Iraq". USA Today. Retrieved 12 May 2010. - Al Jazeera and agencies (19 August 2010). "Last US combat brigade leaves Iraq". Al Jazeera and agencies. Retrieved 19 August 2010. "The 4th SBCT, 2ID left Baghdad and drove the entire distance to the Kuwaiti border in the same footprints that 3rd ID made during the invasion known as the "Race for Baghdad". I was one of those people driving out. We faced intense heat, the very real threat of the "final strike" against us and the possibility of breaking down in unsecured areas with very little support and the only combat power was what we brought with us. I crossed the border at 0548 in the morning and doing such, helped bring this war to an end, officially." - Lara Jakes and Rebecca Santana (15 October 2012). "Iraq Withdrawal: U.S. Abandoning Plans To Keep Troops In Country". Associated Press (AP). Retrieved 28 April 2012. - MacAskill (21 October 2011). "Iraq rejects US request to maintain bases after troop withdrawal". The Guardian (London). Retrieved 28 April 2012. - Denselow, James (25 October 2011). "The US departure from Iraq is an illusion". The Guardian. Retrieved 28 April 2012. - Pace, Julie (12 December 2011). "Obama, Maliki chart next steps for U.S., Iraq". Associated Press. - Robinson, Dan (12 December 2011). "Obama, Maliki Hail 'New Chapter' for Iraq Without US Troops". Associated Press. - "Obama Pays Tribute to Troops Who Served in Iraq". Voice of America. 14 December 2011. - "US flag ceremony ends Iraq operation". BBC. 15 December 2011. Retrieved 15 December 2011. - "US lowers flag to end Iraq war". London. Associated Press. 15 December 2011. Retrieved 15 December 2011. - Mak, Tim (15 December 2011). "Leon Panetta marks end of Iraq war". POLITICO.com. Retrieved 15 December 2011. - "Last U.S. troops leave Iraq, ending war". USA Today. 17 December 2011. Retrieved 18 December 2011. - Cutler, David (18 December 2011). "Timeline: Invasion, surge, withdrawal; U.S. forces in Iraq". Reuters. Retrieved 18 December 2011. - "Last US troops withdraw from Iraq". BBC. 18 December 2011. Retrieved 18 December 2011. - Green, Catherine (18 December 2011). "Final US Convoy Withdraws From Iraq". neontommy.com. Retrieved 18 December 2011. - Engel, Richard (18 December 2011). "'The war is over': Last US soldiers leave Iraq". NBC News. Retrieved 18 December 2011. - "We will never forget Sgt. Ahmed Altaie". US Army Reserve. Retrieved 28 April 2012. - Allam, Hannah (26 February 2012). "U.S. military receives remains of last soldier missing in Iraq". McClatchy Newspapers. Retrieved 28 April 2012. - "Army IDs remains of last missing U.S. soldier in Iraq". Associated Press (AP). 27 February 2012. Retrieved 28 April 2012. - Graff, Peter (27 February 2012). "Michigan burial for last U.S. soldier missing in Iraq". Reuters. Retrieved 28 April 2012. - Landler, Mark (21 October 2011). "U.S. Troops to Leave Iraq by Year's End, Obama Says". The New York Times. Further reading - Anthony Arnove, Iraq: The Logic of Withdrawal. Haymarket Books, Chicago, 2006. - Malorie R. Medellin, "Iraq: Pull-out Rundown," Current (Winter 2007): 9. - George McGovern and William Roe Polk, Out of Iraq: A Practical Plan for Withdrawal Now. Simon & Schuster, New York, 2006. - Rumsfeld forced out: Are U.S. troops next? Toronto Star – 9 November 2006

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Hormones are chemicals that carry messages from organs of your body to your cells. The glands that secrete hormones are part of the endocrine system (pituitary, thyroid, adrenals and pancreas, to name a few) and work in large part to keep the body’s natural balance in check. Many different hormones are secreted in the body. These include sex hormones and growth hormones. Growth hormones are of particular interest to those with diabetes because insulin is a hormone categorized as a growth hormone. The purpose of insulin is to convert sugar into energy by letting the glucose (sugar) into the cell. Those with type 1 diabetes lack the insulin necessary to convert that sugar into cellular energy. That’s why one of the first symptoms of type 1 diabetes is extreme fatigue. Once diabetes has been accurately diagnosed, insulin must be obtained from injections or an insulin pump since the body can no longer make adequate amounts.

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Black Holes Spin Near Speed of Light The image shows 1 out of the 9 large galaxies included in the Chandra study, containing a supermassive black hole in its center. CREDIT: NASA/CXC/UFRGS/R. Nemmen et al. Supermassive black holes spin at speeds approaching the speed of light, new research suggests. Nine huge galaxies were found to contain furiously whirling black holes that pump out energetic jets of gas into the surrounding environment, according to a study using data from NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory. "We think these monster black holes are spinning close to the limit set by Einstein?s theory of relativity, which means that they can drag material around them at close to the speed of light," said Rodrigo Nemmen, the study's lead author and a visiting graduate student at Penn State University. Einstein's theory suggests spinning black holes would make space itself rotate. The overall effect makes gas spiral in toward the black hole, and also creates a magnetic field that shoots inflowing gas back out as a jet. Researchers previously found that the greater the amount of gas falling into supermassive black holes — known as the accretion rate — the greater the energy of the jets shooting out. Leading theories suggest that the same jets drive the rotation of the central black holes in galaxies. "By comparing observations of massive elliptical galaxies with current theories of jet formation, we are able to get the spin of supermassive black holes," Nemmen told SPACE.com, explaining how his group ran computer simulations and compared the results with Chandra's observations of the nine objects. Black holes can't be seen, but their existence and mass are inferred by their gravitational effects on material around them and by the energy released from all the activity. The observed jet power and accretion rates were huge — one black hole ate 10 Earth masses per month and, from its surroundings, spat out 50 times the annual energy of our sun per second. That allowed Nemmen and his colleagues to estimate that the spin of the black holes approaches Einstein's speed-of-light limit. "Extremely fast spin might be very common for large black holes," said co-investigator Richard Bower of Durham University. "This might help us explain the source of these incredible jets that we see stretching for enormous distances across space." The jets produced by such high-speed spins heat the surrounding gaseous atmosphere and can help trigger the birth of stars. However, such powerful jets could also destroy the atmospheres of neighboring planets. The new research was detailed in a paper presented at a meeting of the American Astronomical Society in Austin, Texas, last week. - VIDEO: Black Hole Diving - VOTE NOW: The Strangest Things in Space - VIDEO: Black Holes: Warping Time & Space MORE FROM SPACE.com

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Baptism for the Dead, or Proxy Baptism is the means whereby those who never had a proper opportunity to accept Christ in life may have the opportunity to be baptized. Mormon doctrine teaches that baptism is a necessary ordinance to return back to Heavenly Father. Not only does the ordinance need to be performed, but it also must be done in the proper way and with the authority of Christ’s priesthood. “Because all on the earth do not have the opportunity to accept the gospel during mortality, the Lord has authorized baptisms performed by proxy for the dead. Therefore, those who accept the gospel in the spirit world may qualify for entrance into God’s kingdom” (See Guide to the Scriptures). One thing that should be made perfectly clear about baptisms for the dead is that when a baptism is performed for a person, he has the option to accept or reject it. There is nothing in Mormon doctrine that says that the person who is being baptized by proxy must accept this ordinance. However, doing baptisms for the dead does at least give the person the ability to make a choice. - Always a center of interest is the baptismal font. In each of the temples this font rests upon the backs of twelve stone or bronze oxen, following in this, as in other particulars, the pattern given by the Prophet Joseph Smith as he instituted temple building in his day under the direction of the Lord. Why is there a baptismal font in the temple? Cannot people be baptized anywhere? The living, yes. But the font in the temple is for vicarious baptisms performed in behalf of the dead (Mark E. Petersen, “Why We Build Temples,” Tambuli, Oct. 1980, 34). Baptism for the dead is an ordinance that has been performed throughout the history of Christ’s Church. In 1 Corinthians 15:29 it says, - Else what shall they do which are baptized for the dead, if the dead rise not at all? why are they then baptized for the dead? This statement teaches much in just two short sentences. A just and righteous God would not punish the millions of people who have lived on the earth who never had the opportunity to learn of the gospel and baptism. “The Savior himself declared that he was God of both the living and the dead, ‘for all live unto him’ (Luke 20:38), showing that he regards them all in the same light.” Baptism for the dead gives those who would have embraced Christ and His Church the opportunity to do so after death. Elder Mark E. Petersen went on to explain this fact: - People who die without having been taught the gospel may yet be saved in the presence of God. This is made clear in the scriptures. But how? That is the question. Jesus preached to the dead. The Apostle Peter taught this in his day, saying that after the death of the Savior, and while his body lay in the tomb, the Lord, as a spirit, went to the realm of the dead and there preached to the spirits of the people who previously had lived on the earth (1 Peter 3:18–20). Then he gives us the reason for this preaching: “For this cause was the gospel preached also to them that are dead, that they might be judged according to men in the flesh, but live according to God in the spirit (1 Peter 4:6). Elder Petersen went on to explain what these passages teach us: - That Jesus was a Personage of both spirit and flesh, like all of us. - That when Jesus went to the realm of the dead he was still himself, an individual, the humble “Carpenter from Nazareth,” although a spirit divested of his body of flesh and bones which had been crucified. - That the dead—even those who died in the flood—also were intelligent persons, still individuals, although spirits like Jesus himself. - That these dead were so much in possession of their reason and their faculties that they could hear the gospel like men in the flesh although they lived in a world of spirits, and that they were alive and alert and could use discretion in accepting or rejecting the teachings of Christ. - That Jesus taught them the gospel, which was their opportunity for salvation. - That having heard the gospel, they might accept it or reject it and thus be “judged according to men in the flesh.” As they did accept it they could then “live according to God in the spirit” just as the scripture indicated. - Mormon Temples - Lightplanet - Mormon Temple Ordinances - ReligionFacts - FAIRlds:Baptism for the dead in ancient Christianityru:Крещение за умерших

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The Ford Five Dollar Day I. Background: Welfare Capitalism The term “welfare capitalism” refers to a benevolent employer setting up programs and organizations (e.g. sports teams, recreational facilities, musical groups, insurance program, profit-sharing plan) for his workers. The main reason is to try and keep them happy and loyal to the company so that they won’t join unions. In the wake of reform sentiment during the Progressive Era, many employers realized that they had to make an effort to make things better for their workers, and welfare capitalism became pretty widespread among companies in the 1910s and 1920s. II. Three Components of Ford’s New Program: Ford had tried many of the programs listed above, but many of his workers were still dissatisfied, and Ford had to deal with costly problems of high turnover and absenteeism. Dissatisfied workers were less efficient, so in his quest for efficiency, Ford tried something new and, among fellow businessmen, controversial. A. Eight hour work day He lowered the work day to 8 hours. B. $5 day he offered his workers $5 a day (which was an exorbitant amount at the time) but they could only get the full $5 if they met certain conditions 1. regular wage (earned for working) - $2.34 was earned for working 2. profit sharing amount - and $2.66 more could be earned if Ford determined that the worker was living “right.” It was a conditional gift. C. Set up Savings & Loans for Workers – (a S&L is basically a bank) He set up a special Ford bank to encourage the workers to save the extra $ they’re earning. III. Ford’s Assumptions Ford assumed that a sound home environment produced an efficient worker. If the worker were living in an “unsound” home environment, he would bring bad habits and attitudes to work. So Ford used the extra $ as a (strong) incentive for altering the habits and behaviors of his workers. But there were other important reasons for paying his workers a higher wage. It would allow workers to also be consumers -- and if they saved their money correctly, hopefully they could buy a Ford automobile! Moreover, it hopefully would make workers less inclined to organize and join a union. IV. The “Right” Way to Live How did Ford determine if a worker was living right and should get the full $5? He set up the “sociological department” which sent investigators into all of the workers’ homes to observe how they were living and ask a lot of questions, particularly about alcohol use, marital relations, and spending habits. The investigators were looking for evidence of the following: “thrift, cleanliness, sobriety, family values, and good morals in general.” The head of the sociological department, S.S. Marquis, said: “Nothing tends to lower a man’s efficiency more than wrong family relations.” Henry Ford thought thrift was a very important quality because it indicated that a person had self-control, self-respect, responsibility, and would work steadily and diligently. Good morals and proper family relations held a particularly middle class (or “bourgeois”) definition. This definition was often forced upon working-class and immigrant workers. Dollar Day program was set up in late 1914. In 1915 it cost Ford $18,000 to operate the sociological department, and he distributed nearly $8 million in profits to about 19,000 workers at What if a worker didn’t cooperate with the sociological department or didn’t meet the standards? He would only receive the regular wage ($2.34), and he was given six months to comply with the department’s standards for living. If he did not meet the standards after six months, then he was fired. The rate of turnover fell from 370% to 16% in 1915. (It went back up to 51% by 1918.) Absenteeism decreased dramatically too. Meanwhile, productivity went up, as did the number of Ford workers who had insurance, owned a home, had a savings account, and were married. Also, from what we can measure, drinking decreased. Sounds pretty good. Should every company adopt this approach? VI. Workers’ Responses Most workers permitted the intrusions in their lives so they could get the extra $. Some would say that they traded their pride and privacy for money, but we must understand the economic insecurity of working class life. One historian argues that many workers resisted (in his words, “grumbled and griped”) - that they altered their behavior for Ford but didn’t truly internalize the values – that they didn’t let Ford truly capture their hearts and minds. Also, the $5 day program didn’t change the fact that the work, well, sucked. One worker reacted, “There is a limit to human endurance. Any man who is keyed up to the last notch [referring to the speed up] will eventually break down, it matters not whether they get $1 or $10 a day.” Some criticized Ford as being a paternalist; in other words, that Ford was not just an employer but was also trying to be a father figure to his workers (rewarding and punishing his children.) They criticized him for trying to “own” his workers outside of the factory too and found the whole program humiliating. But Ida Tarbell, a Progressive journalist, commented: “I don’t care what you call it – philanthropy, paternalism, autocracy – the results which are being obtained are worth all you can set against them.” The $5 day ended after just a few years because it cost Ford too much. It was an expensive program, and it became more expensive as the Ford workforce grew. Also, a decline in the labor supply in He found a new way to control his labor force that was cheaper and more sinister. He began to rely on espionage (factory spies and informants) to report on workers who were doing objectionable things, and Ford was especially worried about workers trying to start a union. He hired thugs who would enforce order and loyalty. Question: how committed was Henry Ford to his principles (helping his workers obtain thrift, sobriety, and so on) if he dropped the program when it got too expensive? Did he really care about the workers? VIII. Relation to Progressivism The Five Dollar Day captures Progressivism’s contradictory attitude toward unskilled workers (most of them immigrants), for it attempted to elevate them to a better life, yet it tried to manipulate or coerce them to match a preconceived ideal of that better life. Many lives were no doubt improved, but there wasn’t much room for diversity or acceptance of difference. Was it worth it?

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Pest Control - Easy Step For Prevention And Management: Good Sanitation We all know that pests can accumulate in houses, garden sheds, buildings and other infrastructures as well as in crops. We may do so many things to prevent pest control methods but then one cannot really do much with pests. Once they infest, we can do something about it to solve the problem then watch out that they don’t come back and if the pests come back do something about it. Prevention is indeed the best method to do to prevent pest infestation and one way you can do it is through maintenance of good sanitation. We ourselves must be consistent in practicing it not only to prevent and manage pest infestation but for our own benefit as well for our health maintenance and disease prevention. Good sanitation can prevent and remove the breeding grounds of pests by way of proper waste management. Garbage provide food and shelter to many pests. First of all, the biodegradable wastes and the non biodegradable wastes should be properly segregated. Biodegradable wastes which come from plant and animal sources should be properly handled by placing in well-sealed plastic or garbage containers in the house and eliminated from the house as soon as possible so as to prevent the pests coming into then and feasting on them. The non-biological wastes can also be breeding places of pests such as the boxes, papers and plastics and should also be discarded appropriately. Communities should maintain practicing good garbage collection and disposal at all times to have less pest problems such as with rats, cockroaches, mosquitoes, flies and etc. Aside from that, still waters should be drained accordingly as they can be breeding grounds for mosquitoes. Another important thing to do is to consistently clean the inside and outside areas of the house or the building. General cleaning must be a done as many times as necessary. Outside the house, garden sheds buildings, sweep off the dried fallen leaves which can cause termites to eat on them. Keep the surroundings clean at all times. Trim shrubs and trees that may be breeding places for pests. Inside the house or any infrastructures, sweep the floor and dust the furniture. Sweep the ceilings to prevent spiders from accumulating in them. Good sanitation practices also include removing grocery sacks between the refrigerator and counter, throwing away old products made of grains which have been placed in cabinets and pantries for such can invite pests. Watch out also that the soils for house plants are pest free. Watch out on old dried flower arrangement. As much as possible, keep storage items at least three feet away from the interior and exterior foundation walls leaving a room for inspection and performing any necessary pest control measures. Before bringing things inside, check out for bugs and rodents. Keep things in order at all times, avoid clutter for pests can dwell in clutters. Never store firewood inside and keep the chimney flue shut, unless there is fire in the fire place. When you have pets such as cats and dogs, maintain their proper hygiene as well. Cleanliness is next to godliness. Being clean at all times can keep the house and any infrastructures pest-free as well as healthy living environment for humans. Maintaining cleanliness can be done just by anyone and will not incur costs. But if there is already a pest infestation and you cannot handle it anymore, do not hesitate to call on your trusted pest control services provider. Pest control management is a joint activity between you and the professional pest control provider. For indeed, maintaining the cleanliness of the house or any infrastructure is a direct responsibility of the homeowners or the owners of the infrastructures.

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Most existing studies of postwar European women's or gender history are based on local or national case studies and focus disproportionately on the western half of the continent. This history workshop was funded by the Gerda Henkel Stiftung and the Zentrum für Zeithistorische Forschung. It aimed at breaking new ground by exploring the gendered dimensions of international politics, norms and institutions in both eastern and western Europe, as well as the ways in which transnational women's movements responded to changes in international politics from 1945 to the mid-1960s, a period that studies of transnational women's activity have tended to ignore as an era of alleged female political apathy. Particular attention during the two-day workshop was paid to entanglements and transfers across ideological and geographical divides - above all, between East and West Europe during the cold war. In his opening speech, STEFAN-LUDWIG HOFFMANN (Potsdam / Freiburg) argued that the Zentrum für Zeithistorische Forschung, due to its institutional history, was the ideal place to bring Western European history into dialogue with the rich scholarship now emerging on gender, women's organizing and histories of international institutions in Eastern Europe. The desire to establish a network of researchers with common interests, who have not yet shared their work in a systematic way, was also underlined by the workshop organizers, CELIA DONERT (Potsdam) and JANOU GLENCROSS (Hannover). In their introduction, the organizers reminded the audience that the end of the Second World War ushered in a new era of women's legal rights, not only in national constitutions, but also in international law: the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was the first international instrument to proclaim gender equality as a human right. Donert and Glencross emphasized that the idea of a 'civilised internationalism', based on European values, was replaced after 1945 by the rhetoric of universalism, with the competing political and economic orders of liberal democracy and state socialism each claiming to speak for all humankind. This workshop primarily probed the gender representations that circulated in the new international institutions that arose from faltering empires and the emerging cold war. The workshop featured three panels in total. Firstly, 'Women and Internationalism: The Impact of a New World Order' focused on the gendered dimension of norms and institutions in post-war Europe. In her illuminating paper, JESSICA REINISCH (London) started with UNRRA (United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration) and elaborated on the gender politics of international reconstruction and relief after WWII. She revealed that female relief workers often acted as untrained anthropologists, as 'witness-participants' who challenged some of the priorities and policies formulated by Anglo-American diplomats. Reinisch concluded that UNRRA's women not only contributed to the debates that shaped post-war international legislation, but also occupied a pivotal role in implementing and changing policies. The second speaker, MEGAN DOHERTY (New York), attended to the writers' organization PEN International between its founding in 1921 and its establishment, as Doherty argued, as a more representatively 'international' NGO by the mid-1970s. Doherty addressed what she labeled as the 'paradox of PEN's' existence: although it was founded by a woman, only men were elected as its International Presidents. What renders this condition even more contradictory is the fact that reading was a core component of feminist identities, as Lucy Delap has demonstrated. Doherty suggested that the difficulty of women to progress towards the higher ranks of PEN was connected with the way in which this organization conceptualized 'humanity' and 'literature': in both cases, male experience was privileged. In her comment, SANDRINE KOTT (Geneva) urged the speakers to problematize the opportunities that international organizations provided women at different times during the 19th and 20th century. The factors which pushed women to externalize their claims outside frustrating national contexts have, for example, been well-demonstrated for feminism's first wave, but they have been neglected for the postwar reconstruction period. The following panel dealt with gender in state socialism, its (inter)national agendas, multiple agencies and transnational organizing. In the first presentation, ADÉLA GJURICOVÁ (Prague), showed how Czechoslovak women activists across the political spectrum established surprisingly successful methods of cooperation within the National Front, transcending party cleavages during the crucial years of 1945-1948, namely prior to the consolidation of the Communist regime in Czechoslovakia. RALUCA POPA (Budapest) argued in her paper about the international activism of state socialist women's organizations that during International Women's Year (1975) the two state-sponsored women's organizations in Hungary and Romania actively shaped international commitments to gender equality, women and development, and women's role in the promotion of peace. Contrary to the conventional historiography of IWY and the UN Decade for Women (1975-1985), which relegated state socialist representatives to an involvement in only one of the three themes (peace), Popa demonstrated that 'equality' had long been a concern of East European women's organizations. She underlined, moreover, in her well-argued presentation that representatives of the two organizations embraced these goals as their own, and not as party directives. HANA HAVELKOVÁ (Prague) complicated the picture by stressing the restrictions posed by Eastern European regimes on women's activism. She outlined a process comprising a number of stages, which unfolded in 'really existing socialism': the 'expropriation' of feminist agenda by the Communist regime, its 'replacement' by State organized acts and activities and its 'alienation' from women themselves. She maintained that the state adopted many of the goals that had been set by the women's movement in Czechoslovakia, while restricting its activity from 1948 onwards, especially of those organizations that were critical of the Communist power. Of particular interest in this panel, as testified by the discussion, was thus the issue also addressed by CHIARA BONFIGLIOLI (Utrecht): the historicization of the concept of women's organizational 'autonomy'. Bonfiglioli's challenging paper examined the activity of Italian and Yugoslav women in antifascist, feminist and left wing politics in the early cold war, through a study of two internationalist women's organizations that were affiliated to Communist parties, the UDI (Unione Donne Italiane, Union of Italian Women) and the Anti-Fascist Women's Front of Yugoslavia. She turned against what she called 'a prescriptive category of women's organizational "autonomy" or an ideal primacy of gender-based goals'. She stressed the 'multiple and complex' forms of agency that women developed in the environment of widespread poverty and violent class conflict in post-war Italy and Yugoslavia. The final panel paid special attention to the Women's International Democratic Federation (WIDF). All contributions called for a re-appraisal of the Federation, founded in Paris in 1945, which, in line with the 'East-West' dichotomy of cold war historiography has long been evaluated as a propaganda machine controlled by Moscow. In the first paper, MARGARITE POULOS (Sydney) focused on the activities of its Greek affiliate, the Panhellenic Federation of Women (POG) 1946-1948, and its post-1948 incarnation, the Panhellenic Democratic Federation of Women (PDEG). She argued that in view of 'the first geopolitical conflict of the cold war' - the years of the Greek Civil War (1946-1949) - the international dimensions of PDEG activity serve to complicate cold war dismissals of the WIDF as a genuine and stable 'communist front' organization. MELANIE ILIC (Gloucestershire), meanwhile, focused on Soviet women and argued that the study of the WIDF provides an interesting example of the processes of cultural exchange across the Iron Curtain during the cold war. She showed that individual women from both sides of the emerging cold war regularly came together within the framework of the WIDF; besides that, ideological divisions also transcended the iron curtain. Ilic referred to sexual equality, children's rights, disarmament and national independence as ideas that united WIDF members across Europe. The two case-studies were complemented by FRANCISCA DE HAAN's (Budapest) approach to the WIDF. De Haan argued that a closer and more intimate look at the personal histories of its individual members helps to complicate the stereotypical understanding of WIDF women as 'Stalin's puppets'. De Haan demonstrated that a study of friendship between WIDF members can help frame its policies and commitments, i.e. to anti-colonialism and anti-racism, more thoroughly. The personal archives of WIDF members, as De Haan's wide-ranging research shows, throw a subtle new light on the interplay between individual biographies and the history of an organization. In her thoughtful comment, HELEN LAVILLE (Birmingham) underlined that this new research on the WIDF is a welcome corrective to established 'western' accounts on the role of American women's groups during the cold war. She reminded the audience that investigating the relationship between the state and private organisations remains of central significance for historians of the cold war period. However, understanding this relationship within a dichotomous framework of control and autonomy does not do justice to the complex agendas of the actors involved. The workshop concluded with the keynote lecture delivered by VICTORIA DE GRAZIA (New York). De Grazia challenged the audience to rethink central fields of internationalism through the category of gender. Instead of focusing too much on women's transnational organizing, historians should rather attend to themes like development and the military, which have been neglected by gender-conscious scholars for too long. By elaborating on the case of Rotary International, she sketched some of the questions and implications of such a research perspective. In general, most papers tended to lend support to the argument put forth by Melvyn Leffler, namely that if parameters, such as gender (but also race and culture), are inserted in the examination of cold war, its historiography will no longer be possible to rest upon a single master narrative. Gender serves as a very important category, not simply to add knowledge, but to complicate well-entrenched historiographical arguments. A slightly critical remark is that the majority, though not the entirety, of the presentations concentrated on 'women' and not on 'gender'; therefore, as some conference participants also noted, a number of issues were omitted. How was, for instance, the dominant masculinity forged, especially as opposed to subordinated masculinities, homosexual and heterosexual, in diverse international institutions? In addition, how did gender intersect with other categories, such as social class and race in the operation of these organisations? Should, for example, the potential exclusion of women be imputed solely to their gender or to other aspects of their background as well? Finally, apparently more research may be done not only about gender divisions within international organisations, but also gender representations that affected their contact with other actors. For instance, it would perhaps be worthwhile to probe whether UNRRA, when dealing with the recipients of its aid, promoted the windows of opportunity that had appeared for women during World War II and in the immediate post-war years or reinforced women's return to 'home' and the 'family'. However, the workshop can certainly be seen as a success. It offered important new perspectives on issues of interest to all historians of contemporary Europe: above all, it brought together a vibrant mix of young and established historians, who shed new light on the relationship between women's organizations and their respective state authorities and who also demonstrated clearly how individuals and organizations, institutions and ideas transcended, but also shaped the emerging and changing cold war camps in post-war Europe. Stefan-Ludwig Hoffmann (ZZF Potsdam): Welcome Celia Donert (ZZF) / Janou Glencross (Leibniz University Hannover): Introduction Panel: Women and Internationalism: The Impact of a New World Order Jessica Reinisch (Birkbeck College, London): 'Flutter-brained women' or 'Queens of distressed Ruritarians'? UNRRA's army of women and the international relief project Megan Doherty (Columbia University, New York): Woman and the PEN Comment: Sandrine Kott (University of Geneva) Nora Natchkova / Céline Schoeni (University of Lausanne): ILO politics and feminist organizations during the Cold War: Organizing or disorganizing equality model? Kristin Reichel (University of Erfurt): Bringing gender in - the gendered dimension of the social policy of the EEC in the 1960s (had to be cancelled due to illness) Comment: Theresa Wobbe Panel: Gender in State Socialism: (Inter)national Agendas, Multiple Agencies and Transnational Organizing Adéla Gjuricová (Institute for Contemporary History, Prague): Intimate "inter-partyism": Czechoslovak women's organizations 1945-1948 Chiara Bonfiglioli (University of Utrecht): Cold War internationalisms, nationalisms and the Tito-Stalin split: the Union of Italian Women and the Antifascist Women's Front of Yugoslavia before and after 1948 Hana Havelková (Charles University, Prague): Gender contract in state socialism: Multiple agencies Raluca Popa (Central European University, Budapest): International activism of state socialist women's organizations: Shaping the UN women's agenda Comment: Claudia Kraft (University of Erfurt) Panel: Women and the early Cold War: New Perspectives on the Women's International Democratic Federation (WIDF) Margarite Poulos (University of Sydney): International activism during the Greek Civil War: The Greek Communist Party and the WIDF Francisca De Haan (Central European University, Budapest): Politics and friendship in the early decades of the WIDF - an exploration based on letters and other personal documents Melanie Ilic (University of Gloucestershire): Soviet women, cultural exchange and the Women's International Democratic Federation Comment: Helen Laville (University of Birmingham) Katja Naumann (University of Leipzig) Lecture and Discussion Victoria de Grazia (Columbia University, New York) Lucy Delap, The Feminist Avant-Garde. Transatlantic Encounters of the Early Twentieth Century, Cambridge 2007.

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Situated on the equator on Africa's east coast, Kenya has been described as "the cradle of humanity". In the Great Rift Valley palaeontologists have discovered some of the earliest evidence of man's ancestors. In the present day, Kenya's ethnic diversity has produced a vibrant culture but is also a source of conflict. After independence from Britain in 1963, politics was dominated by the charismatic Jomo Kenyatta. He was succeeded in 1978 by Daniel arap Moi, who remained in power for 24 years. The ruling Kenya African National Union, Kanu, was the only legal political party for much of the 1980s. Violent unrest - and international pressure - led to the restoration of multi-party politics in the early 1990s. But it was to be another decade before opposition candidate Mwai Kibaki ended nearly 40 years of Kanu rule with his landslide victory in 2002's general election. At a glance - Politics: Presidential elections in 2007 led to widespread unrest, which resulted in the formation of a power-sharing government and the adoption of a new constitution in 2010 - Economy: The economy has been recovering over recent years - International: Kenya's military entered Somalia at the end of 2011 to fight al-Shabab Islamist militants, but has seen some violence spill back over its borders Country profiles compiled by BBC Monitoring Despite President Kibaki's pledge to tackle corruption, some donors estimated that up to $1bn had been lost to graft between 2002 and 2005. Other pressing challenges include high unemployment, crime and poverty; most Kenyans live below the poverty level of $1 a day. Droughts frequently put millions of people at risk. With its scenic beauty and abundant wildlife, Kenya is one of Africa's major safari destinations. Kenya was shaken by inter-ethnic violence which followed disputed elections in 2007. Several prominent Kenyans stand accused of crimes against humanity for allegedly inciting the violence, and the authorities are increasingly sensitive to any attempts to stir up communal tension. The next elections, passed off without violence, and resulted in victory for Uhuru Kenyatta, the son of independence leader Jomo Kenyatta. Kenya's military entered Somalia in October 2011 to curb the threat of the Islamist militant al-Shabab movement, which it accused of the kidnap and killing of tourists and aid workers. Kenyan troops are now largely integrated into the overall Amiscom African Union forces in Somalia. There have been some reprisal attacks in Kenya itself.

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Making Sense of the Available OS for ARM Processors Traditionally, many embedded designs are developed without the use of an underlying operating system. As applications become more complex, the project team often develops proprietary real-time operating systems (RTOS) or task schedulers. This article presents a background on the evolution of embedded operating systems and discusses how the move from 8- or 16-bit architectures to the 32-bit ARM processor-based devices affects the operating system decision. The author discusses how the development of embedded operating systems moved from being an art to a science, looks at the evolution of commercial RTOSs, discusses the factors influencing operating system choices in the 32-bit RISC market, evaluates the invasion of traditional PC operating systems into embedded designs, and offers a short comparison of embedded operating systems popular in ARM processor-based designs.

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Letter B: Bookkeeping and Accounting Definitions There are 100's of accounting definitions, bookkeeping terms and bookkeeping definitions here in my accounting terms glossary. Use this page as an accounting resource to help improve your bookkeeping knowledge of terms starting with the letter B. Just pick a letter to go directly to the accounting definitions and bookkeeping terms associated with that letter, or use the search engine below to search the entire website for the accounting term you a looking for. ACCOUNTING DEFINITIONS STARTING WITH THE LETTER B A sum of money owed that is unlikely to be repaid. A statement showing the assets and liabilities of a company or institution at a particular time. Balloon Payment Loan: A balloon payment loan is a formalized loan with a final payment that is larger than the regular payment amount. Balloon payment loans usually have a lower interest rate than a standard loan to compensate for the larger, final payment. Most balloon payment loans have fixed monthly principal and interest payments with a defined payback period. Banking consists of two basic operations: 1) receiving money from the general public and 2) investing this money to make a profit. The money a bank receives is in the form of deposits, while its investments usually consist of loans and securities on which it earns interest. Banks typically offer two general typs of accounts to their depositors: savings and checking. Savings accounts are designed for people who wish to save money and have it earn interest, while checking accounts are designed to keep money in the bank that may be used without coming to the bank to withdraw it. This is accomplished by writing a check. The exchange of one kind of property for another without the use of money. (The exchange of goods for money is called a sale; the exchange of similar goods such as a car for a car is a trade). Base Unit of Measure: The first unit defined in a unit of measure set and is usually the smallest unit of measure used for an item when purchasing it, tracking it in inventory, and selling it. The written promise of a corporation or government to repy borrowed money on a specified date and at a fixed rate of interest. Bonds are usually issued in groups to finance large loans. A systematic method of recording business transactions. The recording or clerical part of accounting. Basic bookkeeping shows money received and money spent for a given period. More complete business systems show where income came from, how and where money is spent, how much profit a business made or how great a loss it had, what the business is worth, and how these results for the given period compare with the results for previous periods. The activity, practice, or profession of maintaining the business records of a person or organization and preparing forms and reports for tax or other financial purposes. The point or level of financial activity at which expenditure equals income or the value of an investment equals its cost, with the result that there is neither a profit nor a loss. A plan specifying how resources, especially time or money, will be allocated or spent during a particular period. An organization set up to carry on some form of economic activity for profit. A business may be owned by one person or may be a partnership, cooperative, or corporation. In a more general sense, business is a broad term covering commerce and trade, industry, and banking & finance. The pattern of recurring changes in economic conditions, from good to hard times, and back to good. In each cycle there are ususally four stages: 1) prosperity, 2) decline, 3) depression/recession, and 4) recovery. A rule or regulation made by a corporation, club, or society fo the government of its own affairs. Please subscribe to my monthly newsletter, Bookkeeping Basics E-zine. It tells you each month about the new information and accounting definitions that I have added, including some great tips and advice from myself and other E-zine readers. Get Discounted Products at The Bookkeeping Supplies Store Return to Bookkeeping and Accounting Definitions Return to Bookkeeping Basics Home Page ABOUT ME ~ CONTACT ME ~ FAQ ~ SITEMAP ~ SITESEARCH

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Deborah Smith April 01, 2012 Skimming the sun … Comet Lovejoy visible near the Earth's horizon was discovered by the amateur astronomer Terry Lovejoy. Photo: Amy and Sarah Lovejoy You've got as much chance as a snowball in hell. It's an old saying, but take heart. Some snowballs can survive the cosmic equivalent of hell - a close encounter with the fiery surface of the sun. Comet Lovejoy - named after the amateur Australian astronomer who found it - was declared a wonder last year when it withstood an hour-long death dive through the sun's atmosphere. Now scientists have worked out which comets can achieve this seemingly impossible feat and which ones will just slowly fizzle out or explode. John Brown, Astronomer Royal for Scotland, said the key was whether the comet's orbit brought it within 7000 kilometres of the sun's surface. His team studied how these giant balls of dusty ice lose mass and energy at different altitudes, and he presented the results at an astronomy conference in Manchester this week. ''In modelling how comets behave in this extreme environment, we really are starting to understand what happens to these supersonic snowballs in hell,'' Professor Brown said. Below 7000 kilometres, they become ''sunplungers'' and are destroyed in a few seconds as they crash into the dense solar atmosphere, he said. Above 7000 kilometres, they become ''sunskimmers'' and slowly fizzle out, as sunlight and friction vaporise their icy cores. This may take a few minutes or much longer, depending on their size, which can range from 10 metres to tens of kilometres across. For decades, astronomers have watched thousands of comets fall towards the sun, but the solar glare made it impossible to see the snowballs on close approach. Last year, however, a NASA satellite, the Solar Dynamics Observatory, made the first direct observations of two sunskimmers on both their intrepid journeys. In July, Comet SOHO disintegrated during a 15-minute period as it passed within 100,000 kilometres of the surface. In December, the larger Comet Lovejoy survived its hour-long trip at an altitude of 140,000 kilometres, although it lost a large amount of its mass. Professor Brown said these two events matched their predictions and he hoped the flare of an exploding sunplunger would soon be detected as well.

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Written in a narrative style that captures both the scope and detail of the Russian revolution, Orlando Figes' history is certain to become one of the most important contemporary studies of Russia as it was at the beginning of the 20th century. With an almost cinematic eye, Figes captures the broad movements of war and revolution, never losing sight of the individuals whose lives make up his subject. He makes use of personal papers and personal histories to illustrate the effects the revolution wrought on a human scale, while providing a convincing and detailed understanding of the role of workers, peasants, and soldiers in the revolution. He moves deftly from topics such as the grand social forces and mass movements that made up the revolution to profiles of key personalities and representative characters. Figes' themes of the Russian revolution as a tragedy for the Russian people as a whole and for the millions of individuals who lost their lives to the brutal forces it unleashed make sense of events for a new generation of students of Russian history. Sympathy for the charismatic leaders and ideological theorising regarding Hegelian dialectics and Marxist economics--two hallmarks of much earlier writing on the Russian revolution--are banished from these clear-eyed, fair-minded pages of A People's Tragedy. The author's sympathy is squarely with the Russian people. That commitment, together with the benefit of historical hindsight, provides a standpoint Figes can take full advantage of in this masterful history. "A memorably good book... A People's Tragedy combines dramatic power, absorbing narrative and magisterial scholarship - a magnificent tour de force. " (Christopher Andrew Sunday Telegraph "I doubt if there is anyone in the world who knows the revolution as well as he does." (Norman Stone Sunday Times "Written with verve and enlivened by anecdote, this is a comprehensive, fair minded account... Figes' main objective is to put the masses back in their rightful place, and this he has triumphantly done... Profoundly researched, brilliantly written, full of wit, wisdom and humanity. It is by far the best history of the Russian Revolution I have ever read" (Frank McLynn Glasgow Herald "This books is not just a history; it is an item of history... Orlando Figes has taken the chance to display the very experience of revolution as it affected millions of ordinary Russians." (Neal Ascherson Independent on Sunday "It balances big ideas with vivid personal histories and must be the most moving account of the Russian Revolution since Doctor Zhivago ." (Lucasta Miller Independent

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