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SMART-1 view of crater Sulpicius Gallus This mosaic of three images, taken by the advanced Moon Imaging Experiment (AMIE) on board ESA's SMART-1 spacecraft, shows the area close to the Sulpicius Gallus crater on the Moon. AMIE obtained this sequence on 18 March 2006, from a distance of 1200 kilometres from the surface, with a ground resolution ranging from 110 to 114 metres per pixel. The area shown in the top image is centred at a latitude of 19.7º North and longitude 12.2º East; the image in the middle is centred at a latitude of 18.2º North and longitude 12.3º East; the bottom image is centred at a latitude of 16.7º North and longitude 12.5º East. The prominent crater on the upper left area of this mosaic is called Sulpicius Gallus. It is a fairly fresh, bowl-shaped crater with a diameter of roughly 12 kilometres. The flat lava plains surrounding it belong to the Mare Serenitatis (the 'Sea of Serenity') on the north-eastern side of the Moon facing Earth. The mountains going diagonally through the middle part of the mosaic are called Montes Haemus. They are denoting the edge of the huge impact crater which formed the Mare Serenitatis. The area around Sulpicius Crater is very interesting for lunar scientists – it is one of the most geologically and compositionally complex areas of the nearside of the Moon. The geologic history of this region has been shaped by impacts of different scales and epochs, by volcanism of variable style and composition with time, and by limited tectonics. Specific findings (Bell and Hawke, 1995) include the detection of relatively fresh highlands materials in the crater. Good spectroscopic data (that is relative to the mineralogical composition) are available both from the Clementine mission and from ground-based observations, allowing to better constrain the geological evolution of our closest cosmic neighbour. The area has been suggested to contain mixtures of glassy and black beads generated when large impacts melted part of the lunar surface. However, modelling the spectral properties of material similar to lunar material does not allow to unambiguously match the composition of the material to the measured data. Colour observations of the AMIE camera will help in further clarifying these issues. So, the combination of high spatial resolution imaging and high spectral resolution spectroscopy from datasets from SMART-1, Clementine and ground based telescopes will finally allow to better model mineral mixtures on the Moon. The stereo anaglyph view is composed from the set of images taken on 18 March 2006 (orbit 2083) and another one of the same area taken on the same day, two orbits or about 10 hours later (orbit 2085), from 1200 kilometres altitude. The crater Sulpicius Gallus is named after a Roman general, state man and orator. He is famous for having predicted an eclipse of the moon on the night before the battle of Pydna (168 BC). A man of great learning, in his later years he devoted himself to the study of astronomy. For more information Bernard H. Foing, ESA SMART-1 Project Scientist Email: bernard.foing @ esa.int Jean-Luc Josset, AMIE Principal Investigator SPACE-X Space Exploration Institute Email: jean-luc.josset @ space-x.ch

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http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Science/SMART-1_view_of_crater_Sulpicius_Gallus

2013-05-19T19:51:37Z

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A study published in the journal Ethnicity & Disease has found disparity in the risk of getting type 2 diabetes among Asians, with South Asian immigrants (Pakistanis, Indians, Nepalese and Bangladeshis) more likely to get the disease than whites and other Asian immigrants (Chinese, Koreans, Thais, Filipinos, Vietnamese, etc) in the US. Using data from a survey conducted in 2004, the study analyzed the prevalence of heart disease and metabolic disorders like diabetes based on ethnicity and other risk factors. The South Asian subgroup scored 35.4% prevalence of type 2 diabetes, while the all other Asian subgroup has 16.1% and whites scored lowest at 10.8%. The results are of special interest to experts, as genetic susceptibility and abrupt changes in physical activities and diet result in elevated risks for Asians and must be addressed by making people aware of these risk factors. Picture of Credit : FriskoDude

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http://www.exami.net/south-asians-have-higher-risk-of-type-2-diabetes

2013-05-19T19:23:08Z

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All > Technology > Operating System > Microsoft Windows > Microsoft Windows Server > Microsoft Active Directory - A location in a network holding Active Directory servers. A site is defined as one or more well connected TCP/IP subnets. Well-connected means that network connectivity is highly reliable and fast (LAN speeds, 10 MM bits-per-second or greater). Sites play a major role in the Active Directory replication service, which differentiates between replication using a local network connection (intra-site replication) and replication over a slower wide area network (WAN) link (inter-site replication). Administrators use the Active Directory Sites and Services Manager snap-in to administer replication topology for both intra- and inter-site replication. GuardianEdge Technologies - Cite This Source - This Definition - One or more well-connected (highly reliable and fast) TCP/IP subnets. A site allows administrators to configure Active Directory access and replication topology to take advantage of the physical network. Illinois State University - Cite This Source - This Definition - Physical partitions that control replication by creating boundaries based on IP addressing. Les Entreprises Resolutions Enterprises - Cite This Source - This Definition - Domain Controller, KCC, Knowledge Consistency Checker (KCC), Replication, Schema cache, Site Link, Site topology, Synchronization

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2013-05-19T19:12:53Z

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This Endangered Music Project album was recorded in the early 1940s by Luiz Heitor Corrêa de Azevedo. A professor of music and composer from Rio de Janeiro, Corrêa de Azevedo traveled in northern and central Brazil with recording equipment loaned to him by the Library of Congress. The songs on this collection, performed on shaker, wooden box, claps, strings, bell, friction drum, guitar and other instruments, document the roots of the Brazilian music that would later enter the mainstream of world popular music. The album was produced by Mickey Hart and Alan Jabbour and includes liner notes by ethnomusicologist Morton Marks. L.H. Correa de Azevedo: Music of Ceara and Minas Gerais was issued in 1997 as part of the Endangered Music Project, a series curated by Grateful Dead drummer Mickey Hart featuring material from the Library of Congress' American Folklife Center. The series is now part of the Mickey Hart Collection made available by Smithsonian Folkways. Visit mickeyhart.net for additional photos and videos from this album Click to enlarge

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http://www.folkways.si.edu/l-h-correa-de-azevedo-music-of-ceara-and-minas-gerais/latin-world/music/album/smithsonian

2013-05-19T19:36:24Z

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Water management could boost crop yield, but not enough, study suggests A team of German and Swedish researchers has found that moderate on-farm water management using certain strategies could increase global crop production by a total of 19%. However, further substantial improvements in agriculture would be needed to meet the food demands of the world's growing population. The findings are part of the team's modelling study published in the open-access journal Environmental Research Letters. This research was partly funded under the 'Sustainable Development, Global Change and Ecosystems' Theme of the Sixth Framework Programme (FP6) through the ENSEMBLES ('ENSEMBLE-based predictions of climate changes and their impacts') 'Use of water in agriculture is a key problem for the 21st century: without improvements neither the consequences of climate change will be manageable nor [will] the demand of 2 or 3 billion additional people for food be met,' says co-author Professor Wolfgang Lucht of the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research (PIK) in Germany. 'In this study we therefore investigated whether there are realistic opportunities to close the emerging gap in water supply for agriculture at least partially for many world regions. The results are quite encouraging.' Using a vegetation-water model, the researchers identified two key strategies: the reduction of soil evaporation and the harvesting of rainwater. Through mulching and different tillage systems, water evaporation from the soil could be cut by 50%, at the same time turning the unproductive evaporation into productive plant transpiration. According to the researchers, such measures alone could increase global crop yield by 2% to 25%. The most promising regions for this strategy are the semi-arid regions of the midwestern United States, the Sahel, southern Africa and central Asia. In addition, the researchers suggest that rainwater should be harvested in ponds or with the help of dikes and subsurface dams to compensate for dry periods. In this way, global crop yields have the potential to be augmented by between 4% and 31%. 'However, the detrimental effects of climate change could reduce global crop production by almost 10% by 2050,' explained PIK's Stefanie In order to meet the food needs of a world population of 10 billion in 2050 - an estimate of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) - the portion of land used for crops would have to be expanded by 10 million square kilometres (km2) to 25 million km2 worldwide. This would also result in a substantial increase of freshwater consumption by 4,500 cubic kilometres (km3) to 13,300 km3. 'However, in many regions of the world that already face limits of water availability, that is not an option,' pointed out Dr Dieter Gerten, hydrologist at PIK. 'Instead, we need to think of better ways to use the water that is there.' The researchers conclude that even large-scale water management efforts on current cropland will not be sufficient to ensure that the food needs of the growing global population are met. 'This evidence poses crucial questions about trade-offs between future land and water use for irrigated and rain-fed agriculture, natural ecosystems and bioenergy,' 'It furthermore highlights the need for exploring and combining all options of more efficient irrigation and/or expansion of irrigated agriculture, of plant breeding and genetic development, and of more effective virtual water trade.'

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2013-05-19T19:51:48Z

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For protein lovers, celiac disease is one thing they wouldn’t want to get from the family genes. Fortunately, its treatment can also be ensured within the family and at home. Celiac disease is a digestive order that can run from one generation to another. The disease causes serious damage to the small intestines as a reaction to gliadin or a gluten protein, and results to inflammation and flattening of the lining of the small intestines. The person with celiac disease is incapable to absorb gluten, which is a group of protein frequent in wheat, rye, oats and barley. Hence, the disease imposes a gluten-free diet for persons who are affected. This proves to be a complicated task since gluten is the second most consumed ingredient next to sugar, and for this reason difficult to avoid. Also, it is hard to monitor since some may not experience any symptoms. But already knowing that the person and his or her family are prone to the disease can provide a head start on how to moderate the damages. Indeed, home is the best place to start addressing celiac disease. A family approach to knowing the disease and understanding how it affects everyday life will provide the battle gears for coping. This is especially useful for the children, who would need all the support and guidance they could get. A family that eats together heals together. This can be a reasonable motto for families afflicted with the history of celiac disease. Several measures can already be taken if these families consider carefully their eating habits. One step is taking into heart what food to purchase, grow, store, cook or eat at any time of the day. By this, it is not just about ensuring that food is gluten-free but also ensuring that the required nutrients are sourced from other food groups. The family can also seek help from dieticians for the information on gluten-free foods. This includes help on how to read labels that may not specify gluten but contains it nonetheless. An example is the hydrolyzed vegetable protein that may be sourced from wheat. Familiarization with these gluten-free foods may be hard at first, but with the aid of a food diary and the collective memory of the family members, it will soon be easy. Remember also that it is not just about knowing what to avoid, but rather knowing what to eat. For example, fruits are very much encouraged since these reduce different stressors to the digestive system, such as constipation. Further, in planning what meals to prepare and what other food to stock in the kitchen, the family can treat this as an opportunity to monitor and ensure balanced nutrition and sufficient calorie intake. But what happens when family members, especially the children, need to eat outside of the home? Again, it is important for the family to plan ahead. Children and teens should be part of the whole process of learning about gluten-free food. To engage their interest and to ensure that they like what they eat, children and teens may be entrusted with the responsibility of choosing what gluten-free meals to prepare. In this way, they would be able to prepare for food they can either eat at home or have as packed lunch or snacks. But in cases when they have to buy food outside the home, their knowledge about gluten-free food would enable them to discriminate which meals to buy. For young children with celiac disease, their parents can also talk to teachers about the food necessities of their children. Or talk to the parents of their children’s friends, in case they visit or sleep over at houses of their friends. In the end, a realistic talk between family members is the best approach. Each member, especially the children and teens, needs to know the consequences of eating meals with gluten.

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2013-05-19T19:45:44Z

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How did scentists measure how far the sun was from earth? #69929. Asked by kisstherainbow. (Aug 21 06 6:06 PM) It is not an easy thing to measure the distances to objects in the Universe since these objects are usually very far away. We can't just run out there with a ruler! To measure distances in the Universe, we will need to construct what is commonly referred to as a "cosmic distance ladder". In other words, astronomers use different methods to determine the distances to objects; the specific method which is used depends on how far away the object is. But all of the methods are wonderful combinations of science and mathematics! The links below will take you to descriptions of various common methods. Radar - measuring distances in our solar system Parallax - measuring distances to nearby stars Cepheids - measuring distances in our Galaxy and to nearby galaxies Supernovae - measuring distances to other galaxies Redshift and Hubble's Law - measuring distances to objects far, far away "Ask FunTrivia" is for entertainment purposes only, and answers offered are unverified and unchecked by FunTrivia. We cannot guarantee the accuracy or veracity of ANY statement posted. Feel free to post an updated if you feel that an answer is inadequate or incorrect. Please thoroughly research items where accuracy is important to you using multiple reliable sources. By accessing our website, you agree to be bound by our terms of service.

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2013-05-19T19:51:47Z

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We know your time is valuable, and now you can save more of it! As a registered member, all your information is stored for you so you can click through checkout with ease! Promotions & Offers You will have the option to receive information about our special offers and promotions. Our emails and catalogs will keep you updated on great deals for what's new and what's hot! Receive 25 Free Reward Point Receive 25 reward point™ FREE just for registering! Every purchase earns you rewards and every items is worth different amount of reward point. So, remember, the more you shop, the more you earn. Apr 18, 2009 - Raspberries may be grown successfully at an elevation as high as 7,000 feet. They do best in full sun on non-alkaline "fertile" loam soil. However, they may be grown in partial shade or under other environmental constraints. Natural protection against strong winter winds are provided by some valleys, but in other areas it is necessary to provide artificial protection during winter months (see topic on "Winter Protection"). A high sloping site will reduce cold injury by allowing the cold air to drain into low areas. However, do not plant raspberries on the crest of a hill due to the drying effect of wind. Winter-kill is often caused by wind desiccation instead of low temperature. Raspberries grow well on a wide range of soil types. The character of the subsoil is more important than the type of surface soil. The subsoil should be deep and well drained. The root system will be restricted if the subsoil is underlaid by a shallow hardpan or a high water table. Plants with restricted root systems may be damaged during drought periods because raspberries need an abundant supply of moisture at all times. Raspberry roots and crowns are also extremely sensitive to excessive moisture in poorly drained soils. Flooding for 24 hours or longer may kill the roots by suffocation. Young plants may appear to grow well the first season on poorly drained soils but injury symptoms will occur during the following seasons. Well drained loamy soils are usually most productive. The lighter textured sandy soils are easiest to cultivate but must be frequently watered and fertilized. Select a site at least 300 feet from other bramble crops to minimize transfer of virus diseases. Additionally, eliminate any wild bramble plants found within several hundred feet of the planting. Tomatoes, potatoes, eggplants, peppers, and brambles are all susceptible to many common diseases. Do not plant raspberries after these crops. If possible, set raspberries on sites that were planted to cultivated crops the previous year. When sod fields are used turn under the sod the season before planting. Preparing the Ground Unfortunately, raspberries are poor competitors. After choosing the best soil and site be sure to destroy all perennial weeds. Weeds may be destroyed with cultivation, herbicides, and/or landscape fabric mulch. Before working small areas, cover the ground with a black plastic mulch and place soil, rocks or other weighty objects on the edges to hold it in place. A good time to lay the landscape fabric is in the fall or early spring (March). Leave it there for six to eight weeks to help control weeds before working the soil. Obtain plants from a reputable nurseryman, or a patch that is free of virus disease. Keep the plants cool and moist until they are planted. They may be stored for several days in cold storeage at 35 degrees F. Plant raspberries as soon as the ground can be worked early in the spring. It is better to delay planting than attempt to work wet soil. Space hills approximately two feet apart, or if in partial shade, about three and one-half feet apart. Place plants in holes five to six inches deep and fill holes with soil and press firmly. Keep the soil moist. Generally, two complete growing seasons are required before the plants grow large enough to produce an appreciable amount of fruit. Red raspberries need to be pruned annually. Two main reasons for pruning are to remove dead canes and to thin out the clumps. New canes grow annually and produce fruit the following year, then die. Dead canes should be cut at ground level and removed. A healthy stand of raspberries will produce numerous new canes annually. They may become so dense that some canes are weak and produce little or no fruit. It is better to remove the weaker ones and leave six to ten large canes per hill. This should be done in July or August when the new crop of canes are young and tender. Other pruning may be necessary to remove suckers which come up out and away from the hill or row. Generally, cultivation and mowing will keep suckers under control. If a natural planting is desired suckers, or side shoots, may be allowed to spread freely as in the wild. Do not mow, cut, cultivate or control the suckers if room is available for this type of planting. Dead tips of raspberry plants may be removed in the spring or early summer. Support of Canes Unless the raspberries are the trailing varieties, the plants will stand erect. They will often bend over if they are grown in shaded or windy areas. Partial support is often necessary to keep plants upright. A tight wire, rope, nylon cord or any strong material on each side of the row will give good support. In some cases it may be necessary to provide support between the hills. Tie a short piece of cord or wire across the row with both ends connected to two long strands for support. Raspberries use large amounts of nitrogen, phosphorous and potash. They use lower amounts of calcium and sulfur and even lesser amounts of trace or minor elements such as iron, zinc, magnesium, boron, manganese and copper. It is wise to have your soil tested and to mix up a complete and well balanced fertilizer. A general application of fertilizer containing equal amounts of the three primary foods of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium is recommended when a soil test is not available. A mix containing approximately 20 percent of each primary element is usually available at commercial outlets. Weigh out about one pound for every 35 feet of linear row and spread it in a strip extending two feet past the row and two feet on each side. For a 35-foot row of plants this is an area 39' x 4' or 156 square feet. Weigh out only about two-thirds of a pound for the 35-foot row if the fertilizer analysis is higher. Conversely, weigh out about one and one-fourth pounds for a 35-foot row if the nitrogen content is low. Many fertilizer mixes contain enough sulfur with the three primary plant foods to satisfy plant needs. Most soils in Montana contain adequate calcium. Additionally, many fertilizer mixes contain adequate calcium. Raspberries use more soil moisture than most fruit plants. Irrigated plants are more vigorous and yield fruit over a longer season than do unirrigated plants. Begin irrigating raspberries at the same time other garden crops are normally irrigated. Most cultivars require about one inch of water per week during the growing season. Extreme warm and windy conditions make greater amounts of water necessary. Light sandy soils need more frequent irrigation than heavier clay soils. The fruiting period is a critical irrigation time. Apply 1 to 1 1/2 inches of water once a week if drought occurs during fruiting. Do not over water in late summer or fall. Excessive water application during this time may delay maturity of cane wood and result in a freezing injury that will become evident the next spring. There are several ways in which raspberries become damaged or killed during winter months. They are: Winter Drought - This drying process during subzero weather is common in Montana. Water the plants in late fall before the ground freezes (usually October or November) to reduce or avoid this damage. Provide protection against wind whenever possible. Break of Dormancy - Whenever the temperature of the atmosphere reaches 41 degrees F (5 degrees C) for three or four days raspberries break dormancy and become active. When a winter warm spell is followed by a sudden hard freeze it kills the active tissue. The top portion of the canes break dormancy first. This is why many canes with dead tops are evident in the spring. To avoid this, wrap the canes with burlap or similar material to reduce the intensity of winter sun and wind. When possible, build a temporary fence to cast shade on the plants. Additionally, cover the ground around the plant with straw or other insulating material to reduce the intensity of the freezing period. Mulching reduces root injury which results in less root rot. Do not leave the mulch, shade or wrapping on too late in the spring. Usually these materials should be removed around the first of April or sooner in the lower elevations of the state to avoid injury. Raspberry Rust - This fungus disease is easily detected. The undersurface of the leaves will be covered with a bright orange-colored mass of spores. The disease will stunt and weaken plants. Upon first appearance of this rust, dig the plant out and burn it. Spray the remaining plants with a fungicide such as daconil or captan or dust them with sulfur or any other reommened fungicide on the market. Do not eat fruit containing any of the fungicide. Read and follow the directions and precautions on the container label carefully. Anthracnose - The symptoms of this fungus disease are circular, reddish-brown, sunken spots up to 1/4 inch across on young shoots. A slot-hole effect on the leaf develops late in the season. Individual droplets (seeds) or larger areas on fruit may remain reddish and hard as the fruit matures. The fruit may be deformed. It is very important to have clean plants to control this disease. Remove and burn infected plants immediately and spray the remaining plants with a fungicide as for raspberry rust. Spur Blight - This fungus disease usually occurs on shady sites and in patches where canes are very dense or numerous. It seldom exists on sunny locations where canes receive adequate sunlight. Symptoms include brown or chocolate colored spots on canes at the base of the leaf petioles. Leaves usually drop off. The brown circular spot formed at the leaf scar continues to enlarge until most of the cane turns brown. It is essential to have raspberries in a sunny location and keep canes thinned out to control this disease. Spraying the plants with Bordeaux 4-4-50 or Daconil will reduce the spread of this disease, but the thinning of the canes and admission of sunlight is the first control measure. Burn diseased canes. Rhizoctonia - This is a fungus disease which injures roots. Normal raspberry roots, when washed appear white or nearly so. Brown roots may be indicative of the disease. The outer portion or epidermis is dead if the roots appear brown. Rhizoctonia may be the casual organism causing this damage. It is very difficult to control. Because it tends to invade frost-injured roots it may be reduced by controlling the extent of winter freezing. This is done by applying a mulch over the crowns and soil surface within two feet of the plants. Mosaic - The symptoms of this virus disease are large greenish blisters surrounded by yellowish tissue on the leaves. Leaves are smaller than normal and crinkly. These symptoms are obscured by hot weather. The best control is to use disease-free plants. Remove and burn diseased canes. Control leaf-feeding aphids because they may spread the disease. Probably 75 % of the raspberries in the United States are the red type. Red raspberries are more hardy than black or purple raspberries. There are only a few protected areas in Montana where black and purple raspberries do well. Boyne is a mid-season berry that was developed in northern Minnesota. It is extra hardy and bears large fruit. It is a top commercial variety in some northern states. Fruit are borne on dwarf canes that are easy to pick. Boyne is an excellent plant maker and may bear a week or ten days before Latham. Berries are succulent with large dark red fruit. Heavy cropper. Latham is one of the most popular and dependable mid-season raspberries. The canes are very vigorous, productive and cold-hardy. The large red berries darken as they mature. Latham is a late-season variety with a fairly long harvest season. Ripens mid to late season. Berries are extra large and are good quality for fresh use and/or freezing. Nordic produces excellent crop of firm red berries in mid summer. It is a deep red, juicy fruit that is good fresh, frozen or for jam. It is similar to Boyne except for its much superior disease resistance, especially to anthracnose. The fruit is slightly smaller but the yeild and fruit quality is comparable. Red Wing is a fall bearing raspberry that has firm medium size red fruit. Responds well to complete spring cane removal which shifts production entirely to fall harvest. It will reach fall harvest 2-3 weeks earlier than Heritage. The quality and size is similar to Heritage and aphids are minimal. Red Ever-bearing Raspberries Amity is a medium growing spreading, deciduous broadleaf perennial. With a height 3-6' and spread of 3-6'. It likes sun and is hardy to about -30 degrees F. The white flowers that bloom in summer produce a very firm, medium to large ever-bearing, red berry. It is considered nearly thornless. It has some mildew and other disease and large raspberry aphid resistance. Production is somewhat higher and begins maturing up to a week earlier than Heritage. Heritage is an excellent fall-bearing red raspberry. It is very vigorous and suckers prolifically. Canes usually do not require support. The fall-crop berries are medium-sized and very firm unless produced under rainy conditions. Fall Gold is a medium growing, spreading deciduous, broadleaf perennial with a height of 3-6' and a spread of 3-6'. It likes sun, and is hardy to about -20 degrees F. The white flowers produce golden yellow, sweet and juicy raspberries in summer. These are extra large, conical berries and are born in large clusters. They are hardy, ever-bearing and very productive, an excellent all purpose raspberry.

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2013-05-19T19:45:33Z

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Gardening Articles: Edibles :: Vegetables by National Gardening Association Editors This disease occurs over most of the United States. It affects cucumbers and muskmelons and, less commonly, pumpkins and squash. Individual leaves wilt during the heat of the day, but recover overnight initially. As the disease progresses, part or all of the vine wilts and dies. To test for the disease, cut a wilted stem near the base of the plant. Squeeze the sap out of the stem. If it is sticky and white and forms a thread when the tip of a knife is touched to it and drawn away, bacterial wilt is probably present. (This test works best with cucumbers.) The disease overwinters in the gut of cucumber beetles, and is spread to plants as the beetles feed. Prevention and Control Controlling cucumber beetles is the key to prevention. Look for varieties of cucumbers and squash that are resistant to cucumber beetles. Cover young plants with floating row covers. Knock, shake, or hand pick beetles off plants and out of flowers, and clean up plant debris to reduce the number of overwintering adults. Dust plants and flowers with a pyrethrum insecticide as directed by the product label. Photo courtesy of Howard F. Schwartz, Colorado State University, Bugwood.org

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2013-05-19T19:36:34Z

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What Are Varicose Veins? Varicose veins are most often swollen, gnarled veins that most frequently occur in the legs, ankles and feet. They are produced by a condition known as venous insufficiency or venous reflux, in which blood circulating through the lower limbs does not properly return to the heart but instead pools up in the distended veins. More than 25 million Americans suffer from venous reflux disease. The symptoms can include pain and fatigue in the legs, swollen ankles and calves, burning or itching skin, skin discoloration and leg ulcers. In less severe cases, thin, discolored vessels – “spider veins” – may be the only symptom. Gender and age are two primary risk factors in the development of venous reflux. An estimated 72% of American women and 42% of men will experience varicose veins symptoms by the time they reach their sixties. Women who have been pregnant more than once and people who are obese, have a family history of varicose veins or spend a great deal of time standing have an elevated risk for the condition, but it can occur in almost anyone at almost any age. Varicose veins never go away without treatment and frequently progress and worsen over time. Severe varicose veins can have a significant impact on the lives of people who work on their feet – nurses, teachers, flight attendants et al. Research has shown that more than two million workdays are lost each year in the US, and annual expenditures for treatment total $1.4 billion. Causes & Risk Factors If you have never suffered from varicose veins, you are quite fortunate or you are in the minority as– nearly three-quarters of American women and more than 40% of men will encounter the condition by the time they reach retirement age, and venous reflux disease occurs even in teenagers. By an almost 2-1 margin, women are more likely to develop varicose veins than men. pregnancy and childbirth are major contributing factors – women who have been pregnant more than once are highly susceptible – partly because the hormonal changes that occur during pre-menstruation and menopause are known to relax vein walls and increase the chances of venous reflux. Hormone replacement therapy and birth control pills can increase the risk as well. Other significant contributing factors for varicose veins include obesity, a family history of varicose veins, and extended periods of standing – nurses, teachers, postal workers, flight attendants and other people with “vertical” careers or activities are vulnerable to developing varicose veins, as is anyone who does a lot of heavy lifting. Finally, the longer you live, the more likely you are to develop varicose veins. Half of all Americans over 50 have them, as do two-thirds of women over 60. Varicose veins are swollen vessels, blue or purple in color and generally bulging above the surface of the skin. They may appear twisted or "ropey" and can be accompanied by swelling in adjacent tissue. They can be found anywhere on the leg, from the ankle up to the groin, but most commonly appear on the inside of the thigh or on the back of the calf or knee. Varicose veins are not always a serious or uncomfortable condition – for some people, small discolored vessels or minor swelling may be the only signs – but for millions of sufferers they can cause symptoms severe enough to significantly impact the quality of life. Throbbing pain, a deep ache or heavy feeling in the legs, muscle cramps, fatigue, “restless” legs, burning or itching skin, and severe swelling of the ankles can all be symptoms of venous reflux disease, the major underlying cause of varicose veins. When symptoms like these are present, they frequently curtail the patient’s activities and can even force them to miss work. Sufferers complain of being unable to walk, stand or sit for very long without feeling pain or exhaustion. In severe cases, varicose veins can be indicators of serious circulatory problems, producing blood clots or skin ulcers that require immediate medical attention. Tests & Diagnosis To determine whether venous reflux disease is causing your varicose vein symptoms, your primary care physician may conduct an examination and some tests. In some cases, you may be referred to a vein specialist at this time. After you describe your symptoms, the doctor will examine your legs in a standing position, looking for swelling, visible veins and signs of skin changes, like discoloration, irritation or early signs of ulcers. The next step is a “hands-on” examination – the doctor will feel your leg with his fingertips to detect swollen veins that are too deep under the skin to be visible. The groin area and the back of the calf are particular targets for inspection, and the doctor will also pay special attention to any areas of significant pain or tenderness, because that can indicate a possible blood clot or deep vein thrombosis (DVT). If the exam produces sufficient signs of venous reflux, your doctor will probably order an ultrasound examination, a non-invasive test that provides a clear and detailed image of the circulatory system in your leg. The most sophisticated ultrasound tests use Doppler technology – the same technology used for weather radar – that illustrate the blood flow in various shades of red and blue to show the doctor the speed and direction of the blood flow through the vein. If the ultrasound confirms the diagnosis of venous reflux, your physician will commonly prescribe conservative measures like compression stockings as a first step in your treatment. (If the ultrasound does not indicate venous reflux, a Magnetic Resonance Imaging test may be ordered to pinpoint the source of the symptoms.) Patients exhibiting the signs or symptoms of varicose veins may request a referral to a specialist performing the VNUS Closure procedure. For milder cases of varicose veins and spider veins, physicians generally recommend a variety of self-help, non-surgical measures to ease discomfort and prevent the condition from worsening. These measures include exercise, losing weight, wearing compression stockings, elevating the legs and avoiding long periods of standing or sitting. Direct medical treatments for spider veins include sclerotherapy, in which the veins are sealed with injections of a chemical solution that closes the vein walls. Spider veins can also be treated with non-invasive lasers, which cause the veins to fade and disappear. For more severe cases of varicose veins, in which the veins bulge beyond the skin or cause significant pain and swelling, relief usually requires a medical intervention. The traditional surgical approach has been vein stripping, a procedure commonly requiring general anesthesia in which incisions are made near the knee and groin and the diseased primary vein is literally pulled from the body using a device. While reasonably effective, vein stripping generally produces significant post-operative pain and bruising, and usually requires a lengthy and uncomfortable recovery period. In the United States, however, vein stripping has been rendered virtually obsolete by new, minimally invasive catheter technology that enables even severe varicose veins to be successfully treated in a doctor’s office under a local anesthetic in just a few minutes. A device is inserted into the diseased vein, where a catheter or fiber delivers either radiofrequency (RF) or laser energy to heat and seal the vessel. The technique is extremely successful and far less painful and traumatic to the patient than vein stripping. Endovenous laser (EVL) devices utilize an optical fiber to deliver extremely high heat – over 700 degrees centigrade – that boils the blood in the vein to create a clotting effect that seals the vein as the device is withdrawn. Radiofrequency devices operate at far lower temperatures to heat and shrink the vein walls, limiting the impact on surrounding tissues and, according to a clinical study, causing significantly less pain and bruising than laser. Physicians using the VNUS ClosureFAST™ catheter, the only radiofrequency device on the market today for the treatment of venous reflux, report that most patients return to normal activity almost immediately following the procedure, with little or no post operative pain. - -VNUS Closure™ - -Endovenous Laser (EVL) - -Vein Stripping

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Potential impact of sea level rise: Nile Delta Rising sea level would destroy weak parts of the sand belt, which is essential for the protection of lagoons and the low-lying reclaimed lands in the Nile delta of Egypt (Mediterranean Sea). The impacts would be very serious: One third of Egypt's fish catches are made in the lagoons. Sea level rise would change the water quality and affect most fresh water fish. Valuable agricultural land would be inundated. 17 May 2005 - by Otto Simonett, UNEP/GRID-Arendal Oil exports from inland Eurasia via the Mediterranean Sea, current and projected (2002 and 2010) The Black and Mediterranean Seas are one of the main outlets for transporting fuel resources that have been extracted around the Caspian Sea region and from further inland. Oil is transported in pipelines to the ports on the Black Sea. Forecast project a dramatic increase by 2010, including the opening of a new port in Turkey. 29 Nov 2007 - by Philippe Rekacewicz, UNEP/GRID-Arendal

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An ambulance brings a 15 month old boy to the emergency department with a seizure associated with fever. He has been in good health except for a high fever that developed today to about 103-104 degrees. His mother gave him a small dose of acetaminophen. About 20 minutes ago when the mother was checking up on her child, she noticed shaking of the arms and legs and his eyes had a blank stare. This went on for what seemed like 5 minutes. She called 911 and an ambulance was dispatched. He has been ill with a high fever today and a slight cough and mild nasal congestion. Just prior to the seizure, he was playing with some toys. There is no vomiting, diarrhea, rash, or fussiness. Past medical history is unremarkable. Family history is significant for an uncle who has epilepsy. Exam: VS T 39.8 degrees C (103.6 degrees F), P 165, RR 30, BP 90/60, O2 sat 100% on RA. He is clingy, alert to his surroundings, and otherwise is in no distress. His mother appears anxious and there appears to be good bonding between her and her child. Skin is without bruising or neurocutaneous stigmata. Anterior fontanelle is closed. Pupils are equal and reactive. EOMs are conjugate. The red reflex is present bilaterally. There is no sunsetting of the eyes. TMs are normal. His mouth exam shows moist mucosa without erythema. The Brudzinski and Kernig signs are difficult to assess. Respirations are regular. Neurologically, he moves both arms and legs equally. His tone appears normal. The rest of the examination is normal. Febrile seizures are broadly defined as seizures occurring in the presence of fever, but in the absence of central nervous system (CNS) infection, in children ages 6 months to 5 years of age. It is the most common reason for convulsions in children less than 5 years of age, and they occur in 2 to 5% of all children, although it has been reported to be more frequent in Asian countries. In Japan, the rate has been reported to be 7% and in the Mariana Islands 14%. It is thought that the rates in these areas are higher because some of the common infections of childhood may occur earlier in life when children are most susceptible to febrile seizures. Also, since more families sleep in the same room, this may make recognition better than in Western countries (1). The age at which febrile seizures most frequently occur is in the second year of life, and they occur slightly more commonly in boys than in girls. Febrile seizures can be divided into two types: simple and complex. Simple febrile seizures are characterized by the following: duration less than 15 minutes, and generalized. Complex febrile seizures have the following features: duration greater than 15 minutes, multiple within 24 hours, and/or focal (2). The risk of recurrence after the first febrile seizure is about 33%, and about 9% will have three or more recurrences. The risks for recurrence are: occurrence of the first febrile seizure at a young age; family history of febrile seizures; short duration of fever before the seizure; relatively low fever at the time of the initial seizure; and possibly a family history of an afebrile seizure. It has been observed that the time of recurrence is usually within the first year of onset. Although complex febrile seizures are not usually associated with recurrent febrile seizures, they may be a risk factor for epilepsy later in life. Febrile seizures seem to run in families, but their mode of inheritance is unknown. The risk for other siblings developing febrile seizures is about 10-20%, but may be higher if the parents also have a history of febrile seizures themselves (2). Febrile seizures usually occur in the first 24 hours of the onset of fever. It has been suggested that it is the rapid rise in the child's temperature, which causes a febrile seizure rather than the actual height of the fever itself; however, there is no substantial proof to support this suggestion. The seizures are usually generalized and tonic-clonic, but other types may be present as well. Parents may describe stiffening, jerking, apnea, cyanosis and incontinence, usually followed by drowsiness (commonly called post-ictal for short). There may be variations to this such as staring without stiffness, jerking movements without prior stiffening, and localized stiffness or jerking. Simple, benign febrile seizures should be short, usually 1 to 2 minutes, but some may be longer (up to 15 minutes). Because of the short duration, medical attention usually occurs after the seizure has ended (2). Although the diagnosis of febrile seizure is likely in a 6 month to 5 year old with fever and a convulsion, one should consider other causes such as meningitis, encephalitis, Shigella gastroenteritis, medications/toxins (such as diphenhydramine, tricyclic antidepressants, amphetamines, and cocaine), hypoglycemia, electrolyte abnormalities (that could be due to dehydration), shaken baby syndrome, accidental head trauma, and epilepsy (2). Many of these other diseases can be ruled out by a good history, physical examination, and clinical appearance after the seizure has ended. How should these patients be managed in terms of diagnostic work-up and treatment? Given that febrile seizures are a relatively common phenomenon, should every child with fever and seizures have a lumbar puncture done to rule out meningitis, or CT scan and EEG to look for CNS abnormalities? The American Academy of Pediatrics attempted to answer this in two practice parameters on the evaluation and treatment of children with febrile seizures that were published in 1996 and 1999 (3,4). The recommendations of these two practice parameters are listed below. It should be kept in mind that these are guidelines only and that each case should be individualized according to the particular child, and the situation. One should remember that these guidelines are written for practitioners with a wide range of experience and training; therefore, the points mentioned here are meant to be conservative. Also these guidelines are written for children from 6 months to 5 years of age who had a simple febrile seizure and are neurologically normal. The guidelines do not include children with complex febrile seizures. 1. Lumbar puncture. An LP should be strongly considered in all infants less than 12 months of age because signs and symptoms of meningitis may be minimal or absent in this age group. An LP should be considered in children between 12 months to 18 months of age, since signs of meningitis might be subtle. An LP does not need to be done in children older than 18 months unless they show signs of meningitis (neck stiffness, Brudzinski and Kernig signs) or have symptoms of a CNS infection. Infants and children who were treated with antibiotics prior to the seizure should be strongly considered to have an LP done. This is because antibiotics can mask the signs and symptoms of meningitis (partially treated meningitis). Even if an LP is performed and the results are negative, it is still prudent to be cautious and vigilant since spinal fluid may be normal in the early stages of meningitis (3). The clinical appearance of the child after the seizure has ended plays a very significant role, in that the playful, active child who appears normal, probably does not have meningitis. 2. EEG. An EEG does not need to be performed as part of the work-up for a first time simple febrile seizure. Although the EEG may be abnormal (occipital slowing) in the first month after the seizure, there has been no correlation of this to recurrence risk or the risk for developing epilepsy in the future (3,5). An EEG done 4 to 6 weeks following the seizure should be normal. If it is not, then epilepsy is more likely. In clinical practice this is not usually done after a single simple febrile seizure since an EEG is difficult to do in young children and 4 to 6 weeks have passed, presumably without any more seizures. 3. Laboratory studies. Laboratory tests, such as a CBC, serum electrolytes, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and glucose, need not be done routinely. It should instead be tailored to the presenting symptoms. For example, electrolytes and glucose can be checked in a patient who is vomiting. 4. Neuroimaging. CT scan of the head does not need to be done routinely. There is no data available showing that children with febrile seizures have an increased incidence of CNS abnormalities, nor any evidence that febrile seizures lead to structural brain damage. Recommendations are not as clear-cut for children who develop complex febrile seizures; however, the threshold for performing blood tests, neuroimaging, and EEG is lower. A lumbar puncture should be strongly considered if the patient is young, if there are signs and symptoms of meningitis, if the patient is already on antibiotics, if there is no rapid improvement, or if the patient does not regain full consciousness (5). If the child develops another seizure, then supportive measures are recommended. During the time the seizure is occurring, the patient should be placed on his/her side to prevent aspiration, and the airway should be maintained. Also nothing should be placed in their mouths. If it is prolonged, then diazepam (Valium) should be given either intravenously or rectally. If the patient has a fever, avoiding overheating by removing blankets and heavy clothes can prevent febrile seizures, in addition to administering antipyretics such as acetaminophen and giving cool baths. Diazepam can also be used to prevent future recurrences of febrile seizures for the next several hours, although its administration as a preventive measure is controversial (5). Should a patient be hospitalized? Probably not, although it depends what the circumstances are. It is recommended that patients who had a febrile seizure be observed in the emergency department for several hours and reevaluated. After this time, most children would have improved, and if the cause of the fever is known and treated, they can then be sent home. Similarly, in a doctor's office, they can be observed if they are rapidly improving. If they are not improving, then the diagnostic studies mentioned previously should be considered. Circumstances when they should be hospitalized for overnight observation are: the clinical situation is still unstable, there is a possibility of meningitis, and/or the parents are unreliable or unable to cope with the child developing another seizure (1). An essential component of management is parental counseling. Reassurance should consist of three components. First, parents should be reassured by informing them that although the febrile seizure is frightening, it will not cause brain damage, and the possibility of their child developing epilepsy is small. Secondly, they should also be told that there is a possibility that it could happen again, especially in the first 24 hours. Also one third of children will have at least another febrile seizure later, with most occurring within one year of the episode. Thirdly, if a seizure occurs, the child should be kept on his/her side, and they should observe their child. If the seizure does not stop in 3 minutes, then emergency medical services should be contacted (1). Long-term pharmacotherapy is probably unnecessary, especially for simple febrile seizures. Although the AAP Practice Parameters discourage use of anticonvulsants in simple febrile seizures, it does mention that giving diazepam during the start of fever in patients with parents having high anxiety is an option. Diazepam is given orally using a dose of 1 mg/kg/day in three divided doses when the child is febrile. Disadvantages of using diazepam are lethargy, drowsiness, ataxia, and masking of a CNS infection. Other medications that have been used to prevent recurrences are phenobarbital and valproic acid. A dose of 5 mg/kg/day of phenobarbital is given once to twice a day. Although they can prevent 90% of recurrences of febrile seizures, they are not without significant side effects. Phenobarbital has been associated with behavioral problems (hyperactivity) and hypersensitivity reactions. Valproic acid has a risk of developing fatal hepatotoxicity, thrombocytopenia, weight changes, gastrointestinal problems, and pancreatitis. These medications have been considered in those patients who have focal paralysis after a seizure, multiple seizures in a young child, and high parental anxiety despite reassurance (1,4). Phenytoin and carbamazepine have no demonstrated efficacy in preventing febrile seizures. Despite the frightening appearance of the episode, and the parental belief that their child is going to die, simple febrile seizures remain a benign condition with the majority of children having no neurological sequelae. In other words, it does not lead to brain damage or cognitive abnormalities. Although the risk of developing another febrile seizure is moderate, the possibility of epilepsy is very small. For this reason, long-term therapy anticonvulsant therapy is not usually recommended, but practitioners should provide reassurance, education of what to do when their child has another febrile seizure, and antipyretic therapy when a fever is present. I would like to thank Dr. Yoshio Futatsugi for reviewing this chapter and Dr. Robert Bart for his helpful suggestions and input. 1. At what ages do febrile seizures occur? How common is this problem? 2. In what percentage of patients will febrile seizures occur a second time? 3. What are the differences between simple and complex febrile seizures? Why is it important to know this distinction (think of recurrence risk of febrile seizures, development of epilepsy, and work-up)? 4. A febrile seizure is a diagnosis of exclusion. What other diagnoses should be considered in a child with fever and seizures? 5. According to the guidelines put forth by the American Academy of Pediatrics' Practice Parameter, who should be strongly considered to receive a lumbar puncture? 6. Most patients with febrile seizures can be discharged home. What are three indications for a child who should be hospitalized for overnight observation? 7. Although diazepam (Valium) can be used to prevent recurrences when given at the start of a febrile illness, what are its disadvantages? 8. A key part to management is reassurance. What are three ways parents should be reassured and educated? 1. Aicardi, J. Chapter 15 - Febrile Convulsions. In: Aicardi, J. Epilepsy in Children, second edition. 1994, New York: Raven Press, pp. 253-275. 2. Hirtz, DG: Febrile Seizures. Pediatrics in Review 1997; 18(1): 5-9. 3. Provisional Committee on Quality Improvement, Subcommittee on Febrile Seizures: Practice Parameter: The Neurodiagnostic Evaluation of the Child With a First Simple Febrile Seizure. Pediatrics 1996; 97(5): 769-772. 4. Committee on Quality Improvement, Subcommittee on Febrile Seizures: Practice Parameter: Long-term Treatment of the Child With Simple Febrile Seizures. Pediatrics 1999; 103(6): 1307-1309. 5. Verity CM. Chapter 15 - Febrile Convulsions: A Pragmatic Approach. In: Porter RJ and Chadwick D (eds). The Epilepsies 2, 1997, Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, pp. 289-311. Answers to questions 1. 6 months to 5 years. It occurs in 2-5% of all children and is the most common reason for convulsions in children less than 5 years of age. 3. Simple seizures are characterized by being less than 15 minutes duration and generalized. Complex febrile seizures are greater than 15 minutes duration, multiple within 24 hours, and focal. Simple febrile seizures have a higher risk for febrile seizures. Complex febrile seizures have a higher risk for epilepsy. One should have a lower threshold for performing tests and hospitalization in cases of complex febrile seizures. 4. Meningitis, encephalitis, Shigella gastroenteritis, medications and toxins, hypoglycemia, electrolyte abnormalities, shaken baby syndrome, accidental head trauma, and epilepsy. 5. Infants less than 12 months of age. 6. Unstable clinical situation, possibility for meningitis, and parents unreliable or unable to cope with the child developing another seizure. 7. Disadvantages include lethargy, drowsiness, ataxia, and masking of a CNS infection. 8. 1) Seizure will not cause brain damage and the risk of the child developing epilepsy is small. 2) Possibility that it can happen again, especially in the first 24 hours. One third of children will have at least another febrile seizure with most occurring within one year of the episode. 3) If seizure occurs again, child should be kept on his or her side. If seizure does not stop within 3 minutes, then emergency medical services should be contacted.

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Homosexuality and Bisexuality Homosexuality is the consistent sexual and emotional attraction, including fantasy, interest, and arousal to a person of the same sex. Bisexuality is the sexual and emotional attraction to members of both sexes. References to homosexuality and bisexuality can be found in recorded history and literature dating back thousands of years. They are part of a trio of classifications referred to collectively as sexual orientation. The third is heterosexuality, the sexual and emotional attraction to members of the opposite sex. Both male and female homosexuals are commonly referred to as gay while homosexual females are called lesbians. The earliest documentation of homosexuality in Western civilization occurs in ancient Greece, where same-sex relationships were considered normal by society. Although there were some homosexual relationships between adult males, most were between men and boys. Although there is some disagreement among historians, a number of historical figures were believed to be gay, including Alexander the Great (356 B.C.–323 B.C.), Plato (20 B.C.–45 A.D.) Virgil (Vergil) (70 B.C.–19 B.C.), Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), and Michelangelo (1475–1564). Homosexuality in Asian, especially Japanese and Chinese, cultures has been documented since at least 600 B.C. Social attitudes towards homosexuality and bisexuality have varied over the centuries, from complete rejection, or homophobia, through covert acceptance, to complete normalization, with many degrees in between. The religious response to homosexuality varies, though in the three major Western religions (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam) homosexuality and bisexuality are considered sins. In some cultures, especially those influenced by homophobic religions, homosexuality is considered a perversion and has been outlawed; in some jurisdictions homosexual behavior is a crime punishable by death. Persecution of homosexuals in such cultures is common. In Nazi Germany, homosexuals and bisexuals were sent to concentration camps and were murdered in gas chambers along with other minority and religious groups. The modern gay rights movement began in the late 1960s and included the development of the often activist academic treatment of sexuality in colleges and universities. This focus led to changes in social acceptance and in the media portrayal of homosexuality and bisexuality. In 1973, the American Psychiatric Association (APA) removed homosexuality from its list of mental disorders. The legalization of same-sex marriage and non-gender-specific civil unions is one of the major goals of gay rights activism. Toward the end of the 1990s and into the early 2000s, a number of jurisdictions relaxed or eliminated laws curbing homosexual behavior, including sodomy laws and laws preventing homosexuals from serving in armed forces. This trend culminated on June 26, 2003, with the landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision Lawrence v. Texas which overturned all sodomy laws in the United States. In 2003, Canada legalized same-sex marriages, according the same rights to gay married couples as to heterosexual married couples. Gay marriage is also legal in The Netherlands and Belgium. In 2004, due to several local and state actions, gay marriages were legalized in San Francisco; Massachusetts; Portland, Oregon; and several other areas. They were as of 2004 all under legal challenge, and the California Supreme Court nullified the San Francisco gay marriages in mid-2004. The Defense of Marriage Act, signed by President Bill Clinton in 1996, prevents federal recognition of same-sex marriage and allows states to ignore same-sex licenses from outside their borders. The correct term or terms to use when referring to homosexuals varies widely by location and culture. In the United States and Europe, even the use of the word homosexual can be seen as insulting. In Washington state, The Safe Schools Coalition of Washington's Glossary for School Employees advises that gay is the preferred synonym for homosexual and goes on to advise avoiding the term homosexual, because it is clinical, distancing, and archaic. The causes of homosexuality and bisexuality are unknown, although there are many controversial theories. These include genetic, biological, psychological, and social factors, as well as conscious choice. A majority of researchers believe sexual orientation is most likely determined by a combination of factors. Since about the 1970s, researchers have tended to rule out conscious choice. The reason can be answered in a question: Why would anyone choose a lifestyle which may well bring them discrimination, hatred, and even violence? Much research suggests sexual orientation is set in early childhood. In surveys of gay men and lesbians, most say they believe they were born that way. This awareness usually occurs during puberty but sometimes earlier. Many experts believe sexual orientation, whether homosexual, bisexual, or heterosexual, is determined by a complex interaction between anatomical and hormonal influences during fetal development. There is also no definitive research on the percentage of the population that is homosexual or bisexual. Studies in the 1940s and 1950s by biologist and sex researcher Alfred C. Kinsey (1894–1956) found that 2 percent of women and 10 percent of men were exclusively homosexual and that 37 percent of men reported having at least one same-sex experience after adolescence. Several studies suggest that first sexual attraction, whether for homosexuals, bisexuals, or heterosexuals, begins in middle childhood at about age 10. At this time, the adrenal glands begin to produce sex steroids, which motivate sexual attraction as well as social and emotional behavior. Development of sexual identity in middle childhood and early adolescence is a natural process but is more stressful for homosexual adolescents, according to the American School Health Association (ASHA). To avoid rejection and hostility, homosexual adolescents feel obliged to hide their sexual identities. Professionals generally agree that homosexual identity development usually occurs in stages, according to a March 2003 article in ASHA Journal of School Health. The first stage is identified as "sensitization" or early awareness, where, around age 10, a child experiences same-sex attraction and feelings of being different than other children. The second stage is "identity confusion," in which simple awareness is no longer ignored. Gay male and lesbian children usually try to hide their sexual identities because society encourages heterosexuality. This stage is usually resolved by denying or hiding homosexual feelings, repressing same-sex attraction, or taking on a homosexual identity. The next stage is "identity assumption," in which the person accepts their homosexuality but usually limits disclosure to others. The final stage is "identity consolidation," also known as "coming out," in which disclosure may be expanded and the homosexual identity may be incorporated into social activities. After identifying themselves as homosexual or bisexual, adolescents face the often-difficult problem of deciding whom to tell that they are gay or bisexual. According to a 1999 report by Cornell University, the average coming-out age for a gay and lesbian young person in the United States is 14–15 years, significantly younger than the average age of 19–23 during the late 1970s and early 1980s, according to the advocacy group Tolerance.com. Confidence and openness about their sexual orientation at a younger age, however, almost invariably exposes young people to homophobia and abuse at an early age, the group states on its Web site (<www.tolerance.org>). In hiding their sexual identities, homosexual and bisexual adolescents deprive themselves and each other of positive role models. However, disclosure to family members may lead to pressure to change through psychological or religious "conversion" therapies, which the ASHA regards as ineffective. The ASHA and most other professional organizations say family support when an adolescent discloses that they are gay or bisexual is crucial to the child's mental and emotional health. Children and teens who reveal that they are gay or bisexual to non-supportive families are much more likely to become runaways and resort to prostitution for financial support. Research shows inconsistencies regarding disclosure. To test how a family will react, a gay or bisexual child or teen will often first tell a sibling whom they feel they can trust and whom they believe is most likely to be supportive, most often a sister. Mothers are more often disclosed to than fathers because fathers tend to have a more negative reaction. Studies also show that parents react more negatively when a son tells them he is gay or bisexual than when a daughter reveals she is lesbian or bisexual. Numerous studies show that gay and bisexual youth are at a higher risk of dropping out of school, of being kicked out of their homes, and becoming prostitutes, than their heterosexual peers. They also have a higher incidence of drug, alcohol, and tobacco use. Studies have also shown that gay and bisexual adolescents are two to seven times more likely to commit or attempt suicide compared to heterosexual children and teens. Other studies have found that 45 percent of gay males and 20 percent of lesbians were victims of verbal or physical abuse in middle and high school and were two to four times more likely to be threatened with a weapon compared to heterosexual students. Studies have shown that parents usually go through a series of stages when they learn a child is gay or bisexual. In the first stage, nearly all parents go through a grieving period after learning their child is gay or bisexual. The parents mourn the loss of what they assumes was their child's heterosexuality and "traditional" lifestyle, the lack of grandchildren and their role as potential grandparents, and the improbability of changing their child's sexual orientation. Soon after disclosure, parents often experience fear and guilt and may deny their child is gay or bisexual. They may urge their child to change their sexual orientation The anger stage is usually followed by the bargaining stage, where parents try to get their child to change their sexual orientation, sometimes through God or religion, or through psychological intervention. In this stage, parents sometimes experience one or a combination of emotions, including shame, guilt, and depression. The final stage is resolution, where the parents either accept or deny that their child is gay or bisexual, though studies show few fully accept it. Some families remain in denial indefinitely. Others ostracize the child through eviction from the home or family. When to call the doctor Gay and bisexual adolescents may need psychological help in dealing with their sexual orientation. The vast majority of experts say this counseling should be supportive and not seek to change the child's sexual orientation. Counseling that offers emotional support may be helpful for teens who are uncomfortable with their sexual orientation. Therapy may also help the adolescent adjust to personal, family, or school-related problems. Therapy directed specifically at changing homosexual or bisexual orientation is not recommended and may be harmful for an unwilling teen, according to a behavioral health advisory issued in 2002 by the journal Clinical Reference Systems. It may create more confusion and anxiety by reinforcing negative thoughts and emotions with which the child is already struggling, the advisory states. Signs that a child or teem may be gay or bisexual and is having problems dealing with it include social isolation, avoiding school, threats of running away, poorly developed dating skills, low self-esteem, self hatred, alcohol and/or drug abuse, harassment at school or home, feelings of inferiority, depression, threats of suicide, and eating disorders. Advice for healthcare professionals The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) has issued guidelines for pediatricians in dealing with gay and bisexual adolescents. An article in the June 2004 issue of the AAP journal Pediatrics states: "Pediatricians should be aware that some youths in their care may have concerns about their sexual orientation or that of siblings, friends, parents, relatives, or others. Health care professionals should provide factual, current, nonjudgmental information in a confidential manner." The article states that pediatricians and other health-care professionals should be attentive of various psychological difficulties, offer counseling or refer for counseling when necessary, and ensure that all sexually active youths receive a physical examination, immunizations, appropriate laboratory tests, and counseling about sexually transmitted diseases, and appropriate treatment if necessary. The Pediatrics article also states: "Not all pediatricians may feel able to provide the type of care [necessary]. Any pediatrician who is unable to care for and counsel nonheterosexual youth should refer these patients to an appropriate colleague." Most gay and bisexual youth seen by pediatricians and other healthcare providers will not raise the issue of sexual orientation on their own. Therefore, healthcare professionals should raise issues of sexual orientation and sexual behavior with all adolescent patients or refer them to a colleague who can these issues, according to the AAP. Pediatricians should also consider displaying posters and offering brochures that demonstrate support for gay and bisexual teens. The AAP publishes a brochure dealing with sexual orientation, "Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Teens: Facts for Teens and their Parents." Advice for teachers, counselors, and other school employees Because students who discover they are gay or bisexual often experience rejection, discrimination, isolation, and violence, it is important for teachers and administrators to be supportive and highly sensitive to the stress gay and bisexual youth feel, according to the American School Health Association. Schools are legally obligated to protect students from discrimination and harassment from other students, from teachers, and from all other school employees. In 1996, a federal appeals court ruled that school officials can be held liable under the Equal Protection Clause of the U.S. Constitution for not protecting gay and bisexual students from harassment and discrimination. The non-profit group Parents and Friends of Lesbians and Gays (PFLAG) makes the following recommendations for all schools: - have a harassment policy or student bill of rights that explicitly includes sexual orientation - provide annual, mandatory training for all school employees about sexual orientation and on intervention against bullying of gay and bisexual students - have a support group for gay, bisexual, and straight students - have information on display and readily available in the library on gay and bisexual issues - include gay and bisexual issues in the curriculum, including history, social studies, literature, political science, health, and arts Adrenal glands—A pair of endocrine glands (glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream) that are located on top of the kidneys. The outer tissue of the glands (cortex) produces several steroid hormones, while the inner tissue (medulla) produces the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine. Coming out—The process by which gays and bisexuals become public or tell others about their sexual orientation. Gay bashing—Physical or verbal violence directed against homosexuals. Homophobia—An irrational hatred, disapproval, or fear of homosexuality and homosexuals. Sexual orientation—The direction of somebody's sexual desire, toward people of the opposite sex (heterosexual or straight) or of the same sex (homosexual or gay), or of both sexes (bisexual). Transgender—Any person who feels their assigned gender does not completely or adequately reflect their internal gender, such as a biological male who perceives himself to be female. Baker, Jean M. How Homophobia Hurts Children: Nurturing Diversity at Home, at School, and in the Community. Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press. 2001. Bernstein, Robert A. Straight Parents, Gay Children: Keeping Families Together. New York, NY: Thunder's Mouth Press, 2003. Jennings, Kevin, and Pat Shapiro. Always My Child: A Parent's Guide to Understanding Your Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgendered, or Questioning Son or Daughter. Norfolk, VA: Fireside, 2002. Frankowski, Barbara L. "Sexual Orientation and Adolescents." Pediatrics (June 2004): 1827–1832. Harrison, Therese W. "Adolescent Homosexuality and Concerns Regarding Disclosure." Journal of School Health (March 2003): 107–112. Rosenberg, Miriam. "Recognizing Gay, Lesbian, and Transgendered Teens in a Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Practice." Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (December 2003): 1517–1521. Saltzburg, Susan. "Learning that an Adolescent Child Is Gay or Lesbian: The Parent Experience." Social Work (January 2004): 109–118. The Gay, Lesbian, Straight Education Network. 121 W. 27th St., Suite 804, New York, NY 10001. Web site: <www.glsen.org>. Gay-Straight Alliance Network. 160 14th St., San Francisco, CA 94103. Web site: <www.gsanetwork.org>. The Healthy Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Students Project. American Psychological Association Education Directorate, 750 First St. NE, Washington, DC 20002. Web site: <www.apa.org/ed/hlgb/>. Parents, Families, and Friends of Lesbians and Gays. 1726 M St. NW, Suite 400, Washington, DC 20036. Web site: <www.pflag.org>. "Gay and Lesbian Youth Network." Mogenic: Inside and Out, 2004. Available online at <www.mogenic.com> (accessed October 22, 2004). Ken R. Wells

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Eyes that bulge, or protrude out of their normal position, could be an indication of a serious medical condition. Proptosis and exophthalmos are the medical terms used to describe bulging eyes. In most cases, the white part of the eye should not be visible over the iris (top of the colored part of the eye). If the white of your eyes show between the iris and your upper eyelid, this is often considered abnormal bulging. Treatment will be based on the diagnosis. However, some individuals have the hereditary trait of prominent eyes, in which the white part of the eyes is more prominent and visible. Bulging in only one eye of a child is a particularly serious sign. Seek medical attention immediately. The most common cause of bulging eyes is hyperthyroidism (an overactive thyroid). Your thyroid gland is located in the front of your neck. It releases several hormones that control metabolism. Hyperthyroidism is when your thyroid releases too many of these hormones over a short and concentrated or long period. An autoimmune disorder called Graves disease is the most common cause of hyperthyroidism and of bulging eyes. Tissues around the eye become inflamed, thus creating the bulging effect. Anyone can get Graves disease, but women over the age of 20 are most at risk. Other causes of bulging eyes include: - hyperthyroidism caused by medications used for other conditions - bleeding behind the eye caused by injury - glaucoma (fluid pressure in the eye that causes optic nerve damage) - hemangioma (an abnormal buildup of blood vessels in the internal organs or in the skin) - histiocytosis (a group of syndromes in which there is an abnormal increase in the number of immune cells) - leukemia (cancer of the white blood cells) - neuroblastoma (cancer of the nerve tissue) - orbital cellulitis (infection of tissues around the eye) - periorbital cellulitis (infection of the eyelid or the skin around the eye) - rhabdomyosarcoma (cancerous tumor of the muscles that are attached to bones) - vascular disorders (disorders affecting the circulatory system) Bulging in only one eye of a child is a particularly serious sign that requires immediate medical attention. If you have a bulging eye or eyes, make an appointment for a thorough medical exam as soon as possible. Be prepared to provide your doctor with your complete medical history. Your doctor will also want to know the specifics of your symptoms, such as: - When did you first notice that your eyes were bulging? - Have they gotten worse since that time? - Do you have any other symptoms? If so, what are they? - Do you take any prescription or over-the-counter medications or supplements? After a physical exam, your doctor may order additional tests. These may include: - slit-lamp exam (uses a low-power microscope along with a high-intensity light to examine the structures at the front of the eye) - blood tests (to check for thyroid diseases) - imaging tests, including computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Any treatment for bulging eyes will depend entirely on the cause, but may include: - eye drops - corticosteroids to ease inflammation - surgical procedures to repair damaged arteries and veins - surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation to treat tumors Treatment for thyroid disease, including Graves disease, may include: - beta-blockers, such as propranolol - antithyroid medications - surgery to remove the thyroid - radioactive iodine to destroy the thyroid, thereby stopping hormone production (this treatment can occasionally make eye problems worsen) - replacement hormones (if surgery or radiation was performed to destroy the thyroid) Eye problems associated with hyperthyroidism can be worse for people who smoke, so quitting may help to lessen eye bulging. Bulging eyes may lower self-esteem or cause self-consciousness in affected individuals, so emotional support is important as well.

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August 28, 2001 Does Chromosome 4 Hold the Secret to Human Longevity? By comparing the DNA of siblings who are extremely long-lived, researchers believe they have found a region on chromosome 4 that may hold an important clue to understanding human longevity. According to the researchers, their finding is "highly suggestive" that somewhere in the hundreds of genes in that region of chromosome 4 is a gene or genes whose subtle modifications can give a person a better chance of living well beyond the average life expectancy. The researchers believe that additional genetic analyses of nonagenarians and centenarians will lead to the identification of a few genes that confer longevity in humans. They also believe that their studies may turn up "good" versions of a multitude of genes that enable people to avoid age-associated diseases such as heart disease, stroke, diabetes, cancer and Alzheimer's disease. “We believe that we can find the genes that allow humans to live to be much older than average, as well as the metabolic pathways they influence. And it may turn out that there are similar pathways in lower organisms.” Louis M. Kunkel In an article published in the August 28, 2001, issue of Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , a scientific team led by Howard Hughes Medical Institute investigator Louis M. Kunkel and Thomas Perls at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center reported the results of a genome-wide study of 308 long-lived people. The study group included 137 siblings. The research team included scientists from Children's Hospital in Boston, Harvard Medical School, Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Rutgers University, and Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center. "It is clear to us that longevity has a genetic component," said Kunkel. "Frequently, if there is one sibling who has lived to be a hundred, there will be a second or third sibling who also will live to be a hundred. And while these people were fortunate enough not to have ‘bad’ gene alleles at the loci involved in age-related diseases, they also had alleles that enabled them to live often twenty years beyond their life expectancy, and remain active and in reasonably good health." An allele is an alternate form of a gene. According to Kunkel, the research team launched its search for longevity genes based on an educated scientific hunch. "Most investigators would say that longevity is just too complicated a trait to be influenced by only a few genes," he said. "But we took a chance that this was the case, because in lower organisms such as nematodes, fruit flies and yeast there are only a few genes that need to be altered to give a longer life span. So, my feeling was that there were only a few genes, perhaps four to six in humans, that would do the same." Thus, Kunkel and his colleagues did a genome-wide comparative analysis of 137 sets of two or three siblings who were at least 90, where one member of each sibship was 98 or older. Their mapping studies used 400 known genomic markers to determine whether the sibling sets shared specific chromosomal regions in significantly greater excess than predicted by chance inheritance from their parents alone. "We found that on chromosome four there was a little blip of allele sharing that was greater than would be predicted by chance," said Kunkel. "We term this finding as 'highly suggestive,' because it is ninety-five percent certain that it is not by chance -- thus with a five percent likelihood that we just happened to get this blip," he said. Kunkel cautions that finding allele sharing on chromosome 4 represents only the beginning of the arduous process of pinpointing the gene or genes that influence longevity. "We have two major challenges," he said. "First, we will have to replicate these findings in another hundred or so sibships to confirm them, and perhaps to determine whether there may be another shared locus." Some of the subjects studied did not share a locus on chromosome 4, so Kunkel and his colleagues suspect that other shared loci might exist. "Second, we must try to find the gene in this region of chromosome 4 that confers the longevity phenotype," said Kunkel. "This is an extremely complicated process because there are perhaps as many as five hundred genes in this region, and one of them has a single sequence variation that confers this phenotype. This variation is not a mutation as in genetic disease. Rather it is a very subtle genetic difference that produces a protein that may either work slightly better or be less active than in the normal population." According to Kunkel, a thorough search for such a subtle genetic variation -- called a single nucleotide polymorphism -- in one gene will require performing 200,000-400,000 genetic analyses on some 200 long-lived subjects. The researchers must then compare those results to genetic analyses performed on a similar number of people with normal longevity. "We are extremely excited about the prospects for this work," he said. "We believe that we can find the genes that allow humans to live to be much older than average, as well as the metabolic pathways they influence. And it may turn out that there are similar pathways in lower organisms."

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From the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, I’m Nicholas Garlow with HHS HealthBeat. Salmonellosis is an infection from the bacteria Salmonella, which lives in food, water, and animals. In a 13-month period spanning to September, 2011, small turtles were a frequent culprit for spreading this infection. Dr. Janell Routh is at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “Most persons infected with salmonella develop diarrhea, fever and abdominal cramps 12 to 72 hours after infection.” (7 seconds) The infection usually lasts four to seven days. Those at higher risk include infants, older adults, and those with a weakened immune system. “People need to wash their hands with soap and warm water after touching any retile or amphibian. Don’t let children under five handle reptiles or amphibians.” (10 seconds) An article on salmonella is in CDC’s Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. Learn more at hhs.gov. HHS HealthBeat is a production of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. I’m Nicholas Garlow. Last revised: April 12, 2012

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Conserve water from wells in drought By Heath Herje Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Agriculture Educator Drought has been a big part of our state since we became one. With the ongoing drought I have been receiving calls regarding water wells for drinking and irrigation. Residents have been asking how fluctuating water tables and low or dry creeks, rivers and lakes, will affect water quantity in their wells. The concern over water is fairly new to most people because during the last 30 wet years it was rarely a topic of discussion. When people overused water, their view was never that they were "wasting" since after all, it was so abundant at the time. 2011 and 2012 changed all that and now it's not just farmers and ranchers concerned about conserving water. While residents on the city water system are forced to use less water, rural residents, farmers and ranchers who use water wells for drinking, irrigation, and livestock water do not typically fall under these mandates. Does this mean they should continue with business as usual and waste water? No. In fact, during times when water supplies are dangerously low, everyone should take initiative and do their part to conserve. This exceptional drought has impacted groundwater levels in many areas of our state and some residents who use water wells are concerned. Groundwater, which is found in aquifers below the ground, is one of our most important natural resources. In fact, according to the U.S. Geological Survey, groundwater is the source of about 38 percent of the water that county and city water departments supply to households and businesses (public supply). It also provides drinking water for more than 97 percent of rural populations who cannot access water from a county/city water department or rural water district. With so many people relying on groundwater for drinking and irrigation, you can imagine what a strain this can place on supplies during droughts. More than 15.9 million water wells for all purposes serve the United States and approximately 500,000 new residential wells are constructed annually, according to National Ground Water Association estimates. In addition, the United States uses approximately 79.6 billion gallons per day of fresh groundwater for public supply, private supply, irrigation, livestock, manufacturing, mining, thermoelectric power, and other purposes. According to the NGWA, more than 90 percent of the groundwater pumped from wells in the Ogallala, the nation's largest aquifer stretching from Texas to South Dakota, is used for agricultural irrigation. Representing about one-third of all U.S. irrigated agriculture it creates about $20 billion annually in food and fiber. The trouble is we are using more than is being replenished at an alarming rate and on crops like corn not equipped to handle heat and drought. In fact, some officials are wondering how much longer we can use this aquifer before irrigation is no longer an option. While we do not have the exact answers to this and many other water-related questions, this trend has state and federal officials in the Great Plains concerned. $20 billion looks good, for now, but then what? Will irrigation wells in this area even be an option in 50 years? The water level in an aquifer like the Ogallala that supplies irrigation wells does not always stay the same. Droughts, seasonal variations in rainfall, and overpumping affect the height of the underground water levels. If a well is pumped at a faster rate than the aquifer around it is recharged by precipitation or underground flow, water levels can be lowered. Some residents wonder what would cause their well to run dry. A well is said to have gone dry when water levels drop below a pump. This does not mean that a dry well will never have water in it again, as the water may return as recharge increases. But the timing on that is anyone's guess. The water level in a well depends on well depth, the type (confined or unconfined) of aquifer the well taps, the amount of pumping occurring in that aquifer and the amount of recharge occurring. 2011 and 2012 were examples of years where recharging of some aquifers was dramatically less in some areas compared to wet years. A deep well in a confined aquifer in an area with minimal pumping is less likely to go dry than a shallow, water-table well. However, this does not mean wells in a confined aquifer will not go dry, as they are also influenced by pumping rates and lack of recharge. Since aquifers can be quite extensive the usage of a well can influence other people miles away. Groundwater that supplies a well also feeds streams and rivers during periods of low flow, so pumping from that well may also cause water levels in streams to lower. This can happen during drought and if other wells near it are withdrawing too much water. When it comes to smart water usage in our wells, we should plant drought-tolerant plants, lawns, pastures, and crops that do more with less. We should also step away from tradition and instead of crutching our pastures and lawns up in late summer with seemingly mindless watering, let them go dormant. Farmers can do their part by switching from conventional tillage to no-till and by planting crop varieties with drought-tolerant genetics that require less or no irrigation. Many progressive farmers are stepping completely out of the box and planting corn and soybean alternatives like mungbean, grain sorghum or guar that take the heat and stand up to dry conditions.

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Do Bacteria Evolve Resistance to Antibiotics? by John D. Morris, Ph.D. Often the claim is made in biology classes that evolution has been observed in certain microbes—germs that over time have developed a resistance to antibiotics. For instance, penicillin is generally now less effective than before. Stronger and more focused drugs have been developed, each with initial benefits, but which must continue to be replaced with something stronger. Now, "super germs" defy treatment. One might ask, have these single-celled germs "evolved"? And does this prove that single-celled organisms evolved into plants and people? As is frequently the case, we must first distinguish between variation, adaptation, and recombination of existing traits (i.e., microevolution) and the appearance of new and different genes, body parts, and traits (i.e., macroevolution). Does this acquired resistance to antibiotics, this population shift, this dominant exhibition of a previously minority trait point to macroevolution? Since each species of germ remained that same species and nothing new was produced, the answer is no! Here's how it works. In a given population of bacteria, many genes are present which express themselves in a variety of ways. In a natural environment, the genes (and traits) are freely mixed. When exposed to an antibiotic, most of the microbes die. But some, through a fortuitous genetic recombination, possess a resistance to the antibiotic. They are the only ones to reproduce, and their descendants inherit the same genetic resistance. Over time, virtually all possess this resistance. Thus the population has lost the ability to produce individuals with a sensitivity to the antibiotic. No new genetic information was produced; indeed, genetic information was lost. A new line of research has produced tantalizing results. Evidently, when stressed, some microbes go into a mutation mode, rapidly producing a variety of strains, thereby increasing the odds that some will survive the stress. This has produced some interesting areas for speculation by creationists, but it still mitigates against evolution. There is a tremendous scope of genetic potential already present in a cell, but E. coli bacteria before stress and mutation remain E. coli. Minor change has taken place, but not true evolution. Furthermore, it has been proven that resistance to many modern antibiotics was present decades before their discovery. In 1845, sailors on an ill-fated Arctic expedition were buried in the permafrost and remained deeply frozen until their bodies were exhumed in 1986. Preservation was so complete that six strains of nineteenth-century bacteria found dormant in the contents of the sailors' intestines were able to be revived! When tested, these bacteria were found to possess resistance to several modern-day antibiotics, including penicillin. Such traits were obviously present prior to penicillin's discovery, and thus could not be an evolutionary development.** Here's the point. Mutations, adaptation, variation, diversity, population shifts, etc., all occur, but, these are not macroevolutionary changes. * Dr. John Morris is President of ICR. ** Medical Tribune, December 29, 1988, p. 1, 23. Cite this article: Morris, J. 1998. Do Bacteria Evolve Resistance to Antibiotics? Acts & Facts. 27 (10).

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The ICRC since 1945: Indochina, 1947-1954 How, in a landmark anti-colonial conflict fought by a modern revolutionary movement, the ICRC met with considerable difficulties in carrying out independent humanitarian action. Under agreements worked out between the Allies in 1945, Japanese occupation forces in Vietnam were to be disarmed in the north by the Chinese and in the south by the British. However, France, the colonial ruler, negotiated with both in order to resume its controlling position and landed troops in February 1946. Initially, this was done with the approval of the Viet Minh independence movement, whose leader, Ho Chi Minh, had proclaimed the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) on 2 September 1945. France was prepared to grant the DRV self-governing status and on 6 March 1946 an agreement to this end was signed. However, barely three months later the French administration in southern Vietnam (known as Cochin China) created an autonomous republic, the main aim being to safeguard local French interests. This heightened tensions between the DRV and France, culminating in a clash between their forces at the northern port of Haiphong in November. The French navy then bombarded the city, killing thousands of people. A few weeks later, on 19 December, violence broke out in Hanoi, and several Europeans were killed or taken prisoner. The Viet Minh withdrew from the cities and began a drawn out guerrilla campaign, in which their forces held large swathes of countryside, from north to south. In January 1947 the ICRC, alarmed by the sudden worsening of the situation, sent a delegate, Charles Aeschlimann, to Vietnam. He set about meeting both the French and DRV authorities – the latter, thanks to facilitation by diplomats of the United Kingdom and China. The DRV representatives told him he could visit prisoners held anywhere on DRV-controlled territory, and within ten days he had visited the Hoa Binh camp, south of Hanoi, where 171 French prisoners were held; he brought them food and medicines. Shortly afterwards, in response to Aeschlimann's request for the release of women, children and the elderly, the DRV authorities released 29 people. Crossing the front lines Following this, the ICRC delegate had severa l meetings with the DRV and the Vietnamese Red Cross organization, crossing front lines with the assistance of the French military, and handed over further supplies of medicines as well as messages from the prisoners'families. However, no further visits to captured Europeans were allowed. Meanwhile Aeschlimann was visiting Vietnamese prisoners held by the French in both northern and southern parts of the country. This went ahead despite initial reluctance by the French authorities, who took the view that the troubles in Vietnam amounted to no more than internal disorder, governed by French law – no outsiders were therefore needed. After insistence by the ICRC, however, they allowed the visits to proceed. After August 1947 the ICRC covered Vietnam from its regional delegation in Singapore. Aeschlimann also tried to renew contacts with the DRV through their representation in the Thai capital, Bangkok. Previously he had been told that new visits to prisoners could be made " when conditions allowed " , but in December 1948 he was advised that a French offensive in the north had made travel too dangerous. Strategic situation changes By the end of 1949 the strategic situation in the region was changing: both the Soviet Union and the newly- proclaimed People's Republic of China were supporting the DRV, while the United States and Britain backed a pro-French Vietnamese government installed under the former emperor, Bao Dai. As clashes grew in intensity, the Americans began providing military support to the French. With the numbers of prisoners growing on each side, the ICRC felt that it was urgent to have more productive relations with the DRV. After further contacts via the DRV office in Burma (now Myanmar), the DRV radio station began broadcasting messages from French prisoners, for their families – something the ICRC had been urging for a long time. The ICRC went on to propose a general distribution of medical assistance for all victims of the fighting on DRV territory. On a visit to Hanoi early in 1951, the ICRC President Paul Ruegger made a radio appeal to Ho Chi Minh, urging him to make the necessary arrangements for the assistance to be distributed. The message was replayed several times and in June the new ICRC delegate, Paul Kuhne, learned that the DRV Red Cross had accepted the offer of aid. A meeting was arranged at Hung Hoa, north-west of Hanoi, on 26 July. The DRV representatives'primary concern was for the planned distribution of medical supplies, but they took note of the ICRC's request to have a physical presence on DRV territory and of its concerns over establishing regular contacts between prisoners and their families. They rejected, however, any notion of the ICRC taking part in the distribution of relief. A further meeting, in October 1951, failed to take matters any further. Subsequent ICRC radio appeals for meetings went unanswered. In Indochina, the ICRC found itself facing difficulties based on ideological reasons, says Jean-François Berger, ICRC editor in chief of the magazine Red Cross Red Crescent and author of a book* on the subject. "For the RDV, enemy prisoners were reactionaries who had to be "re-educated", not simply combatants no longer able to fight. This attitude excluded any possibility of outsiders, such as the ICRC, becoming involved," says Berger. "Neutrality itself was seen as something hostile, suspect…" *L'action du Comité international de la Croix-Rouge en Indochine, ed. Corbaz (Montreux) The ICRC had become concerned that its approach to the DRV – essentially from the “enemy side”, in other words, territory controlled by the French – was compromising its independence and perceived neutrality. To reinforce its position, the ICRC decided to cease its attempts to contact the RDV from French-controlled territory, including the transmission of appeals by radio. It continued its visits to Vietnamese prisoners held by the French – around 30 visits a year in 1952/53. Dien Bien Phu By this time the ICRC was using the DRV embassy in Peking (now Beijing) as its main channel of communication, in particular for forwarding mail to French prisoners and letters from Vietnamese prisoners to their families. But it never proved possible to gain permission for an ICRC delegate to visit DRV territory. In the final act of the conflict – the DR V attack on the French position at Dien Bien Phu, from March 1954 – the ICRC appealed to both sides to reach an agreement on respecting the red cross emblem so as to safely evacuate the wounded. It also proposed setting up hospital zones, under the terms of the Geneva Conventions – but to no avail. In the event, after the Vietnamese victory in May, the seriously wounded were exchanged without an intermediary, and when the time came for prisoners to be released, this was done under the auspices of an international commission, without the need for ICRC intervention. The Geneva Accords of July 1954 opened the way for the withdrawal of French troops and for Vietnam to be divided at the 17th parallel, with a referendum to be organized on re-uniting the country. In the two years that followed, the ICRC helped organize relief for the hundreds of thousands of refugees who fled south, and provided further medical assistance to the DRV Red Cross.

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Copyright © 2007 Dorling Kindersley The freezing, inhospitable continent of Antarctica was the last place on Earth to be explored. It is a vast, mountainous land mass at the South Pole, buried under an ice sheet up to 3 miles (4.8 km) thick, and surrounded by frozen seas. Antarctica has no countries and no permanent population. With winter temperatures falling to –122°F (–80°C), its sole inhabitants are visiting research scientists. Antarctica does not belong to any nation, but is governed under an international treaty that bars countries from owning or exploiting its land. The 1959 Antarctic Treaty, signed by 45 nations, suspended the claims of seven countries for territory in the region. Today, Antarctica is designated as “a continent for science,” and only used for peaceful purposes. Scientists from all over the world visit Antarctica to study the climate, weather, geology, and wildlife of this unique region. Their research has helped to highlight global problems, such as climate change. During the summer, about 3,700 scientists work in the 46 or more scientific research stations scattered across the continent. Only about 1,200 scientists remain in winter because of the intense cold. Total land area: 5.4 million sq miles (14 million sq km) Total population: no indigenous inhabitants, but there are seasonally staffed research stations Number of countries: 0 Highest point: Vinson Massif 16,066 ft (4,897 m) Major deserts: the continent is technically a desert Largest island: Alexander Island Lowest temperature on Earth: –128.6°F (–89.2°C) recorded at Vostok Station The Arctic region lies at the North Pole. It is a small, frozen ocean surrounded by the northern edges of Europe, Asia, and North America, whose flat, bleak landscape is known as the tundra. The region is a cold and hostile environment and few people live there. The Arctic Ocean, however, teems with wildlife. The Arctic Ocean is home to seals, walruses, and many species of whales, which thrive in the icy waters, protected by thick layers of blubber. In the warmer summer months, animals such as reindeer, musk oxen, hares, and Arctic foxes hunt for food on land, but they migrate south during the harsh winter.

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Cassini (käs-sēˈnē) [key], name of a family of Italian-French astronomers, four generations of whom were directors of the Paris Observatory. Gian Domenico Cassini, 1625–1712, was born in Italy and distinguished himself while at Bologna by his studies of the sun and planets, particularly Jupiter; he determined rotational periods for Jupiter, Mars, and Venus. He was called to Paris in 1669 to supervise the building of the Royal Observatory and remained there to direct it. While at Paris he discovered four of Saturn's satellites, studied the division in the planet's ring system that now bears his name, and began the mapping of the meridian passing through Paris in order to verify the Cartesian hypothesis of the elongation of the earth. His son Jacques Cassini, 1677–1756, took over the observatory after 1700 and continued the mapping of the Paris meridian, adding to it a measurement of the perpendicular to the arc in 1733–34. The triumph of the opposing Newtonian hypothesis of the flattening of the earth caused him to retire in 1740, and he was replaced by his son, Cesar-François Cassini de Thury, 1714–84, who continued his father's geodesic work and planned the first modern map of France. On his death, his son Jean-Dominique Cassini, 1748–1845, undertook the reorganization and restoration of the observatory. He completed his father's map of France and participated in the geodesic operations joining the Paris and Greenwich meridians. He lost his post in 1793 because of his monarchial views and was briefly imprisoned by the revolutionary government in 1794. He abandoned scientific work in 1800, becoming president of the General Council of Oise. He was decorated by Napoleon I and Louis XVIII and retired in 1818. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. More on Cassini from Infoplease: See more Encyclopedia articles on: Astronomy: Biographies

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iii. TRAVELERS IN PERSIA TO 1917 Russian travelers’ reports are a valuable source on the history of Persia and its relationship with Russia. The earliest known Russian account dealing with Persia is that by Afanasiĭ Nikitin from Tver’. Nikitin was one of the merchants who accompanied an embassy traveling to Šervān in 1466, and he visited Māzandarān, Ray, Kāšān, and Yazd. Since Nikitin’s main interest was the possibilities of trade with India, he continued on to there from Persia. He passed through Persia again on his way back to Russia (Bartol’d, pp. 173-74). Nikitin’s travels lasted six years (1466-72) and were described in his diary, which, however, deals mostly with India. In 1623, another merchant, Fedot Kotov, from Moscow, was sent to Persia with goods from the state treasury. He was probably also commissioned to report on the routes, population, and cities along his way (Kuznetsova, p. 13). Kotov’s description of this journey is based on his diary and emphasizes trade and economic matters, though it also contains information concerning ethnography, religion, customs, and architecture. The next group of Russian travel accounts about Persia belongs to the time of Peter the Great (r. 1689-1725). It was then that the equal, largely trade-oriented relations between the two countries began to give way before Russia’s intentions to expand into Persian territory while Persia was torn by inner conflicts and foreign invasions. In 1715-18 Peter the Great sent to Persia a young officer, Artemiĭ Volynskiĭ, later a famous political figure, in order to gather strategic information, to promote Russian trade, and to explore the possibilities of a military alliance against the Ottomans. Volynskiĭ’s journal is an important document, which contains a detailed description of his mission’s activities, as well as an analysis of political and social life in Persia at the beginning of the 18th century (ed. Bushev). It also provides vivid descriptions of everyday life, the people, and their customs. Noteworthy is that, on the basis of his analysis, Volynskiĭ predicted the imminent downfall of the Safavid dynasty. Artemiĭ Volynskiĭ’s journal is complemented by the account by John Bell, a Scottish doctor in the service of Peter the Great, who accompanied Volynskiĭ to Persia. Several chapters of Bell’s extensive travel account on different countries are devoted to Persia. Next in point of time come the reports and letters by Florio Beneveni, an Italian in the Russian diplomatic service. Beneveni’s embassy was detained in Persia for three years (1719-21) on its way from Russia to Bukhara, and thus he witnessed the upheaval and disintegration of the Safavid empire shortly before its final collapse in 1722. Ivan Gerber and Fedor Soĭmonov, both participants in the Persian campaign of Peter the Great in 1722, also wrote about Persia. Gerber was mainly interested in the situation in the Caucasus, including the relationship of the different Caucasian peoples with Persian rulers, while Soĭmonov concentrated on the cartography and hydrography of the Caspian Sea. During the interregnum of the Afghan occupation (1722-30) and the strife-torn reign of Nāder Shah Afšār (1736-47) and his immediate successors, no Russian traveler left a record of having ventured into Persia. In 1771-74, Samuel Gotlib Gmelin, a naturalist and Member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences, led two scientific expeditions to Gilān and adjacent areas of northern Persia (nominally ruled by Karim Khan Zand, but in practice controlled by the Qajar tribe of Astarabad), and published a detailed description of its population, everyday life, politics, economy, flora and fauna. In 1781-82, a naval expedition led by Count Marko Ivanovich Voĭnovich was sent to the eastern Caspian in order to create a fortified base on the trade route to Bukhara and India. The members of this expedition were arrested and expelled by Āḡā Moḥammad Khan, the future founder of the Qajar dynasty (r. 1789-1797; q.v). They were also forced to demolish the fort they had built on the Bay of Astarabad. This unsuccessful expedition was described by two of its members, the naturalist Karl Ludwig Gablits and army lieutenant Radling. Almost at the same time, an unofficial (in fact, involuntary) Russian traveler visited Persia. Filip Efremov, a sergeant who served in Orenburg, was taken captive by the Kirghiz in 1774 and brought to Bukhara. It took him nine years to return to Russia, after traveling through Asian lands, including Persia, and finally Britain (Bartol’d, p. 224). His unsophisticated travelogue includes concise though fragmentary accounts about Persia’s natural conditions, agriculture, population, cities, houses, and weaponry. Toward the end of the 18th century, the Armenian brothers Atanasov (in 1790) and a member of the Georgian gentry, Raphail Danibegov (in 1795-1813), journeyed through Persia to India and from there through western Tibet and eastern Turkestan to Siberia. Though these travelers were not ethnic Russians and started in the Caucasus, which at that time was not yet part of Russia, they went back home through eastern and southern Russia, and their accounts were published in Russia (Bartol’d, p. 227). There was an explosion of European travel writings about the Middle East in the 19th century, among which Russian accounts of Persia make up a significant number. During the 19th and early 20th centuries (before 1917), more than 125 Russian travelers published over 200 accounts of Persia in the form of books and articles. By the beginning of the 19th century, after a century of Westernization, Russia developed a colonialist outlook on expansion into alien lands: it was believed that colonies could make the Empire rich, and that the Empire could in turn lead the colonized peoples to civilization and Christianity. Russia wrested Caucasian territories from Persia as a result of two wars in the first half of the 19th century (1803-13 and 1826-28), and was advancing into Central Asia in the second half of the 19th century. It was also considering further expansion in northern and northeastern Persia. Throughout the 19th century, Russia and Britain were rivals for domination over Asian politics (the “Great Game”), with Persia being one of the areas of this competition. In 1907, the Anglo-Russian Convention divided Persia into British and Russian spheres of interest: northern and central Persia with the cities of Tehran and Isfahan fell into the Russian sphere; the southeast went to the British sphere, and the area between them was made a neutral zone. The majority of Russian travelers in the 19th and early 20th centuries went through the Caucasus and Transcaucasia on their way to Persia, and spent most of their time in the northern and northeastern parts of the country. Judging from the Russian travelogues, the 1907 agreement only confirmed the actual existence of a Russian sphere of interest in Persia, which had been formed by the late 19th century. Most travelogues were written in the second half of the 19th century, when the war of pacification in the Caucasus was over, and the Central Asian territories were brought under Russian control. The accounts vary significantly in length and style, depending on the purpose of the journey and on the intended readership. Some articles are only several pages long, while some of the books contain several hundred pages. Articles were published in scholarly, military, and governmental periodicals and monographs, treatises from learned societies, and literary magazines. The travelogues fall into three major groups: those written purely for entertainment, those for official use, and those combining both approaches. The accounts belonging to the first group are very few in number. The second group is more extensive: the authors usually went to Persia on some government assignment or participated in scientific expeditions, and they published purely official reports upon their return. The majority of the accounts fall into the third category: the authors describe their mission in greater or lesser detail and, at the same time, cover numerous topics related to all aspects of Persian life, often with a strong personal element. The authors of the travelogues fall into the following categories: military officers, diplomats (including those who were in the military service at the same time), civil servants (including engineers, doctors, traders), scholars (professional orientalists and natural scientists). There is a striking preponderance of military officers among the authors: those who were not on a military mission were engaged in diplomatic or commercial activities or road and railroad construction projects. This preponderance of travelogues by military officers is another indication of Russian colonial designs vis-à-vis the Caucasus, Central Asia, and beyond. Many of these officers had served in the Caucasus or in Central Asia before and had colonial experience by the time they arrived in Persia. Some of them were on secret missions and reported to their headquarters; thus their published travel accounts do not present the whole picture. Meanwhile, some accounts by military officers were published in editions marked “confidential.” Both military and civilian travelers belonged mainly to the aristocracy, and had either university or higher military education. Among the prominent men who traveled to Persia were General Alekseĭ Ermolov, a well-known Russian military and political figure of the first half of the 19th century, hero of the war against Napoleon and conqueror of the Caucasus; Aleksandr S. Griboedov, a famous writer and a tragic figure in the history of Russian diplomacy; the commanders of the Persian Cossack Brigade, Domontovich and V. A. Kosogovskiĭ; the eminent professional orientalists Il’ya Berezin, Vladimir Minorskiĭ, and Nikolaĭ Khanykov. There appear to be two small articles written by women, one named Zhukovskaya, another anonymous. A few other travelers published their works under pseudonyms or anonymously. The range of themes treated in the travelogues is amazingly broad, though some travelogues are more comprehensive, while others deal with one or more specific topics. The most popular subjects are the following: the condition of the roads in northern and northeastern Persia and their accessibility in case of an advance by Russian troops; the Persian army, its numbers, arms, and shortcomings; the Persian government and administration and the corruption of the rulers; the tribes in Persia, especially the Turkmans in the northeast and the Kurds in the northwest and in Kurdish settlements in Khorasan; Russia’s rivalry with the British, including Russian versus British trade; Persian family life and morals; structure of Persian houses and bazaars; religious rituals and sects. Being in government service involved the authors directly and openly in Russia’s imperial politics. They perceived their own activities in Persia as part of the civilizing mission of the Empire in the Orient, and at the same time as a part of Russia’s struggle against Britain. Most of the authors stress their European identity: their affiliation with the rest of Europe is significant in defining their self-identity vis-à-vis the Persians. Their worldview is decidedly Eurocentric. Therefore their attitude towards the British in Persia is ambivalent: on the one hand, on the personal level, there is a strong feeling of affinity with Western Europeans in the “hostile” atmosphere of Persia; on the other hand, political rivalry is the defining element of this relationship. The travelers’ representation of Persia and its people is usually marked by a contemptuous attitude and an air of superiority. Sarcastic comments and notes ridiculing people and their habits and etiquette pepper the pages of the travelogues, along with sweeping generalizations about all Persians, or even all “Orientals.” Most of the travelers blame the pitiful condition of Persia on its despotic rules and contrast it with the glorious past; they do not believe that progress is possible in Persia. Russian travelers see Persian people first and foremost as non-Christians, with their perceived “backwardness” as a symptom and natural consequence of their being Muslim. Emphasizing their own Christian faith, like emphasizing their European-ness, boosts the travelers’ self-assurance and gives them a sense of superiority over the strange Orientals. They blame Muslim “fanaticism” for the position of women, which is perceived as pitiable, owing to their seclusion, veiling, and the institutions of polygamy and temporary marriage. Many travelers favor non-Muslim Persians—Babis, Armenians, and Zoroastrians. Sunni Muslims are presented with sympathy, as less fanatical than Shiʿites. This religious preference is combined with an ethnic one: a number of Russians favor non-Persians—Turkmans, Kurds and Arabs. Most of the Russian travelogues are “anti-Romantic”: they reject Romanticism and often deliberately ridicule it and its fascination with Oriental exoticism and sensuality. This attitude contrasts notably with Romantic representations of the Orient that played an important part in the works of Russian writers and poets of the 19th century, such as the Caucasus-inspired romantic fiction by Alexander Pushkin and Mikhail Lermontov. Some of the most representative and significant of the great number of Russian travelers in Persia and their works published in the 19th and early 20th centuries are described below in chronological order (unless stated otherwise, information about the authors is extracted from their travelogues). Alekseĭ Petrovich Ermolov (1777-1861) came from an old aristocratic family of modest means. First tutored at home, he continued his education at a boarding school affiliated with Moscow University. He underwent further training in the Artillery Corps and read extensively on his own. Ermolov started his military career at the age of fifteen, with the rank of captain. He participated in campaigns in Poland in 1794, Georgia in 1796, and against Napoleon in 1805-07. Ermolov was promoted to colonel in 1806, and to major-general in 1808. He fought against Napoleon from 1812 through 1815 and won fames as a hero of the battle of Borodino (1812). In 1816, General Ermolov was appointed Caucasian Corps Commander and civil administrator of the Caucasus and the province of Astrakhan’. He led military operations against the highlanders, oversaw the building of Russian forts, and put down uprisings. Ermolov’s activities as a civil administrator in the Caucasus ranged from constructing roads and encouraging trade to composing a special prayer for Alexander I to be said by Muslims in the Caucasus, which was made obligatory in all the mosques of the region under his administration. In 1817 Ermolov was sent to Persia as Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary on a mission to settle the demarcation line between Russia and Persia in accordance with the Treaty of Golestān (1813). In 1825 his patron Alexander I died, which effectively ended Ermolov’s career. He was retired in 1826, and spent the rest of his life partly on his estate, and partly in Moscow (Èntsiklopedicheskiĭ slovar’,p. 675). The travel account by Ermolov is devoted to his visit to Persia during April-September of 1817. His main topics are the meetings with high-ranking Persian officials in Tabriz and Solṭānīya, and the negotiations with ʿAbbās Mirzā and Fatḥ-ʿAli Shah concerning the Caucasian territories seized by Russia as a result of the war of 1813. After studying the territories, Ermolov came to the conclusion that none could be ceded back to Persia without damage to Russia’s interests. Some details of Persian court etiquette—such as taking off one’s shoes and putting on red socks—received special attention by Ermolov, who refused to observe them in his audiences with the shah and the heir apparent. He witnessed a review of ʿAbbās Mirzā’s infantry and artillery, and gave a favorable account of their skill. His general opinion of Persia is strongly negative, expressed in his characteristically straightforward manner. Dementiĭ Ivanov Tsikulin was a peasant from the province of Ryazan’. According to his own words, in 1808 he was sent to the city of Astrakhan’ and from there across the Caspian on a trade assignment to the Persian port of Anzali. On his way back, he decided to go on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. While traveling to Baghdad, he was waylaid and wounded by robbers and later captured by a khan of Kermanshah, who made him herd his cattle. Tsikulin spent three years and four months there, during which he “endured all kinds of sufferings” because the khan tried to force him to convert to Islam, but in vain. Tsikulin was kidnapped again by Kurds, who sold him to their sardār. His new owner also tried to force him to become a Muslim. One year and seven months later he escaped and, after more unpleasant adventures, reached Baghdad. He traveled to several other Middle Eastern countries, such as Arabia, Turkey, and Palestine, as well as to India and England, before he finally made his way back to Russia thirteen years after he had left it. The travelogue by Tsikulin appears to be the only one out of a great number of Russian travel accounts of the 19th and early 20th centuries to be composed by a peasant (provided it is authentic). Tsikulin describes the agriculture of the places he visits, as well as the food, clothes, houses, and some customs of the people. He proudly tells his readers how he was able to preserve his Christianity in spite of the sufferings and tortures he endured, and even under the threat of death. The travelogue contains a number of fantastic passages and confused geographical names. It is written in the simple language of a naturally intelligent person lacking in education. Il’ya Nikolaevich Berezin was one of the first bona fide Russian orientalists who traveled to Persia. He was born in 1819, to the family of a government official at an industrial plant in Perm’, in the Urals. He studied first at home, then at a district school in Ekaterinburg. Later he was transferred to the gymnasium in Perm’ at public expense. In 1837, Berezin graduated from the Oriental Faculty of the University of Kazan’. He earned a Master’s degree in Oriental Philology in 1841, and in the following year he was sent by the university on a scholarly trip to the Middle East: to Transcaucasia, Persia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Egypt, Constantinople, and the Crimea. His primary goal was to study spoken “Muslim” languages and their dialects: Turkish, Persian, and Arabic, as well as the literatures in these languages. Upon his return from the Middle East, Berezin was appointed Professor of Turkish at the University of Kazan’, and then at the University of St. Petersburg, when the Oriental Faculty was moved there in 1855. Of his Puteshestvie po Vostoku ("Travels in the Orient”), only the first two volumes were published: Puteshestvie po Dagestany i Zakavkaz’yu (Dāḡestān and Transcaucasia) and Puteshestvie po Severnoĭ Persii (northern Persia). Berezin had broad scholarly interests and was involved in the development of higher education in Russia and in the intellectual and cultural life of his times. He held various official appointments and, as an “encyclopedic” scholar, left an extensive body of academic and popular works. He died in 1896 (see the bibliography in Calmard). The travelogues by Berezin are among the most fascinating, comprehensive, and scholarly in the group. The range of subjects treated is amazingly broad. His Puteshestvie po Severnoĭ Persii constitutes an encyclopedia of northern Persia in the mid-19th century. Berezin combined several goals in his narrative: he presented not only a detailed description of the route he followed and the cities he visited, but also extensive information concerning various aspects of life in Persia—its economy, architecture, politics, government, rulers, army, history, culture, customs, characteristics of different social groups of Persians, foreigners in Persia, and so on. He includes a detailed description of the cities of Ardabil and Tabriz, and especially of Tehran (about half his travelogue on Persia is devoted to Tehran). He had a special interest in the foreign trade of Persia: his main concerns were Russian interests on the Caspian Sea and in the north of Persia, as well as the commercial rivalry between Russia and Britain. His two published volumes treat subjects such as trade routes, the range of goods, and their prices and quality. In addition, a whole chapter of his Puteshestvie po Severnoĭ Persii is devoted to Moḥarram processions in Tehran. He also described a taʿzia performance, translated part of a play, and included it in his narrative. His books contain endnotes, mostly citations from works by European scholars and travelers. The supplements include copies of inscriptions, with translations by the author, tables on trade, and meteorological observations. Some of Berezin’s travelogues are embellished with masterly drawings and maps made by the author. The text of his accounts is very dense and detailed, incorporating a great many statistics, and numerous Persian words. Berezin’s masterly style, his erudition, talent for narrative, and sense of humor make his travelogues both entertaining and informative. Leonid Konstantinovich Artamonov, explorer of Asia and Africa, was born into an aristocratic family in 1859 in the province of Kherson. He was sent by the army on reconnaissance missions into northern Azerbaijan in 1889 and to Māzandarān, Semnān, and northern Khorasan in 1891-92. Later he rose to the rank of lieutenant general and commander of the army corps (Vengerov, 1915, p. 32). He was also a member of the Russian Geographical Society. Artamonov’s accounts are strictly official: his descriptions of routes, tribes, and the local inhabitants are written from the standpoint of their potential usefulness for the advance of Russian troops into Persia. The possibility for such an advance is expressed directly in the articles dealing with Khorasan and other northeastern areas. Other topics of interest to him are the Persian army and its resources, government administration, and trade. Artamonov pays considerable attention to the political and military rivalry between Russia and Britain in Persia. His narrative is clear and cogent, betraying utter indifference toward anything unrelated to his specific concerns. Alexander Vasil’evich Eliseev was a medical doctor and a world traveler. He was born in 1858, in Finland, where his father, a military officer, was stationed. At first he studied at the Department of Science and History at St. Petersburg University, but later he enrolled at the Medical Academy in St. Petersburg. Eliseev graduated in 1882 and served as an army doctor in the Caucasus, Turkestan, the Baltic provinces, Finland, and finally in St. Petersburg. After resigning in 1887, he was assigned to the Ministry of Internal Affairs, and at the same time he opened a private medical practice. Eliseev traveled widely throughout his life. In his early years, he traveled in the northern parts of Russia, Finland, the Urals, and in Europe. In 1881 he visited Egypt, Cairo, Jerusalem, and Syria; in 1882, Lapland; in 1884, Palestine, Greece, Sicily, Tunis, Algeria, and the Sahara. In 1886-87 he traveled to Asia Minor: The (Russian) Palestine Society appointed him to study the pilgrim routes from Russia to the Holy Land, while the Geographical Society commissioned him to conduct an anthropological study of the peoples of the Orient. In the spring of 1889 he was sent by the Ministry of Internal Affairs to escort a large group of immigrants from Russia to Vladivostok. Eliseev used the opportunity to travel in Siberia, then went to Japan and Ceylon. In 1890 the Ministry assigned him to go to Persia for the summer in order to observe the cholera epidemic. Eliseev studied the sanitary conditions in Tehran, Khorasan, Gilān, and Māzandarān. In 1892 he studied the typhoid epidemic in Chelyabinsk. The next year he spent the summer in Bessarabia studying the cholera epidemic, and in the fall of the same year went to Sudan, where he had a narrow escape from the Mahdists. His last trip was to Abyssinia. He died in 1895, having caught croup from a sick child. Eliseev undertook many of his travels on his own modest means. He published extensively (Gruzdev, pp. V-XL; Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, pp. 621-22; Vengerov, 1900, II, p. 356). In his travelogues about Persia, Eliseev does not mention his medical assignment except at the very beginning of his account. He concentrates on the description of places and cities that he visited (Tehran, Qazvin, Rašt), on the people as social types, on their customs and ethics. The author maintains an emotional distance from the local inhabitants, who seem to exist in a different dimension, and whose country and lives he observes only with the purpose of reporting. His narrative also contains several stories—among them an account of his trip to a Zoroastrian tower of silence—and reports of his contacts with some local rulers. Eliseev wrote in the detached manner of a professional journalist. His descriptions are thorough, competent, and smooth. Anastas Fedorovich Benderev was a Bulgarian and Russian military writer. He was born in 1859 in Tyrnovo (Bulgaria), served as Deputy War Minister in Bulgaria, and was a major general in the Russian army, commanding the 1st Brigade of the 1st Turkestan Cossack Division (Vengerov, 1900, I, pp. 14-15; Vengerov, 1915, p. 54). In 1902 he was sent to northern Persia on a reconnaissance mission for the army. In his written account Benderev gives descriptions of the routes, terrain, geography, population, economy, and trade of northern Persia. The goal of his research is defined as military: his central concern is the accessibility of the region for Russian troops in case of their advance into Khorasan. Among his other concerns are Russian and Persian politics vis-à-vis the Turkman tribes, and the condition of the Persian army. The report is written in a dry, unemotional manner, and was published as a sumptuous oversized volume in a red binding with golden edging. It contains tables and maps, and is marked “Not To Be Made Public.” S. Lomnitskiĭ was most likely an engineer. A mining company sent him to Persia in 1898, together with a mining engineer named Kurmakov. Their assignment was to negotiate the exploitation of ore in the province of Azerbaijan with the Persian government. Lomnitskiĭ and Kurmakov went to Tehran through Anzali and Rašt, and stayed there for a while. They traveled from Tehran to Mašhad-Sar and from there by sea to Bandar-e Gaz, in order to study mineral deposits along the coast of Māzandarān, returning to Russia in 1900. The travelogue written by Lomnitskiĭ is probably the most exciting and well-written Russian account of Persia. He is interested primarily in the people and their habits, everyday life, and ethos. The topics Lomnitskiĭ covers are numerous: women, family life, houses and bazaars, etiquette, different ethnic and social groups—each with their peculiar customs. Lomnitskiĭ also addresses such subjects as the Persian army, Islam and the mullahs, crimes and prison conditions, and the British in Persia. Interestingly, he is silent about his own mission, and apart from his short introduction we know nothing about how he and his companion went about accomplishing their stated goal. He says that he had an audience with the shah, so it can be assumed that their mission to Persia was highly regarded. What makes the book fascinating reading is the stories, anecdotes, and the author’s own observations, many of them funny and told with mild humor. Lomnitskiĭ peoples his book with many characters: he is interested in every individual he meets and willingly communicates with people from all walks of life. Unlike most of the other travelers, he has a lot of sympathy and understanding for the local people and is not inclined to generalize. His description of his little friend and Persian teacher Fāṭema—an orphan girl whom he wanted to adopt—is charming and unforgettable. His portrayals of Moẓaffar-al-Dīn Shah and his Prime Minister Amīn-al-Solṭān are flattering to the point of being naive. Again, unlike most other travelers, Lomnitskiĭ tries to be positive and tolerant in most of his judgements and conclusions, even on such sensitive subjects as Islam. His interest in Persian culture is marked with a certain degree of respect: he quotes some Persian songs in Russian translation and devotes a whole chapter to a detailed description of taʿzia. Lomnitskiĭ’s style and tone are those of a talented writer and a good-natured man. The book is illustrated with forty-four illustrations of landscapes, groups of people, and individuals, including a number of women. Dmitriĭ Belyaev was a civilian diplomat who traveled extensively in Persia. He spent some time in Mašhad in 1902. In the summer of 1903 he was sent to Persia by St. Petersburg University to study the language. In 1905, being in the diplomatic service, Belyaev stayed in Persia as a “student of the Russian Imperial Mission” and was assigned to serve as Acting Secretary at the consulate in Kerman and in Bandar-e ʿAbbās. During that period, Belyaev made several trips in eastern and southeastern Persia. By 1907 he held the position of Secretary at the consulate in Kermān, and later became Secretary of the consulate in Tabrīz. In 1909 Belyaev spent some time in Persian Kurdistan. Accounts by Belyaev, written in the official administrative style, give descriptions of routes, terrain, population, and agriculture. Though a civilian, he usually evaluates the routes from the military point of view. He seems to be equally interested in the military and commercial objectives of Russia in Persia, so that exposure of the intrigues of the British in Persia plays an important role in his reports. His articles provide little information about his personal experiences on his travels and usually do not go beyond the above-mentioned topics. However, in his other works, such as Otchet o poezdke po Persii (Report on a journey in Persia) and especially in “Ot Ashkhabada do Meshkheda” (From Ashkhabad to Mašhad), he gives his observations on various subjects, such as sayyeds, Qajar princelings (šāhzādas), Muslim fanaticism, Babis, and Jews in Persia. Belyaev has an amazing eye for detail, evident, for example, when he talks about the use of uniforms and personal seals in Persia or about the sacred stones on the road to Mašhad. His article on Kurdestan and on what he calls “Russian interests in Kurdestan” covers various topics related to the Kurdish tribes: their shaikhs and their form of Islam, their clothing and arms, their ethos and their attitude toward the Persians. Travelers to 1800. John Bell, Travels from St. Petersburg in Russia, to Various Parts of Asia, Edinburgh, 1788. [Florio Beneveno] A. N. Popov, “Snosheniya Rossii s Khivoyu i Bukharoyu pri Petere Velikom” (Relations of Russia with Khiva and Bukhara during the time of Peter the Great), in Zapiski Imperatorskogo Russkogo Geograficheskogo Obshchestva (St. Petersburg) 9, 1853 (includes quotations from Beneveno’s reports and letters). Filip Efremov, Stranstvovanie Filippa Efremova v Kirgizskoĭ stepi, Bukharii, Khive, Persii, Tibete i Indii i vozvrashchenie ego ottuda cherez Angliyu v Rossiyu (Travels of Philip Efremov to the Kirghiz steppe, Bukhara, Khiva, Persia, Tibet, and India, and his return to Russia via England), 3rd ed., rev. and enl., Kazan’, 1811. K[arl] G[ablits], Istoricheskiĭ zhurnal byvsheĭ v 1781 i 1782 godakh na Kaspiĭskom more Rossiĭskoĭ eskadry pod komandoyu flota kapitana vtorogo ranga grafa Voĭnovicha (Historical journal of the Russian expedition under the command of captain Count Voĭnovich to the Caspian Sea in 1781-82), Moscow, 1809. Ivan Gerber, “Izvestie o nakhodyashchikhsia v zapadnoĭ storone K aspiĭskogo morya mezhdu Astrakhaniyu i rekoĭ Kuroĭ narodakh i zemlyakh i o ikh sostoyanii v 1728 godu, sochinennoe polkovnikom artillerii Ivanom Gustavom Gerberom” (Information concerning the peoples and lands located to the west of the Caspian Sea between Astrakhan and the Kura river, and of their condition in 1728, compiled by Ivan Gustav Gerber, colonel of artillery), tr. G. F. Miller, in Sochineniya i perevody k pol’ze i uveseleniyu sluzhashchie (1760), pp. 3-48, cit. in D. M. Lebedev, Geografiya v Rossii petrovskogo vremeni, Moscow, 1950, p. 164. Samuil Gotlib Gmelin, Puteshestvie po Rossii dlya issledovaniya vsekh trekh tsarstv v prirode (Travels in Russia for the exploration of all three kingdoms of nature)III, St. Petersburg, 1785. S. G. Gmélin et al., Histoire des découvertes faites par divers savans voyageurs dans plusieurs contrées de la Russie et de la Perse I, Berne, 1789. Fedot Kotov, “O khodu v Persidskoe tsarstvo i iz Persidy v Turetskuyu zemlyu i v Indiyu i v Urmuz, gde korabli prikhodyat” (About the journey to the Persian kingdom and from Persia to the Turkish land and to India and to Hormoz, where ships arrive), Vremennik Imperatorskogo moskovskogo obshchestva istorii i drevnostei Rossiĭskikh (Moscow) 15, 1852. Afanasiĭ Nikitin, “Khozhdenie za tri morya Afanasiya Nikitina” (A. Nikitin’s journey over three seas), in N. I. Prokof’eva, ed., Kniga khozhdenii: Zapiski russkikh puteshestvennikov XI-XV vv., Moscow, 1984. [Lt. Radling] P. B[utkov], “O proisshestviyakh, sluchivshikhsya pri osnovanii russkogo seleniya na beregu Astrabadskogo zaliva v 1781 godu” (On the incidents which occurred at the time of the foundation of the Russian settlement on the coast of the Bay of Astarabad), Zhurnal Ministerstva vnutrennikh del 9, 1839 (includes extracts from the diary of Lt. Radling). [F. Soĭmonov,] Opisanie morya Kaspiĭskogo ot ust’ya reki Volgi, ot protoki Yarkovskoĭ do ust’ya reki. Astrabadskoĭ, polozheniya zapadnogo i vostochnogo beregov, glubiny i gruntov i vidy znatnykh gor (Description of the Caspian Sea from the estuary of the Volga river to the estuary of the Astarabad river, on the state of the eastern and western shores, their depths, shoals, and hills), St. Peterburg . Idem, Opisanie Kaspiĭskogo morya i chinennykh na onom rossiĭskikh zavoevanii, trudami taĭnogo sovetnika, gubernatora Sibiri, Fedora Ivanovicha Soĭmonova, vybrannoe iz zhurnala ego prevoskhoditel’stva, v bytnost’ ego sluzhby morskim ofitserom i s vnesennymi, gde potrebno bylo, dopolneniyami Akademii nauk konferents-sekretarya, professora istorii i istoriografii G. F. Millera (Description of the Caspian Sea and the Russian conquests on it, from the works of the Confidential Advisor and Governor of Siberia F. I. Soĭmonov, selected from His Excellency’s journal compiled during his service as a naval officer, and with corrections and additions, where needed, by G. F. Miller, Professor of history and historiography, and Conference-Secretary of the Academy of Sciences), St. Petersburg, 1763. [Artemiĭ Volynskiĭ] P. P. Bushev, Posol’stvo Volynskogo v Iran v 1715-1718 gg. (Volynskiĭ’s embassy to Iran in 1715-1718),Moscow, 1978 (based on the journal by A. Volynskiĭ). Travelers from 1800 to 1917. Leonid Artamonov, Persiya kak nash protivnik v Zakavkaz’e (Persia as our opponent in Transcaucasia), Tiflis, 1889. Idem, Severnyĭ Azerbaĭdzhan: Voenno-geograficheskiĭ ocherk (Northern Azerbaijan: Military geographical essay), Tiflis, 1890. Idem, “Issledovanie, proizvedennoe v 1891-92 godakh General’nogo shtaba Kapitanom Artamonovym Astrabad-Shakhrud-Bastamskogo raĭona i severnogo Khorasana” (Exploration performed by Artamonov, Captain of the General Staff, in 1891-92 in the regions of Astarabad, Šahrūd, Basṭām, and northern Khorasan), Sbornik geograficheskikh, topograficheskikh i statisticheskikh materialov po Azii (St. Petersburg) 51, 1892, pp. 124-38. Idem, [“O sovremennom polozhenii Khorasana”] (On the present situation in Khorasan), Izvestiya Kavkazskogo otdela Imperatorskogo Russkogo Geograficheskogo Obshchestva (Tiflis) 10, part II, pp. 55-75. Idem, Poezdka v Persiyu: Astrabad-Shahrudskiĭ raĭon i Severnyĭ Khorasan:Voenno-statisticheskoe issledovanie (Journey to Persia: The region of Astarabad, Šahrūd, and northern Khorasan: Military-statisical research), Tiflis, 1894. Dmitriĭ Belyaev, “Ot Ashkhabada do Meshkheda” (From Ashkhabad to Mašhad), Istoricheskiĭ vestnik (St. Petersburg) 9, 1904, pp. 557-74, 946-59. Idem, Otchet o poezdke po Persii S.-P.B. Imperatorskogo universiteta F. Vostochnykh yazykov studenta Dmitriya Belyaeva v 1903 i 1905 gg. (Account of a journey to Persia by Dmitriĭ Belyaev, a student of the Department of Oriental Languages at St.Petersburg University, in 1903 and 1905), Tiflis, 1906. Idem, Otchet o poezdke iz Tegerana v Kerman vesnoyu 1905 goda, Dmitriya Belyaeva, studenta Rossiĭskoĭ imperatorskoĭ missii v Persii, komandirovannogo dlya ispolneniya obyazannosteĭ Sekretarya Rossiĭskogo imperatorskogo konsul’stva v Kermane (Account of a journey from Tehran to Kerman in the spring of 1905, by Dmitriĭ Belyaev, student with the Russian Imperial Mission in Persia, appointed Acting Secretary of the Russian Imperial Consulate in Kerman), Tiflis, 1906. Idem, “Ocherk Kermana: Donesenie sekretarya konsul’stva v Kermane” (Sketch of Kerman: Report of the Secretary of the Consulate in Kerman), Sbornik konsul’skikh donesenii 10, 1907, pp. 54-59. Idem, Otchet o poezdke iz Kermana v Khabis osen’yu 1905 goda I. ob. Sekretarya Rossiĭskogo imperatorskogo konsul’stva v Bender-Abbase, vremenno i.o. Sekretarya Rossiĭskogo imperatorskogo konsul’stva v Kermane, Dmitriya Belyaeva 3-ego (Account of a journey from Kerman to Ḵabīṣ in the fall of 1905, by Dmitriĭ Belyaev III, Acting Secretary of the Russian Imperial Consulate in Bandar-e ʿAbbās, Temporary Acting Secretary of the Russian Imperial Consulate in Kerman), Tiflis, 1907. Idem, “Otchet o poezdke iz Kermana v Bender-Abbas cherez Gouk, Bam, Dzhiruft i Teng-i-Nivergu v iyune i iyule 1906 goda sostoyashchego v vedomstve Imperatorskogo ministerstva inostrannykh del Dmitriya Beliyaeva 3-ego” (Account of a journey from Kerman to Bandar-e ʿAbbās through Gowk, Bam, Jīroft and Tang-e Nevarg in June and July of 1906 by Dmitriĭ Belyaev III, assigned to the Imperial Ministry of Foreign Affairs), Materialy po izucheniyu Vostoka I, St. Petersburg, 1909, pp. 197-297. Idem, “Ocherk severo-vostochnoĭ chasti Persidsogo Kurdistana” (Sketch of the northeastern part of Persian Kurdistan), Izvestiya Shtaba Kavkazskogo voennogo okruga 10, Tiflis, 1910. Anastasiĭ Benderev, Astrabad-Bastamskiĭ raĭon Persii: Poezdki po raĭonu v 1902 godu General’nogo shtaba polkovnika Bendereva (The region of Astarabad and Basṭām in Persia: visits of Benderev, Colonel of the General Staff, to that area in 1902), Ashkhabad, 1904. Il’ya Nikolaevich Berezin: see the bibliography in the article by Jean Calmard. Alexander Eliseev, “Sredi dervisheĭ” (Among the dervishes), Russkiĭ vestnik (St. Petersburg) 7, 1894, pp. 123-47; 8, 1894, pp. 1-28. Idem, Po belu svetu: Ocherki i kartiny iz puteshestvii po trem chastyam starogo sveta Doktora A. V. Eliseeva (All over the world: Essays and sketches from the travels of Dr. A. V. Eliseev across the three parts of the Old World), St. Petersburg, 1898. Alekseĭ Ermolov, “Zhurnal posol’stva v Persiyu Generala Ermolova” (Diary of General Ermolov’s embassy to Persia), Chteniya v Imperatorskom obshchestve isrorii i drevnostei rossiĭskikh pri Moskovskom universitete (Moscow) 2, April-June 1863, pp. 121-184. S. Lomnitskiĭ (Redzhep), Persiya i Persy: Eskizy i ocherki, 1898-1899-1900 (Persia and the Persians: Sketches and essays, 1898-1899-1900), St. Petersburg, 1902. Dementiĭ Tsikulin, “Neobyknovennye pokhozhdeniya russkogo krest’yanina Dementiya Ivanova Tsikulina, v Azii, Egipte, Vostochnoĭ Indii, s 1808 po 1821 god, im samin opisannye” (The remarkable travels of the Russian peasant Dementiĭ Tsikulin in Asia, Egypt, East India, described by himself), Severnyĭ arkhiv (St. Petersburg) 8, 1825, pp. 348-362; 9, 1825, pp. 47-67. Studies. Vasiliĭ Bartol’d, Istoriya izucheniya Vostoka v Evrope i Rossii (History of the study of the East in Europe and Russia), Leningrad, 1925. Jean Calmard, “Berezin,” in EIr. IV, pp. 163-64. B. M. Dantsig, Blizhniĭ Vostok v russkoi nauke i literature (The Middle East in Russian science and literature), Moscow, 1973. Èntsiklopedicheskiĭ slovar’ (Encyclopaedic dictionary) XX, St. Petersburg, 1903. Alexander Ermolov, Alekseĭ Petrovich Ermolov, 1777-1861: Biographicheskiĭ ocherk (A. P. Ermolov: biographical sketch),,St. Petersburg, 1912. V. G. Gadzhiev, Sochinenie I. Gerbera ‘Opisanie stran i narodov mezhdu Astrakhanyu i rekoyu Kuroĭ nakhodyashchikhsya...’ kak istoricheskiĭ istochnik po istorii narodov Kavkaza (I. Gerber’s "Description of the countries and peoples located between Astrakhan and the Kura river...” as a historical source for the history of the peoples of the Caucasus),Moscow, 1979. F. Gruzdev, “Aleksandr Vasil’evich Eliseev: Biograficheskiĭ ocherk” (A. V. Eliseev: biographical sketch), in A. Eliseev, Po belu svetu, St. Petersburg, 1898, pp. V-XL. P. M. Kemp, Kotov, Efremov, Danibegov: Russian Travellers to India and Persia (1624-1798),Delhi, 1959. N. Kuznetsova, Khozhdenie kuptsa Fedota Kotova v Persiyu (Journey of the merchant Fedot Kotov to Persia), Moscow, 1958. D. M. Lebedev, Geografiya v Rossii Petrovskogo vremeni (Geography in Russia at the time of Peter the Great), Moscow and Leningrad, 1950. S. A. Vengerov, Istochniki slovarya russkikh pisateleĭ (Sources for a dictionary of Russian writers)I and II, St. Petersburg, 1900. Idem, Kritiko-biograficheskiĭ slovar’ russkikh pisatelei i uchenykh (Critical biographical dictionary of Russian writers and scholars) I, Petrograd, 1915. Originally Published: July 20, 2005 Last Updated: July 20, 2005

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Protests in China are continuing over this month’s collision of a Chinese fishing vessel with two Japan Coast Guard patrol ships near the Senkaku Islands in Okinawa Prefecture and the arrest of the trawler’s captain. The Japanese Communist Party issued a statement in 1972 making clear that the Senkakus are Japan’s territory. Based on this statement, this article explores the way to solve the problem. Although the existence of the Senkaku Islands (called Diaoyu Islands in Chinese) was long recognized in Japan and China, neither country ever established settlements there. Since they were included as part of Japanese territory in January 1895, the Senkakus have belonged to Japan. In 1884, Koga Tatsushiro, a Japanese man, explored the islands for the first time in Japan’s history and applied to the Japanese government in the following year for a lease on the islands. Following a number of field studies conducted by the Okinawa prefectural government, the Japanese government in a cabinet meeting on January 14, 1895 decided to incorporate the islands into its territory. Historically, this is the first act of possession of the Senkakus and since then Japan’s effective rule over the islands has continued. The possession of unowned land is what international law approves as possession and effective rule based on the rights of “occupation,” and for 75 years till 1970, no objection from foreign powers had ever been officially made to the right Japan has over the islands. Japan’s possession of the Senkakus is justifiable in accordance with international law on the grounds that it fulfills the requirements of the “occupation,” which is based on “continuous and peaceful display of sovereignty.” Both China and Taiwan started to claim sovereignty over the Senkakus since the 1970s, only after the U.N. Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East issued a report in 1969 indicating the possibility of large oil and gas reserves on the seabed around the islands. Taiwan began to claim that they belong to it in the 1970s, and the Chinese government claimed sovereignty through its foreign ministry statement issued on December 30, 1971. In the Chinese historical documents, there is no record indicating that Chinese people have ever inhabited the Senkakus. The only description of the islands can be found in the documents of the Ming and Qing Dynasty, showing that the islands were known as a navigation point for ships travelling from China to Ryukyu. It was not until 1992 that China described them as part of its territory in its Territorial Waters Act. Until then, maps published in China put the islands outside Chinese territorial waters. The JCP on March 31, 1972 issued a statement, “The Senkaku Islands?Japanese Territory” and expressed its position that the Senkakus are clearly Japan’s territory (Akahata March 31, 1972 / Important International Issues, Japanese Communist Party Vol.7). Based on studies on historical developments and international law, it concluded that the islands and their surrounding area are part of Japan’s territory and territorial waters. Even with historical documents made available after the publication of the statement, no finding which makes it necessary for the JCP to revise this view has been introduced. Under international law, a country can exclusively exercise its sovereignty within its territorial waters. Therefore, it is a matter of course for the Japan Coast Guard to crack down on illegal operations of foreign ships. At the same time, the U.N. Charter and Convention on the Law of the Sea set as their important principles that international disputes shall be settled “by peaceful means in such a manner that international peace and security, and justice, are not endangered”(U.N. Charter). Based on this spirit, Japan first should intensify its diplomatic efforts to show internationally that its claim of sovereignty over the Senkakus has a legal basis in accordance with international law in territorial waters. Second, negotiations are needed to prevent similar incidents from reoccurring. In order to not increase tensions it is also important for the Chinese side to respond to the issue in a restrained manner based on facts. -Akahata, September 20, 2010 Akahata, March 31, 1972 1. While the seabed oil field question in the Senkakus area is being made an issue in various ways, suddenly from the side of Chiang Kai-shek, then from the government of the People's Republic of China the question of the title to the Senkaku Islands has been brought up. The Okinawa Legislature, in the March 3 plenary session resolved that "It is clear that the Senkakus are Japanese territory and there is no room for dispute over their territorial right". The opinion of our party is that this claim is correct. We would again like to make clear our party's view on the Senkakus question. For some time now our party has carried out investigations and studied the historical background and relations under international-law in connection with this. Our investigations have made it clear that the Senkakus are Japan's territory. 2. Some records relating to the Senkakus can be found from old times in both the literature of Japan, including Okinawa, and the literature of China. But neither the Japanese nor the Chinese made any final decision that the Senkakus, which were uninhabited, and where no inhabitant of either country had ever settled, belonged to them. In 1884, Tatsushiro Koga, a Japanese, for the first time in Japanese history explored Uotsurijima Island of the Senkakus and in the next year, 1885, he applied to the Japanese government for a lease on the islands. With regard to the territorial possession of the Senkakus, in January 1895 the Japanese government decided to place Uotsurijima and Kubajima Islands under the jurisdiction of Okinawa Prefecture. In April 1896, the government decided to include the Senkakus in Yaeyama County and designated them as state-owned lands. Historically, this measure was the first act of possession of the Senkakus. Japan's effective rule over the islands has continued since then. This is what in international law is regarded as possession and effective rule based on the rights of "occupation", and for 75 years, till 1970, no objection from foreign powers had ever been officially made to this. 3. In the meantime, in 1895 Koga again applied to the government for the lend-lease of the islands. In September 1896, he was granted the lease right to four islands (Uotsurijima, Kubajima, Minami-Kojima and Kita-Kojima Islands) for 30 years free of charge. Every year since then scores of reclaiming workers had been sent to the islands and "Kogamura Village" was set up on Kubajima. This is the first human settlement on the islands. Later a dried-bonito factory was built in Uotsurijima. (Since the end of World War II, the islands have again been uninhabited.) 4. The definite possession of the Senkakus was simultaneous with the Sino-Japanese war (1894-5) in which both the Japanese and Chinese ruling circles fought for domination over Korea. Japan was victorious in the war and China was forced to cede Taiwan and the Pescadores (Penghu), its attached islands, to Japan. It is clear that this action cannot be justified, but the Senkakus were not included in the settlement. Jurisdiction over the Senkakus was not taken up in the course of the Sino-Japanese negotiations. As the result of Japan's defeat in 1945, all the territories Japan had taken from China, including "Taiwan and the Pescadores" were to be returned to China in accordance with the Cairo Proclamation and the Potsdam Declaration. But the Senkakus were not included. The Chinese side did not claim the return of the Senkakus after Japan's acceptance of the Potsdam Declaration. 5. Since 1945, the Senkakus have been placed under the political and military rule of US imperialism, as part of Okinawa, and both Taishojima (Sekibisho or Kume-Akajima) and Kubajima (Kobisho) of the islands have been turned into firing ranges for the US armed forces and have been used for military purposes in exchange for a certain amount of ground rent (paid to Zenji Koga, son of Tatsushiro Koga). In Article 3 of the San Francisco Treaty, 1951, the Japanese government committed a serious error, that in disregard of the wishes and interests of the Okinawa prefectural people, it left Okinawa, including the Senkakus, under US imperialism's military occupation. Furthermore, in the existing "Okinawa Agreement", the Liberal-Democratic government has disregarded the wishes of the Okinawa prefectural people and agreed to the United States retaining its military bases in Okinawa Prefecture, including both Kubajima and Taishojima Islands of the Senkakus. Needless to say, the removal of the firing ranges of US armed forces from the Senkakus is also included in the struggle tasks for the complete reversion of Okinawa and the struggle for the removal of military bases of the US armed forces from the whole of Japan, struggles which the Japanese people, including the Okinawa prefectural people, have continued waging for a long time. 6. Since 1970, the Chiang Kai-shek group of Taiwan has begun to demand the right to the Senkakus, and then, in a statement of the foreign ministry on December 30, 1971, the People's Republic of China came out with the demand for the right to possess the islands. But the grounds for their demand lack substance. (1) In the literature of the Chinese side there is no record that Chinese people have ever inhabited the Senkakus. Neither the Ming Dynasty nor the Qing (Ching) Dynasty had announced possession of the Senkakus internationally. There is one opinion that claims that the Senkakus "were included in the marine defense area of the Ming Dynasty", but this is a different question from territorial possession. (2) There is no precedent to show that historically the Chinese side raised any objection to Japan's possession of the Senkakus. (3) On maps of the whole of China issued by the People's Republic of China (for instance, the map issued by the Peking Map Publisher, 1966) the Senkakus are not included, nor on the map of Taiwan Province are the Senkakus included. The geographical position and longitude of the Senkakus(between 123.4 degrees - 125 degrees east longitude) are outside the "territorial waters" indicated by the Chinese map. (4) There is also one argument that makes the grounds for the claim that the Senkakus belonging to "Chinese territory", that they are located at the tip of the so-called "Chinese continental shelf". The so-called "continental shelf" theory, with the depth of 200 meters as the yardstick, is an opinion covering seabed resources and a matter different from the possession of islands in the area. 7. From the above points, Japan's right to possession of the Senkakus is clear. The United States, which has continued to use the islands as firing ranges for military purposes, plans to retain them even after the "Okinawa Agreement" goes into effect. We demand that the firing ranges of US armed forces on Kubajima and Taishojima be removed and that the Senkakus be islands of peace.

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Prof. Bleeg 3 In the opening line of his poem “Harlem” Langston Hughes asks, “What happens to a dream deferred?” First published in 1950, when segregation was still legal nearly a hundred years after the Emancipation Proclamation declared all slaves free, this poem reflects the African American struggle for equality in a country where “separate but equal” public facilities were at times violently enforced. In the South, these facilities included public drinking fountains, bathrooms, transportation, schools, places of employment—all were legally segregated. In the North, segregation was illegal, yet blacks met discrimination in the workplace and the housing market, in restaurants and nightclubs, boutiques and department stores. Meanwhile, U.S. citizens and politicians would continue to point to the Declaration of Independence as evidence of our nation’s moral leadership in the world: “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.” The poem’s central question, “What happens to a dream deferred?” reminds readers that for many Americans equality remains a dream. In this course, we will examine how various African American writers, from former slave Harriet Jacobs to Nobel Laureate Toni Morrison and beyond, address the contradictions of living in a self-proclaimed free and democratic society with a painful legacy of slavery and segregation. Our readings will proceed more or less chronologically, allowing us to trace the changes in African American literature over two centuries to the present moment when, for the first time in history, the U.S. elected a black president less than forty-five years after the 1964 Civil Rights Act outlawed all forms of segregation. Your grandparents and perhaps your parents were alive then and remember what legal segregation was like, and you, too, likely have your own stories related to discrimination. During the semester, there will be opportunities to share those stories as we discuss how the writers we read depict African American lives at various points in history. How do these diverse writers wrestle with questions of individual and communal identity? In terms of subject matter, voice, and style, what choices do they make in creating their poems and stories? This course will serve as an introduction to African American literature and the array of rich aesthetic traditions, including vernacular, folklore, spirituals, blues, and jazz, that inform and enrich not only the literature but the texture of cultures across America. Back to Courses

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2013-05-19T19:21:32Z

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The impact of war on forest areas in the Democratic Republic of Congo This paper provides a review of data on the effects of the civil war on forest areas in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Only a few of these effects were beneficial, the most important being the collapse of the wood industry. However, the war has increased the number of people that rely on wood for fuel and bushmeat for protein. The presence of soldiers and refugees aggravates this pressure. When people hide they do not necessarily refrain from hunting, because goods, including ivory, can be stocked to be traded when the situation improves. War seems beneficial to the environment only if it keeps people out of large areas. It could be useful to extend the concept of peace parks to war zones. The idea of an international ‘green force’ to protect biodiversity hotspots should be given serious consideration. Awareness is growing that political instability should not preclude conservation efforts from being continued.(Received December 28 2000) (Revised May 29 2001) (Accepted September 4 2001) Key Words: Africa; biodiversity; bushmeat; Democratic Republic Congo; forests; hunting; war.

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http://www.journals.cup.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=96871&fulltextType=RA&fileId=S0030605302000066

2013-05-19T19:51:34Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698017611/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095337-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

The victims of the fire were mostly women immigrants working under ridiculously strenuous conditions, and more often than not, the sole providers for their families in the old country and here in their new homeland. Recently, historian and amateur genealogist, Michael Hirsch, tracked down the names of six previously unknown victims through historical and genealogical research. Hirsch also produced the HBO documentary "Triangle: Remembering the Fire." There were many contributing factors to the fire, most of which could have been prevented. The tragedy sparked massive reforms in both labor and safety laws at the time. The Triangle fire is an interesting insight into factory conditions at the turn of the century, not just of the clothing industry, but industry in general. Below are some resources to learn more about this pivotal moment in labor and workplace safety history: 100 Years Later, the Roll of the Dead in a Factory Fire is Complete, New York Times Remembering the Triangle Factory Fire, a website presented by the Kheel Center for Labor-Management Documentation and Archives at Cornell University Remember the Triangle Fire Coalition Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Memorial Uncovering the History of the Triangle Shirtwaist Fire, Smithsonian Magazine, by David Von Drehle author of "Triangle: The Fire That Changed America." The Triangle Shirtwaist Fire Trial, detailed site explaining the trial that followed the fire Triangle Fire, American Experience documentary on PBS |A pattern for shirtwaist embroidery from the Iowa State Register and Farmer, 1909|

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.leavesfortrees.blogspot.com/2011/03/remembering-triangle-shirtwaist-fire.html

2013-05-19T19:51:25Z

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en

Bricks and Building Forms All openings in brick walls need some way of keeping up the bricks above the openings. This may be an arch, or a flat lintel of some kind. Above are different forms of flat lintels. Fig. A. A brick wall with and without a lintel. Fig. B. The setting out of a brick arch with wedge-shaped bricks. Fig. C. The setting out of a rough brick arch. These are normal bricks and the wedges are formed with mortar. Fig. D. A ferro-concrete lintel is the modern solution to the problem. Some builders use steel lintels and wooden ones used to be common, but these were often attacked by dry rot were.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.locallocalhistory.co.uk/schools/william-patten/walk2/pic03.htm

2013-05-19T19:22:32Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698017611/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095337-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

(Editor's note: This is an updated version of commentary originally written by Paul Kersey and Thomas Washburne and posted June 28, 2007.) What exactly is a right-to-work law? "Right-to-Work" is a state law that prohibits employers and unions from requiring an employee to pay dues or fees to a union in order to keep his or her job. Currently, 22 states have right-to-work laws. While right-to-work laws do NOT allow individual workers to negotiate their own contracts, they do protect a worker from having to involuntarily support a union. I don’t know a thing about labor law — where does Right-to-Work fit in? Labor law provides that whenever at least 50 percent of a workforce supports a union, all employees become represented by a union. The union then negotiates a contract that controls the relationship between the employer and the employees. Unless there is a state right-to-work law in place, these contracts may, and almost without exception do, require that every employee pay either dues or fees to the union or they will be fired — even those employees who oppose the union. In states with a right-to-work law, no employee can be fired for refusing to pay dues or fees to a labor union. What is a "free rider?" A so-called "free rider" is the term that unions use to describe a person who is covered by a union contract but does not pay dues or fees to the union for the union’s efforts in securing or administering the contract. Unions contend that free riders benefit unfairly because they do not pay for the benefits a union provides. Aren’t free riders a problem? Not necessarily. The real problem is labor law that leaves employees in a position where they are represented by a union they do not want. A union that provides valuable service in contract negotiating, even in right-to-work states, should have little problem earning the loyalty and dues of a vast majority of employees. What are Beck Rights? "Beck Rights" refer to rights declared in a U.S. Supreme Court case, Communications Workers of America v. Beck. Under Beck, an employee should be able to limit his or her payment to the union to his or her share of the costs of representation. The principle behind Beck is that workers should not be forced to pay for union lobbying or political work unrelated to the employer/employee relationship. Why isn’t Beck enough? Even in exercising Beck rights, an employee is still obligated to pay a union for services that the employee does not want. In addition, Beck rights have proven difficult to secure, as the union controls all the records needed to determine what employees should pay. Getting an accurate accounting often requires lengthy litigation. Can’t workers get rid of a union that’s doing a bad job? That’s easier said than done. Once a union is certified, it is difficult for employees to remove it. Decertification elections must wait until a contract expires and because of forced dues and fees, unions have large amounts of funds to fight attempts to remove them. This is one reason why most employees in unionized firms have NEVER actually voted in an election to certify the union that represents them. The union is simply entrenched and therefore has the ability to act in a manner that may be more beneficial to union leaders than to union members. Union officials in right-to-work states know that if they lose touch with their members, those members may simply start withholding dues and fees. This keeps the union more immediately accountable to the workers it represents. But don't workers benefit from having a union? Shouldn't they be willing to pay for it? It's not that simple. A union can hurt workers too. When a young worker is laid off or passed over for a promotion because of seniority, does he really benefit from the union contract? An ineffective or unwise union can cost workers dearly. It's naive to assume that all workers come out ahead from union representation. And once you account for that, the whole case against right-to-work basically evaporates. What has changed that makes right-to-work an issue now? Michigan is in an economic crisis. Between 2002 and 2010 the state lost 14 percent of its jobs. States with RTW have proven attractive to companies desiring to locate in an area, and Michigan workers could really use the jobs those companies might provide. What would change at my workplace? Nothing would change in your workplace immediately. With a right-to-work law, the union still negotiates employee contracts on behalf of all employees and represents them if they have grievances. Over the longer term, you may find that the union is more attentive to your concerns. What happens to collective bargaining agreements? Collective bargaining agreements would remain in effect and unchanged. Depending on the effective date of a right-to-work law, you may gain the legal right to cease paying union dues immediately, or that may take effect once your current agreement runs out. Either way the rest of the contract will remain in effect. What happens if I have a grievance? Labor law provides that a union certified to represent employees has a duty to fairly represent all employees, regardless of whether they pay fees or dues. What will happen to my wages? Right-to-work laws do not affect compensation. Your contract will remain in effect. Over the long term, incomes rise faster in right-to-work states, and cost of living tends to be lower as well, meaning your ability to buy the things you need and want is likely to be higher in a right-to-work state. What will happen to my benefits? Right-to-work laws do not affect benefits. What would happen to safety in the workplace? Whatever safety rules are in your contract will remain in effect, along with all state, federal and local worker safety laws. Why do businesses support right-to-work laws? Right-to-work laws make unions more immediately accountable to their members so that they are more focused on basic workplace issues and less likely to make unreasonable demands. Businesses in right-to-work states tend to be more productive — without shortchanging workers — and this gives them a competitive advantage. Do right-to-work laws create jobs? Right-to-work laws are a proven job creator. For decades unemployment rates have consistently been lower in right-to-work states. But unemployment rates only tell half the story -- unemployment rates can be thrown off as workers give up on finding jobs or move from state to state looking for work. In terms of job creation, however, right-to-work states have a big advantage. Between 2002 and 2010 the average right-to-work state increased payrolls by 3 percent compared to a loss of 3 percent for non-right-to-work states. That's not to say that right-to-work states never have slumps; right-to-work didn't prevent Louisiana and Mississippi from losing jobs in the wake of Hurricane Katrina. But over the long haul it's not even close: right-to-work states create more jobs than non-right-to-work states like Michigan. Don’t workers in right-to-work states earn less? After accounting for taxes and the cost of living, workers actually have higher real pay in right-to-work states. Incomes are growing faster in right-to-work states too. In fact, according to the US Census most right-to-work states had higher per capita disposable incomes than Michigan in 2010. Will a right-to-work law make Michigan prosperous by itself? It will certainly help. Michigan’s economy is also burdened by high business taxes and a difficult regulatory climate. But right-to-work will immediately make the state more attractive to employers. Won’t this weaken unions? That depends on what you think a strong union looks like. If your idea of a strong union is one that looks out for its member’s best interests, a right-to-work law could actually make unions stronger. Why are union officials so vehemently opposed to right-to-work measures? Right-to-work protections for employees renders unions more accountable to their members. Simply put, when a union member becomes convinced that a union is not acting in the member’s interest, that member can choose to resign his or her membership and refuse to pay dues or fees. Union leaders enjoy their power and influence on a whole host of issues that may or may not be related to the welfare of employees and see right-to-work laws as a threat to their ability to act with very little accountability. Why should I care what employers think? Employers create jobs. Michigan desperately needs jobs. We must make Michigan as inviting as we can. Not caring what employers think also causes good jobs to migrate to other states where employers are highly valued. Are right-to-work laws anti-union? Not really, although union officials like to argue that they are. Even with right-to-work laws, unions collectively bargain for all the employees and therefore enjoy the very same leverage they have in non-right-to-work states. The only difference is that unions in right-to-work states are more directly accountable to the employees they represent. Will unions have what they need to be effective? If a union represents employees well and acts reasonably on other matters, there is no reason to believe that the workers it represents would refuse to support it, especially in a state like Michigan with a long tradition of union support. The Union Membership and Coverage Database indicates that at least 75 percent of workers who are covered by a union contract voluntarily join and pay dues. Aren’t unions already losing influence anyway? Whether unions have lost influence is a matter of debate. However, right-to-work laws are not about limiting union influence. It is about fairness to employees who are represented by a union that they do not desire and have had forced upon them. It is also about union accountability to its membership. Why are unions losing members? The protections provided by law to employees have seen significant evolution since the 1930s when the laws permitting compulsory unionism were passed. For example, federal employment discrimination statutes now prohibit employment decisions based on race, age, gender, religion or national origin. Workers compensation statutes provide for clarity in compensation for job related injuries. Accordingly, many Americans simply do not see the need for a union and would rather negotiate their own terms of employment with their employers. Many others see unions as taking positions on issues that are not related to their employment with which they disagree, either politically or morally. Wouldn’t a right-to-work law just mean that workers lose their voice in the workplace? Even in right-to-work states, a union still negotiates the contract that defines the relationship between all employees and the employer. As such, the employer has the same motivation to work with a union as it does absent a right-to-work law. The only voice that is lost a union voice that union members and employees cannot support and choose to silence by withholding their union dues or fees. In this sense, RTW actually gives employees a stronger voice. Wouldn’t a right-to-work law just mean that workers lose their voice in government? The only voice that is lost in states with right–to-work is the union voice that is so far out of the mainstream that the union’s own members refuse to support it. This is not a worker's voice and workers should not be obligated to support it. Are you saying that unions are bad for the economy? If employees choose to voluntarily unite to bargain collectively with an employer, then an economy benefits from this free choice of individuals. An economy suffers, however, where individuals are compelled to become union members or fee payers to a labor organization that they do not believe serves their interest. The impact of this compulsion is magnified by laws allowing for mandatory dues or fees in support of an unwanted or unaccountable union.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.mackinac.org/article.aspx?ID=8694

2013-05-19T19:43:42Z

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en

The zoo’s present colony of prairie dogs was received in August of 2010. They were donated by the Minnesota Zoological Gardens. - At least one member of a prairie dog coterie acts as a lookout. It rears up on its hind legs and barks skyward to warn of approaching danger. - Empty sections of prairie dog towns offer a home to such animals as ground squirrels, cottontail rabbits, burrowing owls and rattlesnakes. - The burrow system of the prairie dog colony extends over a vast area. These large areas are called towns which can cover hundreds of acres. The town is divided into family units, or coteries which may cover only a few acres. The Prairie Dog occupies just 2% of its original range. In 1900 its numbers reached as high as 5 million. But decades of shooting and poisoning have reduced its population by over 90%. The main threat to Prairie Dogs is mans continued poisoning and shooting in areas where cattle roam.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.manitowoc.org/index.aspx?NID=874

2013-05-19T19:22:04Z

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en

1915 - Sailors and Marines land in Haiti to restore order 1916 - Navy establishes a Code and Signal Section which initially worked against German ciphers and tested the security of communications during U.S. naval training maneuvers. 1926 - Team of scientists from Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) and Carnegie Institution determine height of the Ionosphere through use of radio pulse transmitter developed by NRL 1945 - USS Callaghan (DD-792) is last ship sunk by a Japanese kamikaze attack, off Okinawa. 1973 - Launch of Skylab 3, the second manned mission to the first U.S. manned space station, was piloted by MAJ Jack R. Lousma, USMC with CAPT Alan L. Bean, USN as the Commander of the mission and former Navy electronics officer, Owen K. Garriott as Science Pilot. The mission lasted 59 days, 11 hours and included 858 Earth orbits. Recovery by USS New Orleans (LPH-11). (Source: Navy News Service)

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.marinelink.com/news/article/331370.aspx

2013-05-19T19:23:25Z

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en

High: 87°F ~ Low: 66°F Sunday, May 19, 2013 The good news: In the past, drought would have been worsePosted Tuesday, August 7, 2012, at 4:47 PM Lately we've been bombarded with mainstream media stories about the drought of 2012. Some report on the affect it has on farmers and livestock. Others cover the rising food prices consumers will pay. But what we haven't heard is the rest of the story -- the positive part of the story. If U.S. farmers were not using modern technologies in 2012 we would be facing a situation far worse. What they are reporting, though, is true. More than two-thirds of the lower 48 states are experiencing drought. Record-high temperatures coupled with record-low precipitation has devastated growing crops and livestock. Kansas City data shows from April 1 through July 26 there has been only 5.86 inches of rain, the second driest period on record. The driest year was 1911, while third on the list is one of the dust bowl years, 1936, with 6.56 inches. In fact, 1988 is fourth with 7.04 inches, and 1980 is sixth with 8.59 inches. (See http://www.crh.noaa. This was also the third warmest period from April 1 to July 25 on record with a 72.2 degree average. The warmest year was 1934, followed by 1936. It is entirely possible 2012 will go down as the worst drought in U.S. history. What they are reporting is true. Our corn yields will be severely affected. And if rains don't come in August, soybean yields will also decrease considerably. Our winter supply of hay is already dwindling as we have had to feed hay for the past month. Lush summer grass pastures have been replaced by a crunchy, brown mixture resembling concrete. Farmers faced with lack of feed are selling cattle herds off quickly. But then there is the story which isn't getting told. With so little rain and so many 100-degree days, we should be disking all our corn down. We should be having huge dust storms like they did in the 1930s. Unable to withstand high temperatures, pigs and chickens should be dying by the thousands, and farmers should be making plans to sell out, retire or find another source of income. Consumers should be looking at a food shortage, not just a small price increase. But we aren't disking. Farmers will be harvesting some corn. Perhaps not a lot, but some. With a little luck and a lot of rain in August, we could still have a decent soybean crop. Pastures could come back in time to save some hay for the winter. There aren't any dust storms, despite high velocity, hot winds and very dry ground. Pigs and chickens aren't dying off by the thousand because of the heat. In fact, even though pigs don't have sweat glands, most are doing just fine. And most farmers aren't planning to quit farming. We will see some effect, but certainly not the mass exodus of people leaving rural America like the 1930s. Often criticized and maligned in the popular media, the truth is without new technology our problems would be much worse. Just like the modern technology of air-conditioning means fewer deaths during the heat wave, modern farming techniques means we will still have food and we will still have family farmers. Today, hybrid seeds and yes, genetically modified crops, mean we need fewer resources, even water, to grow more crops on less land. We now can grow 87 percent more corn per ounce of fertilizer. We have increased productivity on America's farms more than 200 percent since the 1940s. We are losing farmland every day to urban sprawl, but we still produce more food than ever before. If 1950 farming techniques were used today, 150 million people would be hungry, and that's in an average year. Modern pesticides mean we now produce four times the corn and wheat on fewer acres than ever before. It also means weeds and insects no longer reduce yields by 40 percent. (See https://www.facebook.com/lens.of.a.farm..... Minimum-till and no-till approaches have replaced early farming techniques which left soil vulnerable to erosion and dust storms. Consequently, erosion has decreased 90 percent. And the pigs and chickens? They are quite comfortable inside climate-controlled buildings, much like the rest of us. And yes, prices may rise some, probably because they can, much more than because they should. But Americans will still pay less than 7 percent of their take-home pay on food. Put another way, the average American works just 40 days to pay their yearly food bill, while at the same time they will work 128 days to pay federal, state and local taxes each year. Today 90 percent of farms are protected by some sort of crop insurance, as opposed to the 1980s when just 30 percent of farms carried insurance. Because of that, most farmers will be able to pay expenses this year. They will be able to look forward to 2013, ever optimistic for better weather. But without these improvements, 2012 would be the end of many family farms, which still account for 95 percent of all American farms. And when the family farmers left, it would also economically damage rural America and those family businesses. The erroneous news reports of the downfall of the family farm would finally be true. We would see the rise to larger farms, and eventually there would actually be corporate farms. We would see more integration between food companies and farms. And then our food production would be like much of our manufacturing industry -- sent to foreign lands for cheaper production costs. And we would still be faced with higher prices. That, my friends, is the rest of the story. Showing comments in chronological order [Show most recent comments first] Hot topicsEnd of an era: Ag reporter heads for the fields (6 ~ 6:54 PM, May 13) Samplings from Women in Ag conference Lose weight and get healthy: Eat meat and get moving So many title possibilities, so little time ... A boy's empty room means new phase for mother

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.marshallnews.com/blogs/1146/entry/48953/asc

2013-05-19T19:53:11Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698017611/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095337-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

How to crack the cancer code In 2003, 13 years and $2.6 billion after it started, the Human Genome Project completed the sequence of nearly all of the 2.9 billion letters of genetic code that make up the human being. Now researchers are tackling what may be an even more ambitious challenge – developing an “atlas” that describes the genetic characteristics of the more than 200 different types of cancer. In 2006 the National Cancer Institute and the National Human Genome Research Institute announced that lung, brain (glioblastoma) and ovarian cancers will be studied during a three-year pilot to determine the feasibility of a full-scale Cancer Genome Atlas project. Patients will be asked to donate a small portion of tumor tissue that has been removed as part of their treatment. The biospecimens will be processed at a central facility, and distributed to cancer genome characterization centers, which will determine which genes are selectively turned on or off in the tumors. Genome sequencing centers will conduct further investigations, looking for changes in the DNA sequence that may be associated with specific cancer types. This information will be entered into public databases so that researchers ultimately can use it to improve cancer diagnosis, treatment and prevention. The attempt to redefine cancer by its genetic code has been made possible by phenomenal technological advances during the past two decades. In the mid-1980s, a scientist could spend a day determining the sequence of 50 to 100 nucleotide bases, the four “letters” (adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine) that make up the DNA code, at a cost of $10 per base. The current generation of sequencing machines can sequence one million bases a day for about 50 cents a base. A new generation of machines – now being tested – may increase the output to 500 million bases a day at a cost that is 100 times lower. The machines are not cheap, however. Both the current and new machines cost about $300,000 each. To succeed, The Cancer Genome Atlas project must push the technology even further so that researchers can decipher the complex genetic and molecular interactions that underlie malignant growth, and at a reasonable cost. For more information, go to http://cancergenome.nih.gov. View Related Article: Eric Lander: The great amplifier: Audacious thinking may help crack the code of cancer

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.mc.vanderbilt.edu/lens/article/?id=168

2013-05-19T19:38:24Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698017611/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095337-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

Definition of Respiratory rate Respiratory rate: The number of breaths per minute or, more formally, the number of movements indicative of inspiration and expiration per unit time. In practice, the respiratory rate is usually determined by counting the number of times the chest rises or falls per minute. The aim of measuring respiratory rate is to determine whether the respirations are Last Editorial Review: 3/19/2012 Back to MedTerms online medical dictionary A-Z List Need help identifying pills and medications? Get the latest health and medical information delivered direct to your inbox FREE!

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=5330

2013-05-19T19:46:18Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698017611/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095337-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

1982 Total Lunar Eclipse The partial phases and totality during a 1982 lunar eclipse. (click to see more 1982 photos) Photographing an eclipse of the Moon is fun and easy. You don't even have to worry about special filters to protect your eyes or your camera. Unlike eclipses of the Sun, eclipses of the Moon are perfectly safe to watch with the naked eye. A lunar eclipse occurs whenever the Moon passes through Earth's dark shadow. This can only happen during Full Moon. Although there is a Full Moon every 29 1/2 days, there are only 2 or 3 lunar eclipses a year. That's because the Moon's orbit is tipped 5 degrees to Earth's so the Moon misses Earth's shadow at most Full Moons.(see: Lunar Eclipses For Beginners) Watching and photographing an eclipse of the Moon is a relaxing activity since it progresses at a leisurely pace. The eclipse begins as a small notch slowly appears along one edge of the Moon. During the next hour, the Moon gradually dips deeper into Earth's dark umbral shadow. If the eclipse is a total one, the last remaining minutes of the partial phases can be quite dramatic and beautiful. The crescent of the Moon grows thinner as darkness propagates through a night sky now deprived of moonlight. If you're away from city lights, the Milky Way becomes bright and beautiful as the total phase begins. It's quite a remarkable sight. It wasn't very long ago that film was king while digital cameras were low resolution, high-priced gizmos. Today, digital cameras are as common as film cameras if not more so. And 6 to 12 megapixel digital cameras offer image quality to rival or even surpass film. Lunar eclipses can be captured easily with both film and digital cameras. The simpler point and shoot cameras have a non-interchangable lens with a single focal length. Better models are equipt with a 3x or larger zoom lens. The most versatile (and expensive) cameras are the 35mm SLR (single lens reflex) and its digital counterpart the DSLR (digital single lens reflex) . These cameras allow you to replace the kit lens with any number of other lenses from wide angle to super telephoto. You can even connect an SLR or DSLR directly to a telescope so that the Moon fills the entire frame. No matter what kind of camera you own, one or more of the following techniques can be used be used to shoot a lunar eclipse. 1982 Total Lunar Eclipse in Geminii The very dark total lunar eclipse of 1982 Dec 30 was captured with a simple 35mm camera on a tripod. (50mm Nikkor lens, 30 seconds at f/1.8 on Ektachrome 400) (click to see larger image) The simplest way to photograph an eclipse is to use the Wide Angle technique. Any kind of camera can be used as long as it's capable of shooting long exposures of 5 seconds or more in duration. If the camera accepts a cable release, this will help eliminate any vibrations that can blur your photo. Alternatively, you could use the camera's self timer to minimize vibrations. Check the camera's user manual to see if it has some kind of long exposure or night mode. You also need to turn off the electronic flash. Once again, check the manual if necessary. With long exposures, it's best to attach the camera to a solid tripod. In a pinch, you can prop the camera up on a wall, fence post or rock. Just make sure it's secure and won't fall to the ground. For 35mm SLRs, a wide angle lens (28mm or 35mm) is recommended but a normal 50mm lens also works fine. For DSLRs, use a focal length in the range of 18mm to 35mm.With point and shoot cameras, try setting the zoom at wide angle (shortest focal length). A speed film or ISO setting of 400 is a good choice. If your camera has a manual exposure mode, set the lens to its widest aperture (smallest numeric f/number) and use a range of exposures from 5 seconds to 40 seconds (i.e, 5, 10, 20 and 40 seconds). Exposures longer than this will start to trail or streak because of Earth's rotation on its axis.A major advatage of digital cameras is that you can check your exposures to see which shutter speeds work best. The Moon appears quite small in a wide angle photo, so the idea behind this kind of picture is to capture the eclipse with an interesting foreground. It could be a building (e.g. - church steeple), tower, tree or even the horizon. This gives the photo some context by showing the eclipsed Moon in a familiar environment. You can estimate the eclipsed Moon's direction and elevation by checking the Moon's position one or two nights before the eclipse. Just keep in mind that the Moon will appear in the same location about 50 minutes later each night. This is just a rough guide but it should be good enough for planning purposes. Let's say it's two nights before the eclipse and you want to estimate where the eclipsed Moon will be in order to photograph it with some foreground object. If the eclipse begins at 11 PM, the Moon would be in approximately the same part of the sky at 9:20 PM two nights before the eclipse. This kind of exercise is a great help in planning a successful eclipse photo. 2000 Total Lunar Eclipse The star trail technique was used to take this photo during the total lunar eclipse of 2000 Jan 21. The lens aperture was opened to f/5.6 during totality. The narrow lines which parallel the Moon's path are images of bright stars. (50mm Nikkor lens, f/16 opened to f/5.6 during totality, total exposure time was 2 hours and 30 minutes on Kodak Royal Gold 400) (click to see larger image) A variation on the Wide Angle technique is to use very long exposures of an hour or more. This allows the Moon to slowly drift across the camera field of view as the Earth rotates. The Star Trail technigue can be done with the same kind of camera and lens used for Wide Angle photos (described in the previous section). In this case, a tripod and a cable release are a must, and your camera also needs to have a manual bulb setting so that you can lock the shutter open. Choose a moderate ISO speed (ISO 200 or 400), and an aperture of f/8 or f/11. As the eclipse begins, place the Moon's image in one corner of your camera's viewfinder. Your camera should be oriented so that the Moon's image will move across the camera's field during a 1 to 3 hour exposure. This motion is actually caused by Earth's rotation on its axis. You can figure out the approximate orientation by trying it out on the Moon one or two nights before the eclipse. Just remember that the Moon rises about 50 minutes later each night. For example, if the eclipse begins at 10 PM, you'll need to run the test at 9:10 PM one night before the eclipse (or at 8:20 PM two nights before). To record all the partial and total phases of a lunar eclipse in one frame, you need to know the field of view of your camera lens as well as the the duration of the eclipse. The Moon appears to move across the sky at a rate of 15° per hour--its own diameter every two minutes. A 50mm lens (35mm for DSLRs) has a field of 49° along the diagonal. It should take the Moon about three hours to traverse the diagonal, so try to orient your camera so that the Moon moves in this direction. See the Field of View Table below for a number of different lens focal lengths. Choose one corner of your viewfinder, place the Moon there and see if it drifts into or out of the frame after several minutes. Select a different corner if the Moon moves the wrong way. If your tripod allows you to tilt your camera, you can use this capability to frame the Moon so that it will pass through the diagonal of your camera's viewfinder. A couple of final tips should help. If the eclipse occurs in the early evening, the Moon will be rising and its motion brings it up and to the right as you face the Moon. If the eclipse occurs during the middle of the night, the Moon's motion is basically from left to right. If the eclipse occurs during the early morning hours, the Moon is setting and its motion takes it down and to the right. If you're in the Southern Hemisphere, change right to left in the previous 3 sentences. On eclipse night, load your camera with film (or a fresh memory card), mount it firmly on a tripod and make one last check of your f/number, focus (on infinity) and shutter speed. At the appointed time, lock open the shutter with your cable release, sit back and enjoy the eclipse! You can close the shutter in one or two hours, depending on your lens and the time required for the Moon to pass through the camera's field. When your film is developed, you'll have an picture of the sky with the Moon's image smeared across it. The interesting thing is that the diameter of the Moon's trail will be a function of the Moon's brightness (i.e., phase of the eclipse). If your exposure includes part of totality, the Moon's trail will probably dwindle down to a bright orange or dark red line. Note for digital camera users: make sure your camera battery has enough power to last for a several hour long exposure. If you have an AC power adapter for your camera, that might be a better choice than battery power. You should also turn your camera's noise reduction feature on. This greatly improves the image quality for long exposures (check the camera manual). 2000 Total Eclipse Over Maui The Multiple Exposure technique was used during the total lunar eclipse of 2000 July 16 from Maui. A Nikon 8008 in multiple exposure mode was used to capture the entire eclipse on one frame of film. The basic exposure of 1/125 second at f/5.6 was increased to 1/8 second within 15 minutes of totality and then set to 4 seconds throughout totality. A second exposure (metered) captures morning twilight and silhouetted palm trees. Nikon 8008, Nikkor 35mm f/5.6 Kodak Royal Gold 100: 1/125 to 1/8 on (partial phases), 4 seconds (totality) (click to see report and more photos) The Wide Angle technique captures one instant during an eclipse. The Star Trail technique records several hours of an eclipse but the resulting image is rather abstract and doesn't resemble the naked-eye apperance on an eclipse. The Multiple Exposure technique combines the best of the Wide Angle and Star Trail techniques by capturing a sequence of individual images that show the eclipse through a large number of stages. Although the technique can be used by both film and digital cameras, the exact details are very different for these two camera technologies. Multiple Exposure with Film - Multiple Exposure with Digital - The camera set up and orientation for both film and digital cameras is identical to the Star Trail method. The difference here is that you will take a series of short exposures at various stages of the eclipse instead of one long exposure (film cameras must be in multiple exposure mode). The resulting exposures will reveal a series of small Moon images each illustrating a different phase of the eclipse. An essential key to the success of this method is ensuring that your camera and tripod remain absolutely rigid and do not move throughout the eclipse. Make the first exposure as the partial eclipse begins and then shoot additional exposures every five to ten minutes. Be consistent and use the same time interval between every shot. This will produce an aesthetically pleasing string of evenly spaced Moon images showing the progress of the eclipse. A digital wristwatch with a count-down timer is a great help to keep you on track for each exposure. Since the Moon's brightness varies during the eclipse, you also need to change the exposures as the eclipse proceeds. The Lunar Eclipse Exposure Guide below gives approximate camera settings for various stages of the eclipse. To use the guide, begin in the upper left corner by selecting your ISO speed. On the same line, move to the right until you reach your chosen aperture (f/number). Then move straight down to the phase of the eclipse and read the recommended shutter speed. For the partial phases the magnitude isn just the fraction of the Moon's disk immersed in the Earth's umbral shadow. As the partial phases progress, just estimate the eclipse magnitude to determine the recommended exposure. For example, let's say you're using ISO 400 at f/8. The table recommends a shutter speed of 1/1000 as the partial eclipse begins. The shutter speeds for eclipse magnitudes 0.3, 0.6, 0.8 and 0.9 would then be 1/500, 1/250, 1/125 and 1/60, respectively. Note that the Exposure Guide lists a range of different exposures for totality. For the time being, use the row labeled "Totality: L=3" to determine your exposure. These values will be explained in the section Brightness of Total Lunar Eclipses. Continue taking exposures using the time interval you've chosen until the Moon moves outside your camera's field of view. For film cameras, it's important to now take your camera out of multiple exposure mode. Otherwise, your carefully executed eclipse picture will be superimposed on the next picture you take. To be safe, put the lens cap on the camera and shoot two or three frames to verify that the film is advancing through the camera. When the film is developed, you'll have one frame that compresses the entire eclipse into one picture with a sequence of tiny Moon's each reflecting a different phase of the eclipse. For digital cameras, download all the images to your computer. Use an image editing program like Photoshop or Photoshop Elements to add all the individual image files as separate layers in one new composite file. Finally, flatten the layers to combine the separate exposures into one. Portrait of Totality The total lunar eclipse of 2000 Jan 20-21 was photographed from Dunkirk, Maryland. An AstroPhysics 120 EDT Refractor (5" F/6) and AP 2X Barlow produced a focal length of 1500mm. The image was made on Kodak Royal Gold 100 with a Nikon N70 camera (4 seconds at f/12). (click to see more photos) To achieve large images of the Moon, you need to use a long telephoto lens or a telescope. Point & Shoot cameras can be used if they have a powerful zoom lens (6x or more). In this case, the longer the zoom's focal length, the better. Try shooting some photos of the Moon a few days before the eclipse to see how big the Moon's image will be using the maximum zoom setting.Just don't expect Point & Shoot cameras to deliver a Moon image that fills the frame. For that, you need either an SLR or DSLR. The big advantage of SLR (film) and DSLR (digital) cameras is that they take interchangeable lenses. In this case, a lens with a long focal length is needed to get as large an image as possible. With SLRs (film), a 50mm lens produces an image of the Moon only 0.5mm across. Switching to a 200mm telephoto or zoom lens, the Moon appears 1.8mm in diameter. This is still quite small but at least the image is recognizable. However, there are a number of compact 500mm mirror lenses available in the $100 to $250 price range which yield a lunar image 4.6mm in diameter. While this is seems like a respectable size, it still doesn't fill the frame. Adding a 2x tele-extender to a 500 mm lens results in a focal length of 1000mm which doubles the Moon's size to 9.2mm. Most recommendations for SLRs apply to DSLRs as well. The primary difference is that the imaging chip in most DSLR cameras is only about 2/3 the area of a 35mm film frame (see your DSLR's technical specifications). This means that the relative size of the MoonÕs image appears 1.5 times larger in a DSLR so a shorter focal length lens can be used to achieve the same angular coverage compared to a SLR. For example, a 500mm lens on a DSLR produces the same relative image size as a 750mm lens on a SLR. The diagram below shows the apparent size of the Moon at six different focal lengths. The focal lengths for SLRs are black while DSLR values are in blue. Focal lengths in excess of 1000mm take you into the realm of the super telephoto lens. If you're in the market for such an item, you might consider a small telescope instead. The main advantage of a telescope is that you can also use it visually with variable power eyepieces. There are a number of brands and models in the 1000mm to 2000mm focal length range, including the Celestron 90 and the Meade ETX. These instruments are both compact catadioptics in the $300 to $500 price range. The 3 1/2" Questar is renowned for both its high optical quality and price ($3000 to $4000). These telescopes are available with equatorial fork mounts and electric clock drives which counteract the Earth's rotation and allow you to automatically track the Sun, Moon and stars. A wealth of information on commercial telescopes can be obtained from advertisers in magazines like Astronomy or Sky and Telescope. Keep in mind that a focal length of 2500mm (1700mm for DSLRs) produces an image of the Moon that barely fits the narrow dimension of the camera field of view. The Moon's image size on 35mm film can be calculated for any lens by dividing its focal length by 109. The Field of View & Image Size Table lists the size of the Moon's image over a wide range of lens focal lengths. The table also gives the field of view of each lens for both SLRs and DSLRs. This is useful for planning phtotgraphy using the Star Trail and Multiple Exposure techniques. With a telephoto lens or telescope, you can capture various stages of the eclipse using the Lunar Eclipse Exposure Guide as a starting point for your exposures. Bracket your exposures by making one exposure at the recommended value and then two more at one stop (or shutter speed) overexposed and one stop underexposed. In most cases, this will ensure that you obtain a well exposed image. To be extra safe, you might even bracket plus or minus two stops. Weather conditions (fog, haze, thin clouds) may require an additional two or three stops to achieve a good exposure. Just remember that film and memory chips are cheap and eclipses don't happen every month! To capture a good sequence of photos, you'll probably want to take a bracketed series of exposures every ten or fifteen minutes. Just make sure that you use a large enough tripod to hold you telephoto lens firmly with as little vibration as possible. The major challenge to lunar eclipse photography comes during totality because there's no way to predict how bright the Moon will appear. Triple Play Totality The total lunar eclipse of 2004 Oct 28 was widely visible from the USA. This trio of images captures the Moon at the beginning (right), middle (center) and end (left) of totality. The composite was assembled from three separate exposures using Adobe Photoshop. An AstroPhysics 105 EDT Refractor (4" F/6) and AP 2X Barlow produced a focal length of 1200mm. The image was made with a Nikon D100 DSLR camera (4 seconds at f/12). (click to see more photos) During a total eclipse, the Moon's color and brightness can vary enormously. It can take on hues from bright orange, through deep red, dark brown or even dark grey as it's brilliance ranges from bright to dark to nearly invisible. Although the Moon is cut off from all direct sunlight while it is in Earth's umbral shadow, the Moon receives indirect sunlight which is refracted through and modified by Earth's atmosphere. Our atmosphere contains varying amounts of water (clouds, mist, precipitation) and solid particles (dust, organic debris, volcanic ash). This material filters and attenuates the sunlight before it's refracted into the Earth's shadow. For instance, large or frequent volcanic eruptions dumping huge quantities of ash into the atmosphere are often followed by very dark, brownish red eclipses for several years. Extensive cloud cover along Earth's limb also tends to darken the eclipse by blocking sunlight. To successfully photograph the total phase of an eclipse, you have to be able make a reasonable guess as to how bright a particular eclipse is. Fortunately, a French astronomer named Dajon formulated a simple five point scale for evaluating the visual appearance and brightness of the Moon during total lunar eclipses. 'L' values for various luminosities are defined as follows: L = 0 Very dark eclipse. Moon almost invisible, especially at mid-totality. L = 1 Dark Eclipse, gray or brownish in coloration. Details distinguishable only with difficulty. L = 2 Deep red or rust-colored eclipse. Very dark central shadow, while outer edge of umbra is relatively bright. L = 3 Brick-red eclipse. Umbral shadow usually has a bright or yellow rim. L = 4 Very bright copper-red or orange eclipse. Umbral shadow has a bluish, very bright rim. The assignment of an 'L' value to lunar eclipses is best done with the naked eye, binoculars or a small telescope during totality. Use the descriptions above and select the one that best fits the Moon's appearance. To photograph the Moon in total eclipse, you choose the exposure with the corresponding 'L' value from the Lunar Eclipse Exposure Guide. Keep in mind that this exposure is only a estimate. You should bracket two or three stops over and under the recommendation. Better yet, if your camera has a spot meter, use it to take an actual exposure reading and bracket from that point. If you have a digital camera, check your exposures and modify them as needed. The Lunar Eclipse Photo Links offer many more examples of lunar eclipse phototgraphs. To plan your eclipse photography, you'll need to know when upcoming lunar eclipses will occur and the contact times of the partial and total phases. This information is available at Lunar Eclipse Preview: 2001-2020. The last total lunar eclipse visible from the U.S.A. occured on Aug. 28, 2007. The next total lunar eclipse occurs on Feb. 21, 2008. Upcoming lunar eclipses visible from the U.S.A. include Feb. 21, 2008 (total), Jun. 26, 2010 (partial), Dec. 21, 2010 (total), Jun. 04, 2012 (partial), Apr. 15, 2014 (total) and Oct. 08, 2014 (total). Phases of the 2000 Total Lunar Eclipse This photo is centered on Earth's umbral shadow and shows various stages of the total lunar eclipse of 2000 Jan 20-21. The composite was made in Adobe Photoshop from nine separate photos shot on Kodak Royal Gold 100 with a Nikon N70 camera AstroPhysics 120 EDT Refractor (5" F/6) and AP 2X Barlow (focal length of 1500mm) (click to see more photos) All photographs, text and web pages are © Copyright 2007 by Fred Espenak, unless otherwise noted. All rights reserved. They may not be reproduced, published, copied or transmitted in any form, including electronically on the Internet or WWW, without written permission of the author. The photos have been digitally watermarked. The photographs may be licensed for commercial, editorial, and educational use. Contact Espenak (at MrEclipse) for photo use in print, web, video, CD and all other media. Last revised: 2008 Feb 26

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Asthma is a chronic disease that affects your airways, which are the tubes that carry air in and out of your lungs. If you have asthma, the inside walls of your airways are inflamed (swollen). The inflammation makes the airways very sensitive, and they tend to react strongly to things to which you are allergic or find irritating. When the airways react, they get narrower and less air flows through to your lung tissues. This causes symptoms like wheezing (a whistling sound when you breathe), coughing, chest tightness, and trouble breathing. Asthma cannot be cured, but for most patients it can be controlled so that you have only minimal and infrequent symptoms and you can live an active life. So, if you have asthma, taking care of it is an important part of your life. Controlling your asthma means staying away from things that bother your airways and taking medicines as directed by your doctor. By controlling your asthma every day, you can prevent serious symptoms and take part in all activities. If your asthma is not well controlled, you are likely to have symptoms that can make you miss school or work and keep you from doing things you enjoy. Asthma is one of the leading causes of children missing school. When an individual experiences a worsening of your asthma symptoms, it is called an asthma episode or attack. In an asthma attack, muscles around the airways tighten up, making the airway openings narrower so less air can flow through. Inflammation increases and the airways become more swollen and narrow. Cells in the airways also make more mucus than usual. This extra mucus also narrows the airways. These changes cause the symptoms of asthma and make it harder to breathe. Asthma attacks are not all the same-some are worse than others. In a severe asthma attack, the airways can close so much that not enough oxygen gets to vital organs. This condition is a medical emergency. People can die from severe asthma attacks. Bronchial asthma is usually an allergic reaction with breathing difficulties and wheezing. The smooth muscles wrapped around the airways spasm causing them to narrow and mucus is usually produced because the airways become irritated. Most attacks are caused by hyper-sensitivity to air-borne particles or allergies to foods. Cough Variant Asthma Asthma that is displayed by a persistant and irritating cough. Exercise Induced Asthma Exercise Induced Asthma (EIA) is noticed during or shortly after exercise. The person feels wheezy and short of breath. Exercising in the winter seems to be particularly bad for this type of asthma. Because exercise becomes a problem and is unpleasant, often the person does less exercise, becoming less fit as a result. Sometimes this deteriorates to the point where the only exercise taken is from the house to the bus stop. If you have the misfortune to be late for the bus then it becomes a major problem. Asthma triggered by external agents such as pollen or chemicals. Most cases of extrinsic asthma have an allergic origin and are caused by an IgE mediated response to an inhaled allergen . This is the type of asthma commonly diagnosed in early life. Many patients with extrinsic asthma may respond to immunotherapy. Asthma triggered by boggy membranes, congested tissues and other native causes such as adrenalin stress or exertion. Intrinsic asthma generally develops later in life and virtually nothing is known of its causes. It carries a worse prognosis than extrinsic asthma and tends to be less responsive to treatment. Intrinsic bronchial hyperactivity can be triggered by infection, exercise, or drugs such as aspirin. Noctural asthma classifies asthma which suddenly worsens in the middle of the night, typically between 2 and 4am. With nocturnal asthma, asthmatics often fall asleep quickly because they are physically exhausted only to wake some three to four hours later with breathing difficulties. They cough and wheeze, take reliever medication, a visit to the bathroom or a drink of water and try to go back to sleep. This is difficult and when the person finally sinks into a deep sleep he is woken a short time later by the alarm. He staggers out of bed feeling as if he would like to climb back into it, unfortunately it is time to get ready for work. This type of asthmatic frequently feels totally exhausted during the day and needs catnaps to keep functioning at an adequate level. Nocturnal asthma should be taken seriously as there is a high frequency of respiratory arrest and death due to asthma in the early hours of the morning. Seasonal asthma can be triggered by trees, grasses or flowers releasing pollen to the atmosphere or by a particular climate. For example, some people find the summer heat makes their asthma worse, while others find spring is particularly bad with the increase in flowering plants. Silent Asthma is a type of asthma attack which give very little or no prior warning and very little wheezing. They are usually severe and can be life-threatening. Links to Asthma - American Academy of Allergy Asthma and Immunology (AAAAI) - Asthma screening quiz - Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America - The Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA): This organization works with health care professionals and public health officials around the world to reduce asthma prevalence, morbidity, and mortality. Through resources such as evidence-based guidelines for asthma management, and events such as the annual celebration of World Asthma Day, GINA is working to improve the lives of people with asthma in every corner of the globe. - Asthma and Indoor Environments: Information for parents, caregivers, professionals, and partners on information for maintaining clean environments. - Asthma support groups - Asthma-General information: This newsgroup provides a forum for the discussion of asthma, its symptoms, causes, and forms of treatment. Please note that postings to alt.support.asthma are intended to be for discussion purposes only and are in no way to be construed as medical advice. Asthma is a serious medical condition requiring direct supervision by a physician. - My Asthma: MyAsthma is a unique online community dedicated to assisting you in managing your asthma and allergies. - Asthma Control Test: The American Lung Association supports the Asthma Control Test and wants everyone 12 years of age and older with asthma to take it, no matter how well controlled you think your asthma is. Your answers to this 5-question quiz will provide you a score that may help you and your doctor determine if your treatment plan is working or if it might be time for a change. - American Lung Association

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Fort Bowie National Historic Site Fort Bowie commemorates the story of the bitter conflict between the Chiricahua Apaches and the United States military. For more than 30 years Fort Bowie and Apache Pass were the focal point of military operations eventually culminating in the surrender of Geronimo in 1886 and the banishment of the Chiricahuas to Florida and Alabama. The remains of Fort Bowie today are carefully preserved, the adobe walls of various post buildings and the ruins of a Butterfield Stage Station. It stands as a lasting monument to the bravery and endurance of U.S. soldiers in paving the way for westward settlement and the taming of the western frontier. It also serves to give us an understanding of the "clash of cultures," one a young emerging nation in pursuit of its "manifest destiny," the other a valiant hunter/gatherer society fighting to preserve its existence. Apache resistance was finally crushed at Fort Bowie, and the result was the end of the American Indian wars in the United States. Discover Fort Bowie National Historic Site Real Stories From Park Fans Be the first to share your storyShare Your Story

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A new research discovery has the potential to revolutionize the biological understanding of some childhood psychiatric disorders. Specifically, scientists have found that when a single protein involved in brain development, called "SRGAP3," is malformed, it causes problems in the brain functioning of mice that cause symptoms that are similar to some mental health and neurological disorders in children. Because this protein has similar functions in humans, it may represent a "missing link" for several disorders that are part of an illness spectrum. In addition, it offers researchers a new target for the development of treatments that can correct the biological cause rather than treat the symptoms. This discovery was published in November 2012 print issue of The FASEB Journal. "Developmental brain disorders such as schizophrenia, hydrocephalus, mental retardation and autism are among the most devastating diseases in children and young adults," said Dusan Bartsch, Ph.D., a researcher involved in the work from the Department of Molecular Biology at the Central Institute of Mental Health at the University of Heidelberg in Mannheim, Germany. "We hope that our findings will contribute to a better understanding, and in the end, to better treatments for these disorders."

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ARMING mosquitoes with the venom of a scorpion sounds like a terrible idea. But researchers in Mexico say malaria could be stopped in its tracks by genetically engineered mosquitoes that produce a scorpion toxin in their gut. For years, scientists have dreamed of displacing wild mosquitoes with genetically modified insects that cannot carry the malaria parasite Possani, who studies compounds derived from scorpions, recently discovered that the venom of To continue reading this article, subscribe to receive access to all of newscientist.com, including 20 years of archive content.

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The New Jersey Forest Service has been overseeing the Big Tree Program and keeping a record of the largest trees in the state since the 1950s. As part of the program, the Forest Service maintains the Big Tree List, a compilation of the largest native and naturalized tree species in the state. These trees have been nominated by NJ residents and have environmental and historical value and should be preserved for future generations. These big trees produce many environmental benefits for New Jersey residents. They release oxygen into the atmosphere with their huge canopy of leaves. They ease storm water runoff with their massive root systems that absorb rainwater and hold the soil around them together. They lower air temperature around them up to 12 degrees by creating shade and by releasing water vapor from their leaves into the air. They absorb tons of pollution annually creating a healthier environment for us to live in. And the list of benefits goes on. Some of New Jersey’s big trees also have historic value, and have been around for hundreds of years, witnessing many state and local historical events. These older trees scattered around the state are an important part of New Jersey’s natural heritage and occupy all of the unique geographic regions found in the state. We as humans can use these big trees to tell stories of the past or preserve the memories we are making today for our children. The benefits of preserving these trees are countless. With hopes that someday there may be some form of protection or a conservation program for them, we need to take the necessary steps to preserve them today. If you know of a big tree that you want to nominate or have a possible challenger to the current champion, please send your nomination to: |Happy Big Tree Hunting! Community Forestry Program 625 Canal Road Somerset, NJ 08873 Fax # 732-873-1574

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Matthew W Ford Location & Layout Practice Problems (Updated 02/24/2007 06:43 PM) 1. The data in Table 1 provide the operating costs of 3 possible locations for a new electronic component assembly plant. Which location would minimize total costs given annual production of 50,000 units? Table 1: Assembly Plant Site Location Info This is like our Sams Club example. For 50,000 units: 2. Given the location information and volume of material movements from a distribution center to several retail outlets (Table 2), find the best location using the center-of-gravity method. Table 2: Location and Demand Data for Retail Sites Best location in a direction is TVZ / TV Note that in this case, there is no difference in transportation costs, so assume T=1 for all. Remember, secret is to evaluate one direction at a time. In x direction: Similarly, in y direction=13.5 3. Refer to Table 3 and Figures 1 and 2. Given the layout of departments, the frequency of movements among them, and the distance between them, determine if less materials handling is achieved by switching departments D and F. Assume diagonal distances to be two unitis and horizontal/vertical distances between adjacent departments to be one unit. Table 3: Frequency of Movements Among Departments Figure 1: Current Layout Figure 2: Proposed Layout Key upfront question: Is this a job or flow layout that were dealing with?? The current layout: Use CVD method, and assume costs are the same throughout (C=1) From A to other departments in current layout, CVD=10 trips*1 unit/trip + 0 + 2*5 + 5*2 + 10*3 = 60 Similar calculations for other departments yield: Using same method and distance relationships of proposed layout: Since more distance is required in the proposed layout, keep current layout. NOTE: These problems are adapted from Evans, J.R. (1997). Production/Operations Management, 5th ed. Minneapolis/St. Paul: West. Site maintained 1999-2013 by Matthew W. Ford.

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Getting Off Coal Coal is one of the dirtiest energy sources on the planet. It is used to produce half of America's electricity and is the country's leading source of global warming pollution. Coal is a dirty business from the mine to the plant, and beyond. Coal mining destroys vast amounts of land -- including entire mountains -- pollutes our rivers and streams, and has significant environmental effects on local communities and wildlife. We have nearly 600 large, old, and dirty coal plants in the United States. Pollution from these plants produces dirty air and water that affect our health and acid rain and toxic sludge that destroys wildlife and wild places across the country. Coal threatens our fish and wildlife, pollutes our waters, destroys our mountains, and releases toxic chemicals into our communities. It's critical that we end our dependence on coal and transition to a clean energy future. Nearly half of all of the coal that the U.S. burns comes from the Powder River Basin (PRB) in Wyoming and Montana -- America's largest source of coal. Now, some of the world’s largest coal companies are hoping to ramp up mining at the PRB and ship the coal overseas which will result in the destruction of public lands and wildlife habitat as well as increased health risks for local communities. NWF and our allies are fighting to prevent the mining of sacred places, like Otter Creek, and to stop the proposed port terminals to ship PRB coal to Asia. Mountaintop Removal Coal Mining Mountaintop removal mining is an especially destructive method of extracting coal that has far-reaching environmental effects. Vast acres of trees are cleared and mountaintops are blasted apart in order to expose underlying coal seams for extraction. Mountaintop removal mining has already destroyed some 500 mountains, decimated 1 million acres of forest, and buried an estimated 2,000 miles of streams. The practice is particularly devasting to areas of the Appalachian range, leveling mountains and leaving enormous scars across our eastern forests. National Wildlife is pursuing an innovative strategy to stop the worst abuses of Big Coal and protect the communities and wildlife in the region.

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http://www.nwf.org/What-We-Do/Energy-and-Climate/Drilling-and-Mining/Getting-Off-Coal.aspx

2013-05-19T19:37:03Z

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en

New York, NY (May 2005) -- Physicians and therapists at The New York Eye and Ear Infirmary know that the most common form of dizziness, called BPPV, is caused by tiny calcium carbonate crystals that lodge in the semi-circular canals of the ear. BPPV causes vertigo in those under 50, not just the elderly. The exact location of the disorienting crystals can be detected if patients wear special goggles that record rapid eye movements. A physician and physical therapist determine the location and can correct the problem through special turning movements of the head. We generally think of dizziness as affecting the elderly, but the most common form of dizziness, called BPPV, affects a number of people younger than 50 years of age who have bumped or fallen on their head, or have suffered a bad infection or side effects from medication. According to the National Institutes of Health, 40 percent of Americans will experience in their lifetime dizziness that is serious enough to go to a doctor. “You do not have to live with dizziness, especially if it is caused by BPPV,” said Ronald Hoffman, MD, medical director of The New York Eye and Ear Infirmary’s Center for Hearing and Balance. BPPV, or Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo, is caused by tiny “ear rocks” that break loose in the inner ear and lodge themselves in one of the ear’s balancing organs, called the semicircular canals. People with BPPV might experience dizziness as they roll over when getting out of bed in the morning, or when they tilt their head back in the shower. The dizziness can trigger a fall or other accidents. To determine if a patient has BPPV, The New York Eye and Ear Infirmary uses special goggles that are hooked up to a computer and monitor. The patient is asked to lie down with the goggles on, and to move his or her head back and forth. The monitor shows an enlarged image of the patient’s eye so that physicians and therapists can detect if the patient is experiencing rapid eye movements, a sign of BPPV. “The direction and duration of the rapid eye movement tells us in which semicircular canal the calcium carbonate crystals, or rocks, are located,” said Dr. Hoffman. “Once we know where the crystals are located, we treat the patient through a series of movements, gently turning the head.” said Linda Vetere, director of physical therapy for the Center. “The specific series of movements we use to reposition the crystal particles depend on which canal the crystal is in. We generally are able to remove them in one or two sessions.” While there are several types of treatment for BPPV, the most common is the Epley Method, in which the patient lies down for the procedure described above. Not all dizziness is caused by BPPV, so it is necessary for the physician to take a careful patient history to determine if the dizziness has another cause. Dizziness may, for example, indicate another more serious medical cause, such as a heart problem or potential stroke. The New York Eye and Ear Infirmary has one of the most sophisticated centers for hearing and balance in the tri-state region, equipped with a comprehensive array of diagnostic and treatment services. Patients must be referred by a physician to the program. Advanced diagnostic technology at The New York Eye and Ear Infirmary to determine the cause of dizziness, vertigo, balance problems and hearing problems includes: audiometric evaluations; computerized electronystagmography and video nystagmography (the sophisticated goggles); sinusoidal harmonic acceleration rotational chair testing, computerized dynamic platform posturography, electrocochleography; and brain stem response audiometry. The New York Eye and Ear Infirmary, the oldest specialty hospital in the Western Hemisphere, is the primary teaching hospital for the New York Medical College. It has approximately 142,000 outpatient visits annually and over 20,000 surgical procedures per year. It has one of the nation’s most extensive eye, ear, nose and throat clinics. Read more about the Hearing & Balance Center. If you are a reporter seeking an interview with a doctor at The New York Eye and Ear Infirmary, please contact Jean Thomas, at (212) 979-4274 or Axel F. Bang at (914) 234-5433. Home > Special Goggles Determine if you Have the Most Common Form of Dizziness

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http://www.nyee.edu/highlights-2005f.html

2013-05-19T19:37:08Z

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en

|Disaster Management Ethics - Trainer's Guide - 1st Edition (Disaster Management Training Programme, 104 p.)| |TOPIC 2: Providing humanitarian assistance to displaced populations and refugees| Addressing the needs of women Read the three statements and encourage discussion of the ethical aspects of the issues. Ask participants to identify strategies which would more effectively address the needs of women, develop and utilize their knowledge and skills. List the responses on a flip chart. See strategies suggested by Ken Wilson in the module. · Women are usually at greater risk from physical and sexual abuse during war and flight, and when living under assistance programs. · Assistance policies usually do not prioritize women's welfare relative to that of men. · Agencies and relief officials often lack gender awareness or a commitment to address women's needs.

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2013-05-19T19:39:24Z

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en

German Romanesque - Influences ( Originally Published 1921 ) I. Geographical.—Germany was through many centuries a conglomeration, first of various tribes fighting amongst themselves, and then of various independent states, principalities, and powers occupying the great central district of Europe. This country north of the Alps was not geographically so generally accessible to Roman influence as was Gaul, with her sea-ports and great trade routes, but here the Rhine played the same part in civilisation as the Rhone did in Gaul, and Roman civilization spread north-west along the fertile Rhineland and into Saxony, and here Roman cities had been founded, while the region to the north and east was untouched by Roman civilisation. The " Peutinger Tabula," a Mediaeval copy of a Roman map, now at Vienna, shows the principal Roman towns on the Rhine, with their thermae and other public buildings. II. Geological.—Stone from the mountains along the Rhine Valley was the material used for buildings in this district, and the churches were rendered more permanent and fireproof by the early introduction of vaulting. Along the Baltic shores and in central and southern Germany there was an ample supply of timber. As there was no stone or timber in the plains of the north-west, brick was there employed, and the style consequently differs from that of other districts. III. Climatic.—The average temperature of central Germany is much the same as in southern England, but the heat in summer is ten degrees higher and in winter correspondingly lower, a variation which is still indicated in Berlin by the conversion of carriages into sledges for winter use. Roman influence on architecture of this period was so insistent that even the northern climate did not exert its full influence in building, nevertheless there was a distinct tendency to large windows, suitable for the north, and to steep roofs to throw off snow. IV. Religious.—Christianity naturally followed along much the same lines as Roman civilisation, and under the influence of Rome it took root in southern Germany and in the Rhineland, while the rest of the country remained pagan. As early as the sixth century the bishops of Treves and Cologne were conspicuous in promoting church building, of which evidences can still be traced. Charlemagne, in furtherance of his desire to extend the Christian religion, forced the people of Saxony to embrace Christianity, and this resulted in the erection of a number of circular baptisteries, as the conversion of the tribes made a great demand for the baptismal rite. V. Social.—The social development of these central districts was much the same as in Europe generally : a few strong kings emerged from among weak ones, while feudal lords were constantly intolerant of kingly authority and oppressive towards the people, who became freemen or fell back as serfs, according as kings and cities prevailed against feudal tyranny, and at this period churches were only churches of monks and not of the common people. Germany, united under Charlemagne, after-wards split up into small principalities, and these conditions naturally fostered differences in architectural style. The feudal system made great strides, as it appealed to the desire of the feudal lords to become dukes of independent states, who could defy the authority of the king and tyrannise over freemen. Cities, which first grew strong in the Rhineland, found more consideration from kings than from feudal lords, so that the country was distracted by constant strife, till in A.D. 919 Henry the Fowler made himself king of a united Germany and there was peace in his time, during which many towns sprang up and freemen found it possible to carry on their industries. VI. Historical.—Charlemagne (A.D. 768–814), the first Frankish king who became Roman Emperor, was crowned in A.D. 800 at Rome by the Pope, and ruled over the land of the Franks, which included central Germany and northern Gaul, and he also established the Frankish dominion over southern Gaul and northern Italy (p. 252). He restored civilisation in a great measure to Western Europe, and was a patron of architecture and the allied arts. On Charlemagne's death in A.D. 814, his empire crumbled to pieces and the German princes demanded the right to elect their own sovereign, and Conrad I (A.D. 911–919) reigned as King of Germany. Henry the Fowler (A.D. 919–936) drove the Magyars out of Saxony, subjugated Bohemia and the tribes between the Elbe and the Oder, thus again establishing a united Germany. Otto the Great (A.D. 936–973) was crowned King at Aix-la-Chapelle, and his wars, including his conquest of Lombardy (A.D. 951), made him the greatest sovereign in Europe, and in A.D. 961 he received the Imperial crown at Rome ; but for two centuries after his death the royal authority remained weak. His power is reflected not only in the extent of his empire, but also in the number of important buildings erected in his dominions. When Conrad II in A.D. 1024 became King of Germany, Denmark, under Canute the Great, threatened his power on the north, and Poland and Hungary on the east, but he inaugurated the great Imperial age, by restricting the power of both secular and ecclesiastical princes. After wars between rival claimants, Conrad III in A.D. 1138 became the first of the Hohenstaufen dynasty and was followed by Frederick Barbarossa (A.D. 1152-90), who was also crowned Emperor at Rome. He reduced Denmark and Poland, secured the alliance of Hungary and negotiated with France and England, but his interference in papal schisms brought disaster, till Emperor and Pope were reconciled under Gregory VIII. The position of Germany was again reasserted in Europe by the brilliant Frederick II (A.D. 1218—50), who united in himself the crowns of the Holy Roman Empire, Germany, Sicily, Lombardy, Burgundy, and Jerusalem. The political connections of the Hohenstaufen (or Swabian) Emperors (A.D. 1138—1273) with Lombardy is evidenced in the similarity of the architecture of the two countries during the Romanesque period.

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http://www.oldandsold.com/articles23/architecture-65.shtml

2013-05-19T19:13:58Z

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en

It is now widely accepted that excessive burning of fossil fuels and the resultant CO2 gases produced has had a major impact on the world's climate. If this continues, scientists predict that it will cause irreversible damage, such as the melting of the polar ice caps. The planet's fossil fuel stock is a finite and depleting resource. Converting fossil fuels into energy creates bi-products that are harmful to the environment. This, together with increasing instability in the world's energy markets, makes a compelling case for renewable energy. Increasingly, governments are introducing progressive legislation to curb and replace the use of fossil fuels. With global energy demand set to increase, there is an undeniable and urgent need to develop new renewable energy technologies. OpenHydro is leading the way in developing technologies that harness the power of the world's largest natural resource - the world's oceans.

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http://www.openhydro.com/environment.html

2013-05-19T19:37:57Z

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en

An investigation of the relationships between learning styles : personality temperaments, mathematics self-efficacy, and post-secondary calculus achievement / With the availability of the internet, many web-based tutorials, and related materials and computer based tutorials, students continue to fail and/or do poorly in calculus classes. On average about fifty percent of students receive a grade of D, F, or W (withdraw) in first semester calculus at the university level. To meet the needs of all students, regardless of learning style, attitude towards mathematics, or ability level, teachers should utilize modern technology, such as computers or graphing calculators. These tools are able to serve the needs of the students in ways that other tools have not been able to accomplish. The primary purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between learning style preferences, personality temperament types, and mathematics self-efficacy on the achievement and course completion rate of a sample of the University of Tennessee at Knoxville college students enrolled in first and second semester calculus classes which utilized web-based materials. The following research questions were explored. 1. How does student achievement vary with learning style preferences? 2. How does student achievement vary with temperaments? 3. How does student achievement vary with mathematics self-efficacy? 4. How does student achievement vary with teaching method? To achieve the purpose of this study, five instruments were used to collect data from students enrolled in a lecture/recitation and a web-based first semester calculus class and a lecture/recitation and a web-based second semester calculus class for a total of four The data collected included ACT mathematics scores, Myers-Briggs personality types, mathematics self-efficacy scores, and calculus test scores. Findings were significant for several dimensions of learning style and temperament with respect to both the calculus test and the Mathematics Self-Efficacy instruments. Students who were categorized as reflective learners on the Felder-Silverman Index of Learning Styles scored significantly higher on the calculus test and those students who were categorized as SPs on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator scored significantly lower on the calculus test and the Mathematics Self-Efficacy Scale (MSES). Additionally, with one exception, the students who enrolled in the second semester calculus classes were visual rather than verbal learners. The female students declined in enrollment by fifteen percent between the first and second semester of calculus. The expectation was that the web-based tutorials would be an effective means of meeting the needs of the large percentage of visual learners; however the quantitative data were insufficient to test this hypothesis. The survey data indicated that the majority of the visual learners attributed the website as aspect that contributed most to their learning. School:The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga School Location:USA - Tennessee Source Type:Master's Thesis Keywords:university of tennessee knoxville mathematics academic achievement Date of Publication:

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http://www.openthesis.org/documents/investigation-relationships-between-learning-styles-109472.html

2013-05-19T19:52:34Z

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Kaiser Family Foundation has released an important package of resources that shines a spotlight on health disparities between white women and women of color in all 50 states and Washington, D.C., The report (pdf), “Putting Women’s Health Care Disparities On The Map: Examining Racial and Ethnic Disparities at the State Level,” takes into account 25 indicators, including rates of diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, AIDS and cancer, and access to health insurance and health screenings. The states with the largest rate of disparities were Arkansas, Indiana, Louisiana, Mississippi, Montana and South Dakota. States such as Virginia, Maryland, Georgia and Hawaii showed relatively smaller disparities between women of color and white women on health outcomes and health care access. The reports also notes that white women and minority women were doing similarly well in Maine — and similarly poorly in Kentucky and West Virginia. This introductory page includes links to the full report and numerous documents that look closely at health status, access to health care, social determinants and workforce statistics. Among the key findings: Disparities existed in every state on most measures. Women of color fared worse than White women across a broad range of measures in almost every state, and in some states these disparities were quite stark. Some of the largest disparities were in the rates of new AIDS cases, late or no prenatal care, no insurance coverage, and lack of a high school diploma. In states where disparities appeared to be smaller, this difference was often due to the fact that both White women and women of color were doing poorly. It is important to also recognize that in many states (e.g. West Virginia and Kentucky) all women, including White women, faced significant challenges and may need assistance. Few states had consistently high or low disparities across all three dimensions. Virginia, Maryland, Georgia, and Hawaii all scored better than average on all three dimensions. At the other end of the spectrum, Montana, South Dakota, Indiana, and several states in the South Central region of the country (Arkansas, Louisiana, and Mississippi) were far below average on all dimensions. States with small disparities in access to care were not necessarily the same states with small disparities in health status or social determinants. While access to care and social factors are critical components of health status, our report indicates that they are not the only critical components. For example, in the District of Columbia disparities in access to care were better than average, but the District had the highest disparity scores for many indicators of health and social determinants. Each racial and ethnic group faced its own particular set of health and health care challenges. The enormous health and socioeconomic challenges that many American Indian and Alaska Native women faced was striking. American Indian and Alaska Native women had higher rates of health and access challenges than women in other racial and ethnic groups on several indicators, often twice as high as White women. Even on indicators that had relatively low levels of disparity for all groups, such as number of days that women reported their health was “not good,” the rate was markedly higher among American Indian and Alaska Native women. Plus: Kaiser also put together a video companion to the report. Filmed at the Arlington (Va.) Free Clinic, the video looks at the challenges that uninsured women face.

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http://www.ourbodiesourblog.org/blog/2009/06/dd-2

2013-05-19T19:52:28Z

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Most networks we deal with each day, such as those that use Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and cellular communication, have central nodes which know the shape of the network and can direct traffic through it. In some situations, including emergency areas and battlefields, such networks are impossible so ad hoc or decentralized networks are used, which means no node knows the entire network. One concern about using these kinds of networks is ensuring data is delivered, but researchers at MIT have found a new design which can guarantee delivery. Traditional ad hoc network designs utilize a probabilistic method to demonstrate that it is very unlikely a delivery will not be successful, due to the random nature of the network. This new design is deterministic though and actually the only way for delivery to fail requires a specific structure which is impossible. To send data in this new network, first a node selects one other node to send the data to, and then it selects a second, different node to again send the information to. It continues to send the information for two rounds before it adds a third distinct node, after which it sends data to the three nodes for three consecutive rounds. This pattern continues on until every node has been contacted directly or indirectly. As an added bonus, this method appears to be more efficient than other designs as it requires less communication between nodes to successfully send data. Also the math involved seems to indicate a maximum speed for sending a message in an ad hoc network, but the researchers have not been able to prove that yet.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.overclockersclub.com/news/33546/print/

2013-05-19T19:45:06Z

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en

Oxfam combating cholera in Haiti - Author: Oxfam - Copyright: Oxfam - Date: 6 January 2011 In October 2010 a cholera outbreak began in Haiti. Oxfam responded in three regions, including the Artibonite river valley. In this video, our staff explain how Oxfam's cholera response program teaches people about cholera and personal hygiene, and how Oxfam distributes relief materials and builds latrines... in order to help save lives. Read more about Oxfam's humanitarian work in Haiti: http://www.oxfam.org/haitiquake

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http://www.oxfam.org/en/grow/video/2011/oxfam-combating-cholera-haiti

2013-05-19T19:47:05Z

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Basket Hilted Broad Sword of Commodore Alexander Grant, Commander of the Provincial Marine. Parks Canada: FF.76.4.1 This weapon, in the style of a highland broadsword, reflects the origins of Commodore Alexander Grant who was born in the Scottish highlands. Features of this type of sword include heavy, straight steel blades and basket hilts, which enclosed and protected the hand. This particular example has a bone grip. Grant’s military career began in the 1750s with the Royal Navy, but he soon obtained a commission in the British army. Nevertheless by 1759 he was once again in command of ships, this time on Lake Champlain. After the fall of New France in 1763 he developed his own Great Lakes maritime businesses and a political career in Upper Canada, but remained associated with the British military and the Provincial Marine (PM) until he retired in March 1812. The ships constructed under his command gave the British naval supremacy on the Great Lakes in the first year of the War of 1812. The Provincial Marine was formed in 1778, during the American War of Independence, to provide the British with a naval capacity on the Great Lakes. In 1812, the Provincial Marine had shipyards at Amherstburg, at the mouth of the Detroit River on Lake Erie, and Kingston, on Lake Ontario. Subordinate to the Quartermaster-General Department of the army, the Provincial Marine’s mixed combat success in 1812 prompted its take-over by the Royal Navy in 1813. For more information, visit Fort Malden National Historic Site on the Parks Canada Website. Basket Hilted Broad Sword of Commodore Alexander Grant, Commander of the Provincial Marine © Parks Canada

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http://www.pc.gc.ca/culture/1812/artefact/semaine26-week26.aspx

2013-05-19T19:38:36Z

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en

We based our answer on the following design philosophy: Since rocket payload needs to be kept small, the parachute should be designed as small as possible. Also, using a small chute implies a more vertical and faster descent. In other words, using a large parachute usually leads to more horizontal drift due to winds aloft... i.e. more chances to lose the rocket in neighbor McNasty's backyard. So how small should the parachute be? It depends on how much shock the rocket can take on landing since the faster the descent, the more risk for damage. Parachute design: how big the chute? It depends on two factors: To estimate the max descent speed your rocket can take under parachute, you could do this: drop the rocket (or an old prototype) from height "d" -without the parachute. The velocity reached when it hits the ground is given by v = squareroot( 2 g d) g = 32.17 ft/sec^2 (English units) or 9.81 m/sec^2 (Metric) d= height in feet (English) or meters (Metric) v = velocity in ft/sec (English) or m/sec (Metric)The maximum drop height from which the rocket can be dropped without breaking determines the max parachute descent velocity. Once you have determined that max velocity, use the following formula to find out the chute's optimal surface area: 2 W S = ----------- rho CD (v^2) where CD = parachute drag coefficient which is approx 0.75 for a chute without holes or slits cut in the fabric; same value in both Metric and English unit systems rho at sea level = 0.00237 sl/ft^3 (English units) and 1.225 Kg/m^3 (Metric) rho near 4000 ft or 1219 m above sea level = 0.00211 sl/ft^3 (English units) and approx. 1.07 Kg/m^3 (Metric) W = weight of the parachute + load, in pounds (English) or Newtons (Metric) v^2 = square of the vertical descent velocity, where v is expressed in ft/sec (English) or m/sec (Metric) S is the parachute's surface area when measured on a flat surface, in ft^2 (English) or m^2 (Metric). What is the diameter of the chute when it lays flat on the floor (assuming that it is a circular piece of fabric)? diameter = 2 squareroot of (S / 3.1416)To improve on the stability of the chute during descent it would be a good idea to cut a hole (covering about 10 percent of surface area) at the apex of the canopy. That way the rocket won't oscillate too much and the descent will follow a straight line. There are other designs to improve stability besides cutting a vent at the apex, see article by Dr. C. W. Peterson in Physics Today, August 1993 The magazine Physics Today can be found at university and college libraries.

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http://www.pcprg.com/rocketre.htm

2013-05-19T19:52:57Z

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en

There are millions of germs that live in your mouth. If you suffer from gum disease, you have open wounds in your gums that allow these bacteria to enter directly into your blood stream and circulate throughout your body. Research has correlation between periodontal disease and heart disease, ischemic stroke, respiratory disease, head and neck cancer, kidney disease, diabetes, and increased risk of preterm delivery. Gum disease is the leading cause of tooth loss for the majority of adults in the United States. Losing your teeth however is not the only danger of this disease. When an individual has gum disease it means that there is an active, living infection in your mouth. This infection releases toxins to the entire body through the blood vessels in your mouth causing a variety of health related issues. For more information: http://www.ada.org/3063.aspx

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http://www.phoenixarizonagumdisease.com/GumDisease/DangersOfGumDisease.aspx

2013-05-19T19:51:12Z

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en

Just when you thought it was safe to hang out in the office, scientists are now reporting that some laser printers are as harmful to your lungs as second-hand smoke. Certain models of the printers emit high levels of ultra-fine particles that can cause irritation of the airways and possibly even heart disease and cancer. The study touches on a larger and mostly overlooked health concern: indoor air pollution. Most people spend 90 percent of their lives inside—a frightening statistic—yet indoor pollution isn't monitored. Sure, we've booted smokers to the curb, but that hardly helps if we're all still breathing in microscopic bits of toner dust. Still, not every printer is guilty. More than half of the 62 models tested were non-emitters. But the researchers classified 13 as high polluters. The study's authors actually say that some models produce so much pollution that sitting near one would be the equivalent of having your next door neighbor in cubicle land puffing away on cigarettes.—Gregory Mone Five amazing, clean technologies that will set us free, in this month's energy-focused issue. Also: how to build a better bomb detector, the robotic toys that are raising your children, a human catapult, the world's smallest arcade, and much more.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.popsci.com/article/2007-08/laser-printers-pollute-office

2013-05-19T19:14:32Z

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As a PhD student at the University of Sydney in 1967 Graeme Clark began to review the available research to "investigate whether a single or multiple-channel (electrode) cochlear implant would be possible for the management of a profound hearing loss." (Clark, 1970 he has led the research in the Department of Otolaryngology at the University of Melbourne that has resulted in a multiple-channel cochlear implant that can provide significant understanding of speech for severely and profoundly deaf children and adults. When Australian otolaryngologist Graeme Clark began developing the cochlear implant or as it was more commonly known the bionic ear overseas researchers used an implanted device that had wires leading from the inside to the outside of the head. According to Clark this presented too many opportunities for infection. He believed that the implant should be totally imbedded and receive information via radio signals rather than linked to an external source. Other researchers also had different ideas about where the electrode should be placed. Some placed it outside the cochlea, others directly onto the auditory nerve. believed that the electrode should be placed into the cochlea but could not work out how to get the electrode inside the tiny spiral without opening it up. He was inspired by nature to find the solution. When at the beach he picked up a seashell that resembled the shape of the cochlea. Nearby was a clump of wild grass that he pulled a few blades from. As he twined the blades through his fingers he noticed that they changed stiffness along their length and were tapered at the top. Looking at these things he had the idea of carefully inserting the blade of grass into the shell until it went almost completely into the spiral. After this he imagined a bundle of electrodes of fine, strong and flexible wire that could be inserted into the human cochlea by easing around the corners and positioned to correctly stimulate nerve endings. Electrode stimulation pattern resulting from sound 'ah' (Cochlear Pty Ltd) Based on the research he had conducted for his PhD, Graeme Clark and his research team at the University of Melbourne began fine tuning the design of the implant. Using Clark's inspiration of the shell and blade of grass they began to explore the notion of an electrode whole project was still in the research stage, the Australian team determined to follow the ethical recommendations made at the Declaration of Helsinki in 1964 for guiding doctors in clinical research, as well as the recommendations in the Statement of Human Experimentation published by the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia in 1976. (Epstein, 1989: 44) animal experimentation was needed before the implants could be used on humans there were also animal ethics more information on animal ethics: Ethics Committees Manual of Policy and Procedures, The University of Melbourne, March 1996 Some of the problems the research team had to overcome electrode bundle had to be precisely manufactured materials needed to be resistant to body fluids and harmless to the recipient. Clark and his team used Teflon® coated platinum wires as electrodes to fit in the cochlea. The multi-electrode array successfully passed into the cochlea. To resolve the problem of finding materials resistant to body fluids the designers looked to work being done on the pacemaker implant. It was originally cast in epoxy resin, however the cochlear implant researchers believed a metal may offer lightness and body fluid resistance. Pure titanium was trialled for the casing by G. A. and L. Harrington. A. and L. Harrington was the first company to "deep draw titanium in Australia. In this process which requires special expertise, sheet metal is turned into the required shape with a high depth to width ratio." (Epstein, 1989: 48) feedthrough wires had to be insulated - high alumina ceramic was selected. The Ceramic Corporation Pty Ltd, specialists in precision industrial ceramics were approached. The owner, Miroslav (Mirek) Kratochvil emigrated to Australia as a political refugee from Czechoslovakia, developed a new ceramic which was fired at a much higher temperature than normal to give the properties needed. the parts together. A new alloy was developed and trialed. These three components ensured a hermetically sealed implant, completely resistant to body fluids. These discoveries were to have an enormous influence on the development of the Australian bionic ear, for the electronics to be used in the implant would also need the protection which only the hermetic seal devised for the pacemaker could give. (Epstein, 1989: 49) had to be done to determine how to best reach the cochlea in surgery. trials and selection of suitable recipients had to be carried out. These trials have influenced current procedures as well. An effective service network was an essential ingredient to ensure that the innovation would fulfil a user's needs. implant would need to last a long time a design life of 70 years. Funds were needed to continue the project. Funding was donated by Melbourne Apex Club, a telethon organised by Sir Reginald Ansett and Channel 0, The National Health and Medical Research Council and Lions Clubs International and at a later stage the Deafness Foundation of Victoria. clinics, an innovation too The success of the Cochlear implant is founded on a world wide network of dedicated clinics. At these clinics, the Cochlear implant is implanted by a surgeon. More importantly, each recipient is trained by an audiologist to recognise speech using the system. Training is needed to recognise the unfamiliar sounds generated by the speech processor. Try to recognise the nursery rhyme in this simulation of processed speech. system is customised to suit the individual and fine-tuned to convey the maximum amount of speech information. Regular repeat visits ensure that the system is operating at its peak. success of the Cochlear implant system rests on careful selection of appropriate patients, reliable technology, and a network of clinics staffed by highly skilled surgeons and audiologists. a prototype of the cochlear implant The receiver-stimulator in the prototype device needed equivalent of 6000 radio valves to make it work, a sheer impossibility until the development of integrated circuit technology when that same amount of electronic circuitry could be condensed into a tiny microchip. (Epstein, 1989: 43) receiver-stimulator was designed and manufactured by Melbourne University's Department of Electrical Engineering and Department of Otolaryngology. prototype receiver-stimulator with a connector for 10 channel electrodes, all to be implanted, and the University of Melbourne was able to lodge an application for patent rights. The device was called Umdolee (University of Melbourne Departments of Otolaryngology and Electrical gold box multiple electrode device measured 4.2 x 3.2 x 0.85 to 1.3cm. It included a sandwich of three razor-thin substrata and the thousands of transistors. The electrodes themselves consisted of a bundle of twenty fine wires, each insulated and fine as a human hair, the diameter of the whole bundle being about 0.5 mm. This bundle had to replace the work of some 20 000 to 30 000 nerve fibres in the normal ear and transmit sound impulses to the brain. of electrodes controlling a sound of a different pitch. (Epstein, 1989: 43) speech processor, however, had not been developed. This was the device to break speech into meaningful signals that the brain could recognise. The strategies to teach someone how to recognise speech could only be developed when a person who had received an implant worked with engineers and audiologists. the first patients To ensure testing was rigorous and accountable, assessments for selection of patients and monitoring implantees was carried out in a multidisciplinary centre featuring the study of speech sounds and their production the diagnosis and rehabilitation of hearing loss physiology: the physiology underlying normal and impaired hearing, speech and language in humans. Physiological measurement techniques are used to identify and assess science: the collection, organisation and analysis the diagnosis and treatment of disorders of the ear. how electrical stimulation by the cochlear implant is received by the user and how best to present speech information to them. patient support and family counselling. conducts basic and applied hearing research specifically aimed at understanding and correcting impaired hearing. rehabilitation: re-establish speech patterns. engineering support: identify and modify hardware and software problems. the prototype was developed and extensive animal testing proved satisfactory the device was ready for implanting in a human. Rod Saunders received a ten channel implantable device in 1978. The surgery was a success and Rod heard his wife speaking to him after the device was turned a more detailed history of the cochlear implant: and for a History of the University of Melbourne/Cochlear Limited Cochlear Implant

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2013-05-19T19:44:45Z

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Genetic genealogy (also known as molecular genealogy) uses genetic testing to enhance traditional genealogical research. It may well be the most exciting development in the field of family history in recent years. This how-to guide will give you a basic introduction to the subject. If you find some of the terms confusing, please see our glossary (terms in the glossary are shown in italics). If you’d like to dig into the subject more deeply, just click on the hyperlinked terms. Gregor Mendel (1822 – 1884) conducted the first genetic research more than 150 years ago. In the twentieth century, understanding of genetics grew by leaps and bounds. Today, our more detailed knowledge of the subject allows for its use in genealogy. There are a number of different DNA tests used in genealogy research. These are some of the most common types: Paternal Lineage (Y-DNA) Testing Y chromosome DNA testing is only performed on males (since only males carry the Y chromosome) and follows the paternal line of ancestry. Although not a type of testing, surname projects are an important resource for people interested in genealogy who have the same, or related, family names. Project members compare test results to increase their usefulness. When combined with more traditional research methods, surname group members improve their chances of discovering common male ancestry. There are more good reasons why it may be beneficial to form or join a surname project if you are involved in Y-DNA testing: Maternal Lineage (mtDNA) Testing Testing of the maternal line involves studying the DNA found within the mitochondria. Children of both sexes inherit their mother’s mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), and both can be tested, but only daughters are able to pass it along to the next generation. Autosomal DNA Testing Testing of autosomes (the 22 non-sex chromosomes) for genealogy is relatively new, and somewhat controversial. Also called admixture testing, autosomal DNA tests report actual percentages of various biological and geographical ancestries found within genetic samples (such as Native American, Sub-Saharan African, European, etc.). To help search for their customers’ genetic cousins, some DNA testing companies store client test information in databases, along with additional test information from other sources. Tests results from new clients are automatically added to the database and compared with the many other test results already available, greatly increasing the chances of a positive match. Customers are notified when evidence of potential common ancestry is found. Cyndi’s List - Genetics, DNA & Family Health Cyndi’s List is one of the largest, most thorough, and popular links pages for genealogists. The term genetealogy, implying the intersection of genealogy with genetics, was coined by author Megan Smolenyak, an expert in the field. The Genographic Project This is a joint project of IBM and the National Geographic which uses large-scale voluntary gene testing to gain a better understanding of human genetic variation in a cultural context. International Society of Genetic Genealogy A non-commercial and non-profit international organization whose purpose is to promote and educate for the use of genetics as a tool for genealogists. An Introduction to Molecular Genealogy Part of a larger site on genetics from the University of Utah and Sorenson Molecular Genealogy Foundation, this approachable page discusses DNA and haplogroups using short, fascinating videos. Kerchner's DNA Testing & Genetic Genealogy Info and Resources Page An extensive links page with genetic genealogy topics ranging from the basic to the advanced. Gates, Henry Louis. African American Lives [videorecording]. PBS Home Video: 2006. Hart, Anne. How to Interpret Family History & Ancestry DNA Test Results for Beginners: the Geography and History of your Relatives. New York: ASJA Press, 2004. Pomery, Chris. Family History in the Genes: Trace your DNA and Grow your Family Tree. Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK: National Archives, 2007. Smolenyak, Megan. Trace your Roots with DNA: Using Genetic Tests to Explore your Family Tree. Emmaus, Pa.: New York; Rodale: Distributed to the trade by Holtzbrinck Publishers, 2004. Sykes, Bryan. The Seven Daughters of Eve. New York: Norton, 2001. This brief glossary may help to clarify some of the terms you’ll encounter in your study of genetic genealogy. However, the cell biology that underlies genetic genealogy is complicated; if you’d like more complete information about these terms, simply follow the hypertext links. What is a cell? Cells are the smallest structural units of life that can themselves be described as living. All organisms of every size, from bacteria to whales, are composed of one or more cells. New cells are always formed from preexisting cells, and each cell contains all the hereditary information necessary to replicate the entire organism, no matter how large or complex. What is DNA? DNA (an abbreviation for the chemical name deoxyribonucleic acid) is an extremely large and complex molecule appearing as two long strands twisted around each other. They form a ladder-like structure called a double helix. DNA is found within the cell’s nucleus and mitochondria, and is the main component of chromosomes. DNA is present in all life forms. It encodes the genetic characteristics of organisms and transfers them to future generations. What is a gene? Heredity’s fundamental building block is the gene, a segment along a molecule of DNA. Genes contain coded instructions for the expression of hereditary characteristics like eye color, and whether hair is curly or straight. What does genome mean? The genome is all the genetic information of an organism such as a human being. Humans have two genomes: the chromosomal genome contained within the cell nucleus, and the mitochondrial genome located outside the nucleus in the cell’s internal fluid (cytoplasm). What is a chromosome? A chromosome is a thread-like structure, made of a single piece of coiled DNA, with hundreds or thousands of gene segments along its length. As the illustration shows, chromosomes come in pairs. Humans have 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs. What about XX and XY? All humans, both men and women, have 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs. 22 of these pairs consist of very similar partners (called autosomes), one side of the pair from the individual’s father and the other side by the mother. The 23rd pair is different. Often referred to as the sex chromosomes, the 23rd pair determines the sex of the individual. Female humans have a 23rd pair of similar looking X chromosomes, while males have a 23rd pair of dissimilar X and Y chromosomes (as seen in the following image): Reproduction is accomplished by special cells calledgametes (the eggs and the sperm). Eggs and sperm cells contain only half of each of the 23 pairs of chromosomes; in other words, half of the genetic information needed to make a new individual. Since females have XX as their 23rd pair of chromosomes, a woman’s egg can only carry an X chromosome. Her egg will combine with a sperm cell that could be carrying either an X or a Y chromosome (since men have XY as their 23rd pair). Thus, the new 23rd chromosome pair of the child could be either XX (a girl) or XY (a boy). What are Autosomes? Autosomes are the 22 pairs of human chromosomes that do not determine sex (only the 23rd pair does that). These non-sex chromosome pairs shuffle and recombine their genetic information differently with each conception. In this way, new generations are sure to receive a random assortment of genetic information from each parent. No two individuals in the world have identical autosomal DNA (except in the case of identical twins). What are Mitochondria? Mitochondria are distinct organelles, sub-units, of human cells. They are found outside the cell nucleus floating in the cytoplasm, enclosed within their own membranes. Mitochondria function as the cell’s power supply by combining sugar with oxygen to produce the ATP which fuels the cell. While most DNA is contained in the cell nucleus, the mitochondria also have a small amount of their own genetic material called mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA. What are Genetic Markers? In genealogy, a genetic marker is any known and recognizable sequence of DNA that is useful in determining kinship. Commercial DNA tests for genealogy start by sampling as few as 10 genetic markers. In order to achieve higher resolution results, up to 67 markers can be checked. Costs of testing increases as the number of genetic markers being examined increases. What is a Haplogroup? A haplogroup refers to the many descendants of a single individual, who, far back in time, first showed a tiny and rare genetic mutation called a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP). With time, these genetic mutations become genetic differences associated with specific isolated populations, allowing them to be differentiated from other groups. Haplogroups can be thought of as large branches of humanity’s family tree. They are associated with broad geographic areas, like sub-Saharan Africa, or Europe. Every human is a member of a haplogroup. Population researchers use information obtained from many DNA samples to identify haplogroups, which helps them to understand patterns of early human migration. Using this same technology, genetic genealogy tests identify the haplogroup in your DNA, so that you can see area of the earth where your ancestral lines began, many thousands of years ago. We hope this basic guide to genetic genealogy will pique your interest in this exciting new field. If you would like to know more, you can email us through our Ask-A-Librarian service or contact us at: Enoch Pratt Free Library Central Library, State Library Resource Center 400 Cathedral Street Baltimore, MD 21201

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Countries most affected in the period of 1990-2008: Bangladesh, Myanmar and Honduras have been identified to be the most affected. They are followed by Viet Nam and Nicaragua, Haiti and India The map shows the ten most affected countries (Down 10), with their average ranking (CRI score) and the specific results in the four indicators analysed. The Global Climate Risk Index (CRI) developed by Germanwatch analyses the quantified impacts of extreme weather events2 – both in terms of people that have died from them, as well as economic losses that occurred – based on data from Munich Re´s Nat-CatSERVICE® which is one of the most reliable and complete data bases on this matter. It looks at absolute and relative impacts, and results in an average ranking of countries in four indicators, with the countries ranking highest being those most impacted. It does not include the factor “affected people” – those that have suffered in different ways but have not died from the events – because the reliability and comparability of this indicator across all of the world’s countries is significantly lower than that of the other indicators. 1 Munich RE, 2009; many more died from the indirect consequences which, however, are more difficult to account to the original cause of the extreme event. However, the figures for affected people imply more severe impacts in particular for African countries than the Climate Risk Index suggests. Thus, the Climate Risk Index does not provide an all-encompassing analysis of the risks from anthropogenic climate change to countries, but should be seen as a piece in the puzzle of an analysis of countries´ exposure and vulnerability to climate-related risks, based on the most reliable quantified data. Tag This Document

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Reading program boon to elementary Published: Saturday, May 24th, 2003 Has your child read 78 books this school year? Second graders at Tucumcari Elementary School have! The Accelerated Reading Program (A.R.) helped make this possible. We have evaluated this program this year to find the following results: o 64 Second-grade students o Average reading level: Third grade (2 months above level at this writing) o Average number of books read this year: 78 o Average comprehension score for the year: 91 percent Each quarter students take the STAR test to determine their reading level. After reading each book on their level, students take a comprehension test on the computer. Students earn points and receive certificates. After becoming an Independent Reader, students work through 10 levels in each of the certificates of Super Reader, Advanced Reader, Star Reader, Classic Reader and Honor Reader. Each certificate requires students to read longer books. The school day includes two sessions of reading A.R. books for 30 minutes at a time. Parent surveys were filled with positive comments on their child’s reading progress. However, the surveys also indicated that students were not showing the TOPS reports to parents and some parents did not understand these reports. TOPS stands for The Opportunity to Praise Students. Parents might want to share in this opportunity to praise their child. These reports reveal the current test result, the current reading level, averages for the current grading period, averages for the year, the last certificate awarded and the goal of the next certificate. Parents need to be aware that the program does require extra printing paper. One package of paper is now a required item on each student’s supply list. Hopefully, parents will be willing to supply the paper when they realize that the benefit is an increased reading ability for students. We consider the A.R. Reading Program to be a great motivator and self-concept builder for our students. Student surveys showed that students are proud of their reading levels. We are proud that so many second graders are now reading chapter books, longer books divided into chapters with less pictures. This was not the norm before A.R. Reading. Just last year, most second graders read 100 books, but the books had fewer pages. This year students have read less books, but the books are the longer, chapter books. We believe that the A.R. Program was a factor in the national Terra Nova scores which were above New Mexico standards in reading. In addition to increased reading skills, students have read many nonfiction books about science and social studies which was reflected in their science and social studies scores on this national test. Click Here To See More Stories Like This

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Sharks Spot Changes in Magnetic Fields PARIS (AFP) — Marine biologists say they have obtained the first proof that sharks can spot changes in magnetic fields, boosting evidence that the fish have an internal compass to guide them as well as a phenomenal sense of smell. A Hawaii University team trained six sandbar sharks and one scalloped hammerhead shark to associate food with an artificial magnetic field, they report in a publication of Britain’s Royal Society. The field, derived from a copper coil surrounding the sharks’ seven-metre (23-feet) -diameter tank, was switched on every time food was placed on the tank floor. The conditioned sharks were then put through their paces in a series of 11 trials conducted over six weeks in which the field was switched on at random times, but no food was made available. The sharks still converged on the usual feeding site, proving they had detected the field. Until now, evidence of sharks’ magnetic compass has been circumstantial, based mainly on sightings of tiger sharks and blue sharks that swim in straight lines for long distances across the ocean, a feat that is unlikely to be accounted for by sense of smell alone. Scalloped hammerhead sharks have also been known to converge on seamounts — mountains that rise from the ocean floor, where there are quirks in Earth’s magnetic field. The next step is to find out how sharks detect magnetic fields and to measure their sensitivity. The study appears on Wednesday in the publication Journal of The Royal Society Interface. The Royal Society is Britain’s de-facto academy of sciences. Last month, University of North Carolina researchers unveiled experiments showing that tiny magnetic particles in pigeons’ upper beaks help the birds to carry out long-range navigation. On the Net:

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Glow accompanying the brushlike discharges of atmospheric electricity that usually appears as a tip of light on the extremities of such pointed objects as church towers or the masts of ships during stormy weather. It is commonly accompanied by a crackling or fizzing noise. It is commonly observed on the periphery of propellers and along the wing tips, windshield, and nose of aircraft flying in dry snow, in ice crystals, or near thunderstorms. St. Elmo is an Italian corruption of St. Erasmus, patron saint of Mediterranean sailors, who traditionally regarded St. Elmo's fire as a sign of his guardianship over them. Learn more about Saint Elmo's fire with a free trial on Britannica.com. Total solar eclipse. The delicately structured glow of the solar corona—or solar elipsis Learn more about corona with a free trial on Britannica.com. The high temperature of the corona gives it unusual spectral features, which led some to suggest, in the 19th century, that it contained a previously unknown element, "coronium". These spectral features have since been traced to highly ionized Iron (Fe(XIV)) which indicates a plasma temperature in excess of 106 kelvin. The corona is divided into three parts. The K-corona (K for continuum) interfaces directly with the chromosphere and is created by sunlight scattering off electrons. The E-corona (E for emission) contains abundant calcium and iron. The F-corona (F for Fraunhofer) is created by sunlight bouncing off dust particles. The Corona is not always evenly distributed across the surface of the sun. During periods of quiet, the corona is more or less confined to the equatorial regions, with coronal holes covering the polar regions. However during the Sun's active periods, the corona is evenly distributed over the equatorial and polar regions, though it is most prominent in areas with sunspot activity. The solar cycle spans approximately 11 years, from solar minimum to solar maximum, where the solar magnetic field is continually wound up (due to a differential rotation at the solar equator; the equator rotates quicker than the poles). Sunspot activity will be more pronounced at solar maximum where the magnetic field is twisted to a maximum. Associated with sunspots are coronal loops, loops of magnetic flux, upwelling from the solar interior. The magnetic flux pushes the hotter photosphere aside, exposing the cooler plasma below, thus creating the dark (when compared to the solar disk) spots. Coronal loops are the basic structures of the magnetic solar corona. These loops are the closed-magnetic flux cousins of the open-magnetic flux that can be found in coronal hole (polar) regions and the solar wind. Loops of magnetic flux well up from the solar body and fill with hot solar plasma. Due to the heightened magnetic activity in these coronal loop regions, coronal loops can often be the precursor to solar flares and Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs). Solar plasma feeding these structures are heated from under 6000K to well over 1×106K from the photosphere, through the transition region, and into the corona. Often, the solar plasma will fill these loops from one foot point and drain from the other (siphon flow due to a pressure difference, or asymmetric flow due to some other driver). This is known as chromospheric evaporation and chromosperic condensation respectively. There may also be symmetric flow from both loop foot points, causing a buildup of mass in the loop structure. The plasma may cool in this region creating dark filaments in the solar disk or prominences off the limb. Coronal loops may have lifetimes in the order of seconds (in the case of flare events), minutes, hours or days. Usually coronal loops lasting for long periods of time are known as steady state or quiescent coronal loops, where there is a balance in loop energy sources and sinks (example). Coronal loops have become very important when trying to understand the current coronal heating problem. Coronal loops are highly radiating sources of plasma and therefore easy to observe by instruments such as TRACE, they are highly observable laboratories to study phenomena such as solar oscillations, wave activity and nanoflares. However, it remains difficult to find a solution to the coronal heating problem as these structures are being observed remotely, where many ambiguities are present (i.e. radiation contributions along the LOS). In-situ measurements are required before a definitive answer can be arrived at, but due to the high plasma temperatures in the corona, in-situ measurements are impossible (at least for the time-being). This thin region of temperature increase from the chromosphere to the corona is known as the transition region and can range from tens to hundreds of kilometers thick. An analogy of this would be a light bulb heating the air surrounding it hotter than its glass surface. The second law of thermodynamics would be broken. Many coronal heating theories have been proposed, but two theories have remained as the most likely candidates, wave heating and magnetic reconnection (or nanoflares). Through most of the past 50 years, neither theory has been able to account for the extreme coronal temperatures. Most solar physicists now believe that some combination of the two theories can probably explain coronal heating, although the details are not yet complete. |DC (reconnection)||AC (waves)| |Not our Sun!||Competing theories| One problem with wave heating is delivery of the heat to the appropriate place. Magneto-acoustic waves cannot carry sufficient energy upward through the chromosphere to the corona, both because of the low pressure present in the chromosphere and because they tend to be reflected back to the photosphere. Alfvén waves can carry enough energy, but do not dissipate that energy rapidly enough once they enter the corona. Waves in plasmas are notoriously difficult to understand and describe analytically, but computer simulations, carried out by Thomas Bogdan and colleagues in 2003, seem to show that Alfvén waves can transmute into other wave modes at the base of the corona, providing a pathway that can carry large amounts of energy from the photosphere into the corona and then dissipate it as heat. Another problem with wave heating has been the complete absence, until the late 1990s, of any direct evidence of waves propagating through the solar corona. The first direct observation of waves propagating into and through the solar corona was made in 1997 with the SOHO space-borne solar observatory, the first platform capable of observing the Sun in the extreme ultraviolet for long periods of time with stable photometry. Those were magneto-acoustic waves with a frequency of about 1 millihertz (mHz, corresponding to a 1,000 second wave period), that carry only about 10% of the energy required to heat the corona. Many observations exist of localized wave phenomena, such as Alfvén waves launched by solar flares, but those events are transient and cannot explain the uniform coronal heat. It is not yet known exactly how much wave energy is available to heat the corona. Results published in 2004 using data from the TRACE spacecraft seem to indicate that there are waves in the solar atmosphere at frequencies as high as 100 mHz (10 second period). Measurements of the temperature of different ions in the solar wind with the UVCS instrument aboard SOHO give strong indirect evidence that there are waves at frequencies as high as 200 Hz, well into the range of human hearing. These waves are very difficult to detect under normal circumstances, but evidence collected during solar eclipses by teams from Williams College suggest the presences of such waves in the 1–10 Hz range. Magnetic reconnection is hypothesized to be the mechanism behind solar flares, the largest explosions in our solar system. Furthermore, the surface of Sun is covered with millions of small magnetized regions 50–1,000 km across. These small magnetic poles are buffeted and churned by the constant granulation. The magnetic field in the solar corona must undergo nearly constant reconnection to match the motion of this "magnetic carpet", so the energy released by the reconnection is a natural candidate for the coronal heat, perhaps as a series of "microflares" that individually provide very little energy but together account for the required energy. The idea that micro flares might heat the corona was put forward by Eugene Parker in the 1980s but is still controversial. In particular, ultraviolet telescopes such as TRACE and SOHO/EIT can observe individual micro-flares as small brightenings in extreme ultraviolet light, but there seem to be too few of these small events to account for the energy released into the corona. The additional energy not accounted for could be made up by wave energy, or by gradual magnetic reconnection that releases energy more smoothly than micro-flares and therefore doesn't appear well in the TRACE data. Variations on the micro flare hypothesis use other mechanisms to stress the magnetic field or to release the energy, and are a subject of active research in 2005. Corona treatment: attributed to the popularity of film substrates and the widespread use of water based and UV curable inks, the ability to corona treat in-house is a necessity for many converters. Oct 01, 2002; Surface tension: For many, this phrase conjures up memories of a high school science class and the oft-murmured question, "When...

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What is the Gulf War Veterans' Illnesses Biorepository? About 697,000 men and women served in the 1990-1991 Gulf War. Nearly 250,000 Veterans have come down with illnesses in the 20 years since returning from the Gulf. These illnesses, known collectively as Gulf War Veterans' Illnesses (GWVI), have affected Veterans with medically unexplained constant symptoms that can include tiredness, headaches, joint pain, indigestion, trouble sleeping, dizziness, breathing disorders, and memory problems. The exact cause of GWVI is not yet known. Researchers have been studying whether exposures to various hazards in the environment during their Gulf War service are related to these illnesses. The Department of Veteran Affairs (VA) is committed to research on disorders affecting Veterans of the 1990-91 Gulf War. To advance this important research effort, the VA has funded the Gulf War Veterans' Illnesses Biorepository (GWVIB). A biorepository is a human tissue bank that collects, processes, stores and gives out research specimens for future scientific studies. Who can take part in this study? The VA GWVIB is seeking Veterans from the 1990-1991 Gulf War who are interested in donating their brain and other body tissue after death for future research on the causes, progression and treatment of Gulf War Veterans' Illnesses. Research of this type must compare persons who are healthy with those who have health problems. As a result, Veterans who sign up for, or take part in, this biorepository will include Gulf War Veterans with symptoms and/or illnesses and those who do not have symptoms and/or illnesses. This is the first time that any study has tried to start a national biorepository for Gulf War Veterans. So, we now do not know how many Gulf War Veterans will take part in the GWVIB. This study will find out how to best set up a Gulf War Veterans biorepository, and to see if there are enough Veterans who will volunteer to donate. Even if we are unable to collect enough tissue for research, the information that we collect may help us to better understand Gulf War Veterans' Illnesses. What are the potential benefits of taking part? We hope that you might think about such an important organ donation, but you are under no duty to do so. Your VA benefits and your VA health care cannot be influenced in any way by your saying yes or saying no to take part in this study. Your taking part in this study will not benefit you directly. However, your donation may help future efforts in Gulf War Veterans' Illnesses research. If you think that you might think about making this generous after-death organ donation, the following information will explain what is involved for you and your family. You may also download our informational brochure here. What can I expect if I take part in this study? To take part in this study, you will be asked to review and sign a consent form. In addition to your consent, we will also need the consent of your next-of-kin (e.g., spouse, child, sibling) because this person will need to confirm your decision to donate after your passing. After signing the consent, we will ask you to fill out a questionnaire about your health history. We will update this information every six months to a year by telephone, by mail or by having you fill out a survey on an Internet web site. The telephone call and questionnaire should each require around 30 minutes to complete. We will also look at your VA medical record (if you have one) to collect information about your health from time to time and add that information to the GWVIB database so that we can follow your health and care over time. This will not require any of your time. All your information that we collect will be labeled with a code that does not identify you directly. The body tissue that you donate will be collected at the time of your death and will not require any surgery or collection procedures at this time. Upon death, we would make arrangements for the donation so that there will be no cost to your family. The procedure will be done professionally and with dignity at the closest VA Medical Center or by medical professionals at another facility if the VA facility is unable to perform this in a timely manner. An open casket viewing is possible after donation if that is your family's wish. If your next of kin requests it, a copy of the pathology report will be provided when it becomes available. Thank you for thinking about this important issue. We have included some answers to frequently asked questions here. We are always happy to answer any questions you or your family may have. During working hours, we can be reached at our toll free number: 1-855-561-7827. More information about Gulf War Veterans' Illnesses and related VA benefits and programs can be found here.

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Human HOXA1 Syndromes Human HOXA1 Syndromes: Introduction Human HOXA1 Syndromes: Human HOXA1 syndromes are very rare conditions caused by genetic defects involving the HOXA1 gene. The severity of the condition is highly variable depending on the extent of the defect and inheritance pattern. The most severe form is Bosley-Salih-Alorainy syndrome which involves a homozygous mutation. Other manifestations of the genetic defect are Athabaskan Brainstem Dysgenesis syndrome and Navajo Brainstem syndrome. The gene is involved in the development of the cardiovascular system, inner ear and the hindbrain so defects tend to involve mainly these parts of the body. More detailed information about the symptoms, causes, and treatments of Human HOXA1 Syndromes is available below. Symptoms of Human HOXA1 Syndromes See full list of 14 symptoms of Human HOXA1 Syndromes Treatments for Human HOXA1 Syndromes Read more about treatments for Human HOXA1 Syndromes Home Diagnostic Testing Home medical testing related to Human HOXA1 Syndromes: Wrongly Diagnosed with Human HOXA1 Syndromes? Human HOXA1 Syndromes: Complications Review possible medical complications related to Human HOXA1 Syndromes: Causes of Human HOXA1 Syndromes Read more about causes of Human HOXA1 Syndromes. Human HOXA1 Syndromes: Undiagnosed Conditions Commonly undiagnosed diseases in related medical categories: Misdiagnosis and Human HOXA1 Syndromes Undiagnosed stroke leads to misdiagnosed aphasia: BBC News UK reported on a man who had been institutionalized and treated for mental illness because he suffered from sudden inability to speak....read more » Dementia may be a drug interaction: A common scenario in aged care is for a patient to show mental decline to dementia. Whereas this can, of course, occur due to various medical conditions, such as a stroke or Alzheimer...read more » Mild traumatic brain injury often remains undiagnosed: Although the symptoms of severe brain injury are hard to miss, it is less clear for milder injuries, or even those causing a mild concussion diagnosis....read more » MTBI misdiagnosed as balance problem: When a person has symptoms such as vertigo or dizziness, a diagnosis of brain injury may go overlooked. This is particularly true of mild traumatic brain injury ...read more » Brain pressure condition often misdiagnosed as dementia: A condition that results from an excessive pressure of CSF within the brain is often misdiagnosed. It may be misdiagnosed as Parkinson's disease or dementia...read more » Post-concussive brain injury often misdiagnosed: A study found that soldiers who had suffered a concussive injury in battle often were misdiagnosed on their return. A variety of symptoms can occur in post-concussion syndrome and these...read more » Children with migraine often misdiagnosed: A migraine often fails to be correctly diagnosed in pediatric patients. These patients are not the typical migraine sufferers, but migraines can also occur in children. See misdiagnosis of migraine...read more » Vitamin B12 deficiency under-diagnosed: The condition of Vitamin B12 deficiency is a possible misdiagnosis of various conditions, such as ...read more » Read more about Misdiagnosis and Human HOXA1 Syndromes Human HOXA1 Syndromes: Research Doctors & Specialists Research related physicians and medical specialists: - Nerve Specialists: - Ear, Nose & Throat Specialists: - Neurology (Brain/CNS Specialists): - Stroke & Vascular Specialists: - more specialists...» Other doctor, physician and specialist research services: Human HOXA1 Syndromes: Rare Types Rare types of diseases and disorders in related medical categories: Human HOXA1 Syndromes: Animations More Human HOXA1 Syndromes animations & videos Prognosis for Human HOXA1 Syndromes Prognosis for Human HOXA1 Syndromes: The prognosis is variable depending on the severity of the condition which varies amongst patients. Early diagnosis and close monitoring improves the prognosis in most cases. More about prognosis of Human HOXA1 Syndromes Human HOXA1 Syndromes: Broader Related Topics Types of Human HOXA1 Syndromes User Interactive Forums Read about other experiences, ask a question about Human HOXA1 Syndromes, or answer someone else's question, on our message boards: Contents for Human HOXA1 Syndromes:

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This week, The Saturday Evening Post celebrates its 190th birthday. Our first issue appeared on August 4th, 1821, making us the oldest magazine in the United States. (Because our publication was interrupted in 1969, we are not the oldest continually published magazine, however; that honor is held by Scientific American.) The Post began life as a weekly newspaper, printed on the same equipment Ben Franklin used to publish The Pennsylvania Gazette. The Post‘s four pages were crowded with dense columns of small type; there were no illustrations besides a few crude pictures of hats and boots in advertisements. The articles may seem archaic today, but those early issues carry a lot of the same content that appears in today’s shrinking newspapers. For example, there is coverage of national news, particularly the continued growth of the country. The President of the United Sates, by his Proclamation, dated the 10th instant, agreeable to the conditional power invested in him by an act of Congress, announce the Admission of the State of Missouri into the Union. Meanwhile, Andrew Jackson was taking up his appointment as Florida’s first governor. The territory had recently been purchased from Spain, and Jackson was eager to prove the absolute authority of the U.S. in the region. The Spanish Governor of Pensacola has been arrested and thrown into prison by order of Gen. Jackson. The reasons for this procedure is his not having surrendered up all the papers which were legally claimed by the late treaty. They are now in the possession of the American authorities. In one regard, the Post was quite unlike a modern newspaper. The owners exercised their right to include moral instruction squarely on page one. In the August 18, 1821, issue, they presented an “Admonition Against Sabbath Breaking.” It is the duty of every Christian to observe [Sunday] as a day of rest from work, buying, selling, travelling (except in cases of great and unavoidable necessity) and from all kinds of sport and diversion. To spend the sacred time in idleness and amusement; to neglect the public and private duties of the day tends to bring the judgments of God on the country. It leads you to bad company, to a habit of idleness, drunkenness, extravagance, and so on to ruin, as many [condemned criminals] have acknowledged [shortly before their] execution. But when it came to filling up the pages with copy, the Post did what modern newspapers still do; reprint items of passing interest from other newspapers. A fact, to the curious.— On the 7th of June last, about five o’clock in the afternoon, there passed over Willistown (NH) and Goshen (VT), a swarm of the animal denominated the “Devil’s darning Needle” [the dragonfly]. The swarm extended a mile in width, and was more than an hour in passing from east to west. There is now residing in Stafford, a man by the name of Nolan, who is at present married to his twenty-sixth wife, and has by the whole, seventy-three children. He is one hundred and five years of age, and his present wife is now pregnant. The latest accounts from New Orleans, Savannah and Charleston represent those places as entirely free of malignant fever. A patent churn has been manufactured in Orange county, (N.Y.) which can be worked by a dog! A man has been sold at public auction, at the market house in Detroit for being found idle, and not giving an account of the manner in which he obtained a livelihood. The purchaser was to be entitled to his services for ten days, and he was then to be walked out of the territory unless he agreed to maintain himself by creditable labor. The City Gazette of Washington says, that in [leveling the ground] in front of the President’s house, the laborers came to a spot where five graves were opened. One of the coffins was in perfect preservation, and the remains of a corpse was exposed, exhibiting long dark hair, perfectly strong and neatly folded up under the skull. [The White House grounds are] said to have been the burying ground of the Peerce family, of Bladensburg, and that the bodies have been interred about 40 years. On one subject, there is a particularly strong resemblance between the Post of 1821 and modern newspapers. Then, as now, journalists love to report on the death of celebrities.

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Pedro was hated for his violence. He committed or ordered a number of murders including that of his wife. In 1366, his bastard brother Henry at the head of a group of Free Companies — professional soldiers — displaced him. Henry won popular support partly because of the widespread hatred of Pedro, hut also because he inflamed Spanish anti-Semitism, publicly referring to Pedro as "king of the Jews." Pedro took refuge for a time with the Black Prince, who restored him briefly to his throne. However, he offended the Prince by dishonorable behavior and broken promises, and lost his support.

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2013-05-19T19:53:09Z

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In 3rd grade, students learn about the physical and living world as they make observations, experiment, research and record and present what they have learned. Third graders conduct hands-on experimentation to develop questions, hypotheses and make observations and conclusions. Children may work in small groups or as a class observing and experimenting. As in other grades, the specific topics studied in science vary according to state however common topics studied in 3rd grade include: earth and space; plants; the cycle of life; animals; electricity and magnetism, and motion and sound. Consult your child’s teacher or research your state’s science standards for more details. In order to build science skills, your 3rd grader: - Observes living and non-living things and makes inferences about the observations. - Researches information on a variety of topics using texts and computers. - Collects and uses data to support experiments and what he learns. - Records her observations both through writing and talking and uses her observations to explain and make conclusions. - Understands what living things need (air, water and food) and what they do (grow, move and reproduce). - Studies and observes life cycles. - Experiments with different types of materials and different matter such as solid, liquids, and gas. - Works in groups and as a class to conduct experiments and create projects. Science Activities: 3rd Grade - Research Your World: Choose something your child likes for example, animals, plants, cooking, weather, and the body. Your child can come up with a list of questions she has about a topic and then work together to find the answers, experiment and observe that topic. - Plant Something: Plant something outside or inside and ask your child to observe what she sees, recording the growth and process. Once the plant has grown, help your child identify the different parts of the plants and talk and learn about what those parts do. - Move It!: Go outside or stay inside to experiment with motion. Take a variety of objects, for example, a ball, a balloon, a paper airplane or a toy car and have them move in different ways. Slide them down a ramp, hill or stairs, push or throw them with different amounts of force or blow air on them. As your child does this, talk about the different speeds of the objects, what makes them go faster and slower and why this might be. - Picture Science: You and your child can take close-up pictures of objects in science such as animal parts, fur, plants, trees, or different materials (wood, rubber, metal). Then you and your child can use your observation skills to try to guess what the picture is. Make this a game, taking turns guessing what each other’s picture is. - Quiz Show: Find either actual objects or pictures of objects which are both “alive” and “not alive.” Show your child one object at a time and ask him to answer “alive” or “not alive.” Make this feel fast paced and like a quiz show, showing objects quickly and asking your child to answer as quickly as possible. You can even time how long it takes. After a round of play, look at the different objects and talk about the similarities and differences between the alive and non-live objects. Recommended Products for Your Child Ages 8-10

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2013-05-19T19:36:44Z

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Having Fun With Fluency! Part 2 — Strategies Readers Will Enjoy - Grades: PreK–K, 1–2 Last week, we had the opportunity to learn more about the components of fluency instruction in our reading work, as we watched the replay of Teacher Talks Live Webcast Series: Tim Rasinski on Fluency. This week, I'm excited to share a few of my favorite fluency strategies with you. Download printable resources as well as a new bookmark I created, to help keep your students from sounding like robots! We'll build comprehension and teach our students to become fluent readers while we have some fun. Have Fun With Fluency! Here are my favorite fluency mini-lessons for you to try with your readers. Begin by telling your students that in order for readers to truly understand what is going on in the stories they are reading independently, they have to become fluent. This means that they need to read smoothly and with feeling or expression. You can even admit that you've heard some of them reading like robots, where --every---word--- is-- read-- all-- by-- itself--and--it--sounds--very-choppy. Believe me, none of them want to admit that they sound like a robot! You'll have everybody's attention. =) Here is my newest creation - a fluency bookmark. Use it to kick off your series of mini-lessons. Give each student two copies; one for their independent reading at school, the other for home. Laminate them or copy them on card stock paper so they last a bit longer. I hope you'll find the bookmark a useful tool in making your strategies stick. Photo: Regardless of the unit or subject area, I love to build charts with students and leave them up in the classroom as tools for children to refer back to. I'm also a very visual learner, so I add lots of drawings to my charts as well. Title your chart and list the first strategy you intend to teach that day. Add to the chart as you plan to teach the next strategy. Use a Storyteller's Voice As Tim Rasinski suggests, modeling the type of fluency you expect from your students will set up expecations and help them suceed. It gives them a perfect example of what they should sound like. As you read books aloud to your students, stop to point out that you are using a storyteller's voice when the narrator is describing setting, character actions, problem or solution. Make your students aware of something that may be obvious to you (an amazingly fluent reader) but not so obvious to those who are struggling to read smoothly and with feeling. Have them practice sounding like the storyteller in partnerships and small groups. As they listen to each other read, they can give a "thumbs up" if the reader reads with lots of fluency, a "thumbs down" if they need more practice, or (my favorite) a "thumbs in the middle" if they are on their way, but still need a little more practice. They can even evaluate their own fluency. As you listen in on their partnerships or groups, don't be surprised if you hear kids saying, "Hmmm... I think that was a little choppy. I may need to reread that part to sound more like a storyteller." Add technology to the mix to make this even more fun. Have students record each other using a Flip video camera or use a kid friendly program on your computer, such as Photo Booth to allow students to record themselves. They can watch and listen for parts that are super fluent and rate themselves and each other, just like movie critics do. Have them rerecord parts to make them sound even better. This will encourage them to reread texts. Remind your students that they should always treat each other with respect. It takes a lot for children to record themselves and watch it back. They should be complimented on being such brave readers! Put Words Together Like Talking Javier practices putting words together by scooping up groups of words with his hands during independent reading. We need to show children where phrase boundaries are in order to make them visable to our young readers. That doesn't mean that we are going to mark up every piece of text we expect children to read. It simply means that we have to plan for a few lessons that will illustrate how fluent readers actually do this in their minds. We can teach them how to put words together like talking by showing them how to use their hands to scoop up words in phrases. Again, you want to model this first. In order to find out which students really needed support with increasing fluency in their independent reading, I looked through the running records of the second grade students I work with every day. From these running records, I did a little research and recorded notes on what these readers were really good at as well as areas they needed help in. I mentioned the use of this research form in a previous post on Helping Students Set Their Reading Goals. I find it to be a very useful tool that I use on a consistent basis. Choose a book to use that is right around the average of your students' independent reading levels. Cynthia Rylant's, Poppleton in Winter was the perfect fit for me to use with this small group of readers. Set the purpose of the lesson: Readers put words together to sound like talking. Depending on your grade level, you may need to explain the terms "fluency" and "expression". I tell my students that they should try to read smoothly and with feeling. Not choppy. Not like a robot. Model how YOU put words together like talking. As I worked with this group of students, I read a line of text from my book and then lifted the sentence out of the book and onto chart paper. I read it and used my hands to show my students how I grouped words together, sort of scooping them up in chunks of two’s and three’s. Then, I asked the students to try it with me. After scooping up the words, I used a marker to draw looping lines under the words in the sentence to record how we read it like talking. I repeated the same process, each time letting go of the scaffolding more and more. I asked them to show me how they scooped the words without doing it for them first. Then, I had them come up to the chart to demonstrate how they put words together like talking. Here is what our chart looked like after several opportunities to try out the strategy together. Your students will need time to try out this strategy on their own. Give them a copy of this reading worksheet, or have them use their reading notebook to record sentences that they think they did a really great job of putting words together. Then, using a crayon, have them show you how they grouped words in phrases. See how Juan David, Pamela and Daniela try out this strategy on their own. Adding an assessment piece is really easy. Just ask your students to tell you what they tried out in reading today. They should be able to say how that strategy is helping them to become better readers! Change Your Voice To Match The Mood This is a fun strategy that can be used with your favorite read aloud, poem, shared reading chart or favorite song. (Yes, song!) Songs have lyrics that can be written down on paper and printed out for kids to read. If you want to really get a sense of how your students can capture the mood of written text, watch the talented students of the PS 22 Chorus in Staten Island as they practice signing Tori Amos' song, 1000 Oceans. (Share this with your students as well. It's guaranteed to give you all the chills.) How did these students get this good? There's no doubt in my mind that it has something to do with their incredible music teacher, Mr.Gregg Breinberg as well as lots and lots of practice. Mr. B's love of music is obviously infectious. Your love of reading will be, too. Aren't they amazing?! I can watch this video over and over again. Their version of Coldplay's, Viva La Vida is pretty awesome, too. Ok, back to the books. Rafe Martin's, The Rough Face Girl is one of my favorite touchstone texts. I use it again and again for many purposes in the classroom. The beautiful, dark, mysterious drawings makes it hard to believe that it was illustrated by David Shannon- the talented author and illustrator of,No, David! Read a bit of the text aloud and model how you match your voice to the mood. Model how you can give evidence from the text to show why you think you found just the right mood for that part. Give students a chance to try this strategy with you, as you read the next chunk of text aloud. I created this Match Your Voice To The Mood Worksheet to help my students track the moods in their leveled books, as well as their evidence. Model the use of this chart with, The Rough Face Girl. You don't have to read the entire book right now. Send the students off to independent reading with the promise that you will finish the book at a later time. And please, keep your promise! Here's how Mrs. Fernandez's students matched their voices to the moods in their independent books. Independent reading time gives you the opportunity to conference with your students one-on-one or work in small groups. Here I am, listening in on Dyance's reading to get a sense of what she's doing well as a reader and what she needs help with. I record my research during the conference on a special strategy lesson planning sheet. Notice Punctuation and Match Your Voice To It When I hear students reading straight past the punctuation in their books, I feel like giving them some sort of reading ticket! These readers are far from fluent. Many students need to be reminded that when you get to the period at the end of a sentence, you need to stop. When you see a comma, you pause or slow down. When there's an exclamation point at the end of a sentence, read it with excitement. They need to notice how most of the time your voice goes up at the end of a sentence that has a question mark. Using your white board or chart paper, write a short paragraph that includes a few periods, exclamation points, question marks and commas. Have students read it to themselves and notice what their voices do when they reach each type of puncuation in the text. Then, have them reread the text and place a tally mark on the chart under the type of punctuation they noticed. Just taking note of the punctuation in a simple task like this, will get them to become more aware of the punctuation and less likley to run straight past it! Now, send them off to independent reading. Mrs. Bayer's class had fun with this activity. We were working on this strategy on Friday afternoon before dismissal, and the kids were upset that we ran out of time and had to stop! I look forward to revisiting the class to continue to work on fluency. Ivan and Kristen work hard during independent reading! Download your own Punctuation Chart to give your students a place to record their tally marks and reflect on what they've learned. Change Your Voice To Sound Like The Characters You might notice that your readers may start to point out other types of punctuation now that you've made them aware of it. Great! Work on quotation marks next, and ask students to change their voice to sound like the characters. Linking this lesson back to tracking the moods in the story may be helpful. Just switch out moods with character traits and evidence. You may also want to draw attention to certain words in the text that describe the way in which the characters speak.Create a chart as your students find new words that help them change their voices as they read. It may end up looking something like this. . . . . .and of course, this type of work will fit in nicely with your writing mini-lessons as well. I hope that you set aside some time to watch the webcast and felt inspired to plan for fluency instruction with your students. There seems to be a whole lot here, but it's just a taste of what you can do to teach fluency in your classroom. What lessons or resources have worked best for your students? We had a two great lesson ideas posted in the comments in last week's post, Having Fun With Fluency! Part I- A Bridge To Comprehension. (Thank you, Jen from Juneau, Alaska!) Please take a moment to share your ideas and helpful tips with us. Here's to reading with fluency! Remember, robots may be cute, but we don't want our students sounding like them. ;)

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2013-05-19T19:46:08Z

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|Product #: BH-1485| SPANISH ELEMENTARY READING SKILLS GRADE 1-3 Drawing Conclusions and Inferences allows students to use critical-thinking skills in a host of different passages. This book is part of the five-book series Primary Reading Skills Spanish Version, which thoroughly covers the top reading skills requested by primary teachers. A variety of formats keeps students' interest and prepares them for formal testing. Submit a review

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Nov. 28, 2012 Fresh insight into the parasite that causes malaria suggests a new way to develop drugs and vaccines to tackle the disease. Research into malaria parasites -- which exist in male and female forms, and mate to spread the disease -- suggests that treatments would be more likely to succeed if designed to target female forms of the parasite. Scientists found that male parasites can adapt to new surroundings faster than the females. When malaria infects the bloodstream after a mosquito bite, the male parasites are better able to react quickly to repeated attacks by the immune system and so are likely to be harder to treat with drugs and vaccines. Researchers at the University of Edinburgh, who took part in the study, examined the genetic fingerprint of various species of malaria parasites at different stages in their life cycles. They found that genes associated with male parasites tended to evolve faster over time than those of females. Targeting the females would be more likely to succeed in killing the infection in the long term and would prevent the parasites from breeding and spreading. The research, carried out in collaboration with the University of Glasgow, Leiden University Medical Centre, Netherlands, and the Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics in Warsaw of the Polish Academy of Sciences, was published in the journal Evolution, Medicine and Public Health. It was supported by the Wellcome Trust, the European Union, the Polish Ministry of Science and the Foundation for Polish Science. Dr Sarah Reece of the University of Edinburgh's School of Biological Sciences, who co-led the study, said: "Malaria is notorious for evolving to evade treatment -- it is crucial that drugs and vaccines are designed to target the slower, female, form of the parasite." Other social bookmarking and sharing tools: - S. E. Reece, S. M. Khan, A. P. Waters, C. J. Janse, S. Kaczanowski. Why are male malaria parasites in such a rush? Sex-specific evolution and host-parasite interactions. Evolution, Medicine, and Public Health, 2012; DOI: 10.1093/emph/eos003 Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.

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Editor's Note: This article was originally published in the February 1995 issue of Scientific American. We are reposting it this week because Robert Tijan has just been named president of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. Asthma, cancer, heart disease, immune disorders and viral infections are seemingly disparate conditions. Yet they turn out to share a surprising feature. All arise to a great extent from overproduction or underproduction of one or more proteins, the molecules that carry out most reactions in the body. This realization has recently lent new urgency to research aimed at understanding, and ultimately manipulating, the fascinating biochemical machinery that regulates an essential step in protein synthesis: the transcription of genes. For a protein to be generated, the gene that specifies its composition must be transcribed, or copied, from DNA into strands of messenger RNA, which later serve as the templates from which the protein is manufactured. Even before therapy became a goal, transcription had long captivated scientists for another reason: knowledge of how this process is regulated promises to clarify some central mysteries of life. Each cell in the body contains the same genome, the complement of some 150,000 genes that form the blueprint for a human being. How is it that the original cell of an organism— the fertilized egg—gives rise to a myriad of cell types, each using somewhat different subsets of those genes to produce different mixtures of proteins? And how do the cells of a fully formed body maintain themselves, increasing and decreasing the amounts of proteins they manufacture in response to their own needs and those of the larger organism? To answer these questions and design drugs able to modulate transcription, investigators need to know something about the makeup of the apparatus that controls reading of the genetic code in human cells. After some 25 years of exploration, the overall structure of that apparatus is becoming clear. Work in my laboratory at the University of California at Berkeley and at other institutions has revealed that one part of the apparatus—the engine driving transcription of most, if not all, human genes— consists of some 50 distinct proteins. These proteins must assemble into a tight complex on DNA before a special enzyme, RNA polymerase, can begin to copy DNA into messenger RNA. The putative constituents have now been combined in the test tube to yield a fully operational transcription engine. Still other proteins essentially plug into receptive sockets on the engine and, in so doing, "program" it, telling it which genes should be transcribed and how quickly. Critical details of these interactions are emerging as well. Clues from Bacteria When my colleagues and I at Berkeley began focusing on human genes in the late 1970s, little was known about the transcription machinery in our cells. But studies begun early in that decade had provided a fairly clear picture of transcription in prokaryotes— bacteria and other primitive single-celled organisms that lack a defined nucleus. That work eventually lent insight into human and other eukaryotic (nucleated) cells and helped to define features of transcription that hold true for virtually all organisms. The bacterial research showed that genes are essentially divided into two functionally distinct regions. The coding region specifies the sequence of amino acids that must be linked together to make a particular protein. This sequence is spelled out by the nucleotides (the building blocks of DNA) in one strand of the DNA double helix; the nucleotides are distinguished from one another by the nitrogen-rich base they carry —adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C) or guanine (G). The other region of a gene has regulatory duties. It controls the rate at which RNA polymerase transcribes the coding region of a gene into messenger RNA.

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In 2007, James Watson eyed his genome for the very first time. Through more than 50 years of scientific and technological advancement, Watson saw the chemical structure he once helped unravel now fused into a personal genetic landscape laid out before him. Yet there was a small stretch of nucleic acids on chromosome 19 that he preferred to leave uncovered, a region that coded the apolipoprotein E gene. APOE, as it’s called, has been a telling genetic landmark of Alzheimer’s risk, strongly correlated to the disease since the early 90s. Watson’s grandmother suffered from Alzheimer’s, and without any reasonable treatments or suitable preventive strategies, the father of DNA decided the information was too volatile, its revelation creating more potential harm than good. Watson’s apprehension was warranted. Treatments for Alzheimer’s Disease have consistently failed, sometimes miserably. But as we learn more and more about the brain, it has become apparent that genetics alone rarely dictate the course of disease. Instead, brain disorders result from a complex interaction of our genes and the environments to which we’re exposed. And now, a recent wave of research has unveiled another player in the genesis of neurodegenerative disease: stress. While scientists have already catalogued the effect of our surroundings and environment on psychological conditions – including depression and anxiety disorders – new studies suggest that stress may also figure into the complex equation that determines if someone will develop a neurodegenerative disease or not. Because stress can be mitigated through lifestyle changes, people may finally gain some control over these devastating, and feared, illnesses. Since Alois Alzheimer first noted his clinical findings of “presenile dementia” in a patient at the turn of the twentieth century, doctors have continually observed that the disease tends to run through families. But it wasn’t until the early 90s, when a team led by Margaret Pericak-Vance, then a researcher at Duke University Medical School, uncovered the genetic link to Alzheimer’s Disease. By extracting DNA from circulating lymphoblasts, Pericak-Vance and colleagues were able to correlate Alzheimer’s Disease to variations of the APOE gene on chromosome 19. Around the same time, another group of researchers at Duke University’s Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science, led by Brenda Plassman, started a series of experiments to see if non-genetic factors contributed to Alzheimer’s. They wondered: could a person’s environment also affect whether or not they’d acquire the disease?

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The objectives of the background research were: 1) to provide information on what historic and prehistoric resources could be encountered in the project area; and 2) to review the data potential of such expected resources in light of appropriate research themes identified by the Virginia Department of Historic Resources (VDHR 1991). The background research thus served the immediate goal of formulating an appropriate methodology for the fieldwork and laboratory work, as well as the larger goal of interpreting and evaluating the historic properties that might be found by the survey. This study employs prehistoric and historic periods and themes for the Commonwealth of Virginia (VDHR 1991). These themes are important for understanding how the physical remains of human activity can enhance our understanding of history. The significance of archeological resources in Virginia and in other states is judged by reference to the state's preservation planning documents. Using these plans, prehistoric and historic properties or sites are placed in a context based on their period, location, and property type. The National Register potential of each property is then determined with reference to a series of research and interpretive themes applicable to the different chronological and developmental periods. The evaluation of properties in this fashion allows for the balanced management of a state's historic resources, ensuring that the full chronological, regional, and topical range of resources is considered. The Airport Authority's representative, Parsons Management Consultants (PMC) compiled and provided most of the information on the location and nature of known cultural resources on the Dulles Airport property upon which this summary is based. Background research for the project also included a review of previous archeological compliance reports, a check of the Commonwealth of Virginia's archeological site files and the review of relevant secondary sources. Overview of the Prehistoric Period. The prehistory of Northern Virginia and the mid-Atlantic region in general is conventionally divided into three periods: the Paleo-Indian (circa 10,000?7,500 B.C.), the Archaic (circa 7,500?1,000 B.C.) and the Woodland (circa 1,000 B.C.?A.D. 1,600). These periods are distinguished by specific changes in material culture as reflected in the archeological record, such as changing stone tool manufacture or the introduction of pottery. An alternative chronological scheme, based upon broad economic and social patterns, and integrated with the changing environment, has been proposed for Fairfax County (Johnson 1986). The sequence is divided into four long periods: Paleo-Indian (circa 10,000-8,000 B.C.), Hunter-Gatherer (circa 8,000 B.C.?A.D. 800), Early Agriculturalist (A.D. 800?1500), and Proto-Historic (A.D. 1500?1675). Paleo-Indian Period (circa 10,000 to 7,500 B.C.). The Paleo-Indian period begins in North America with the arrival of humans from Asia across the ice-age continent of Beringia at least 15,000 years ago. The Paleo-Indian phase is not particularly well-represented archeologically in the eastern United States, although evidence from two Paleo-Indian complexes in Warren and Dinwiddie counties, and eleven isolated finds from Fairfax County suggest that humans have lived here for at least the last 12,000 years. In the west, the most widespread complex is the Llano or Clovis, typified by fluted points, scrapers, and blades. These artifacts are often found in association with extinct Pleistocene megafauna, suggesting an economy centered on big game hunting. In the east, Paleo-Indian finds are usually isolated fluted points, with other evidence suggesting that the Paleo-Indians here had a much more diversified subsistence strategy. In general, Paleo-Indians lived in small nomadic bands relying mostly on hunting, supplemented by more general foraging. Climatic conditions much colder than those found in subsequent periods had a significant effect on Paleo-Indian adaptations. In Virginia, three phases of Paleo-Indian occupation are recognized: Clovis, Mid-Paleo, and Dalton-Hardaway. The starting and ending dates of the three phases have not been established absolutely, but are defined stratigraphically and on the basis of artifact types and methods of stone tool production. The characteristic artifact of the Paleo-Indian period is the fluted stone point, often made of high-quality lithic material such as chert or jasper. These points, probably used as spear tips and knives, are relatively rare in the mid-Atlantic. Although it is probable that many Paleo-Indian sites are located on the now submerged continental shelf, it is nevertheless clear that occupation in this region was sparse and sporadic. Within Fairfax County, a small number of early fluted point types have been found, some immediately south of the airport property. By the middle and later Paleo-Indian period, the county seems to have been largely deserted (Johnson 1986). Archaic Period (circa 7,500 to 1,000 B.C.) . Many environmental changes occurred by the end of the Pleistocene, including the inundation of some riverine environments, a change from mixed coniferous forests to northern hardwoods, and the transition to a more temperate climate. The Archaic period is one of cultural adaptation to these changes. In general, the Archaic is characterized by regional specialization and the concomitant elaboration of tool kits, increasing population, and increasing sedentism. The Archaic period is divided into three sub-periods: Early (7,500 B.C. to 6,500 B.C.), Middle (6,500 B.C. to 3,000 B.C.), and Late (3,000 B.C. to 1,000 B.C.). Archeological sites of the Archaic period are much more common than for the earlier Paleo-Indian period, and settlement patterns across the state are complex and varied during this long time interval. The Middle Archaic began with the warming and drying climatic trend of the Altithermal, which began around 6,500 to 5,000 B.C. and lasted for approximately 2,000 years. As rainfall decreased and the rivers slowed, freshwater mussels became available as a food source for the first time, encouraging riverine settlement. The Middle Archaic climate was warmer and drier than the climate today, but by circa 3,000 B.C., the environment had become essentially modern. The Late Archaic is more well known than the earlier phases of the period. Sedentism had increased with the increased use of aquatic resources. Ground stone tools and the atlatl (hand-held spear launcher) were common; steatite vessels came into use by about 2,000 B.C. In general, Late Archaic sites are larger and more complex than those of previous periods; sites above the fall line are fewer and smaller than on the coastal plain (Gardner 1987). Near estuarine areas, there is evidence for the exploitation of shellfish. The reliance on a wider range of foods probably related to increasing population. New and more diverse tool types occur, dominated by broad and/or elongated large-stemmed points. Many of these so-called points may in fact have been used as knives. Local types include Savannah River and Holmes/Bare Island, which have been found throughout Fairfax and Loudoun counties. Several new projectile point styles marked the beginning of the Archaic Period. Almost all have in common a bifurcated base, and a small, serrated, triangular blade. Local types include MacCorkle, St. Albans and LeCroy, but points of almost identical shape and size are common throughout the eastern and midwestern United States (Broyles 1971; Johnson 1983). This widespread new point type must reflect profound changes in subsistence strategies, from primary reliance on the hunting of big game to increasing utilization of plants and smaller animals. The ameliorated environment supported a broader range of plant foods. Both large and small mammals, such as bear, white-tailed deer, squirrel and otter, and various species of perching and prey birds thrived. Throughout the mid-Atlantic region, and in Northern Virginia in particular, the quantity and density of artifacts recovered increased dramatically in the early phases of the Archaic period. Rise in population, allowed by a varied and successful adaptation to the changing environment, was probably a crucial factor. In Fairfax County alone, over 140 Early Archaic points have been found, as opposed to eleven Paleo-Indian points (Johnson 1983). The warming trend abruptly decelerated around 4000?3500 B.C., and precisely at this time, the archeological record indicates a significant rise in population in the mid-Atlantic. The artifacts of this period are small side-notched points, found in quantity from the Carolina piedmont to New England (Coe 1964; Ritchie 1961). Local types include Halifax and Vernon style points; over 90 examples have been found in Fairfax County alone (Johnson 1983; Johnson 1986). By the Late Archaic period (circa 2,500?1,000 B.C.), the warming and drying climate had led to great increases in the oak-hickory forest, and a simultaneous reduction in grasslands. The rise in sea level stabilized, allowing a region of high salinity to form within the Chesapeake. This in turn provided a suitable environment for oysters; anadromous fish also became a dependable resource as far upriver as the fall line. North of the falls, a variety of freshwater fish could be found. Woodland Period (circa 1,000 B.C. to A.D. 1,600) . The Woodland period featured increasingly complex and varied lifeways. Archeologically-visible expressions of these changes include the widespread use of pottery, burial mounds, increased elaboration of mortuary ceremonialism, and long-distance trade. This period also witnessed the cultivation of both native and tropical plants and reliance on storage of foodstuffs. The transition from the Archaic to Woodland period is marked by the appearance of woodworking tools, such as axes and celts, and ceramics with fabric impressions and carved-paddle stamping. Also, the bow and arrow came into use during this period. The Woodland period is divided into three sub-periods: Early (1,000 B.C. to A.D. 300), Middle (A.D. 300 to 1,000), and Late (A.D. 1,000 to 1,600). Around 1000 B.C., the manufacture of pottery was introduced. This innovation generally marks the beginning of the Woodland period. Initially few other changes were observable; deliberate and intensive collecting continued to be the primary basis of lifestyle and economy (Gardner 1982). Population and sedentism continued to increase throughout this time. By circa A.D. 1,200, agriculture supplemented subsistence needs that had formerly been met through hunting and gathering alone. During the Woodland period, maize, beans and squash were probably the focus of initial agricultural efforts. The significance of an agriculturally-based subsistence strategy cannot be overestimated as a crucial element in the establishment and maintenance of permanent, year-round settlements. Small villages developed in the tidewater areas of Virginia and along the terraces of the major river systems. Further inland, however, it appears that people remained primarily mobile hunter-gatherers; the archeological evidence is limited to the small triangular points indicative of bow-and-arrow technology. About ten triangular points have been found in and around the Dulles International Airport property. Toward the end of the Woodland period, settlements became larger, including semi-sedentary villages with as many as a hundred or more inhabitants. Tribal societies appeared in some areas of Virginia, replacing band organizations as a means of organizing larger populations. Later, chiefdoms developed in a few places; economic, sociopolitical, and religious offices were coordinated through a central authority based on formal rules of inheritance. At the time of contact, the Siouan speaking Manahoac Indians inhabited Northern Virginia from the mountains to the fall line, and from the Potomac to the North Anna River. They were mentioned in the first accounts by early traders and travelers, and it is known that John Smith met a group of Manahoacs in 1607. However, they had disappeared from the area by 1667. Raiding Iroquois, disease, and contact with the colonists may have pushed the Manahoacs south to join the Monacans (Egloff and Woodward 1992:48). The Manahoac lived in dispersed, autonomous hamlets. They were probably mobile hunters, fishers and gatherers, who also kept small gardens. Their neighbors to the east, along the banks of the Potomac River, were the Algonquian-speaking Potowomekes, who were members of a large and powerful chiefdom ruled by Powhatan. The Virginia Algonquians lived in palisaded villages on the shores of the river, relying primarily on farming and large-scale, coordinated collecting forays for their subsistence. The Virginia Algonquians and the Siouan Monahoacs (as well as their relatives to the south, the Monacans) were traditional enemies. Contact Period. No primary archeological data has been recorded for these tribes in the vicinity of Dulles Airport. By 1714, the last of Northern Virginia's native inhabitants had moved to the upper reaches of the Mattaponi River, nearly 100 miles to the south. The area's remaining material culture and settlement pattern reflects only subsequent European occupation. From this time onward, archeological evidence is supplemented by written records, providing a detailed historical narrative. In order to understand the contribution that the physical remains of human activity can make to completing our knowledge of history, the foregoing context has been developed. The significance of archeological resources in Virginia and in other states is judged by reference to the state's preservation planning documents. Using these State Preservation Plans, prehistoric and historic properties or sites are placed in a context based on their period, location, and property type. The National Register potential of each property can then be determined with reference to a series of research and interpretive themes indicated by the context, that applicable to the different chronological and developmental periods. The evaluation of properties in this fashion allows for the balanced management of a state's historic resources, ensuring that the full chronological, regional, and topical range of resources is considered. Thematic contexts are designed to ensure that the range of human activity is documented and equally preserved; research themes contained in the contexts include temporal periods, spatial organization like settlements and towns, and activity or function associations (such domestic, subsistence, religion, education, etc.). Two research themes are relevant for prehistoric period archeological sites expected for the NASM project location: the Domestic Theme and the Subsistence Theme. The spatial theme is the Northern Virginia region, the temporal theme for prehistoric sites is Paleo-Indian through Woodland Periods (10,000 B.C. to A.D. 1,600), outlined above. The Domestic Theme relates broadly to the human need for shelter, and a home base or community dwelling. Expected domestic property types include "camps such as a hunting campsite, fishing camp, . . . seasonal residence, or temporary habitation sites" (Virginia Department of Historic Resources 1991:17). The earliest residents of the area were mobile hunters and gatherers; their habitations are generally short-lived and difficult to identify on the basis of archeological evidence. Domestic stone tools and, later, pottery sherds, generally provide the only evidence for a habitation area in an archeological context. The Manahoac lived closest to the site at the time of contact. It is expected that their small villages would be represented in the archeological record as soil color and texture anomalies, topographic depressions or rises, or post hole molds. One would not expect to find the larger villages of the Virginia Algonquians within the project area. Hunting and fishing camps would probably be recognizable based on the procurement tools recovered. The second theme, Subsistence, "most broadly seeks explanations of the different strategies that cultures develop to procure, process, and store food. . . . this theme also explores the reconstruction of past habitats from the perspective of their potential for human exploitation, energy flow studies on the procurement and processing of food, and the evolution of particular subsistence strategies over time within and between neighboring regions" (Virginia Department of Historic Resources 1991:17). This theme is represented by lithic hunting and plant processing tools throughout prehistoric times and into the contact period, and by evidence of fishing during the Archaic Period and agriculture during the Woodland. Overview of the Historic Period. The historic period in Virginia is generally divided into seven periods developed by VDHR as part of the Virginia State Historic Preservation Office planning process. The periods are: Settlement to Society (1607 to 1750), Colony to Nation (1750 to 1789), Early National (1789 to 1830), Antebellum (1830 to 1860), Civil War (1861 to 1865), Reconstruction and Growth (1865 to 1914), and World War I to Present (1914 to 1997). The general periods for the State have been expanded and focused on Fairfax County and the Dulles Airport area. Settlement to Society (1607 to 1750): The Period of Contact and the Rise of the Plantation System. The contact period began in the area that is now Fairfax County in 1608 when Captain John Smith initially explored the Potomac River and its tributaries while looking for a northern outlet of the Chesapeake. At that time Algonquian-speaking Indians, controlled by the Powhatan chiefdom, occupied the Coastal Plain. The Siouan-speaking Manahoac lived in the project area near the fall line but were driven from Virginia by the Iroquois during the seventeenth century. Other Siouan-speakers occupied the Piedmont. Smith's expedition initiated friendly relations with the Indians, and trading posts were soon established near their villages (Feest 1978). Although Northern Virginia was not the first area settled by European colonists, it did not take long for the fertile and accessible lands along the Potomac River to be claimed by the colonists. The first settlements along the river began in the 1650s. From the river, the colonists spread out into the back country using the smaller tributaries of the Potomac as access routes. By the mid-eighteenth century, much of the land in Fairfax County had been acquired and the Native American population had been pushed to the west, away from the European settled areas. The tobacco plantation system spread north as land was depleted in southern Tidewater Virginia. "Although the cultivation of tobacco was a complex process, using it to achieve economic success relied on a simple formula: a large tract of land planted in tobacco and cultivated with a large labor force resulted in more money for the planter" (Virginia Department of Historic Resources 1991:25). Thus, as tobacco plantations spread to the Fairfax County area, large numbers of people were required to develop the plantation settlements. During the seventeenth century, liberal immigration and land policies in Virginia and a wave of immigrants escaping religious, political, and economic problems in Europe sustained the labor-intensive plantation settlements. Under the headright system, wealthy speculators could patent 50 acres of land in exchange for paying an immigrant's passage from Europe. English indentured servants supplied the majority of the labor needs for the tobacco farms; African slaves provided a much smaller proportion of the labor force than was the case further south. Robert "King" Carter, the Northern Neck colonial agent for Lady Catherine Fairfax, patented more than 90,000 acres in the area for the proprietor. By the early 1700s, most of the land along the rivers was occupied, and Carter and others became interested in moving into the interior (Harrison 1964). As land became scarcer, fewer immigrants from Europe came into the area. Planters managing large tracks of land therefore had to rely more heavily than before on African slave labor. Most of the cleared land in Virginia was devoted to tobacco cultivation during the 1700s. Farming practices aimed at ensuring adequate drainage for the tobacco had the negative result of increasing soil erosion. Streams silted and the topsoil was totally depleted and unsuitable for further tobacco farming within four or five years. Tobacco farming, therefore, required unlimited amounts of land. As the tobacco planters moved inland and away from navigable waterways, new roads were built connecting the planters with warehouses, wharves, and ship landings. Early roads followed Indian trails along ridges and creeks. Most of the acreage that was to become Dulles International Airport was purchased by eleven men between 1724 and 1731. Four others obtained grants for the remainder of the property between 1740 and 1769 (Mitchell 1987). In what would become Fairfax County, the majority of land grants were between 200 and 500 acres (Netherton 1978:17). The average grant in the airport area was about 2,000 acres, relatively large compared to the surrounding region (Mitchell 1987). The large grants were mostly obtained not by frontier settlers, but by well-established Tidewater planters who hoped to turn a profit by resale when land values went up (Netherton 1978:15). Smaller acreage was taken up by speculators of more modest means. For example, on 22 July 1765, William Barr of Fairfax County purchased 265 acres on Salisbury Plain (Cub) Run. Just over two years later, on 20 September 1767, Barr leased this tract to Charles Stewart Presley, having previously informed Presley of disputes regarding the land (Loudoun County Deeds F: 209). During the early eighteenth century, George Turberville (granted 4142 acres) and Henry Lee (granted 3,311 acres, including the area of the future Sully Plantation) owned the property that encompasses the present project area. The Lee family (along with the related Turberville family) was one of the most powerful and respected families in Virginia. Members of the Lee family occupied important social, political, and military positions throughout the history of Virginia. In 1711 Thomas Lee was named the acting proprietary agent for the Fairfax land (in the absence of Edward Jennings). He established the requirement that a survey be done when land is patented. In 1725 Henry Lee (Thomas?s brother), patented 3,311 acres of land, including part of the current project area. Henry Lee II was a Justice of the County Court and Commander of the County Militia in Prince William County, and served in the House of Burgesses and as a state senator. Five Lees sat on councils of government in Williamsburg at that time. Richard Henry Lee was a signer of the Declaration of Independence. Henry II?s son Charles was the first Attorney General of the United States after the Revolution. Henry?s other son, Richard Bland Lee, built Sully Plantation adjacent to the current project area. The Lees at Sully had contacts with many important people, including George and Martha Washington and James and Dolly Madison. General Robert E. Lee?s mother, Anne Hill Carter Lee, lived at Sully (Gamble 1973). Colony to Nation (1750 to 1789) . Before 1757, the lands comprising Dulles International Airport lay entirely within Fairfax County. That part of Fairfax County that later became Loudoun County was the parish of Cameron, formed in 1748 (Figures 4-1 and 4-2). Cameron encompassed all of Fairfax north and west of Difficult Run. In 1749, the total population of this parish was estimated at 2,191, including 1,555 whites and 636 blacks (Netherton 1978:29). By the time of the creation of Loudoun County in 1757, the population had grown to 3,345 (Netherton 1978:32). Settlement proceeded rapidly over the next decade. Earlier speculators cashed in on their investments, parceling out their huge holdings so that by 1769 only eleven of the then 287 landholders in Loudoun County owned more than 100 acres each (Poland 1976:26). Most of the larger holdings were concentrated in the vicinity of the project area. The tobacco plantations that were the basis of Northern Virginia's economic and social system required an assured market. Until the time of the Revolution, more than half the tobacco imported to England was bought by merchants in Glasgow, Scotland. They were successful because of their system of having factors or agents living in the Colonies; these agents were able to purchase the tobacco directly from the planters. The factors also provided a financial service to the planters by lending them money based on their anticipated crops and by selling the planters needed supplies from Great Britain and elsewhere. Tensions between the Scottish merchants and the planters increased as the conflict between the Colonies and Britain grew. Over time, members of the planter families and the Scottish merchants had intermarried and settled in the colonies. Their loyalties to the British Crown and to their American clients and families divided the merchants. The uncertainties over the political situation between Great Britain and the Colonies caused financial difficulties for many of the planters, especially those smaller and mid-range planters and farmers who depended on the loans from oversees merchants for operating capital. The residents of the Potomac River towns and countryside came together in opposition to British colonial practices, joined by the slogan of "no taxation without representation." By 1776, the Fairfax Militia was involved in skirmishes with British troops along the Potomac. In August, the British fleet was situated off the coast of Virginia, and merchants and British natives not sympathetic to the revolutionary movement were required to leave the country. After the war, the sons and grandsons of the original purchasers of large holdings in the project area began to settle and build homes. Around 1790, Richard Bland Lee built Sully Plantation as a tobacco quarter on land that originally was part of 3,311 acres granted to his grandfather, Henry Lee in 1725. Sully is located east of the project area. Lee initially resided in a log cabin; by the 1790s he had built a new house, which is now part of Fairfax County's Sully Historic Park. In addition, Richard Bland Lee built a stone dairy, kitchen/laundry, smokehouse, and office which survive at the park. Other structures including slave quarters and overseer's houses have not survived and their structural remains have not been located. Around this time, George Richard Lee Turberville (a kinsman of Richard Bland Lee) and his wife Harriotte (the daughter of Richard Henry Lee) built Leeton Grove on property adjacent to Sully, to the south of the project area. Leeton and Sully were closely tied, both because of kinship and necessity. The two families, separated only by a couple of miles, often got together for dinner or other activities. Richard Bland Lee and George Turberville coordinated and cooperated with each other on farm activities, like slaughtering, and shared resources when necessary (Gamble 1973:43). Leeton is still preserved and currently is occupied by the Leigh family. Children and grandchildren of the large landowners in the surrounding area divided up the large estates. Thus began the transformation of the "cavalier" character of the Tidewater into a region dominated by smaller independent farmers. This was especially true in the vicinity of the Cub Run and Horsepen Run drainages. As early as December 1781, Richard Bland Lee and others of the landed gentry petitioned the General Assembly to establish a new county, ostensibly to cut the distance to the county seat. According to Fairfax Harrison, the planters' real motive was to separate themselves from the more numerous farmers and establish hegemony in a county of their own. Eventually, they succeeded only in attaching themselves to Fairfax rather than Loudoun County (Figure 4-3) when a compromise boundary line was drawn near the project area in 1798. Early National Period (1789 to 1830) and Antebellum Period (1830 to 1860) . Throughout the eighteenth and much of the nineteenth century, Fairfax County's economy was primarily agricultural. Tobacco was the major cash crop; corn and wheat were grown for local use. In the late 1700s, wheat became a valuable commodity because tobacco had depleted the soil. Wheat provided an alternative to tobacco, with its price fluctuations in the world market, and lessened the farmers' dependence on British factors. One result of the increased interest in wheat and other grain crops was a subsequent increase in the number of grist and flour mills needed to process the grains. The water-powered mills often spawned new communities as other merchants began to locate near the mills. The rise in the use of water-powered machinery made fast-moving streams valuable resources. The value of farmland located within easy transport distance of the mills increased. Other industry was attempted in the county during this period. Cotton mills and silk culture were tried. Five furnaces for smelting iron ore were established by 1727. However, control of the profits by landlords and prohibitive costs resulted in failure of these industries. Fisheries, forestry, sumac gathering, tallow and candy manufacturing were also undertaken. Distilling was also a popular income source in the area from Colonial times onward. Once the military and economic disruptions of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century had subsided, the residents of Fairfax County, like their neighbors in the rest of the Northern Virginia region, began to participate in the "Great Rebuilding" of their economic base and their cultural landscape. General changes were made in outdated agricultural practices. The result was increased crop yields due to the use of fertilizers and crop rotation systems. Improved plows and harvesting machinery also helped improve agriculture. The increase in profits within the agricultural community greatly affected the rest of the community. Farmers and planters began to improve their homes and farm buildings. New mills were built to process the increasing amounts of grain harvested in the region. Merchants expanded their stock. The introduction of improved roads built by the government and the railroad made an impression on the economic and cultural life of the entire country. The economic improvements of the region were not shared by all segments of the population. Slavery continued to be a common practice in the state, but not to the extent that it was in the more southern states. Virginia's small farmers had discovered over the years that there was not an economic incentive to maintaining slaves; they had begun to shift away from their reliance on slave labor. Nonetheless, Virginia was considered a slave-holding state in the national debates on the subject, and in debates about the power that the central government had to control the growth of the nation and the decision-making process of its individual states and citizens. When the first shots were fired in the Civil War, Virginia seceded from the Federal union with the rest of the South. As a result of the division between Loudoun and Fairfax Counties, the new boundary line was surveyed. A map of this survey was entered in the Fairfax County records by W. Payne on 17 April 1798. The map also showed the principal roads, turnpikes, and water courses that intersected the line. The homes of nearby property owners were illustrated in their approximate locations. Some attempt was made to show the relative sizes of the buildings, number of stories, windows, pedimented gables, and single or twinned chimneys. Eleven houses were in the vicinity of the project area between Ox Road to the north and the "Road from Leesburg to Alexandria" to the south. The eleven owners were Nathaniel Fitzhugh, Col. Sommer, Mrs. Lane, Charles Turley, Michael Ashford, Joseph Horseman, George Hucherson, Mr. Riddles, Andrew Hucherson, Mrs. Hucherson, and Ben Hucherson. The Fitzhugh family built a large farm complex in the early nineteenth century that later became known as Leeton; the remains of this complex were identified in the project area during the Phase I archeological investigation of the NASM Dulles Center property. Redrawing the boundary line did little to change the demographic, economic and social character of the region. According to Charles Poland, three dominant characteristics of local lifestyles had been fixed by 1790. The first was that Loudoun maintained a relatively stable population from the Revolutionary period to the First World War. The number of inhabitants in 1800 was 20,523, compared with 20,577 in 1920, an increase of only 54 people. The second was what Poland called "bipolar communities,? in which life centered on the farm and the nearby village. Farmers brought in wheat to be ground at mills usually located in a town or village, and the towns provided other goods and services (Poland 1976:64-68). The third predominant characteristic throughout the nineteenth century was that of agricultural reform; wheat replaced tobacco as the dominant crop. Agricultural abundance resulted from improved farming equipment and agricultural techniques, including the use of fertilizer and crop rotation. Richard Bland Lee quickly came to believe that Sully Plantation was in need of careful management. By the end of the eighteenth century, he practiced crop rotation, used crushed limestone as fertilizer, and encouraged the growth of clover to replenish the soil. He also reduced the amount of tobacco planted, switching instead to wheat and rye (Gamble 1973:38). Later, Francis Lightfoot Lee likewise employed scientific farming techniques at Sully and obtained high yields (Gamble 1973:59). Unfortunately his successors were not as careful. Although local conditions remained relatively static, the region was not immune to nineteenth century changes. Along with agricultural reform came improvements in the transportation system and the construction of turnpikes. The Little River Turnpike (U.S. Route 50) was the first to be constructed, completed in 1806. Tamped stone road beds with wooden or stone bridges were a great improvement over the typical muddy quagmires and fords. The road ran along the southern boundary of the project area, connecting farms and communities from the Little River at Aldie to Duke Street in Alexandria. The Middle Turnpike, also known as the Leesburg Turnpike (Virginia Route 7), was begun in 1818 and provided a thoroughfare between Leesburg and Alexandria (Netherton 1978:191-195). With improved agricultural methods, less land could support more people. Better roads also facilitated the transportation and marketing of crops. A natural outgrowth of the combination of these improvements was the division of land into farms with fewer acres. The fifteen parcels of original land grants had been divided into nearly sixty parcels by circa 1830-1850 (Mitchell 1987). By the 1860s, salient changes in agricultural techniques had led to relative prosperity for the agricultural community. The use of modern machinery, such as improved plows, superseded the use of hand tools. Corn was planted with mechanical drills, and the cradle replaced the scythe or sickle in harvesting grains (Poland 1976:84). As witness to this rural prosperity, the area boasted numerous "large and exuberant" farmhouses and other buildings dating to the antebellum period (Chittenden 1985:VII-H18). Civil War (1861 to 1865) . Considerable military activity took place in eastern Loudoun and western Fairfax counties during the Civil War because of its proximity to Washington, D.C. Both the Confederacy and the Union had troops in the counties at different times during the Civil War. Battles, raids, and retreats took place in and around the rolling fields and towns of eastern Loudoun and western Fairfax counties. Local tradition is replete with tales of scavengers from the Confederate encampment at Centreville, the Battle of Chantilly along Little River Turnpike, and the use of farmhouses as field hospitals. The roads and railroads in Fairfax County provided access routes for soldiers and supplies. The open agricultural lands were often used as troop assembly and staging areas. Skirmishes and raids on the countryside by both sides led to destruction of farm buildings, houses, crops, and herds; the devastation severely limited the ability of the area to produce food and clothing. If the inhabitants suffered, their worst privations came as a result of Union reprisals for the regional connection with a Confederate officer, Colonel John Mosby, leader of the renowned Mosby's Raiders (Wagstaff 1974:27-35). Sully Plantation suffered repeated depredations by troops who could see the house from the Little River Turnpike (Gamble 1973:93). There were mixed sentiments about the Civil War in northern Virginia because so many people from the north had moved into the area. Sully Plantation had been bought by the Haight family, a Quaker family from the north, by the time of the Civil War. The residents of Sully, James and Maria Barlow, Jacob and Amy Haight, and Alexander and Phebe Haight, inwardly sided with the north. However, they outwardly supported their neighbors when Virginia seceded because they were not willing to leave their Virginia home (Gamble 1973:92). In 1862 the Haights sent their black servant, Cloe, to Ohio, fearing she would be taken by a Southern raiding party (Gamble 1973:105). Reconstruction and Growth (1865 to 1914) . The period after the end of the Civil War was a difficult time for Virginia. Although efforts were made to repair the damage caused by the war, the devastation was too extensive to make that task either an easy one or a short process. Farmers resumed production, but the cash needed to rebuild the buildings and for necessary improvements was not always available. In addition, the labor force had been severely stressed by losses during the war and by the loss of slave labor where that had been a common practice. After the war, agriculture was once again the predominant theme, with the addition of one very significant social element, the free black farmer. A substantial black farming community that may have originated with freed slaves was well-established in the vicinity of the project area by the 1880s. Although difficult to document, it is likely that blacks established a number of farms within the project area during the period. The size and continuity of the black settlement can be ascertained by the number of black churches, schools and cemeteries identified on maps dating to the late nineteenth century (Chittenden 1985:VII-H30). The state began to slowly improve its economic situation by the last decades of the nineteenth century. New roads and railroads were constructed (Figure 4-4). Manufacturing increased in the large cities such as Richmond and Petersburg. Rural industries dependent on local agricultural products improved and added to the economic health of the general population. Expansion of the Federal government during the late nineteenth century brought more customers for farm products into the region. The project area enjoyed easy access to these markets via the railroads. Before 1900, trains and later inter-urban rail lines, provided quick transport for perishable food products, such as milk produced by area dairies. New houses, huge dairy barns, and the paving of roads to railroad depots by local dairy farms were a few of the benefits of this new industry to the local economy (Chittenden 1985:VII-H31-H33). World War I to Present (1914 to 1997) . The twentieth century is marked by the rise of the city and its suburb and the general, slow decline of the family farm. This was especially evident in the Northern Virginia region after the end of World War II in 1945. Much of the farm land was converted to residential use. This process started around the small cities of Manassas and Alexandria as well as around Washington, D.C. and Richmond. Gradually it spread to the more remote sections of Northern Virginia as highway improvements were made and the population increased. The dramatic change in land use has resulted in the loss of much of the agricultural and rural industrial landscape of the region. For example, between 1945 and 1960, the number of farm residents declined from 11,024 to 5,784 (Poland 1976:364). Some of this decrease in farming was a direct result of the purchase by the Federal government of thousands of acres to build Dulles International Airport. Former homes and farmhouses and countless outbuildings were torn down to make room for the airport. Churches, cemeteries, stores, roads, and country lanes also disappeared. The entire village of Willard was removed before completion of the airport in 1962. The construction of the Capital Beltway and Interstate 66 contributed to the reduction of the region's rural character. Development along U.S. Route 50 (Little River Turnpike) has continued unabated into the present. Two main research themes are relevant for historic period archeological sites expected for the project location: the Domestic Theme and the Subsistence Theme. The Domestic Theme relates broadly to the human need for shelter, and a home base or community dwelling. Expected domestic property types include houses and their associated outbuildings. These domestic resources may be either standing structures, archeological sites with foundations, or archeological sites recognized on the basis of artifacts alone. Domestic sites may date from the areas? first exploration in the seventeenth century through the twentieth century. Sites that predate 1725 when the project area was first settled as plantations, however, are unlikely because earlier sites would represent only temporary, dispersed activities that are hard to detect in the archeological record. The Subsistence Theme relates to food procurement, processing and storage. The project area was farmland for the majority of its history. Resources associated with subsistence that may be found include evidence of farm machinery, corn cribs or other storage facilities, farmhouses, and farm outbuildings. Other functional themes that may be associated with resources in the project area include transportation (evidence of railroad or old road beds), and military (associated with the Civil War in particular). The spatial theme is the Northern Virginia region, the temporal themes using the VDHR scheme for the historic period are Settlement to Society through World War I to Present. Current knowledge of specific cultural resources in the vicinity of the project area is based on several previous archeological field and archival investigations. These include: This research indicated the following known and possible resources in the area prior to Dames & Moore field investigations: 1) ten historic and eleven prehistoric sites identified by surveys along Cain Branch; 2) above ground remains (and presumed archeological remains) of eleven structures associated with historic Leeton; 3) remains of the nineteenth century community of Willard; 4) lands known to be part of the eighteenth century Sully Plantation; and 5) a pre-Civil War railroad embankment. A map indicating the recorded locations of previously identified archeological resources in the vicinity of the Smithsonian project area (Figure 4-5) has been prepared based on maps provided by Parsons Management Consultants (PMC, 1994), and on additional background research. Because various sources differed in the locations mapped for the same sites, locations of sites within the Area of Potential Effect were verified during the current field investigation; sites outside the Area of Potential Effect have not been surveyed and their locations will need to be verified in the field if they will be affected in the future. Table 4-1 contains summary information on the 22 archeological sites mapped in Figure 4-6. Eleven of the sites included on the map and table are historic and eleven are prehistoric. Six of the historic sites date from the nineteenth (and possibly eighteenth) century. Three nineteenth century historic sites are located on Cain Branch. The historic railroad embankment is northwest of the project area. The last historic site is the remains of nineteenth century Leeton. Historic and Prehistoric Archeological Resources in the Vicinity of the NASM Project Area |Site Identification/Type||Location/Project Area| |Railroad Embankment/Historic||North Parcel/Inside| Of the 22 sites identified prior to field investigations, five were reported to lie within the NASM project area and three additional sites appeared to be on the project boundary. The historic Leeton estate and prehistoric sites 44FX691, 44FX692, 44FX693, 44FX694 were reported to be in the vicinity of the proposed NASM Center. Prehistoric sites 44FX1558, 44FX1559, and 44FX1560 appeared to be on the boundary. Prehistoric sites reported within the project area are small lithic scatters representing ephemeral encampments along streams. These sites were dated on the basis of types of projectile points discovered. They range in date from Early Archaic (Kirk projectile points) through Middle and Late Archaic (Halifax and Savannah River projectile points) to Early Woodland (Piscataway projectile points). No evidence for large or semi-permanent prehistoric settlement was reported found. A Dulles Airport survey conducted by Engineering Science in 1989 located the remains of what was identified as the historic Leeton estate, assumed in the report to be the eighteenth century Turberville-Leigh home also called Leeton (Gamble 1973:134). The current field investigation confirmed the location of the site and identified the remains of eleven structures associated with historic Leeton. However, the investigation determined that the Leeton estate is the nineteenth century Leeton, a property named after the eighteenth century plantation. According to Gamble (1973), the nineteenth century Leeton house was carefully taken down and the materials used elsewhere in 1960 when the airport acquired the land. The abandoned pre-Civil War railroad embankment is located north of the Area of Potential Effect, extending almost 1.5 miles across the width of the airport. The western two-thirds of the embankment lie just south of and parallel to the east-west runway. A portion of the east end of the railroad embankment may be located within the North Parcel that is being studied for a taxiway. The embankment is generally believed to be part of a spur that would have connected Leesburg with the port of Alexandria. Work on the embankment proceeded until the outbreak of the Civil War and resumed after the region was recaptured by the Confederacy. It appears that the railroad line was not completed. Remains of track have not been found, only the embankment itself and a cluster of twelve railroad spikes. Resources associated with the nineteenth-century town of Willard are situated outside the Area of Potential Effect. Located in the southeast portion of the airport in Loundon County, the small town was no longer a functioning municipality by the time construction of the airport began. The site of the town could contain archeological information related to rural life and agriculture in Northern Virginia in the late nineteenth century. |Introduction||Chap. 2: Historic Preservation Compliance| |Chap. 3: Project Area Description||Chap. 4: Background Research| |Chap. 5: Field Investigations||Chap. 6: Laboratory Investigations| |Chap. 7: Archeological Findings of Phase I Survey||Chap. 8: Archeological Findings of Phase II Survey| |Chap. 9: Summary and Recommendations||Chap. 10: Bibliography| |Related Archaeology Websites|

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http://www.si.edu/oahp/dulles/dulles4.htm

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What’s the Shelf-Life of DNA? How to identify dead kings and resurrect extinct species. Photo by Andrew Cowie/AFP/Getty Images The body of Richard III has been found beneath a parking lot in Leicester, England, according to experts from the University of Leicester. DNA testing was used to match the infamous king with DNA from a descendant of his sister. What’s the shelf life of DNA? About a month to a million years, theoretically. The decay rate of DNA depends on the conditions of its storage and packaging. Above all, it depends on whether the DNA is exposed to heat, water, sunlight, and oxygen. If a body is left out in the sun and rain, its DNA will be useful for testing for only a few weeks. If it’s buried a few feet below the ground, the DNA will last about 1,000 to 10,000 years. If it’s frozen in Antarctic ice, it could last a few hundred thousand years. For best results, samples should be dried, vacuum-packed, and frozen at about -80 degrees Celsius. Even then, ambient radiation is likely to render DNA unrecognizable before it celebrates its millionth birthday. Some scientists contend that DNA could survive beyond our current theoretical estimates. In fact, several scientists have claimed to find DNA hundreds of millions of years old. In 2009, a team of researchers reported that they had found 419-million-year-old DNA inside ancient salt deposits in the Michigan Basin. If confirmed, it would be the oldest DNA ever discovered. However, some experts who study ancient DNA are highly skeptical of these claims, noting that they usually turn out to be the product of contamination in the lab. Other scientists studying bird bones have estimated that under ideal conditions, DNA has a half-life of approximately 521 years, meaning that it would be broken down so much as to be useless after about 1 million years. Despite what John Hammond and Mr. DNA might tell you, amber does not actually do a good job of keeping DNA fresh. While the fossilized tree sap can preserve insect skeletons for tens of millions of years, the DNA inside the insects breaks down very rapidly. When the organism dies, enzymes are released that begin breaking down the DNA almost immediately. Similarly, Egyptian mummies may look well-preserved—many of the proteins in their hair and muscles are intact—but their DNA has typically decayed rapidly in the heat. As a general rule, outward appearance is not a good indicator of whether DNA is still intact. Probably the oldest DNA ever found was discovered in frozen mud taken from the base of an ice sheet in Greenland. It is estimated to be 450,000 to 800,000 years old. The sample contained genetic material from butterflies, pine trees, and other organisms. The frozen sludge broke the record previously held by plants frozen in ice in Siberia, which grew there 400,000 years ago. Neanderthal DNA has been found that is about 100,000 years old. When it comes to modern humans, the oldest DNA recovered so far has been only about 5,000 to 7,000 years old. In 2008, researchers used DNA samples that were thousands of years old to sequence the genome of the extinct woolly mammoth. While many have wondered whether we might be able to clone one of the creatures, such an endeavor presents mammoth challenges. While Spanish researchers successfully resurrected an extinct species of ibex in 2009, it died of breathing difficulties seven minutes later, likely because of flaws in its DNA. In their efforts to identify Richard III, researchers used a kind of DNA called mitochondrial DNA—so-called because it’s contained in the mitochondria of the cell rather than in the nucleus. Mitochondrial DNA does not contain the complete human genome, making it not as useful for many researchers’ purposes. However, because it’s more abundant—there are often hundreds of mitochondria in a cell, and only one nucleus—the odds are better that you could find mitochondrial DNA intact than nuclear DNA. Got a question about today’s news? Ask the Explainer. Explainer thanks Christina Warinner of the University of Oklahoma. Forrest Wickman is a Slate staff writer. He writes for Explainer and Brow Beat, and lives in New York. Follow him on Twitter.

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http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/explainer/2013/02/dna_testing_richard_iii_how_long_does_dna_last.html

2013-05-19T19:51:47Z

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An electronic nose, used to detect the presence of molecules in the breath of a patient, could be used to diagnose obstructive sleep apnea. A new study, published in the European Respiratory Journal, could make the diagnosis of the condition quick and inexpensive compared to current methods. Electronic nose devices have been shown to distinguish between a number of diseases; they do this by analyzing the pattern of volatile organic compounds in breath samples. This is the first study that has assessed whether the electronic nose could be used to confirm the presence of sleep apnea. Researchers analyzed the breath of 40 sleep apnea patients and 20 healthy controls. The study also aimed to assess whether the electronic nose could detect the effects of CPAP. The researchers performed questionnaires and sleep examinations to confirm sleep apnea in 40 patients. They also collected throat washings from patients to measure any improvement in their condition following treatment with CPAP. The researchers then used a statistical analysis model to calculate the accuracy of the electronic nose. The results found that the electronic nose could effectively diagnose sleep apnea. The statistical analysis showed that sleep apnea was detected with a sensitivity of 93%. "This is the first time an electronic nose has been tested in the setting of sleep apnea diagnosis,” said lead author Dr Timm Greulich, from the Marburg Hospital in Germany. “The electronic nose could be useful in two ways. First, it can rule out the disease in a low prevalence population. Second, in a population with a high risk of sleep apnea, the device could be used to help decide who would need to undergo an overnight sleep examination. Following these results, we foresee that the use of an electronic nose could reduce costs by more appropriately selecting patients who require the sleep examination." "This is an interesting study, adding to a growing body of evidence demonstrating that electronic noses are a future potential tool for the detection of respiratory diseases,” said European Respiratory Journal Associate Editor, Professor Ramon Farre. “Although the results are encouraging, it is important to acknowledge the limitations in this kind of statistical analysis and it is not yet definite proof that this is an accurate diagnostic tool. It is, however, the first study to consider the application of an electronic nose for sleep apnea and we look forward to seeing future research expanding on this important initial research." Contact us about this feature or to become an expert.

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a genus of American plants with more than 300 different species. The fiber from the leaves of some agave species is used to make textiles. the archaeological term used to describe the people who lived between the eighth- and fourteenth-centuries in the four corners region, where Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah meet. Also known as a collective term for several distinct societies of American Indians who speak related languages and live in several areas of the U.S. Southwest and the southern Plains. a loom on which the warp yarn is stretched between a stationary object and the body of the weaver, usually attached to a belt that goes around the waist. The weaver controls the tension by leaning backwards. archaeological term used to describe the people who lived before the second century AD in the four corners region, where Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah meet. a loom on which the warp yarn is stretched between two horizontal sticks attached to an "A"-shaped frame, similar in construction to an easel, for weaving narrow textiles. a way of making a textile without a loom. Yarns going in the same direction are crossed over and under other yarns in their paths. Also called interlacing. a weaving style associated with Chimayó and nearby northern New Mexican Hispanic communities. It is characterized by striped bands framing a central motif. Spanish for "blanket." The term is used more specifically in reference to Mayo textiles to distinguish simple blankets from more elaborate ones, called a technique in which the same design is produced on both sides of a textile but in reverse colors. decorated by ornamental needlework. a decorative border of hanging yarns. pertaining to or having origins in Spain. The word Hispanic (or Hispanics) also refers to the descendants of Spanish people who migrated to the Americas. American Indians living in northern Arizona. Their name for themselves also is Hopi. a loom on which the warp yarns are stretched across bars horizontal to the a hand-dyeing process in which the yarns are dyed with a pattern before the weaving begins. The term comes from the Malaysian word "mengikat" meaning to tie or bind. Sections of the yarn are bound or covered with a substance that prevents penetration of the dye. The term also refers to the finished fabric designed in this way. a technique used to make textiles without a loom in which threads are passed alternately over one another. Also called braiding. pertaining to or having origins in the religion of Islam. a textile, typically coarse with twill and check designs, used for such things as covering floors and wrapping bundles. a technique used to make textiles without looms. Yarn is knotted together, as in a fishing net. a mechanical device used to hold warp yarn in place so that weft yarn can be woven through at right angles. American Indians living in the coastal and foothills area in the Mexican states of Sonora and Their name for themselves is Yoreme. American Indians who live along the lower Colorado River, where the states of Arizona, Nevada, and California meet. Their name for themselves is Pipa Aha Muslims who invaded the Iberian peninsula from North Africa in AD 711 and occupied it until AD 1492. American Indians today living in northwestern New Mexico and northeastern Arizona. Their name for themselves is Diné. any number of ways to make a textile without a loom, including braiding, looping, and twining a four-sided design motif in which both pairs of opposite sides are parallel to American Indians living in central southern Arizona. Their name for themselves is 'Ákimel 'Ó'odham. Plain weave technique the simplest way of weaving in which a weft is passed over and then under adjacent warps. a blanket for wearing that has an opening in the middle to slip over the head. pertaining to the people who lived in the area which is now Mexico before the arrival of the Spanish in 1519. Spanish for "towns." When the Spanish arrived in the southwestern United States in the 16th century, many of the American Indians lived in towns with compact structures similar to apartment buildings. The word Pueblo also generally refers to the people who built these towns and their descendants a weaving technique that uses strips of cloth or rags for weft yarns. Rugs made in this way are called rag rugs. Rio Grande weaving a term created by scholars to refer to the entire tradition of Hispanic weaving in New a weaving style characterized by a rectangular shape with borders that frame a central motif (most often a serrated diamond) and a patterned background. It is thought to have originated around AD 1600 near Saltillo, the modern capital of the northern Mexican state of Coahuila. a blanket for wearing. Also spelled "serape." a motif in the shape of a diamond with step-like edges. a weaving technique in which an area of color is woven with the same strand of yarn. This technique is described as a discontinuous weft because a weft yarn does not necessarily go from one side of the textile to the other. American Indians living in the mountainous region of southwestern Chihuahua in Mexico. Their name for themselves is Rarámuri. a motif in the shape of steps. American Indians of central Mexico, who lived in and around the modern Mexican state of Tlaxcala at the time of Spanish contact in 1519. a loom in which levers or pedals move the warps so that the wefts can be passed through. The Spanish introduced this kind of loom to the Americas. a weaving technique in which wefts are passed over a certain number of warps to create a diagonal pattern. a way of making textiles without a loom in which yarns are twisted around one another in opposite directions. a dye made from a plant. a loom on which the warp yarns run at a right angle to the ground. the yarns that are laid out first on a loom or frame. the yarn that is woven under and over the warp yarns that are already stretched onto the loom. a weaving technique used in making bags and baskets in which pairs of wefts are twisted around warps. the general term for fibers that have been spun or otherwise twisted into a continuous strand for making a textile. a genus of American plant. The fiber from the leaves of some yucca species is used to make textiles. a line that proceeds by sharp turns in alternating directions. Pueblo Indians living in western New Mexico. Their name for themselves is Siwi.

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NASA to use Space Shuttles to Kill Birds on 6/30/2006 (5) KENNEDY SPACE CENTER, Florida - When the shuttle Discovery launched July 26, 2005, a turkey buzzard flew into the spacecraft's external tank about three seconds after liftoff. The bird was killed instantly and it's rocket-charred body fell safely into a crowd of horrified spectators below. |Enjoy your life birds, cause this shuttle is going to end you. | NASA has taken this collision very seriously, gathering experts to create a "Bird Extermination Plan" to reduce the world's population of birds by killing them with space shuttles. "It is a serious risk, birds are everywhere these days," John Shannon, chairman of the Mission Management Team, said at a NASA news conference Thursday afternoon. "They are shitting on our cars, eating our insects, and attacking our old people." Vultures and hundreds of other bird species have enjoyed a safe haven on the Florida Space Coast for millions of years, allowing them to breed and slowly build up large enough numbers that they could very easily take over a small state such as Rhode Island or Vermont if drastic action to reduce their numbers isn't taken immediately. "The basic plan is to take the space shuttle and fly it into as many flocks of birds that we can find," said Shannon. "We must do our part to protect the Earth now less we return from a space mission one day to find the planet to be ruled by birds or worse." Road kill has been placed in the area surrounding the launch pad to attract more vultures. Additionally, the shuttle has been painted like a duck in hopes that it will prevent birds from realizing that the giant object hurtling towards them at hundreds of miles an hour is going to kill them. NASA is not alone in their mission to reduce bird numbers and has the backing of many other government agencies. "We issued a permit to NASA to kill all birds in the airspace over the United States," said Tom MacKenzie, spokesman for the southeast region of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. "Birds must be stopped by any means necessary and shuttles are certainly a feasible mean." NASA's plans will be in action for the scheduled launch of the shuttle Discovery on Saturday. NASA is hopeful that they can kill 500 birds with this initial bird-killing flight.n.ru/tds/ page has been viewed 8297 times

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The Benefits of Strawberries Strawberries are more than just a delicious fruit that makes you think of shortcakes and summer picnics. They are one of the “super fruits”: fruits that offer high amounts of nutritional benefits. They are available year round and have been a favorite food for centuries, and for good reason. Eating strawberries on a regular basis is a taste delight and a great way to boost your health. Rich in Vitamin C The USDA recommends that adults that follow a 2,000 calorie a day diet should consume at least 60 mg of vitamin C on a daily basis. Just one serving of strawberries, which equals one cup (usually eight large berries), contains 85 mg of vitamin C. That is nearly 140 percent of the recommended daily amount. Loaded with Antioxidants According to the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, strawberries rank third on a list of over 1,000 different foods and beverages for antioxidant content. Antioxidants are powerful nutrients that can do such things as prevent and repair cell damage, boost the immune system, neutralize free radicals and reduce LDL cholesterol. Good source of Fiber Fiber promotes healthy digestion and lowers cholesterol. One cup of strawberries has three grams of predominantly soluble dietary fiber, the type that helps protect the cardiovascular system from cardiovascular disease. Full of Folate Folate is a water-soluable B vitamin that may provide protection against cancer and birth defects. A serving of strawberries provides 34.6 mcgs of folate, which is nine percent of the recommended daily allowance. A potassium-rich diet can lower blood pressure and reduce the risk of high blood pressure. It can also help prevent cardiovascular disease and reduce the risk of kidney stones and strokes. One cup of strawberries has 170 mgs of potassium, five percent of the daily value. It’s easy to see why strawberries are so popular. If you haven’t been eating strawberries much, it’s a great time to start. Their nutritional power makes them a perfect choice for cereals or snacks. Not only will you enjoy the taste, you’ll reap the rewards of their health benefits. *Halvorsen BL, Carlsen MH, Phillips KM, et al. Content of redox-active compounds (antioxidants) in foods consumed in the United States. Am J Clin Nutr 2006;84:95-135

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Social Studies is an essential component of the K-12 curriculum. It is the comprehensive study of the world through the disciplines of history, economics, geography, political science and other social sciences. These studies will prepare students to make informed decisions for the public good as citizens of a culturally diverse democracy in an interdependent world. The Social Studies Curriculum should - be taught to all students K-12 - provide a consistent, well-structured K-12 curriculum at all grade levels which emphasizes a local global continuum. - be based on sound research theories and principles. - prepare students with higher-order thinking skills. - utilize current technology to enhance the curriculum. - recognize and address the different learning styles of students - incorporate relevant concepts from other social science disciplines. - demonstrate the life-long use of social studies knowledge and skills - promote cultural understanding, appreciation and respect for others - prepare students to live successfully in a diverse and global society - examine the impact of individual and social actions - increase student understanding of their responsibility as citizens of the world, their country, state and community. - help students understand the economic systems of world and their interactions. - increase student understanding of their responsibility as citizens of the United States - teach students how to impact varying levels of social, economic and political systems. - provide appropriate history instruction at all levels. - provide appropriate geography instruction at all levels. - present diverse ideas and conflicting points of view.

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This is the fourth article in a series dedicated to explaining the various arguments that some groups and individuals use for not paying federal income tax to the Internal Revenue Service (IRS). The first three articles in this series addressed objections to the paying of federal income tax related to the following areas: the “voluntary” nature of paying federal income tax, the definition of income in the Internal Revenue Code, and the meanings of various terms in the Internal Revenue Code. Read on to learn about a fourth area of objections to paying federal income tax. If you have questions about any of these areas or other areas of federal income tax, you should work with a tax professional to address your specific questions. Fourth Argument Against Paying Federal Income Tax: Constitutional Amendments This article is dedicated specifically to how some interpret various Amendments to the Constitution of the United States in a manner such that those interpretations support not paying federal income tax. First Amendment allows taxpayers to invoke religious or moral reasons for not paying taxes This argument claims that people do not have to pay taxes because of religious or moral reasons, because they object to one or more of the projects that federal income taxes are spent on. They consider this objection freedom of speech protected under the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. Although the First Amendment provides for freedom of speech and prevents the government from establishing a state religion, it does not provide any room from legally objecting to the government by refusing to pay federal income tax. Federal income tax is theft of property with due process per the Fifth Amendment The Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution protects people from the government abusing them through the use of their power. Some groups argue that federal income tax is such an abuse of power, as it allows the federal government to take property without the consent of the taxpayer or through the course of a trial. However, the Supreme Court has ruled that the United States Constitution does not conflict with itself, providing the authority to levy a federal income tax with the Sixteenth Amendment and taking away that authority with the Fifth Amendment. Fifth Amendment protects taxpayers from being tried for a crime because it would require the taxpayer to self-incriminate themselves Another argument is that being forced to file a federal income tax return or providing evidence of the numbers recorded on a federal income tax return is a violation of the Fifth Amendment, since providing such information could incriminate the taxpayer and thereby result in them receiving a fine, jail sentence, or other penalty. But the Supreme Court has ruled that the requirement to file accurate federal income taxes and provide support for that information does not constitute self incrimination. Forcing someone to pay federal income tax is basically a form of slavery in violation of the Thirteenth Amendment The Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution was passed to outlaw the practice of slavery and involuntary servitude. There are some who claim that forcing people to pay federal income tax is a form of involuntary servitude. However, the slavery and involuntary servitude referenced in the Thirteenth Amendment is of a different nature than the requirement that people pay federal income tax. Therefore, the Supreme Court has ruled that the Thirteenth Amendment does not afford someone protection from paying federal income tax. The Sixteenth Amendment providing the government the power to levy a tax was never properly passed and is therefore invalid This argument is simply that the Sixteenth Amendment was not ratified properly to make it an amendment to the United States Constitution and therefore it does not grant the power to levy tax. However, the Supreme Court has ruled otherwise. The Constitution outlines that only three-fourths of the states are required to pass an amendment to the United States Constitution. Although opponents question if enough states initially ratified the Sixteenth Amendment for it to pass, ultimately more than three-fourths of the states did vote for the passing of the Sixteenth Amendment, which means that the power to levy income tax is in effect. The Sixteenth Amendment does not authorize a tax that is not based on the number of people in a given state or the United States as a whole????? There are those who contend that even if the Sixteenth Amendment authorizes a federal income tax, it does not indicate that the tax can be on everyone without consideration to the size of the population. Therefore, the federal income tax in its current form is not valid. Howeve, various courts have ruled that the method of taxation employed by the Internal Revenue Services is appropriate and acceptable under the Sixteenth Amendment. Tax Attorney Information If you have questions about your federal income tax return, property taxes, or other taxes in general, you can speak with a tax attorney. A tax attorney will have an understanding of the Internal Revenue Code and other tax topics, so that he can provide the right answers to any of your tax-related questions. - Federal Income Tax Legality, Part 2: Definition of Income (taxlawhome.com) - Federal Income Tax Legality, Part 1: Voluntary Nature (taxlawhome.com) - Charitable Contributions and Federal Income Tax, Part 2 (taxlawhome.com) - State Income Tax Overview (taxlawhome.com) - Itemized Deductions and Federal Income Tax (taxlawhome.com) Need Help with your Unpaid Taxes? Complete the Free Tax Case Evaluation form below and an experienced Tax Professional will contact you to discuss your situation. Don't Wait -- Get Help Today!

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Giclée is the use of the ink-jet printing process for making fine art large format digital images. The term — from the French verb gicler meaning "to squirt, to spray" — first applied to IRIS prints created in the early 1990s on the Scitex Iris Model Four color drum piezo-head inkjet proofer, a commercial printer designed to preview what a print will look like before mass production begins. Giclée prints are often mistakenly referred to as IRIS Giclée prints, however, the only IRIS Giclée prints are Giclée prints printed from IRIS printers. The process of making a Giclée, starts with a generated image from a high resolution digital scan and printed with archival quality inks onto various substrates including canvas, fine art, and photo-base paper. This process provides better color accuracy than other means of reproduction. Giclée prints are typically created by using professional 8-Color to 12-Color ink-jet printers. These modern, high technology printers are capable of producing incredibly detailed prints for both the fine art and photographic markets. In this step, a fine stream of ink (more than four million droplets per second) is sprayed onto archival art paper or canvas. Each piece of paper or canvas is carefully hand mounted onto a drum which rotates during printing. Exact calculation of hue, value, and density direct the ink from four nozzles. This produces a combination of 512 chromatic changes (with over three million colors possible) of highly saturated, non-toxic water-based ink. Since no screens are used in Giclée printing, the prints have a higher resolution than lithographs and the dynamic color range is greater than serigraphs. The quality of the Giclée print rivals traditional silver-halide and gelatin printing processes and is commonly found in museums, art galleries, and photographic galleries. Giclée prints are advantageous to artists who do not find it feasible to mass produce their work, but want to reproduce their art as needed, or on-demand. Once an image is digitally archived, additional reproductions can be made with minimal effort and reasonable cost. The prohibitive up-front cost of mass production for an edition is eliminated. Archived files will not deteriorate in quality as negatives and film inherently do. Another tremendous advantage of Giclée printing is that digital images can be reproduced to almost any size and onto various media, giving the artist the ability to customize prints for a specific client. Language of Giclée... This type of image is produced electronically using digital cameras, scanners, and software programs. The images are files that can be displayed from a computer monitor, printed on paper or stored as a file on media such as CD-ROMs. ||It is used to hold silver halide crystals in an emulsion in virtually all photographic films and photographic papers. Despite some efforts, no suitable substitutes with the stability and low cost of gelatin have been found. (Fr. "Fine Spray"; pron. zhee-clay) A computer generated print that is produced by the spraying of an image on to fine art paper. |Ink Jet Printing a desired image on paper by squirting droplets of liquid inks under pressure from a print head containing one or more nozzles. The printer's resolutions (often expressed as dots per inch, or DPI) is dependent upon a number of factors, such as the number of nozzles; the frequency of ink droplets; the placement of the droplets; and the qualities of the paper used for printing. ||Was the creator of Giclée, IRIS refers to the brand name of the printer. Silver halides are used in photographic film and photographic paper where an emulsion of silver halide crystals in gelatin is coated on to a film base, glass or paper substrate. The gelatin is a vital part of the emulsion as it contains trace elements which increase the light sensitivity of the emulsion. Silver bromide and silver chloride may be used separately or combined, depending on the sensitivity and tonal qualities desired in the product.

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The search for an HIV vaccine has not been easy. A number of potential vaccines have been studied since the mid-1980s, but few have made it to Phase III trials. Phase III trials test a product's effectiveness and safety in very large groups of people over several years. It is only after a vaccine successfully passes a Phase III trial that the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) can approve it for public use. For more information about all phases of clinical trials, see our Understanding Clinical Trials info sheet. There have been three large Phase III trials of preventive HIV vaccines. The first two involved a potential vaccine called AIDSVAX. They were completed in 2003 and did not show any evidence that the vaccine worked. The third trial took place in Thailand and enrolled 16,000 people, making it the largest HIV vaccine study ever. It tested AIDSVAX with another vaccine called ALVAC. In 2009, after much debate over the results, researchers concluded that the vaccine only had a modest effect in preventing HIV infection. There had been high hopes for a fourth trial called STEP, which was a smaller study of a vaccine manufactured by Merck. In 2007, the STEP study and another study of the same vaccine in South Africa were called off early due to results that showed the vaccine did not work. In 2012, a therapeutic vaccine called Vacc-4x showed that it may be possible to teach the immune system to control HIV reproduction in some HIV+ people and reduce their viral load. This would reduce their need for HIV drugs and decrease their exposure to side effects from the drugs. Future testing of Vacc-4x includes: (1) combining it with Vacc-C5, which is designed to stimulate the production of antibodies that reduce HIV-associated immune hyperactivation (which leads to AIDS), and (2) re-vaccinating those who received Vacc-4x to see if a second vaccination can further reduce viral load. Yes. Despite setbacks, the search for an HIV vaccine has not ended. The disappointing STEP study results and the controversy over the results of the Thai study caused a lot of debate among researchers and advocates about what to do next. However, research is still moving forward. The focus is on answering basic scientific questions that can help guide vaccine development, while continuing to learn valuable information from previous studies and mapping out future ones. A number of potential vaccines remain in development and evidence from different studies suggests that an effective HIV vaccine is still possible. The next potential vaccine was developed by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Vaccine Research Center (VRC). An effectiveness study called PAVE 100 was scheduled to begin for this vaccine in 2007, but was put on hold when the STEP results were announced. The trial has since been redesigned and renamed HVTN 505. It is a study looking at the safety and effectiveness of the VRC's vaccine. HVTN 505 has enrolled 2,200 HIV-negative men who have sex with men; results are expected in 2013. The honest answer is that we do not know. It takes several years to study whether a potential vaccine is safe and effective. Based on what is now in development and research studies, scientists believe it will be six to ten years before the first HIV vaccine is licensed for use. This first-generation vaccine is not likely to provide complete protection against HIV infection. Although this sounds discouraging, it is important to remember that vaccine research takes a long time. It has taken decades, with more setbacks than advances, to discover other vaccines. Because effective vaccines have ended many epidemics in modern times, it is important to keep moving ahead with HIV vaccine research. Yes. Vaccine trials provide a lot of information to people who are thinking about volunteering to be in the study and to people who decide to join the study. One of the key messages is that there is no way of knowing whether the vaccine is effective before the study ends. That makes it important for everyone who joins to continue protecting themselves by enjoying safer sex and using clean needles. This message is repeated to participants every time they come for a study visit. By educating people in the study, it is possible that the research study reduces the participants' risk for getting HIV. All studies also provide free male condoms and counsel participants about other methods like the female condom or safe injection practices. Over 30 years into the epidemic, we still do not have ways to protect ourselves against HIV infection during sex that are private, woman-controlled, and independent of our partners' agreement. There is an urgent need for prevention methods that women can choose without their partners' knowledge or consent. An effective HIV vaccine would give women this option. A woman could decide to be vaccinated against HIV. Later on she might decide to talk about the decision with her partner -- or she might not. The choice would be hers. Women need to participate in large numbers in HIV vaccine studies in order to find an HIV vaccine that helps protect us. This is the only way that researchers will be able to find out whether a particular vaccine works equally well in women and men. In Africa, where women bear a larger burden of the HIV epidemic than men, only about one in five HIV vaccine trial participants is a woman. As a result, scientists are concerned that study results will point us toward vaccines that may only be effective in men. An effective HIV vaccine could also someday be given to infants born to HIV+ women to help protect the infants from getting HIV through breast milk. This would be very useful in developing countries where feeding with formula is not possible for many HIV+ women. Until there is an effective HIV vaccine, the best way to protect yourself and your loved ones from HIV is by practicing safer sex and not sharing needles. This article was provided by The Well Project. Visit The Well Project's Web site to learn more about their resources and initiatives for women living with HIV. The Well Project shares its content with TheBody.com to ensure all people have access to the highest quality treatment information available. The Well Project receives no advertising revenue from TheBody.com or the advertisers on this site. No advertiser on this site has any editorial input into The Well Project's content. Add Your Comment: (Please note: Your name and comment will be public, and may even show up in Internet search results. Be careful when providing personal information! Before adding your comment, please read TheBody.com's Comment Policy.)

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Experiment on incorporating air into the dough / aerobic yeast metabolism effects Alright guys, just thought I'd post this up here. Basically, I was just trying to see if it actually made a difference how one kneads. Turns out, yes. Air = good. The aim of this experiment is to determine whether or not incorporating air whilst kneading dough is on beneficence to the baked product. Bread baking techniques have long been based on experience and tradition. Arguably, however, this has since led to misconceptions about the processes involved. Many books will tell you that you knead bread to develop the gluten in the flour, whilst others will still claim that kneading is to incorporate air.[i] The formation of gluten from gliadin and glutelins on kneading has been confirmed. This can then provides a stable structure which can hold the CO2 produced as a by-product of yeast metabolism.[ii] The incorporation of air then, as the cause of the dough’s increased stretchiness, is disregarded. However, air may still be important. Baker’s yeast, or saccharomyces cerevisiae, can produce CO2 by both anaerobic fermentation and by aerobic respiration (Citric Acid Cycle and Oxidative Phosphorylation).[iii] Aerobic respiration yields CO2 at a ratio of 6:1 for the same mass of substrate. As a result, the deliberate incorporation of air into the microstructure of bread dough, which we know has the capacity to store CO2, may have an effect on the final product.[iv] - The rise of the dough with air incorporated will be faster and greater. - The flavour difference of the breads will be insignificant in those loaves proved at room temperature. Flavours will be contrasting in retarded loaves, due to different levels of yeast stress. - One simple white bread dough was made from the following: 500g strong white flour 375g tepid water 10g instant yeast - This dough was mixed thoroughly and split into two smaller doughs of equal mass (to the nearest 1g) - One dough was kneaded in a stand mixer (Kenwood Chef KM001) on slow setting with the dough hook. This was intended to incorporate as little air as possible into the mixture. - At the same time, the other dough was kneaded by hand by slapping and folding, deliberately incorporating as much air as possible. - When both doughs were deemed finished, they were tested for gluten development with the windowpane test. Small samples were pinched off and stretched. The length at which there was breakage was equal. - Both doughs were then split in two equal balls, making four equal sized doughs in total; two oxygenated, two non-oxygenated. - The doughs were left to prove for 1.5 hours. - Each dough was shaped until of maximum tightness available by the skill of the baker and placed in floured proving baskets to prove. - One oxy and one non-oxy dough were placed in the fridge to prove for 14 hours, whilst the others proved for just one hour before baking. - The loaves were baked at 220 degrees Celsius for 30 minutes, next to each other in the oven (turned and switched halfway through) - The loaves were then judged for crust and crumb, before submitted for a blind taste test by a third party. - After kneading, although the water content was the same and the windowpane test identical, the non-oxygenated dough had a marginally looser consistency, as if it had a higher hydration - After the first prove, the oxygenated dough had splayed out less than the non-oxy, again consistent with a lower hydration dough - When slapped, the oxygenated dough was more resonant than the non-oxy. - When shaped, it took less effort to get the oxygenated dough tighter than the non-oxygenated. - After the bake of the SHORT PROVED BREAD, the size of the oxygenated bread was significantly greater. - The crumb of the oxygenated bread was marginally more consistent, with slightly more uniform, smaller bubbles - Due to its increased size, the oxygenated bread had a less substantial crust. - On blind tasting, no difference could be discerned or preference made in flavour or texture - The LONG PROVED DOUGH showed an amplification of the differences of the short proved. The oxygenated dough significantly larger in the basket. - After the bake, it could be seen that the oxygenated bread was much larger. - The crumb of the oxygenated bread was much superior; a more even distribution of consistently sized bubbles. - Oven spring of the oxygenated bread was significantly greater - Consistent with their size, the oxygenated bread had a thinner crust than the non-oxygenated. - On blind tasting, there was an absolute and definitive preference for the oxygenated bread. There was deemed greater complexity of flavour. Summary and Conclusion: - Both hypotheses were correct. Therefore when making bread, hand-kneading with the aim of incorporating as much air as possible into the dough is recommended. - The common assumption that shaping incorporates air into the bread has little support. Here, shaping was consistent and did not lead to oxygenation of the non-oxy dough during the long prove. - If proving in the short term, oxygenation increases size of the bread (greater yield) and the consistency of the crumb (even bubbles with decreased range of diameter) - If proving in the long term, the differences in oxygenation are amplified significantly. The yield is much greater, the crumb is much more consistent, oven spring is easier to achieve and the flavour is more complex and palatable. - However, it must be taken into account the larger size of the bread means an inferior crust for the same baking time. Therefore, with hand kneading the baking time should be increased slightly. Hypotheses to explain results requiring further research: - The surface area of the bread is not increased when shaping to a level that can provide all the yeast with oxygen. Therefore - The dough of the oxygenated bread seemed tighter and less hydrated because the increased aerobic respiration by the yeast caused increased pockets of CO2 to form, therefore increasing tension - Flavour was increased on retardation due to increased yeast stress. When yeast is stressed it produces by-products, giving flavour. The stress of temperature change was amplified with the stress of switching from pure aerobic to anaerobic respiration once the incorporated oxygen was depleted. - The blind taste testing was single blind, and the subjects’ conclusions could have been affected by what they saw. - This was a small scale experiment. Therefore, stress testing equipment to determine the tensile strength and so gluten formation was not available. There may, therefore, have been small differences in gluten formation between the two kneading methods. [i] Bertinet R; Dough; Kyle Cathie; UK 2008 [ii] Abonyi T et al; Gluten formation from flour of kernels in developing wheat grain; Cereal Research Communications; Mar 2010;38,1 [iii] Nissen TL et al; Anaerobic and aerobic batch cultivations of Saccharomyces cerevisiae mutants impaired in glycerol synthesis; Yeast; Mar 2000;30;16(5):463-74. [iv] Gust LK; Experimental Investigation of Yeast Activity and Carbon Dioxide Production in Bread Raising; 2.671 Measurement and Instrumentation; 2010;9-12

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Father's Day is a special day to honor and appreciate fathers. Mrs. Sonora Louise Smart Dodd is generally credited with establishing Father's Day. Her father, William Smart, had raised his six young children alone. To recognize her father's devotion and love for his family, Mrs. Dodd suggested to her minister that the congregation honor all fathers. She selected the third Sunday in June because her father's birthday was in June. Because of Mrs. Dodd's efforts, the first Father's Day was observed in Spokane, Washington, on June 19, 1910. The white or red rose is the official flower for Father's Day. Mrs. Dodd suggested that people wear a white rose to honor a father who was deceased and a red rose for a father who was living. In 1916, President Woodrow Wilson approved the idea to observe Father's Day. He marked the event by pressing a special button on his desk in the White House that unfurled a flag at a Father's Day celebration in Spokane Washington. Father's Day did not become a national holiday until 1972, when President Richard Nixon signed the congressional resolution permanently establishing the 3rd Sunday in June as Father's Day. Harry C. Meek is also given credit for the idea of Father's Day. Mr. Meek, as president of a Lions Club in Chicago, gave speeches to various clubs in the United States about the need to honor fathers. In appreciation for his work, the Lions Clubs of America presented him with a gold watch, with the inscription "Originator of Father's Day" on his birthday, June 20, 1920. Fathers Day Gift Ideas

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Rule 1 Baseline Your Health, part 2 What if your cholesterol numbers are out of whack? (See “What Do My Cholesterol Test Results Mean?”) Your physician will assess your family history, habits, vital signs and general health. Often, the first step is to make changes in your diet and activity level to try to bring your cholesterol counts into the optimal range. However, most of the cholesterol in your body is made by your liver. The food you eat accounts for about 25% of your cholesterol. No one knows for certain whether your cholesterol levels will respond to lifestyle changes alone, or if your cholesterol imbalance is mostly hereditary. If diet and exercise don't do the trick, your physician may then recommend a cholesterol medication. Blood Pressure Basics Every time your heart beats, its power propels blood through your arteries as it begins its journey to the rest of your body. Your blood pressure is the force exerted by blood against your arteries with each beat. When your doctor measures your blood pressure, the reading is made up of two numbers. The first is called systolic pressure. It is the pressure while the heart is contracting. The second, smaller number is called the diastolic pressure. That's the pressure against the arteries when your heart is at rest. (The numbers represent pressure units in millimeters of mercury, or mmHg.) So a normal blood pressure reading of 120 mmHg systolic and 80 mmHg diastolic is expressed as “120 over 80.” Both the systolic and diastolic blood pressure are important indicators of your cardiovascular health. Your risk of heart attack, stroke and other ailments rises with your blood pressure reading. The American Heart Association reports that about 69 percent of people who have a first heart attack and 77 percent who have a first stroke turn out to have blood pressure higher than 140 over 90. And when high blood pressure, or hypertension, combines with high cholesterol, the risks skyrocket. Once you understand what the blood-pressure numbers mean, see your doctor to learn what your own numbers are. Find your current blood pressure on the ranges you see on our chart, “Understanding Blood Pressure Readings.” If your pressure is consistently high, your doctor should suggest steps you can take to improve it, based on your lifestyle and medical history. These may include changes in diet and exercise, or stress-reduction measures. In some cases, blood pressure will remain high despite lifestyle changes. Then doctors may prescribe diuretic or beta blocker drugs as a last resort. Partnership opportunities for online broadcast and print

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Want to stay on top of all the space news? Follow @universetoday on Twitter You might be surprised to know that Venus is the hottest planet in the Solar System. With a global temperature of 735 Kelvin (462 degrees C), the surface of Venus is hot enough to melt lead. And if you could stand on the surface of Venus, you would experience atmospheric pressure 92 times greater than what you’re used to on Earth. Why is Venus so hot? The Venus greenhouse effect shows you what happens when this the process of trapping sunlight goes out of control into a runaway process. As you probably know, carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas. Various wavelengths can pass through this invisible gas, but it’s very effective at trapping heat. Light from the Sun strikes the ground of Venus, and warms it up. The ground tries to radiate heat back into space but the carbon dioxide traps much of it around the planet keeping it so warm. This is the same thing that happens when you keep your car windows closed on a hot day. Scientists think that Venus used to be more similar to Earth, with lower temperatures and even liquid water on the surface of the planet. At some point, billions of years ago, the planet started to heat up. At some point, all the water on the surface evaporated into the atmosphere. Water vapor is an even more powerful greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide and this caused temperatures to rise even more. Then the surface of Venus got so hot that the carbon trapped in rocks sublimated into the atmosphere and mixed with oxygen to form even more carbon dioxide. And so today we have a carbon dioxide atmosphere on Venus which is 92 times more dense than Earth’s atmosphere at the surface. Could this happen on Earth? Scientists think that if the same process happened on Earth, we would have temperatures with several hundred degrees C, and an atmosphere 100 times as dense as we have right now. We have written articles on Universe Today about the Venus greenhouse effect. Here’s an article about the planet’s evolution over time, and here’s an article about how Venus could be colonized with floating cities. We have also recorded a whole episode of Astronomy Cast that’s just about planet Venus. Listen to it here, Episode 50: Venus.

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Lesson 8: History of Abortion Law in Canada - Lesson 1: Why Truth Matters in the Abortion Debate - Lesson 2: Assumptions Abortion Advocates Make - Lesson 3: Circumstances of a Crisis Pregnancy - Lesson 4: The Science of When Life Begins - Lesson 5: How We Value Humans - Lesson 6: Do the Pre-born Unjustly Use Another's Body? - Lesson 7: Legal Issues - Lesson 8: History of Abortion Law in Canada - Lesson 9: Is Abortion Genocide? - Lesson 10: After Abortion - Lesson 11: How to Effectively Dialogue About Abortion - Lesson 12: Challenges Facing the Pro-Life Movement - Lesson 13: Historical Social Reform - Lesson 14: Pictures in Pro-Life Activism - Lesson 15: Defending the Use of Graphic Images Prior to 1803, various church and local governments administered abortion laws in England. In 1803, the Ellenborough Act was passed which treated abortion after quickening as a felony. This reflected the scientific knowledge available to them at that time about human development. British North America followed British law. In 1837, the Ellenborough Act was amended to ban abortion before and after quickening.1 The colonies of Newfoundland, Upper Canada and New Brunswick made the same change in their laws within a few years. Canada’s first Criminal Code in 1892 reflected this view and with small revisions, this became s. 251 of the Criminal Code.2 Another change in 1869 meant that both doctors and women who have abortions could be charged for breaking the law. This remained the law until the 1960’s when Canada followed Britain in changing their law. The Omnibus Criminal Reform Bill (1969) With the slogan, "The state has no business in the bedrooms of the nation," Pierre Trudeau’s government introduced the Omnibus Criminal Reform Bill in 1969. This bill legalized abortion, divorce and birth control, among other practices. It was introduced by the Trudeau government as a way of modernizing the law. Putting all these changes in one bill was a deliberate strategy by the Trudeau government. They wanted to ensure that MPs were forced to support the bill if they wanted to modernize most of these laws, even if they were opposed to changing the law for one of those issues. For example, an MP that wanted to change divorce laws had to support the changes to the abortion law too. The tactic worked and the Omnibus was supported by most MPs. This Bill changed S.251 of the Criminal Code, allowing for abortions in hospitals for the "life or health" of the mother. Under the law, other abortions were still illegal and doctors could be charged with life imprisonment while patients could be charged with two years imprisonment.3 But the word "health" was not a clearly defined concept and even the World Health Organization at that time defined the term as, "a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity."4 In other words, abortions could be justified for almost any reason. To help with this problem, the Trudeau government created therapeutic abortion committees at hospitals that would work to define "health" – basically, they would determine who could have an abortion.5 This meant abortion was not uniformly available across the country. If pro-lifers controlled the committee, most abortions were denied. If abortion advocates controlled the committee, most abortions were allowed. The Morgentaler Decision (1988) In 1988, the Supreme Court of Canada struck down the abortion law because they said it prevented women from having equal access to abortion across the country. But despite the 1969 law being overturned, it did not mean the courts endorsed the idea that there should be no federal legislation regulating abortion or protecting pre-born children. It wrote that Parliament has a right to make a new abortion law. Subsequent Supreme Court cases have echoed this sentiment. Brian Mulroney’s Conservative government responded to the Morgentaler Decision by creating a committee of government members from all sides of the abortion debate to draft legislation for a new abortion law. They were instructed to write a compromise bill that would not be struck down by the Supreme Court and would not antagonize most Canadians. Members who were abortion advocates, did not want to see abortion in the Criminal Code and if it had to be there, they argued that it should be for late term abortions only. However, pro-life members argued that the gestational argument was not acceptable because "it sent out a message that life was not valued except after a certain period of time."6 That sentiment won out and made no mention of the age of the fetus. In 1990, Bill C-43 was introduced. It made abortion illegal unless a physician found that a pregnancy threatened a woman’s physical, mental or psychological health. The bill passed the House of Commons in 1990 because of support of the government and a few opposition members. However, it was defeated in the Senate because of opposition from both abortion advocates and pro-lifers. Some pro-life supporters, including one political staffer at that time, argued that this compromise bill would have been ruled as constitutional by the Supreme Court of Canada and was the best legal protection for the pre-born that the government could provide.7 However, other pro-life and all abortion advocacy groups opposed the legislation and they succeeded in convincing enough of their political supporters to defeat the law in the Canadian Senate. Mulroney warned the pro-life movement that if they fought to defeat the bill, he would not touch the issue of abortion again—a promise he kept. Today, none of the political parties represented in Parliament officially support drafting a new abortion law. Canada is the only country in the Western world with no such law. - 1. www.abortionrights.org.uk/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=18&Itemid=44, accessed on July 2, 2010. - 2. Robert Campbell et al., "Courts, Politics and Morality: Canada’s Abortion Saga", The Real Worlds of Canadian Politic Cases in Process and Policy, Peterborough, ON, Broadview Press, 1991, p5. - 3. F.L. Morton, Morgentaler v. Borowski: Abortion, the Charter and the Courts, McClelland & Stewart Inc., 1992, 90. - 4. Constitution of the World Health Organization, July 22, 1946, as amended to 1977, World Health Organization Basic Documents Twenty-seventh edition, Geneva, 1977. - 5. Raymond Tatalovich, The Politics of Abortion in the United States and Canada, M.E. Sharpe, Armonk, New York, 1997, 34. - 6. Paul Racine Abortion and the Issue of Compromise, Draft copy written around the time of the debate about Bill C-43, 4. - 7. Racine, 4. - Strategy & Training - Get Active

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Glover’s Reef Seascape, Belize - Glover’s Reef Seascape, Belize Photo - ©Caleb McClennen Glover’s Reef Seascape lies at the heart of the largest coral reef system in the Western Hemisphere, just 28 miles off the coast of Belize. An astounding 800 patch coral reefs dot its waters, which encompass 12,500 acres. Glover’s Reef is a critical nursery and feeding ground for sea turtles, sharks and rays, and numerous fish species that gather in massive numbers. It also supports one of the Caribbean’s largest and last remaining Nassau grouper spawning aggregations, where Nassau grouper come together to mate during one or more winter full moons. Hundreds of licensed fishermen rely on these waters to support their livelihoods. The seascape is also a centerpiece of ecotourism within the greater Belize Barrier Reef—a must-see visitor destination. In 1993, working as a partner with WCS, the government of Belize established the Glover’s Reef Marine Reserve to ensure the protection of this outstanding part of its natural heritage. - The Belize Barrier Reef is a World Heritage Site. - Glover’s Reef is home to Belize’s largest "no-take" marine reserve, where fishing is prohibited. - It is one of the only true atolls—strings of coral islands surrounding a pristine lagoon—in the Atlantic Ocean. - Though the species is now greatly depleted across the Caribbean, Nassau grouper once gathered at Glover’s Reef by the tens of thousands. - Evidence of preclassic Maya settlements and shipwrecks indicate that early explorers once traveled here and that these waters were on the route of the slave trade. Like coral reef systems around the world, the Glover’s Reef Seascape faces serious impacts from overfishing, pollution, unregulated tourism, and climate change. These threats can destroy corals, deplete fish stocks, and weaken ecological links across the seascape. As local fish stocks in neighboring Guatemala and Honduras have crashed, foreign fishers increasingly turn to the healthier waters of Belize, placing additional pressure on Glover’s Reef. As one species after another is fished to critically low levels, the impacts cascade across the entire fish community and reef system. Lack of coordinated management strategies, sparse enforcement, and insufficient resources to effectively manage the area complicate matters more. Dredging, vegetation clearing, and waste dumping caused by unregulated coastal and caye development also destroys critical seagrass beds, corals, and mangroves in the seascape. With climate change anticipated to cause harmful bleaching in 70 percent of coral reefs worldwide by 2100, Belize’s coral reefs are at a tipping point. WCS is working with partners in Belize to conserve the Glover’s Reef Seascape through field science, policy expertise, and strong local partnerships. Field investigations on species like Nassau grouper, hawksbill turtles, and queen conch are used to guide new laws and policies designed to conserve the seascape. Our research station, situated on Middle Caye at Glover’s Reef, is on the front lines of conservation of this remote seascape. It provides both a base of operations for enforcement and monitoring as well as a field research and training station for visiting scientists. WCS and its partners have helped to pass new laws that mandate year-round protection for the Nassau grouper at 11 sites; established a program that trains local fishermen to collect data; and helped complete the country’s new National Protected Area Policy and System Plan. For more information, visit http://wcsgloversreef.org/. Shark fisheries have expanded in size and number around the world since the mid-1980s to meet the rapidly rising demand for shark fins, meat, and cartilage. Most of these fisheries are unregulated and undocumented. As a result, numerous shark species now face extinction. WCS is working to improve regulation of the global trade in shark products to reverse the decline of these remarkable fishes. From the Newsroom A recent blog for National Geographic NewsWatch celebrates the 25th anniversary of the Hol Chan Marine Reserve in Belize, the country's first marine reserve and one that protects the greatest barrier reef in the Western Hemisphere. Conservation efforts there ensure continued success for blue striped grunts and other precious fish and marine animals. With support from the Summit Foundation, WCS conservationists and their local and international partners have introduced a new system of managed access to the Glover's Reef Marine Reserve’s conch fishery. The New York Times interviews WCS's Dr. Rachel Graham about her work in the Gulf and the Caribbean to create a constituency for the protection of a magnificent—and often misunderstood—ocean giant: the shark. Researchers find that fishery closures in Belize’s Glover’s Reef help barracudas, groupers, and other predatory fish recover while the parrotfish and other herbivores essential for reef recovery still need more protection. WCS conservationists help Belize develop a management program to restore the health of both fisheries and the coral reef ecosystems at its Glover’s Reef and Port Honduras Marine Reserves.

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DRAM Memory Guide Last Updated: 06-24-2010 , Posted: 01-14-2005 A Quick Reference to System Memory Often referred to as main memory RAM is the acronym for Random Access Memory. It is a type of computer memory that can, as its name implies, be accessed randomly. That is, any byte of memory can be accessed without touching the preceding bytes. RAM is the "working memory" storage area within the computer. All data on the computer is stored on the hard drive, but in order for the CPU to work with the data during normal operations, the data the computer uses and works with is read into the working memory, which is the RAM chips. There are two different types of RAM; DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory) and SRAM (Static Random Access Memory). The two types differ in the technology they use to hold data, with DRAM being the more common type. In terms of speed, SRAM is faster. DRAM needs to be refreshed thousands of times per second while SRAM does not need to be refreshed, which is what makes it faster. DRAM supports access times of about 60 nanoseconds, SRAM can give access times as low as 10 nanoseconds. Despite SRAM being faster, it is not as commonly used as DRAM because it is so much more expensive. Both types of RAM are volatile, meaning that they lose their contents when the power is turned off. This reference will provide general information on the two types of RAM and provide an overview on the common modules of each type. As DRAM is the main system memory used in home and office PCs, being cheaper and more common than SRAM, we will focus on DRAM. Types of SRAM Async SRAMAsync SRAM is an older type of SRAM. It is asynchronous, meaning that it works independently of the system clock. Sync SRAMSync SRAM is synchronized with the system clock, and increased speed. Pipeline Burst SRAMPipeline Burst SRAM is the most common type of SRAM. It is able to operate at bus speeds higher than 66MHz. Types of DRAM FPM DRAM - Fast Page Mode DRAM [View Webopedia Definition]FPM DRAM is only slightly faster than regular DRAM. This used to be the main type of memory used in PCs but was eventually replaced by EDO RAM, due to its slow speed. FPM DRAM, is now considered to be obsolete. It was mainly used in the older 386 and 486 computers. It is not suitable for memory buses over 66 MHz. EDO DRAM - Extended Data Out DRAM [View Webopedia Definition]EDO DRAM provided a better performance increase over FPM DRAM. EDO RAM cannot operate on a bus speed faster than 66MHz. With a need for speed, BEDO DRAM was introduced. BEDO DRAM - Burst EDO DRAM [View Webopedia Definition]Burst EDO DRAM is a type of EDO DRAM that can process four memory addresses in one burst. BEDO DRAM can only stay synchronized with the CPU clock for short periods (bursts). It is faster than it's predecessor, EDO DRAM. SDRAM - Synchronous DRAM [View Webopedia Definition]Short for Synchronous DRAM, a type of DRAM that can run at much higher clock speeds than conventional memory. SDRAM actually synchronizes itself with the CPU's bus. SDRAM is the new memory standard for modern PCs. NOTE: When looking at SDRAM The number following "PC" indicates the speed of the system's frontside bus. (example: The PC100 SDRAM is designed for systems equipped with a 100 MHz frontside bus.) RDRAM - Rambus DRAM [View Webopedia Definition]Short for Rambus DRAM, a type of memory (DRAM) developed by Rambus, Inc. Whereas the fastest current memory technologies used by PCs (SDRAM) can deliver data at a maximum speed of about 100 MHz, RDRAM transfers data at up to 800 MHz. RDRAM (and DDR-SDRAM) are the two technologies expected to replace SDRAM. DDR SDRAM - Double Data Rate [View Webopedia Definition]Short for Double Data Rate-Synchronous DRAM, a type of SDRAM that supports data transfers on both edges of each clock cycle (the rising and falling edges), effectively doubling the memory chip's data throughput. DDR-SDRAM also consumes less power, which makes it well-suited to notebook computers. DDR-SDRAM is also called SDRAM II. and DDRAM. DDR-SDRAM and RDRAM are the two technologies expected to replace SDRAM. NOTE: When looking at DDR memory, the number following "PC" indicates the module's total bandwidth. (example: PC1600 DDR memory is designed for systems equipped with a 100 MHz frontside bus. The number 1600' refers to the module's bandwidth; the quantity of data that it transfers in one second, of 1.6 GB per second. DDR2 SDRAMDDR2 SDRAM is the next step up from DDR SDRAM. DDR2 SDRAM offers new features and functions that enable higher clock and data rate operations. DDR2 transfers 64 bits of data twice every clock cycle. DDR2 SDRAM memory is not compatible with current DDR SDRAM memory slots. SDRAM, RDRAM & DDR/DDR2 SDRAM - A Price Comparison * Price samples courtesy of SharkyExtreme.com Buying DRAMDRAM technology changes and advances quite quickly. Trying to figure out which type of memory you need for an upgrade can be quite confusing to the average user. First, you need to know what type of memory is supported by the system chipset of your motherboard. This will be indicated on the documentation/manual included with your motherboard. If this is not available to you, most motherboard manufactures will have the information available on their Web site. Additionally, some Web sites like crucial.com will have a memory selector which allows you to input your system information into a form and it will return a list of suitable memory modules you can upgrade with. Unless cost is a major factor, you will want to go with the fastest type of memory supported by the motherboard. If cost is too much of an issue you can then look at the next step down and so on until you reach a happy medium between price and speed. Due to advances in technology, over and under production runs, along with rampant competition in the memory retail market, prices on system memory are constantly fluctuating. A good way to save money or perhaps to purchase faster memory on a budget is to check memory prices online where there is "worldwide" competition for your upgrade dollars. One site to help with this task is PriceWatch — here you can search for a specific type of memory and see the prices hundreds of online vendors are selling this memory for. Once you have located the vendor with a price that meets your budget needs, you can then visit Reseller Ratings, an excellent website which users customer's experiences to report on the validity of an online vendor. This combined with watching Weekly Memory Price Guides (such as the one located at SharkyExtreme) will help you to better understand memory price trends, so you can buy the fastest memory supported by your motherboard — at a price you can afford! More Memory Terminology SIMMAcronym for single in-line memory module, a small circuit board that can hold a group of memory chips. A SIMM has a 32-bit path to the memory chips. Typically, SIMMs hold up to eight (on Macintoshes) or nine (on PCs) RAM chips. On PCs, the ninth chip is often used for parity error checking. Unlike memory chips, SIMMs are measured in bytes rather than bits. SIMMs are easier to install than individual memory chips. SIMMs come in 30-pin and 72-pin varieties. DIMMShort for dual in-line memory module, a small circuit board that holds memory chips. A DIMM has a 64-bit path to the memory chips. Because the Pentium processor requires a 64-bit path to memory you can install memory one DIMM at a time. DIMMs come as 168-pin (SDRAM DIMM) or 184-pin (DDR DIMM) that is used to provide DDR SDRAM memory for many desktop computers. DDR DIMM will not fit into a standard SDRAM DIMM slot. RIMMThe memory module used with RDRAM chips. It is similar to a DIMM package but uses different pin settings. Rambus trademarked the term RIMM as an entire word. It is the term used for a module using Rambus technology. It is sometimes incorrectly used as an acronym for Rambus Inline Memory Module. RIMMs have 184 pins. Rambus memory modules will only fit motherboards and systems especially designed for RIMMs, despite having the same number of pins as DDR DIMMs. CAS - column address strobeAbbreviated as CAS, a signal, or strobe, sent by the processor to a DRAM circuit to activate a column address. DRAM stores data in a series of rows and columns, similar in theory to a spreadsheet, and each cell where a data bit is stored exists in both a row and a column. A processor uses CAS and RAS (row address strobe) signals to retrieve data from DRAM. When data is needed, the processor activates the RAS line to specify the row where the data is needed, and then activates the CAS line to specify the column. Combined, the two signals locate the data stored in DRAM. When seen in memory information, you will usually spot the reference "CAS2" or "CAS3". The number following CAS (2 or 3)represents the number of clock cycles before a DRAM column can be accessed. CAS2 or CAS3 are also referred to as CL2 or CL3 refreshTo recharge a device with power or information. For example, dynamic RAM needs to be refreshed thousands of times per second or it will lose the data stored in it. bank(n.) The area of a motherboard that contains slots for memory modules. Memory banks are typically double sided (allowing for single- or double-sided memory modules), and the banks in the slots are numbered. Memory banks are organized into units representing the minimum number of memory chips that must work in tandem. ECC memoryShort for Error-Correcting Code memory, a type of memory that includes special circuitry for testing the accuracy of data as it passes in and out of memory. access timeDRAM (dynamic random access memory) chips for personal computers have access times of 50 to 150 nanoseconds (billionths of a second). Static RAM (SRAM) has access times as low as 10 nanoseconds. Ideally, the access time of memory should be fast enough to keep up with the CPU. If not, the CPU will waste a certain number of clock cycles, which makes it slower. main memoryRefers to physical memory that is internal to the computer. The word main is used to distinguish it from external mass storage devices such as disk drives. Another term for main memory is RAM. registered memoryA memory module that contains registers that hold the data for one clock cycle before it is moved on to the motherboard. This process increases the reliability of high-speed data access. Registered memory modules are typically used only in servers and other mission-critical systems where it is extremely important that the data is properly handled. buffered memoryBuffered memory contains a buffer to assist the chipset deal with the large electrical load required when the system has a lot of memory. Much like registered modules, buffered modules are typically used in servers and other mission-critical systems where it is extremely important that the data is properly handled. unbuffered memoryUnbuffered memory deals directly with the chipset controller with nothing in between as they communicate. parityParity memory modules have an extra chip that will detect if data was correctly read or written by the memory module. Unlike ECC, parity will not correct the error.

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This is an image of Io. Click on image for full size The Jet Propulsion Laboratory There are no clouds and lightning. The atmosphere of Io is very thin and does not remain bound to Io for very long. Even so, it has an important impact on the Jupiter system. Io's atmosphere comes from its volcanoes, then disperses because, as a small moon, Io does not have substantial gravity. Because the atmosphere comes from its volcanoes, the air of Io is made primarily of sulphur. Once the particles from the atmosphere get into the magnetosphere, they create a donut-shaped cloud of material around Io. The Galileo spacecraft, in exploring the moons of Jupiter will try to learn more about the atmosphere of Io. Shop Windows to the Universe Science Store! Our online store on science education, classroom activities in The Earth Scientist specimens, and educational games You might also be interested in: A satellite which has an atmosphere, such as Jupiter's moon Io, or even one with an icy surface which is exposed to energetic particles, such as Saturn's moon Rhea, will leave a cloud of particles behind...more A satellite which has an atmosphere, such as Jupiter's moon Io, and which also is inside a magnetosphere (unlike the Earth's moon), will leave a cloud of particles behind as it orbits the planet. This...more Most forms of life leave behind evidence that they are there. Plants help make oxygen and use up carbon dioxide. Some creatures help make nitrogen. People leave behind smog, television signals, and garbage....more Amalthea was discovered by E Barnard in 1872. Of the 17 moons it is the 3rd closest to Jupiter, with a standoff distance of 181,300 km. Amalthea is about the size of a county or small state, and is just...more Callisto was first discovered by Galileo in 1610, making it one of the Galilean Satellites. Of the 60 moons it is the 8th closest to Jupiter, with a standoff distance of 1,070,000 km. It is the 2nd largest...more The insides of most of the moons and planets separated while they were forming out of the primitive solar nebula. Measurements by the Galileo spacecraft have been shown that Callisto is the same inside...more Many examples of the differing types of surface are shown in this image. In the foreground is a huge impact crater, which extends for almost an entire hemisphere on the surface. This crater may be compared...more

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Sorry, no definitions found. “Subjunctive is almost always used when expressing desires, feelings, and probability.” “Subjunctive is used when expressing emotions, doubt, and after certain prepositions such as para que, con tal de que, a fin de que, sin que, and others.” “Subjunctive history" of this kind what if the Japanese had invaded California after Pearl Harbor?” “Subjunctive (fit) quepa quepas quepa quepamos quepáis quepan” “Subjunctive forms include feeling that we would be better able to cope with life if we could find a partner to do everything for us.” “Subjunctive forms include feeling that if only we could find the perfect job, we could cope with life.” “That's right: Just in case the Present Tense and the Past Tense and the Future Tense and the Past Subjunctive and the Future Conditional and all the rest aren't quite enough to satisfy you, suddenly there's the Cataclysmic Hypothetical.” “Subjunctive is also used for expressions of uncertainty, possibility, wishes, and some other things.” “Wise is the author of the poetry collection The Kingdom of the Subjunctive (Alice James Books, 2000).” “Adams, E.W. 1970: "Subjunctive and Indicative Conditionals".” These user-created lists contain the word ‘Subjunctive’. Looking for tweets for Subjunctive.

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My son is in the 5th grade Resource Room. He has problems with reading and writing. I’m curious about dyslexia. What type of doctor can test him? What tests do they use? To my knowledge there is not one specific “test” for dyslexia. Evaluation is based on the “clinical judgment” of a psychologist, by the way a child tests on a battery of tests. How Children Learn to Read… 1. The first thing you need to learn is how children learn to read. I mean really learn to read. I don’t mean just memorize and word call. Read anything by Jeanne Chall and Louisa Moats. You can google their name to find out more about them. You will find books by them in the Advocate’s Bookstore. 2. Then look at your child’s test scores. Consider these questions: - Has my child received adequate reading instruction? - Where are my child’s deficits in reading? - Does the program being used address those deficits? 3. Don’t assume a teacher knows how to teach all children to read. Many teachers do not know how to teach children to read, especially children with dyslexia whose needs are different. The National Council on Teacher Quality (NCTQ) found that only 11 out of 72 colleges of education actually teach teachers the components of the science of reading! More about Evaluations

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People (including virtually all physicians) are constantly confused what cellular inflammation is. So I decided to take the opportunity to explain the concept in more detail. There are two types of inflammation. The first type is classical inflammation, which generates the inflammatory response we associate with pain such as, heat, redness, swelling, pain, and eventually loss of organ function. The other type is cellular inflammation, which is below the perception of pain. Cellular inflammation is the initiating cause of chronic disease because it disrupts hormonal signaling networks throughout the body. Definition of Cellular Inflammation The definition of cellular inflammation is increased activity of the gene transcription factor know as Nuclear Factor-kappaB (NF-κB). This is the gene transcription factor found in every cell, and it activates the inflammatory response of the innate immune system. Although the innate immune system is the most primitive part of our immune response, it has been resistant to study without recent breakthroughs in molecular biology. In fact, the 2011 Nobel Prize in Medicine was awarded for the earliest studies on the innate immune system and its implications in the development of chronic disease. There are several extracellular events through which NF-κB can be activated by distinct mechanisms. These include microbial invasion recognized by toll-like receptors (TLR), generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), cellular generation of inflammatory eicosanoids, and interaction with inflammatory cytokines via defined cell surface receptors. We also know that several of these initiating events are modulated by dietary factors. This also means that appropriate use of the diet can either turn on or turn off the activation of NF-κB. This new knowledge is the foundation of anti-inflammatory nutrition (1-3). Understanding Cellular Inflammation Although the innate immune system is exceptionally complex, it can be illustrated in a relatively simple diagram as shown below in Figure 1. Figure 1. Simplified View of the Innate Immune System Essential fatty acids are the most powerful modulators of NF-κB. In particular, the omega-6 fatty acid arachidonic acid (AA) activates NF-κB, whereas the omega-3 fatty acid eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) does not (4). Recent work suggests that a subgroup of eicosanoids known as leukotrienes that are derived from AA may play a significant factor in NF-κB activation (5,6) Extracellular inflammatory cytokines can also activate NF-κB by their interaction with specific receptors on the cell surface. The primary cytokine that activates NF-κB is tumor necrosis factor (TNF) (7). Toll-like receptors (TLR) are another starting point for the activation of NF-κB. In particular, TLR-4 is sensitive to dietary saturated fatty acids (8). The binding of saturated fatty acids to TLR-4 can be inhibited by omega-3 fatty acids such as EPA. Finally ROS either induced by ionizing radiation or by excess free radical formation are additional activators of NF-κB (9). Anti-inflammatory Nutrition To Inhibit Cellular Inflammation Anti-inflammatory nutrition is based on the ability of certain nutrients to reduce the activation of NF-κB. The most effective way to lower the activation of NF-κB is to reduce the levels of AA in the target cell membrane thus reducing the formation of leukotrienes that can activate NF-κB. Having the patient follow an anti-inflammatory diet, such as the Zone Diet coupled with the simultaneous lowering omega-6 fatty acid intake are the primary dietary strategies to accomplish this goal (1-3). Another effective dietary approach (and often easier for the patient to comply with) is the dietary supplementation with adequate levels of high-dose fish oil rich in omega-3 fatty acids, such as EPA and DHA. These omega-3 fatty acids taken at high enough levels will lower AA levels and increase EPA levels. This change of the AA/EPA ratio in the cell membrane will reduce the likelihood of the formation of inflammatory leukotrienes that can activate NF-κB. This is because leukotrienes derived from AA are pro-inflammatory, whereas those from EPA are non-inflammatory. The increased intake of omega-3 fatty acids is also a dietary approach that can activate the anti-inflammatory gene transcription factor PPAR-γ (10-12), decrease the formation of ROS (13) and decrease the binding of saturated fatty acids to TLR-4 (14). This illustrates the multi-functional roles that omega-3 fatty acids have in controlling cellular inflammation. A third dietary approach is the adequate intake of dietary polyphenols. These are compounds that give fruits and vegetables their color. At high levels they are powerful anti-oxidants to reduce the generation of ROS (15). They can also inhibit the activation of NF-κB (16). Finally, the least effective dietary strategy (but still useful) is the reduction of dietary saturated fat intake. This is because saturated fatty acids will cause the activation of the TLR-4 receptor in the cell membrane (8,14). Obviously, the greater the number of these dietary strategies implemented by the patient, the greater the overall effect on reducing cellular inflammation. Clinical Measurement of Cellular Inflammation Since cellular inflammation is confined to the cell itself, there are few blood markers that can be used to directly measure the levels of systemic cellular inflammation in a cell. However, the AA/EPA ratio in the blood appears to be a precise and reproducible marker of the levels of the same ratio of these essential fatty acids in the cell membrane. As described above, the leukotrienes derived from AA are powerful modulators of NF-κB. Thus a reduction in the AA/EPA ratio in the target cell membrane will lead to a reduced activation of NF-κB by decreased formation of inflammatory leukotrienes. The cell membrane is constantly being supplied by AA and EPA from the blood. Therefore the AA/EPA ratio in the blood becomes an excellent marker of the same ratio in the cell membrane (17). Currently the best and most reproducible marker of cellular inflammation is the AA/EPA ratio in the blood as it represents an upstream control point for the control of NF-κB activation. The most commonly used diagnostic marker of inflammation is C-reactive protein (CRP). Unlike the AA/EPA ratio, CRP is a very distant downstream marker of past NF-κB activation. This is because one of inflammatory mediators expressed in the target cell is IL-6. It must eventually reach a high enough level in the blood to eventually interact with the liver or the fat cells to produce CRP. This makes CRP a more long-lived marker in the blood stream compared to the primary inflammatory gene products (IL-1, IL-6, TNF, and COX-2) released after the activation of NF-κB. As a consequence, CRP is easier to measure than the most immediate inflammatory products generated by NF-κB activation. However, easier doesn’t necessarily translate into better. In fact, an increase AA/EPA ratio in the target cell membrane often precedes any increase of C-reactive protein by several years. An elevated AA/EPA ratio indicates that NF-κB is at the tipping point and the cell is primed for increased genetic expression of a wide variety of inflammatory mediators. The measurement of CRP indicates that NF-κB has been activated for a considerable period of time and that cellular inflammation is now causing systemic damage. I believe the future of medicine lies in the control of cellular inflammation. This is most effectively accomplished by the constant application of anti-inflammatory nutrition. The success of such dietary interventions can be measured clinically by the reduction of the AA/EPA ratio in the blood. - Sears B. The Anti-Inflammation Zone. Regan Books. New York, NY (2005) - Sears B. Toxic Fat. Thomas Nelson. Nashville, TN (2008) - Sears B and Riccordi C. “Anti-inflammatory nutrition as a pharmacological approach to treat obesity.” J Obesity doi:10.1155/2011/431985 (2011) - Camandola S, Leonarduzzi G,Musso T, Varesio L, Carini R, Scavazza A, Chiarpotto E, Baeuerle PA, and Poli G. “Nuclear factor kB is activated by arachidonic acid but not by eicosapentaenoic acid.” Biochem Biophys Res Commun 229:643-647 (1996) - Sears DD, Miles PD, Chapman J, Ofrecio JM, Almazan F, Thapar D, and Miller YI. “12/15-lipoxygenase is required for the early onset of high fat diet-induced adipose tissue inflammation and insulin resistance in mice.” PLoS One 4:e7250 (2009) - Chakrabarti SK, Cole BK, Wen Y, Keller SR, and Nadler JL. “12/15-lipoxygenase products induce inflammation and impair insulin signaling in 3T3-L1 adipocytes.” Obesity 17:1657-1663 (2009) - Min JK, Kim YM, Kim SW, Kwon MC, Kong YY, Hwang IK, Won MH, Rho J, and Kwon YG. “TNF-related activation-induced cytokine enhances leukocyte adhesiveness: induction of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 via TNF receptor-associated factor and protein kinase C-dependent NF-kappaB activation in endothelial cells.” J Immunol 175: 531-540 (2005) - Kim JJ and Sears DD. “TLR4 and Insulin Resistance.” Gastroenterol Res Pract doi:10./2010/212563 (2010) - Bubici C, Papa S, Dean K, and Franzoso G. “Mutual cross-talk between reactive oxygen species and nuclear factor-kappa B: molecular basis and biological significance.” Oncogene 25: 6731-6748 (2006) - Li H, Ruan XZ, Powis SH, Fernando R, Mon WY, Wheeler DC, Moorhead JF, and Varghese Z. “EPA and DHA reduce LPS-induced inflammation responses in HK-2 cells: Evidence for a PPAR-gamma-dependent mechanism.” Kidney Int 67: 867-874 (2005) - Kawashima A, Harada T, Imada K, Yano T, and Mizuguchi K. “Eicosapentaenoic acid inhibits interleukin-6 production in interleukin-1beta-stimulated C6 glioma cells through peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma.” Prostaglandins LeukotEssent Fatty Acids 79: 59-65 (2008) - Chambrier C, Bastard JP, Rieusset J, Chevillotte E, Bonnefont-Rousselot D, Therond P, Hainque B, Riou JP, Laville M, and Vidal H. “Eicosapentaenoic acid induces mRNA expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma.” Obes Res 10: 518-525 (2002) - Mas E, Woodman RJ, Burke V, Puddey IB, Beilin LJ, Durand T, and Mori TA. “The omega-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA decrease plasma F(2)-isoprostanes.” Free Radic Res 44: 983-990 (2010) - Lee JY, Plakidas A, Lee WH, Heikkinen A, Chanmugam P, Bray G, and Hwang DH. “Differential modulation of Toll-like receptors by fatty acids: preferential inhibition by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids.” J Lipid Res 44: 479-486 (2003) - Crispo JA, Ansell DR, Piche M, Eibl JK, Khaper N, Ross GM, and Tai TC. “Protective effects of polyphenolic compounds on oxidative stress-induced cytotoxicity in PC12 cells.” Can J Physiol Pharmacol 88: 429-438 (2010) - Romier B, Van De Walle J, During A, Larondelle Y, and Schneider YJ. “Modulation of signaling nuclear factor-kappaB activation pathway by polyphenols in human intestinal Caco-2 cells.” Br J Nutr 100: 542-551 (2008) - Yee LD, Lester JL, Cole RM, Richardson JR, Hsu JC, Li Y, Lehman A, Belury MA, and Clinton SK. “Omega-3 fatty acid supplements in women at high risk of breast cancer have dose-dependent effects on breast adipose tissue fatty acid composition.” Am J Clin Nutr 91: 1185-1194 (2010)

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Posted: Sep 21, 2012 7:25 PM by John Patrick Updated: Sep 21, 2012 7:29 PM TUCSON - University of Arizona Scientists have found some big problems when it comes to the small scale weather models. A new study by the University of Arizona shows that climate models struggle with accuracy when it comes to time frames shorter than three decades and small scale areas. Where computer climate models gain advantage is when they are applied long term global patterns. Koichi Sakaguchi, a doctoral student who headed the study explains, "We found out is very difficult to predict climate at a much smaller scale for say Tucson." Part of the reason for this inaccuracy is due to the resolution of the models which can only break the earth down into 60 square mile boxes. Areas such as Tucson are too small for that to get an accurate forecast. The UA graduate students tested the prediction skill of the computer models with a process called hindcasting. Michael Brunke, UA graduate student, explains the process of hindcasting, "We compared what the model simulated for the twentieth century to the climate records we already know for the twentieth century." By applying the hindcasting method to the technology of today we can bring more accurate predictions down the road. "So now we found out that the models are not so good, for example say Tucson, so we should maybe add this particle detail to the model to see if it improves or not," says Sakaguchi. Another goal of this study was to bridge the gap between forecasters and climatologists so a more precise picture of climate change can be painted. Brunke explains, "Climate models are basically the only tool that we have to try to figure out what's going to happen in the future because we don't know what the future holds." As climate models continue to improve so will the track record with the community to trust future predictions. This study has been published in the Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres. To view the entire study and all of the research click here. Check out the latest events FC Tucson has scheduled. Help those in need this holiday season Click here to submit a news tip to us! Become a Facebook Fan! Sign up on KVOA.com for newsletters, exclusive deals, and more! Win! Win! Win! Get news, weather and more on your smartphone and tablet! Get texts for news, traffic, deals and more! Stories and videos with Kristi's Kids What's happening on News 4 @ 4 Let us help grow your business What's on KVOA and when! Contact info for our department heads FCC Public File of Records, Reports, and More KVOA's on air personalities! Work at News 4 Tucson Complete feeds of all KVOA.com stories

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Where a function is spread over several files, each file will contain one or more functions. One file will include main while the others will contain functions which are called by others. These other files can be treated as a library of functions. Programmers usually start designing a program by dividing the problem into easily managed sections. Each of these sections might be implemented as one or more functions. All functions from each section will usually live in a single file. Where objects are implemented as data structures, it is usual to to keep all functions which access that object in the same file. The advantages of this are; Where the file contains the definition of an object, or functions which return values, there is a further restriction on calling these functions from another file. Unless functions in another file are told about the object or function definitions, they will be unable to compile them correctly. The best solution to this problem is to write a header file for each of the C files. This will have the same name as the C file, but ending in .h. The header file contains definitions of all the functions used in the C file. Whenever a function in another file calls a function from our C file, it can define the function by making a #include of the appropriate .h file.

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Species: Pteropus livingstonii Size: Length: 30 cm Average wingspan: 1.4 m Weight: 500 – 800 g Description: Livingstone’s Flying Fox is one of the largest bats in existence, and also has the regrettable distinction of being among the most threatened. It has dark brown to black fur, with rusty- or ginger-tipped hairs across the shoulders and in the groin area. While they are bats, flying foxes, (also known as Old World fruit bats), are named after a different animal because their elongated muzzles give them a distinctly foxy appearance. The orange-brown eyes of Livingstone’s Flying Fox are large, reflecting this bat’s well-developed visual senses. This species does not use echolocation, but exhibits typical mammalian hearing, and thus has simple, rounded ears. Habitat and Distribution: Livingstone’s Flying Fox inhabits forests, above 200 metres on Moheli and above 500 metres on Anjouan. Its roost sites are generally found on southeast facing slopes that receive morning sun and are shaded from noon through late afternoon, in valleys with rivers running though. This species occurs on the islands of Anjouan and Moheli in the Union of the Comoros, an island nation in the western Indian Ocean. Biology and Ecology: Livingstone’s Flying Fox is predominantly nocturnal, but unlike most bats it is also active during the late afternoon, when it flies from roost sites to feeding sites where forest trees are fruiting. This species locates fruit with its well-developed vision and sense of smell, and feeds throughout the night, resting intermittently. These flying foxes feed primarily on fruit juices; they squeeze pieces of fruit pulp in their mouths, swallow the juice and then spit out the pulp and seeds. Their diet is predominantly fruit from native tree species, though it varies seasonally. They also feed on the flowers of native plants, to obtain the nectar, and occasionally leaves are consumed too. Livingstone’s Flying Fox plays an important role as a forest pollinator and seed dispersal agent. Livingstone’s Flying Foxes roost in tall trees in medium to large, often noisy, colonies, in which there is a defined social structure, based on dominance. Male flying foxes mark a territory by rubbing branches with the strong musky scent produced by glands in the neck and shoulders, and a dominant male may also use this to mark females that share his roosting or feeding territory, in an attempt to deter other males from rerproducing with these females. Livingstone’s Flying Foxes breed seasonally, generally at the beginning of the rainy season, between August and October, when food is plentiful. Heavily pregnant females cluster in groups away from the males, and give birth the ‘right’ way up, by clinging onto a branch with their thumbs. The pups can usually cling to their mother straight after birth, and then climb to one of the mother’s nipples, where they feed while tucked safely under her wing. At about three weeks of age, the young are left in a ‘crèche’ at night while the mother flies off to feed. Status and Threats: Livingstone’s Flying Fox is classified as Endangered under the IUCN Redlist and listed on Appendix II of CITES. Once abundant in the vast forests of Anjouan and Moheli, extensive deforestation has led to the worryingly small populations of Livingstone’s Flying Fox in existence today. Native forests of the Comoros Islands continue to decline rapidly, at a rate of 5.6 percent per year, as forests are under-planted with, or cleared for fruit, coconuts, manioc, maize, peas, sweet potatoes and cloves. Cyclones pose another serious threat; major cyclones in 1983 and 1984 were believed to have a significant impact on the Moheli population. It is believed that without urgent action, these incredible bats may be extinct within 25 or 50 years.

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Question: Do people of all ages develop anxiety disorders and how do anxiety disorders affect people at different ages? Answer: Anxiety disorders are equal opportunity. In the sense, they can affect any age group, any culture, any ethnic group. Despite that, we know that many of them have their origin in childhood, teenage years or young adulthood. For example, panic disorder often has its onset in teens or people in early twenties or thirties. Posttraumatic stress disorders, since it's related to a trauma, can really occur at any age. Obsessive compulsive disorder, another disorder that's full of anxiety, often has an occurrence in childhood, early adulthood or teenage years. Thus, these disorders can occur at any age. But despite that, when we see them occurring in the older age group, we're more suspicious that an illness or medication may be causing them.

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There are lessons for present-day policymakers in Eisenhower’s military restraint Reviewed by Tom Switzer In July 1956, the Egyptian dictator Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalised the Suez Canal, which was run by a company controlled by Egypt’s former colonial masters, Britain and France. This sparked a chain of events that led to the brink of war. Meanwhile, the US president who could influence the course of events, Dwight Eisenhower, had just suffered a serious intestinal blockage, which followed a heart attack the previous September. At the same time, Eisenhower was campaigning for re-election later that November, a rematch of the 1952 race against Democrat Adlai Stevenson. President Eisenhower recognised that the Suez Canal was the world’s most important waterway; two thirds of the oil used in Western Europe flowed through the canal. Yet he was also adamant that war not take place. “I don’t see the point in getting into a fight, to which there can be no satisfactory end, and in which the whole world believes you are playing the part of the bully,” he told his advisers at the height of the crisis. When England, France and Israel secretly conspired to attack Egypt in retaliation for Nasser’s nationalisation of the canal, on the eve of the 1956 presidential election, Eisenhower refused to support the US wartime allies. “I can’t believe it. I can’t believe that they [the British and French] would be so stupid as to invite on themselves all the Arab hostility to Israel,” he complained. “What are they going to do? Fight the whole Muslim world?” Meanwhile, the Soviet Union took advantage of Western disunity by ruthlessly crushing the Hungarian rebellion and even threatening intervention in Egypt. Historian David Nichols, the author of this excellent book, Eisenhower 1956, is sympathetic to Eisenhower’s caution, but at the time some Americans believed that the British prime minister Anthony Eden and the French were right. Senate majority leader (and future president) Lyndon Johnson told Eisenhower: “We should let the British and French know they have our moral support to go in [to] resist aggression.” But Eisenhower stood firm, not only opposing the British-French-Israeli invasion, but going out of his way to thwart it in the United Nations. According to Nichols, Eisenhower recognised the circumstances determined where he could act and where he must be restrained. All of this represents a refreshing change from the accepted wisdom in Washington about the appropriate US role in the world, especially in the post-Cold War era. From liberals on the left to neo-conservatives on the right, the widespread belief is that the US, as the sole remaining superpower, should act immediately in response to a global crisis. Action is evidence of courage, purpose and decisiveness. The can-do leader is the admired leader; the injunction ‘Don’t just stand there, do something’ is the normal response to a crisis. But Eisenhower, as Nichols makes clear, was cut from entirely different cloth. As a five-star general seasoned in war, Ike believed that in a range of circumstances there was sometimes virtue in inaction (‘Don’t just do something, stand there’). He heeded some of the most famous advice ever given to diplomats and policy makers: Talleyrand’s “Above all, gentlemen, not the slightest zeal,” a dictum which represented a profound distaste for busyness. So, whereas the hyperactive Eden engineered the disaster of the Suez crisis, the cautious Eisenhower kept America out of this debacle which cost the other Western powers dearly in terms of prestige and credibility. According to Nichols, “Eisenhower, the military man was not militaristic. He did not think that there were military solutions to many problems.” For Ike, “military credibility” could deter Soviet communism; war, on the other hand, was “a last, not a first resort.” As the President would later reflect: “The United States never lost a soldier or a foot of ground during my administration. We kept the peace. People ask how it happened—by God, it didn’t just happen.” The September 11 terrorist attacks gave new momentum to America’s historic missionary impulse to, pace John Quincy Adams, go abroad in search of monsters to destroy. Not surprisingly, Eisenhower’s foreign policy attitude has been at best regarded with incomprehension, at worst as cynical, during much of the past decade. Caution and prudence were frowned upon; assertiveness and busyness were praised. Yet it has become increasingly evident that a policy of global interventionism or leadership is not sustainable—even if the necessary economic resources for such a policy were available. Bloodied by quagmires in Iraq and Afghanistan, crippled by a $14-plus trillion debt and near-double-digit unemployment, shattered by the financial meltdown, and suffering from a crisis of confidence, the US is struggling to assert its leadership across the globe. In this environment, Washington is leaving the realm of necessity and entering the realm of choice, where the key word is not ‘and’ but ‘or’ and the key question is not ‘how?’ but ‘why?’ This is what, in essence, President Obama’s unnamed adviser meant in his highly controversial remarks to the New Yorker’s Ryan Lizza, when he said that America was “leading from behind” in Libya. The expression drew an overwhelmingly hostile response. It “sounds rather pathetic” (Maureen Dowd). It “just doesn’t work in today’s world” (David Ignatius). It’s “not leading; it’s abdicating” (Charles Krauthammer). “Leading from behind,” editorialised the Washington Post, merely reflects “extraordinary US passivity” and a “pattern of torpidity” during the Arab Spring. But the point that Obama’s adviser was trying to make, surely, is similar to the one that shaped Eisenhower’s world view during 1956. It is not, as the critics charge, that passivity is a foreign policy virtue, but that—depending on the circumstances and the nature of one’s interests—it sometimes makes sense for even a global hegemon such as the US to keep out of harm’s way. Some might say that such an attitude is alien to the American psyche. Former Reagan speechwriter Peggy Noonan, however, put it best in the Wall Street Journal at the height of the Libyan crisis this year: “In America, applause for the moderate will be moderate; approval for the restrained will be restrained. But Ike was at his greatest when he was not waging war.” Indeed, one of the disconcerting things about Obama’s critics, like Eisenhower’s critics in the mid-1950s, is that they seem to favour intervention generally and on principle, rather than as a drastic course to be turned to only when truly important interests are at stake and softer measures have failed. Indeed, for many US policymakers the attraction seems to be the activity itself, and the assertion of US will and ‘leadership’ it represents. Such a mindset is not confined to merely neo-conservatives. It was not Paul Wolfowitz, but Madeline Albright who declared: “If we have to use force, it is because we are America. We are the indispensable nation.” And it was not Dick Cheney, but Hillary Clinton who claimed: “We do believe there are no limits on what is possible or what can be achieved... For the United States, global leadership is both a responsibility and an unparalleled opportunity.” After one reads Nichols’s book about Eisenhower’s actions in 1956, however, one is left with this important message for the next generation of policymakers: that in coming years the US should use its position of vast power with restraint and prudence. To the extent American leadership remains a rallying cry, it should be about achieving specific goals, not open-ended diffuse ones. Perhaps this is why “leading from behind”, inadvertently, might not be such a bad thing. It serves to encourage a sense of limits at a time when the American people are not willing or able to pay for a Pax Americana. If this is indeed the case, the current president could no worse than reading David Nichols’s celebration of restraint.

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The green crab is native to the Atlantic Ocean off of the coast of Europe. Around the early eighteen hundreds the green crab was first seen on the Atlantic coast of North America. The crab can now be found from ranging from as far north as Nova Scotia and to the southern state of Virginia. In the late eighties, the crab mysteriously showed up in the San Francisco Bay area, and has since been spotted as far north as Oregon. This crab has also been found in such areas as far reaching as the continent of Australia.(Deegan, et al 1999, Holden 1997) The green crab resides among tidal marshes, sandflats, and coasts with a rocky terrain. They tend to stay around these areas for protection from predators, and to be close to a readily available food supply.(Holden 1997, Deegan, et al 1999) The name, green crab, can be deceiving. The color of this crab depends on the molting cycle the crab is undergoing. These colors can range from green to orange and even red in some cases. Green crabs are also visibly identifiable by the yellowish spots on the abdomen, which are also accompanied by five small spines also located on the front edge of the shell. The adult green crab only grows to about three inches in width and two inches in length. (Washington Dept 1997, Jaquette 1998) The mating process of the green crab begins with the seeking out of a recently molted female crab by a male green crab. The female lays eggs which she carries in a pouch underneath her abdomen where the male crab fertilizes them. The female green crab can lay as many as a hundred thousand eggs at one time. Following fertilization, the females then travel to deeper water to more stable water conditions where the eggs begin to develop. Once the eggs have developed into a larvae,or the zoea stage, the larvae then return to the surface waters for about two weeks. Once the larvae have entered the final stage of development or the megalopae stage, the young crabs travel to the coastal waters where they begin a molting cycle and life as a juvenile crab. In approximately three years the juvenile crab will become a fully developed crab and be able to mate and reproduce.(Bamber and Naylor 1997, Washington Dept. 1997) Possibly the most noticable behavior pattern of the green crab is their annual movement to deeper water. It is believed that this movement to deeper water is to take advantage of the stable temperatures and salinity of this area of ocean. When the mating process of the green crab occurs it is generally immediately after the molting of the female crab. A male crab will pick a female before molting occurs and will stay with her until fertilization. The is very beneficial for the female crab because she is protected from predators and other males during a vulnerable time in her life cycle. Studies have shown that the green crabs that are red in coloration tend to have a greater chance of mating with female green crabs, this is partly due to the enlarged claw size that the red males possess. The red-colored green crab males also have a thicker exoskeleton. This thicker exoskeleton, while conferring an advantage in male-male interactions, it is thought to reduce their ability to tolerate salinity changes. (Bamber and Naylor 1997,Reid, et al 1997, Washington Dept. 1997) The green crab enjoys a variety of different foods. These foods include clams, oysters, mussels, and other small crabs. The green crab is very dexterous and has many ways in which to open up the shellfish on which it feeds. The green crab is known as a very vicious carnivore that will consume anything it can get its claws on.(Holden 1997, Washington Dept. 1997) The green crab serves no basic benefit to humans. Due to the number of shell fish the green crab eats, and the rate at which it is done, the green crab is seen as a large threat to the many of the nations commercial shellfisheries. It is estimated that millions of dollars could be spent and are spent each year to try and thwart the green crabs from destroying a very important industry, and helping to maintain biodiversity in areas poplutlated by the green crab. The green crab also carries a parasitic worm that can infect birds that prey on the crabs. This can have a potentially devastating effect by throwing off the food chain, and on the ecosystem as a whole in these areas. (Washington Sea 1998, Washington Dept.1997, Jaquette 1998, Holden 1997) No conservation of the green crab is currently under way. The United States government is currently undergoing programs in which to slow the growth of green crab populations fearing a shift in biodiversity in many of the nations coastal regions. Several options are being discussed in which to achieve this. One of which includes introducing a barnacle that can sterilize female green crabs, and the egg predator, Carcinonemertes epialti, to limit the number of green crab offspring being produced.(Washington Dept. 1997) Chris Tutt (author), Southwestern University, Stephanie Fabritius (editor), Southwestern University. the body of water between Africa, Europe, the southern ocean (above 60 degrees south latitude), and the western hemisphere. It is the second largest ocean in the world after the Pacific Ocean. body of water between the southern ocean (above 60 degrees south latitude), Australia, Asia, and the western hemisphere. This is the world's largest ocean, covering about 28% of the world's surface. having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria. the nearshore aquatic habitats near a coast, or shoreline. animals which must use heat acquired from the environment and behavioral adaptations to regulate body temperature the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic. Bamber, S., E. Naylor. Feb,1997. Sites of Release of Putative Sex Pheromone and Sexual Behaviour in Female Carcinus maenas. Estaurine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 44: 195-202. Deegan, L., R. Garritt, S. Komarow, T. Young. Oct,1999. Population size and summer home range of the green crab, Carcinus maenas, in salt marsh tidal creeks. Biological Bulletin: 297-299. Gosner, K. 1978. Peterson Field Guide: A Guide to the Atlantic Sea Shore. New York, New York: Houghton Mifflin Co. Holden, C. April 11,1997. Green crabs advance north. Science: 206. Jaquette, L. Oct,1998. Invasion of the Green crabs. Trailer Boats: 66-67. Reid, D., P. Abello, M. Kaiser, C. Warman. Feb, 1997. Carapace Colour, Inter-moult Duration and the Behavioural amd Physiological Ecology of the Shore Crab Carcinus maenus. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 44: 203-211. Washington Dept. of Fish and Wildlife, 1997. "Green Crabs" (On-line). Accessed April 10, 2000 at http://www.wa.gov:80/wdfw/fish/shellfish/greencrb.htm. Washington Sea Grant Program, 1998. "Green Crab" (On-line). Accessed April 11, 2000 at http://www.wsg.washington.edu/outreach/mas/aquaculture/crab.html.

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Welcome to Art with Ms. Sloate! Ms. Sloate teaches Art at Nottingham on Thursdays and Fridays to the following K - 2 classes: Mrs. Hemstreet, Ms. DeAtley, Ms. Biechman, Ms. Toner, Ms. Costa, Ms. Sipe, Mr. Katoen and Ms. Gassman. You can email her at: [email protected] Second grade artists created self-portraits, in the style of an Ancient Egyptian. We learned about the proportions of a face, and how to draw a self-portrait. We looked at Ancient Egyptian mummy portraits, and discussed the colors, symbols, shapes, hairstyles, clothing and jewelry they used. First grade artists learned to make visual texture by drawing patterns. They invented texture creatures in a landscape, using crayons, watercolor paints, and collage. Students were inspired by the story, Where the Wild Things Are, by Maurice Sendak. Then, they made texture creatures in clay. Kindergarten artists created collage self-portraits. We looked at the portraits of artist, Romare Bearden, and discussed how a self-portrait tells something about yourself. Kindergarten artists have been learning to make curved and straight-edged shapes with lines, paint and scissors. We mixed primary colors and created collages inspired by the artwork of Henri Matisse. First grade artists have been learning about different kinds of lines that make geometric and organic, or free-form, shapes. They used drawing, painting and printmaking to create a vision of their “Beautiful Place”. Second grade artists painted autumn leaves, by mixing the secondary colors of orange, green and violet. We first drew leaves from observation, focusing on different kinds of lines. Then, we painted tints (lighter) and shades (darker) of these colors. We looked at the artwork of Georgia O'Keeffe for inspiration.

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WatchList > View WatchList Photo by Chandler Robbins. Active and feisty, these little wren-like flycatchers are found on three of the Hawaiian Islands-Hawaii, Kauai, and Oahu-where they are unusual among Hawaii's native birds in being able to persist in disturbed forests with introduced plants. Populations remain fairly healthy, except on Oahu where they have seriously declined in recent decades. The three island populations of this flycatcher were formerly considered separate species (as many as 5 species recognized at one time) but were lumped into a single species in 1944. Elepaio vary considerably in plumage coloration, and to a lesser degree in vocalizations, between the five currently recognized subspecies. Identification is readily based on the discrete ranges of the five subspecies. On the island of Hawaii, where three subspecies occur, the ranges are separated by unforested alpine areas and recent lava flows. In general Elepaio are recognized by their long cocked-up tails; vivid and complex patterns of brown, black, white, and rufous; and presence of two white wing bars. Their song is a loudly whistled version of the Hawaiian name e-le-PAI-o. It is thought that this species originally inhabited most forested areas from sea level to tree line on Hawaii, Kauai, and Oahu. Although much of their original range has been greatly reduced by clearing for development and agriculture, the broad habitat requirements and flexible foraging strategies of this species have kept them common while other native birds have declined dramatically or disappeared altogether. Elepaio are still fairly common and widespread on Hawaii and Kauai, especially in forested areas at higher elevations, but the situation on Oahu has deteriorated significantly. There the population survives in 7-8 small fragments, with the total population estimated at 1200-1400 birds. During an extended nesting season, Elepaio construct cup-like nests among the branches of any of a wide variety of trees, including both native and introduced species. Nesting dates range from January to August depending on the population, and even between years (perhaps in response to rainfall). While they forage on the wing in typical flycatcher fashion, Elepaio also spend time in trees and on the ground searching energetically through leaf litter for arthropods. They are highly versatile in their selection of foraging strategies and niches. As with other native Hawaiian birds, the spread of avian malaria and pox by introduced mosquitoes, and clearing of habitat have had significant negative impacts on Elepaio populations. In many areas Elepaio persist due to their flexible habitat requirements, or else they have contracted their range to higher elevations. It's thought that the ground feeding habits of this species make them more susceptible to predation by feral cats and Indian Mongooses (Herpestes auropunctatus), while rats have been implicated in nest failures. On Oahu, adult survival has been shown to be lower than in a large population on Hawaii largely caused by avian poxvirus transmitted by mosquitoes. Black rats have been implicated as the major factor causing a higher rate of nest loss on Oahu as compared to Hawaii. Storm events and heavy rainfall are natural phenomena that significantly impact nesting success, as evidenced by a study on Hawaii in which all Elepaio nests failed after a 3-day storm. The Oahu `Elepaio (C.s. ibidis) was federally listed as Endangered in 2000. Measures currently being taken include active monitoring of populations and screening for disease resistance, in part to learn more about the dynamic between bird populations and disease vectors. A program of experimentally controlling introduced Black Rats on Oahu has been successful at increasing reproductive success. The Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources continues its efforts at predator control to decrease nest loss and increase populations of Oahu Elepaio. On Hawaii, the Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge supports a relatively large population of Elepaio. On Mauna Kea, removal of feral sheep and goats has allowed habitat regeneration which will eventually increase habitat available to the species. What Can You Do? U.S. National Wildlife Refuges provide essential habitat for Elepaio and a great number of other species throughout the U.S. and its territories. Unfortunately, the refuge system is often under-funded during the U.S. government's budgeting process. To learn more about how you can help gain much needed funding for U.S. National Wildlife Refuges, visit: http://www.audubon.org/campaign/refuge_report/ The Endangered Species Act has helped protect Oahu Elepaio and made it possible to learn critical information about its biology. Audubon continues to work to ensure that this vital legislation is being used to protect our publicly-owned wildlife resources. Check out http://www.audubon.org/campaign/ to learn of the latest news about the Endangered Species Act and how you can help. To learn more about other species protected under this legislation, visit: http://endangered.fws.gov/ Join Hawaii Audubon Society. A chapter of National Audubon, the Hawaii Audubon Society works to protect and educate people about Hawaii's birds. For more information visit http://www.audubon.org/states/hi/ Support efforts to control feral animals and invasive plants and insects throughout the Hawaiian Islands. For more information visit: http://www.hear.org/ Support efforts to protect native forest habitat on Hawaii, Kauai, and Oahu by state and federal agencies and conservation organizations. BirdLife International. 2000. Threatened Birds of the World. Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International, Barcelona and Cambridge, UK: BirdLife International (2006) Species factsheet: Chasiempis sandwichensis, Elepaio http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/species/index.html?action=SpcHTMDetails.asp&sid=6075&m=0 Culliney, J. L. 1988. Islands in a Far Sea: Nature and Man in Hawaii. Sierra Club Books, San Francisco. Pratt, H. D. et. al. 1987. A Field Guide to the Birds of Hawaii and the Tropical Pacific. Princeton UP, Princeton, New Jersey. Vanderwerf, E. A. 1998. Elepaio (Chasiempis sandwichensis). In The Birds of North America, No. 344 (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, PA, and The American Ornithologist's Union, Washington, D.C.

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Book and Sutra Palm leaf manuscripts. A codex was a book as we know it that appeared first in the ancient Roman Empire in the first century of the Common Era (CE). Replacing papyrus scroll, inherited from Egyptian tradition, it became a dominant form of book by the 4th century. Codex offered significant advantages. Unlike scroll, it allows writing on both sides of a sheet of parchment or paper and, importantly, it permits an easy and rapid access to any part of the text, especially with numbered pages and indexing. In addition, hard cover binding of individual sheets made it better protected and portable. Early Christians from the beginning favoured codex for their scriptural writings, possibly to further distance themselves from Judaism where the Torah was firmly associated with a scroll. At the time when Romans were experimenting with codex, in far away China the first sheets of paper were made. These two inventions, combined with printing pages using a wooden block, gave us the book we know, cherish and still read today. In India and Sri Lanka, however, a somewhat different path was taken. As early as 5th century Before the Common Era (BCE), and probably much earlier, hand written manuscripts were produced. The text was inscribed on dry palm leaves strung together in the form of a ‘book’. Unlike Jewish and Christian scripture, Vedas - Hindu sacred ‘texts’ of knowledge and wisdom were not written (until recently) but only memorised. To help in memorising this sacred wisdom, manuals or formulas were produced in a form of sayings (aphorisms). The word sutra, derived from Sanskrit means an aphorism, and the palm leaf ‘books’ developed into a distinct literary format based on short sayings (aphorisms), strung into longer texts of formulas. But sutra also means a thread or a line that holds things together, thoughts and ideas as well as material objects such as the sheets of palm leaf. Adopted in Latin medical jargon suere indicates stitching the edges of a wound. So, sutra was such an ideal term to apply to a ‘book’ of aphorisms, linking collective ideas as well as literally holding palm leaves strung together with a cord. More broadly sutra indicate Hindu and Buddhist religious texts that in the form of palm leaf manuscripts helped to propagate this faith through parts of Asia in the first millennium BCE and through the many centuries of the Common Era. Known as lontar in Bali, palm leaf manuscripts are considered the most appropriate form of preserving centuries-old tradition. They are still used as the most important sources of knowledge on religion, medicine, law, literature, social conventions, and the overall wisdom of tradition. Torah – is a central scripture of Judaism, an equivalent of the Christian Old Testament. Written in Biblical Hebrew it is a scroll which contains five major sections (books), beginning with the Book of Genesis. Dr Stan Florek , Database Manager

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Henry Gray (18251861). Anatomy of the Human Body. 1918. fourth, and fifth articular depressions.1 It affords attachment on either side to the sternal origin of the Pectoralis major. At the junction of the third and fourth pieces of the body is occasionally seen an orifice, the sternal foramen, of varying size and form. The posterior surface, slightly concave, is also marked by three transverse lines, less distinct, however, than those in front; from its lower part, on either side, the Transversus thoracis takes origin. Borders.The superior border is oval and articulates with the manubrium, the junction of the two forming the sternal angle (angulus Ludovici2). The inferior border is narrow, and articulates with the xiphoid process. Each lateral border(Fig. 117), at its superior angle, has a small facet, which with a similar facet on the manubrium, forms a cavity for the cartilage of the second rib; below this are four angular depressions which receive the cartilages of the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth ribs, while the inferior angle has a small facet, which, with a corresponding one on the xiphoid process, forms a notch for the cartilage of the seventh rib. These articular depressions are separated by a series of curved interarticular intervals, which diminish in length from above downward, and correspond to the intercostal spaces. Most of the cartilages belonging to the true ribs, as will be seen from the foregoing description, articulate with the sternum at the lines of junction of its primitive component segments. This is well seen in many of the lower animals, where the parts of the bone remain ununited longer than in man. Xiphoid Process (processus xiphoideus; ensiform or xiphoid appendix).The xiphoid process is the smallest of the three pieces: it is thin and elongated, cartilaginous in structure in youth, but more or less ossified at its upper part in the adult. Surfaces.Its anterior surface affords attachment on either side to the anterior costoxiphoid ligament and a small part of the Rectus abdominis; its posterior surface, to the posterior costoxiphoid ligament and to some of the fibers of the diaphragm and Transversus thoracis, its lateral borders, to the aponeuroses of the abdominal muscles. Above, it articulates with the lower end of the body, and on the front of each superior angle presents a facet for part of the cartilage of the seventh rib; below, by its pointed extremity, it gives attachment to the linea alba. The xiphoid process varies much in form; it may be broad and thin, pointed, bifid, perforated, curved, or deflected considerably to one or other side. Structure.The sternum is composed of highly vascular cancellous tissue, covered by a thin layer of compact bone which is thickest in the manubrium between the articular facets for the clavicles. Ossification.The sternum originally consists of two cartilaginous bars, situated one on either side of the median plane and connected with the cartilages of the upper nine ribs of its own side. These two bars fuse with each other along the middle line to form the cartilaginous sternum which is ossified from six centers: one for the manubrium, four for the body, and one for the xiphoid process (Fig. 118). The ossific centers appear in the intervals between the articular depressions for the costal cartilages, in the following order: in the manubrium and first piece of the body, during the sixth month; in the second and third pieces of the body, during the seventh month of fetal life; in its fourth piece, during the first year after birth; and in the xiphoid process, between the fifth and eighteenth years. The centers make their appearance at the upper parts of the segments, and proceed gradually downward.3 To these may be added the occasional existence of two small episternal centers, which make their appearance one on either side of the jugular notch; they are probably vestiges of the episternal bone of the monotremata and lizards. Occasionally some of the segments are formed from more than one center, the number and position of which vary (Fig. 120). Thus, the first piece may have two, three, or even six centers. When two are Note 1. Paterson (The Human Sternum, 1904), who examined 524 specimens, points out that these ridges are altogether absent in 26.7 per cent.; that in 69 per cent. a ridge exists opposite the third costal attachment; in 39 per cent. opposite the fourth; and in 4 per cent. only, opposite the fifth. [back] Note 2. Named after the French surgeon Antoine Louis, 17231792. The Latin name angulus Ludovici is not infrequently mistranslated into English as the angle of Ludwig. [back] Note 3. Out of 141 sterna between the time of birth and the age of sixteen years, Paterson (op. cit.) found the fourth or lowest center for the body present only in thirty-eight casesi. e., 26.9 per cent. [back]

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