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The term “cerebral palsy” refers to any one of a number of non-progressive neurological disorders caused by damage to one or more areas of the brain, it usually occurs during the development of the foetus or during or shortly after birth. There are different types of cerebral palsy, some affect the ability to speak. With Tobii's Assistive Technology devices can support this. The damage to the brain means that the person affected is unable to fully control some of their muscles - in practice, this means that some people cannot walk or talk in the same way as most others. There are three main types of cerebral palsy, with some people affected by more than one of them. Spastic cerebral palsy is the most common type and is characterized by stiff, jerky movements caused by tightness in muscles groups. Athetoid cerebral palsy involves involuntary purposeless movements which often interfere with speech, while ataxic cerebral palsy often affects balance and the ability to walk. Tobii’s range of flexible Augmentative and Alternative Communications (AAC) products helps those affected by cerebral palsy to communicate with the world around them. For example, Tobii’s state-of-the-art Tobii C15 or Tobii C12 Assitive Technology devices with CEye eye control module give users the chance to build a communications package specifically tailored to their needs. After an initial calibration, the system reads the user’s patterns of eye movement to execute commands. The Tobii CEye performs with high levels of precision and has a unique ability to deal with large head movements, such as those that often occur in persons affected by cerebral palsy. The CEye can be combined with Tobii’s other market-leading AAC solutions to create a powerful package for individuals with Cerebral Palsy.

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http://www.tobii.com/assistive-technology/north-america/disabilities/common-disabilities/cerebral-palsy/

2013-05-22T15:08:43Z

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November 1862 did not begin well for the national Republican Party and President Abraham Lincoln. On November 4 the Democrats continued their impressive gains made in October, picking up critical seats in Wisconsin. The Republicans kept control of the House of Representatives, with victories in New England, the border slave states, California, and Michigan. Northern commentators acknowledged war weariness as a reason for Democratic Party inroads, but many Northerners voted Democratic because of their opposition to the Emancipation Proclamation. Many in the North, for the first time, had to consider the fate of the black race in America if free. To many Northerners, that was an unpopular consideration.

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http://www.tpr.org/post/week-civil-war-433

2013-05-22T15:24:08Z

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Fast Facts : Craft of : Bidar, Karnataka State Type : Metal Craft Technique Involved : Art of inlaying silver or gold on black metal Major Bidri items : Jewellery, Hugga Bases, Trinket Boxes, Vases, Plates, Ashtrays The most popular a handicraft of Andhra Pradesh is the Bidriware, this metal craft is derived its name from Bidar, from which it is originated. This is an art that interlays silver or gold on black metal; this is an eye-catching craft, entered India for more than 4000 years ago from the rich culture of Syrians, Persians and Iranians. Bidri craftsmen were patronized in the Mughlai courts and settled down to practice their craft in the fortress town of Bidar in Karnataka, giving the craft its name. It originated with the ornamentation of royal swords and other weapons, and was later applied to domestic use in items like cigars and cigarette boxes. Typical Bidri items include plates, bowls, vases, ashtrays, trinket boxes, huqqa bases, jewellery etc. Glass and studded bangles of Bidri are a favorite with women. Stages in Bidri Making : Behind the breathtaking beauty of Bidri, lies hours of meticulous effort by the artisans. The original technique involved the inlaying of gold or silver on a steel or copper base. This method had its origins in Persia. However, the metal used for the base today is an alloy of zinc and copper. The black colour is the result of the heating the zinc and copper surface gently and applying sal ammoniac with old fort earth. It is engraved or overlaid with silver or brass. There are 4 major phases in the production of Bidri. They are casting, engraving, inlaying and oxidizing. The craftsmen shed their individual pieces, constructing forming clay through sand, oil and resin in ratio (20:2:1) and put in borax to the surface of clay to thwart sticking of metal. Vases, jugs and Flasks are generally shed in 2 divisions separated beside the perpendicular axes. The facade of the coarse cast of object is smoothened and filed by means of sand paper & after that chafed with copper sulphate solution to pass on a dark facade to endow with an appropriate bottom for the following stage of deciphering the blueprint and impression. To incise the drawing, wax as of honeycomb & Raal an adhering representative is made used of. This liquid is stretched on a plane stone and the item to be carved is preset on the stone. The drawing is decrypted by hand, through resources of untainted wire of silver of ninety five % clarity and chisels is beautified in grooves forming wonderful styles. Below given are the several tools used for carving. In the final appealing stage, the objects are heated up lightly and taken care with Sal Ammonic solution and soil taken from ancient fort buildings that has the consequence of creating the entire façade, turning in to jet-black and leaving a distinct disparity to the immaculate silver hatch. This disparity provides Bidri a exclusivity that no supplementary metal ware can possibly claim. Lastly, oil is chafed on the part to intensify the black lusterless coating. This complete process is hand made and is time consuming. You can get the Bidriware from the following given list of shops: Lal Bahadur Stadium, Sheela’s Indian Handicraft, Gun Foundry, Bidri Craft, Kalanjali Arts & Crafts and Nampally in Hyderabad. Seven Hills Plaza, Cauvery Karnataka State Arts & Crafts Emporium, Lepakshi Handicraft Emporium and Hyderabad & Minerva Complex in S.D. Road, Secunderabad.

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http://www.traveladda.com/south_india/andhra_pradesh/people_and_culture/bidriware.html

2013-05-22T15:15:28Z

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"With total disregard for this unfolding global disaster, the fossil fuel industry is planning 14 massive coal, oil and gas projects that would produce as much new carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in 2020 as the entire U.S., and delay action on climate change for more than a decade," the report said. Most scientists say keeping global average temperature rises below 2C is necessary if the world is to avoid the worst impacts of global warming. They say a rise of 6C would lead to catastrophic floods, storms, heatwaves, droughts, crop failures that could eventually kill or displace hundreds of millions of people. Dutch climate consultancy Ecofys compiled the report for Greenpeace, which was released at the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland. Some of the world’s most powerful political and business leaders have gathered in the Alpine ski resort this week to debate a wide range of global issues including climate change and energy policy. “The companies promoting and the governments allowing these massive climate threats must replace them with renewable energy right away and become part of the solution to climate chaos,” said Kumi Naidoo, executive director of Greenpeace. The report said expansion of coal mining in China’s western provinces would account for almost a quarter of the additional 6 billion tonnes, making it the biggest global warming culprit of the 14 plans identified by the report. An expansion of Australia’s coal mines would result in 759 million extra tonnes of CO2, followed by drilling for oil and gas in the Arctic (519 million tonnes) and an expansion of coal mines in Indonesia (458 million tonnes) and tar sands in Canada (424 million tonnes) Plans to exploit massive amounts of the world’s fossil fuels come at a time that countries have dragged their feet on agreeing tougher carbon targets. Developing countries argue they should be free to increase production of fossil fuels to lift their populations out of poverty and that rich countries should shoulder most of the financial burden in cutting emissions through developing and transferring renewable technologies. A spurt in coal demand in big developing economies such as China and India drove global energy related CO2 emissions 3.2 percent higher in 2011 to 31.6 billion tonnes, according to the International Energy Agency. Meanwhile developed countries such as Germany and the UK last year burnt more of the highly-polluting fossil fuel last year, amid cheaper coal imports, weak prices for carbon permits and the relatively high cost of gas. A copy of the report can be downloaded here: By John McGarrity – [email protected]

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http://www.trust.org/item/?map=plans-to-exploit-fossil-fuels-to-force-emissions-20-pct-higher-report/

2013-05-22T15:01:59Z

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Josef Mengele, the 'Angel of Death' The death factory at Auschwitz was a gruesome kingdom of human misery. Barracks and their inhabitants were inundated with the foulest of sanitary conditions. Diseases such as typhus and diarrhea were rampant, as were lice, vermin and fleas. It was over this kingdom which Dr. Josef Mengele sought to preside. Mengele's stated mission at Auschwitz was to perform research on human genetics. His work was funded through a grant that Professor von Verschuer had secured through the German Research Council in August of 1943. The goal of Mengele's work was to unlock the secrets of genetic engineering, and to devise methods for eradicating inferior gene strands from the human population as a means to creating a Germanic super-race. However, despite the scientific premise for his work, Mengele's accomplishments added volumes to the annals of human cruelty while contributing nothing of value to the greater understanding of human genetics and genetic engineering. Mengele set out to immediately distinguish himself from the other SS doctors at Auschwitz. He already stood apart as the only doctor in the camp to have been decorated for his conduct in battle. Mengele made certain to festoon his impeccable SS uniform with the medals he had been awarded. He often made reference to his experiences on the front, and was obviously very proud and protective of his medals. But it was not merely his military background which would come to distinguish Mengele from his colleagues, but his obsessed devotion to his work at Auschwitz that established his reputation as a ruthless, cold-blooded killer whose name inspired fear even in other SS officers. He immediately demonstrated a deep capacity for wanton murder during a typhus epidemic that broke out in the camp just days after he had arrived. He ordered a thousand Gypsy men and women who had the disease to the gas chambers, while sparing the lives of German Gypsies. The significance of this incident is twofold: Mengele adhered to the Nazi belief that Gypsies were a subspecies of the human race, and therefore were "unworthy life". However, the fact that he spared the lives of German Gypsies, at least in this instance, may have resulted from the fact that Mengele himself had many Gypsy aspects to his own physical appearance, from his tawny skin to his dark hair and eyes. He did not at all resemble the ideal Nazi Aryan with blonde hair and blue eyes. At any rate, his willingness to execute 1,000 innocent people in one moment may point to a psychological need to purge the world of those things which he hated about his own self. Whatever it was that inspired Mengele to commit this first act of murder, it continued to fuel his ambition to be Auschwitz's premier authority over matters of life and death. Nowhere was this more apparent than during the selection process, which was primarily held after trains carrying Jewish deportees had arrived at the camp. According to Dr. Ella Lingens, an Austrian doctor who was imprisoned at Auschwitz for attempting to hide some Jewish friends, Mengele relished his role as selector: Some like Werner Rhode who hated his work, and Hans Konig who was deeply disgusted by the job, had to get drunk before they appeared on the ramp. Only two doctors performed the selections without any stimulants of any kind: Dr. Josef Mengele and Dr. Fritz Klein. Dr. Mengele was particularly cold and cynical. He (Mengele) once told me that there are only two gifted people in the world, Germans and Jews, and it's a question of who will be superior. So he decided that they had to be destroyed. Mengele performed this task with relish, appearing at selections to which he had not been officially assigned, always dressed in his best dress uniform. He carried himself with grace and ease in his shiny black boots, his neatly pressed trousers and jacket, and his white cotton gloves, while a sea of misery washed up at his feet in the form of exhausted and starving prisoners. Dr. Olga Lengyel, another inmate-doctor, bitterly recalls Mengele's demeanor on the ramp: How we despised his detached, haughty air, his continual whistling, his frigid cruelty. Day after day he was at his post, watching the pitiful crowd of men and women and children go struggling past, all in the last stages of exhaustion from the inhuman journey in the cattle trucks. He would point with his cane at each person and direct them with one word: "right" or "left." He seemed to enjoy his grisly task. This "frigid cruelty" Dr. Lengyels spoke of would oftentimes give way to a searing hot rage which Mengele would unleash without warning upon those who sought to challenge the order he sought to establish in the camp. Inmate-doctor Gisella Perl recalls an incident when Mengele caught a woman in her sixth attempt to escape from a truck transporting victims to the gas chamber: He grabbed her by the neck and proceeded to beat her head to a bloody pulp. He hit her, slapped her, boxed her, always her head — screaming at the top of his voice, "You want to escape, don't you. You can't escape now. You are going to burn like the others, you are going to croak, you dirty Jew." As I watched, I saw her two beautiful, intelligent eyes disappear under a layer of blood. And in a few seconds, her straight, pointed nose was a flat, broken, bleeding mass. Half an hour later, Dr. Mengele returned to the hospital. He took a piece of perfumed soap out of his bag and, whistling gaily with a smile of deep satisfaction on his face, he began to wash his hands.

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http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/serial_killers/history/mengele/aus_4.html

2013-05-22T15:21:05Z

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Developing nations lack advanced forecasting tools Forecasters in Uganda rely on grainy satellite photos from neighboring countries as their only weather prediction tools. When massive thunderstorms form upwind in the tropics and head toward the area, Ugandans get very little warning. In Nepal, theres no functioning hydroelectric forecasting system. Forecasters cant project stream flow or get information for flood predictions. And along the Mekong River, which starts in China and flows through southeast Asia, different countries that all rely on the rivers water dont have an effective regional modeling system to share information. These are just three examples of the information divide in the climate sciences between developing and developed The information divide mirrors the increasing digital divide between wealthy and poor countries, says Andrew Gettelman of the Atmospheric Chemistry Division. There are significant negative impacts on the abilities of developing countries to predict and respond to weather, climate, and extreme Andrew and his German colleague, Gerd Hartmann of the Max Planck Institute for Aeronomy, monitored a town hall discussion at the annual European Geophysical Society meeting last month in Nice, France, to assess the information divide and brainstorm ways to bridge it. While a postdoctoral researcher in NCARs Advanced Study Program, Andrew conducted a survey of scientists in developing nations to better understand barriers to information exchange in the fields of meteorology and climatology. He pinpointed different obstacles that prevent scientists in developing nations from using climate and meteorology forecasts and from analyzing climate variability. Scientists might not have adequate tools, ranging from electronic teaching aids to mere phone lines and photocopy machines. They might lack access to research articles, data, forecasts, and instructional materials. Communication between scientists may be limited. As a result, climate observing systems suffer, and local knowledge and expertise are lost from the global knowledge base, Andrew says. The key to preventing this is collaboration. Its is the most effective way that people in the developing world gain access to methodology and new ways of doing things, Andrew explains. In many cases its a lifeline for When collaboration does occur, however, its often sporadic and on a project-by-project basis. And sometimes theres a sharp difference between the goals of researchers from different countries. We have different needs and desires than they do for some of the research, says Andrew, referring to scientists in the developing world. They are more concerned about weather, especially for agriculture, and were more concerned about climate and climate change. Even so, Andrew maintains that better weather and climate analysis is a reasonable goal for forecasters in developing You dont necessarily need special computers, he says. You just need the right software and need to know how to use it. in this issue: the midnight hour: BAMEX takes aim at dangerous night storms long riders: How some staffers cope with epic commutes finds lower atmosphere warming bridges for Latina students Question: Publications on the Web

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http://www.ucar.edu/communications/staffnotes/0305/information.html

2013-05-22T15:07:35Z

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Definition: A chordoma is a benign, slow-growing tumor that occurs at the base of the skull or in the spine. These tumors arise from cells present before birth that were supposed to develop into a part of the spinal cord. The World Health Organization does not assign a grade to chordomas. Symptoms: Common symptoms of a chordoma at the base of the skull are headache and inability to move the eyes appropriately causing double vision. A chordoma in the spine can cause pain, numbness, tingling, weakness in the arms and legs, or urinary problems. Evaluation: Chordomas are evaluated with CT or MRI scans. X-rays may be done to show the amount of bone affected by the tumor. The preferred treatment of a chordoma is surgical removal of as much of the tumor as possible without causing significant neurological damage followed by radiation therapy to prevent recurrence. Follow-up: Long-term close follow-up with regular MRI scans is recommended due to the high rate of recurrence of this type of tumor and the possibility of metastasis (spread) to other parts of the body.

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http://www.ucdenver.edu/academics/colleges/medicalschool/departments/Neurosurgery/patientcare/multi-disciplinaryprograms/AdultBrainTumorProgram/Pages/Chordoma.aspx

2013-05-22T15:29:01Z

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In the Atlantic Ocean, once vibrant Caribbean corals are dying as diseases spread over wider geographical ranges. The die-off is extensive for major species of reef-building corals. And in decimated areas, sediments and seaweeds replace them. Off the Atlantic coast of Panama, near it's border with Costa Rica, are the islands of Bocas del Toro. These lush, green tropical islands are in an isolated area of Panama that have some of the most unspoiled coral reefs in the Caribbean. Only a few thousand people live in Bocas' town and surrounding villages. But during the past decade, international travelers have discovered the area, resulting in increased population and development that threaten the environment. The Panamanian government and the residents of Bocas are proactive about preserving their paradise, so they are working with concerned scientists from around the world. Among the researchers here is a graduate student from Scripps' Center for Marine Biodiversity and Conservation. Davey Kline is studying how changing environmental conditions are affecting coral reef habitats and what the future may hold. Davey Kline: The reefs are in an incredibly sad state. In the next 20 to 30 years, if things continue as they're presently going, it's possible that there will be no more healthy Caribbean reefs at all. And I'm trying to figure out how all of the things that we're putting into the ocean - the sedimentation associated with cutting down rain forests, the pesticides from farming, the sewage that dumps out into the ocean, the oil from boats - how each of those things affects the coral animal and more specifically, how it affects the relationship between the coral and the symbiants that live within the coral. Narrator: Davey Kline has been living in Bocas del Toro for over a year, working at the Smithsonian's Tropical Research Institute. The Smithsonian has several research stations in Panama and for 50 years, has worked to protect the country's natural resources. Its labs, facilities and housing are available to scientists from around the world. The dock at Bocas del Toro gives quick access to the local waters. Neilan Kuntz, a Smithsonian research associate, assists with the project. They're setting up for a collection dive off the main island at Punta Caracol, a diverse reef in 15- to 20-feet of water. Davey enters to snorkel around on the surface and pinpoint the good collecting area. They are seeking Montastraea annularis, or mountain star coral. It's one of the most common reef-building corals in the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico. Each coral colony is made up of thousands of tiny, individual animals called polyps that are basically a mouth surrounded by tentacles. Polyps produce a covering of thick mucous that is constantly shed from the coral. The mucous supports a diverse community of bacteria that differs between species of corals. This mucous also serves as the coral's first line of defense against disease. Davey places a syringe on individual polyps to suck off mucous to take back to the lab. Notes are taken about the health of the coral and the mucous samples are marked and numbered. As their experiment requires living coral, Davey looks over the colony for a healthy sample of the right size. He selects a piece where he can chisel on dead skeleton to avoid damaging any living tissue. The coral colony needs to be flat on the bottom, so it is trimmed with bone clippers. Again - just cutting the dead skeleton. Back on the boat, Davey and Neilan examine the samples to check their suitability. About 40 polyps are on this small piece. Despite the extensive damage caused by coral disease, very little is known about what causes them. Of the 27 reported coral diseases, the causes are known for only a few. They head back to the Smithsonian's dock. Here, the corals are placed into a one-of-a-kind aquarium that accommodates 400 samples simultaneously. Designed by Davey and Forest Rohwer of San Diego State University, the system exposes the corals to precisely-controlled stresses while mimicking the conditions of the reef. Filtered reef water is pumped into the system and mixed with various concentrations of nutrients, chemicals and bacteria. They are taken from sewage, asphalt and other pollution sources. Davey Kline: This concentrated chemical is then mixed with the sea water and the dose sea water travels down these lines to what we call an accumulator. And what the accumulator does is then distribute the water to the ten replicate corals and then we can look at the effects of the chemical on these coral. We can look at 40 independent chemicals on 400 corals and we can get an idea of what levels of the different stressors affect the corals and how it changes the relationship between the coral and their bacterial and algal symbiants. Narrator: A healthy coral colony has a rich brown coloring from it's symbiotic algae, while a diseased one is bleached white. In the Smithsonian's laboratory, the mucous samples are prepared. The bacteria in the mucous are introduced into a specific growth medium in Petri dishes. Sterile techniques are used to ensure no contamination. The experiments have shown that very low levels of chemicals and nutrients can stress the corals and their symbiants. The dishes are placed into an incubator, where the warm temperature will allow the bacteria to flourish over the next three days. When they are removed, the dishes contain a thick soup of bacteria, which is transferred into vials of sea water. Neilan then measures the exact bacteria concentration, so that they can control the doses added to the corals in the experiment. Davey prepares a sample of asphalt from a local road. Small chunks are broken off and placed into a porous bag. The oils and tars in asphalt and roofing materials dissolve in water and their run-off is one of the major problems of urbanization near coral reefs. Back at the experimental aquarium, Neilan mixes a bacterial solution into the system. The research is showing that some coral diseases are caused by a loss of balance among bacteria species living on the reef. Davey takes a packet of asphalt and puts it into another container. They found that asphalt kills corals quickly and are trying to determine which compounds are the least toxic, so recommendations can be made about future road and building materials. The greatest concern is that people who live near coral reefs, often don't realize how their actions affect the marine environment. Davey Kline: From my research, it's pretty clear that most of the stuff we're dumping into the water is gonna affect the reefs. And if people don't think about what they do with their sewage water; what they do with the run-offs from banana plantations and from farms that we're going to lose all this diversity associated with reefs. EDITOR'S NOTE: This video was produced in 2004.

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http://www.ucop.edu/sciencetoday/article/23

2013-05-22T15:34:56Z

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Want to stay on top of all the space news? Follow @universetoday on Twitter What is the distance to the Sun? And do we know? These were questions that puzzled astronomers for centuries. Besides the answers we provided below, there are also lots of books in the market about the Solar System. First, I’ll just give you the quick answer, so you can fill out your homework assignment and move on. The average distance to the Sun is 149,597,887.5 km. Astronomers call this distance 1 astronomical unit (or AU). But this number isn’t entirely accurate, because the Earth travels an elliptical orbit around the Sun. At some points in its orbit, the distance from the Earth to the Sun is shorter, and other times its further. The closest distance to the Sun, which astronomers call perihelion, is 147,098,074 km. And the furthest distance to the Sun – called aphelion – is 152,097,701 km. Now… how do we know the distance to the Sun so accurately? Geometry. Early astronomers calculated the angles to Mars during opposite points of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun. This method allowed them to calculate that the Earth was about 140 million km from the Sun. A more accurate measurement was made in 1761 when Venus made a rare transit in front of the Sun. During the most recent transit of Venus in 2004, astronomers from around the world worked together to refine the current value for the distance to the Sun. Here’s an article from NASA that talks about the story of Venus transits. Pretty exciting stuff. We have recorded an episode of Astronomy Cast just about the Sun called The Sun, Spots and All.

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2013-05-22T15:00:42Z

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The leaders of Nazi Germany shared a passion for art, amassing either through plunder or purchase large state and individual collections. However, they could not have succeeded in this endeavor without the assistance of experts from the art world. In The Faustian Bargain: The Art World in Nazi Germany, Jonathan Petropoulos profiles five prominent individuals who furthered their artistic careers through collaboration and conformity with the Third Reich: • Ernst Buchner, the General Director of the Bavarian State Painting Collections and an expert on pre-modern German art, repatriated the Van Eyck brothers’ Ghent altarpiece to Germany. • Karl Haberstock, a prominent art dealer, found favor among the Nazi elite, selling pieces to Hitler, Göring, Goebbels, and Speer, among others. Later, his influence extended to the role of adviser to the Reich’s visual arts programs, guiding decisions on the disposal of confiscated works. • Robert Scholz, a leading art critic and editor of the official Nazi art journal, Kunst im Deutschen Reich, became an officer in the looting organizations in France. • Kajetan Muhlmann, an art historian, oversaw looting organizations in Poland and the Netherlands. • Arno Breker, a renowned artist, produced monumental sculptures that gained Hitler’s praise and came to represent the Nazi regime. In chapters focused on each of these men, Petropoulos also discusses three or four ancillary figures to illustrate that these key individuals were not alone in their commitment to the goals of the Third Reich. Among the others discussed are: Hans Posse, who accepted the directorship of the Führermuseum for the opportunity to build the greatest museum of all time; Prince Philipp of Hessen, who acted as a liaison between Hitler and Mussolini while procuring art works for the Nazi regime’s leaders; and Otto Kümmel, who headed the Berlin State Museums and led a large-scale effort to reclaim German works taken from Germany in the previous four centuries. These men of the intelligentsia played a profound role in the looting and confiscation of treasured and valuable artworks, and yet few of them faced any sort of punishment for their involvement. In fact, most remained actively associated with the art world after the War and went on to lead normal lives. They justified their behavior under the Nazis on the grounds that they were safeguarding cultural property, following orders, or taking back what rightfully belonged to Germany. In the end, however, as Petropoulos details, they went beyond mere collusion to active -- and in many cases, criminal -- participation. They compromised their commitment to art, and their own personal integrity and morals, in favor of their commitment to the Third Reich. The Faustian Bargain complements Petropoulos’ 1996 book, Art and Politics in the Third Reich, which explores the Nazi leaders’ involvement in arts administration and their passion for collecting art. The Faustian Bargain includes detailed notes, an extensive bibliography, and an index. The Library always welcomes suggestions for acquisitions. While we cannot guarantee that we will acquire the recommended title, we do appreciate your input. To make a recommendation, please fill out our Acquisition Suggestion Form. |TABLE OF CONTENTS| |Abbreviations and Acronyms||xv| |Chapter 1: Art Museum Directors||13| |Chapter 2: Art Dealers||63| |Chapter 3: Art Journalists||111| |Chapter 4: Art Historians||165| |Chapter 5: Artists||215|

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2013-05-22T15:06:51Z

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Catheter Ablation for Atrial Fibrillation Treatment Overview Back to top Catheter ablation is a minimally invasive procedure to treat atrial fibrillation. It can relieve symptoms and improve quality of life. During an ablation, the doctor destroys tiny areas in the heart that are firing off abnormal electrical impulses and causing atrial fibrillation. You will be given medicine to help you relax. A local anesthetic will numb the site where the catheter is inserted. Sometimes, general anesthesia is used. The procedure is done in a hospital where you can be watched carefully. Thin, flexible wires called catheters are inserted into a vein, typically in the groin or neck, and threaded up into the heart. There is an electrode at the tip of the wires. The electrode sends out radio waves that create heat. This heat destroys the heart tissue that causes atrial fibrillation or the heart tissue that keeps it happening. Another option is to use freezing cold to destroy the heart tissue. Sometimes, abnormal impulses come from inside a pulmonary vein and cause atrial fibrillation. (The pulmonary veins bring blood back from the lungs to the heart.) Catheter ablation in a pulmonary vein can block these impulses and keep atrial fibrillation from happening. View a slideshow of catheter ablation to see how the heart's electrical system works, how atrial fibrillation happens, and how ablation is done. AV node ablation AV node ablation is a slightly different type of ablation procedure for atrial fibrillation. AV node ablation can control symptoms of atrial fibrillation in some people. It might be right for you if medicine has not worked, catheter ablation did not stop your atrial fibrillation, or you cannot have catheter ablation. With AV node ablation, the entire atrioventricular (AV) node is destroyed. After the AV node is destroyed, it can no longer send impulses to the lower chambers of the heart (ventricles). This controls atrial fibrillation symptoms. After AV node ablation, a permanent pacemaker is needed to regulate your heart rhythm. Nodal ablation can control your heart rate and reduce your symptoms, but it does not prevent or cure atrial fibrillation. AV node ablation helps about 9 out of 10 people. 1 The procedure has a low risk of serious problems. 2 View a slideshow of AV node ablation to see how the heart's electrical system works, how atrial fibrillation happens, and how AV node ablation is performed. What To Expect After Treatment Back to top Recovery from catheter ablation is usually quick. You may be hospitalized for 1 to 2 days so that your doctor can monitor your heart. Many people think that having ablation means they'll be able to stop taking an anticoagulant (also called a blood thinner), such as warfarin, every day to prevent stroke. But that is only true if your risk of stroke is low. Studies haven't proved that ablation for atrial fibrillation lowers your risk of stroke. So you'll still need to take an anticoagulant if your risk of stroke remains high. Your doctor can tell you about your stroke risk. After an ablation, you might take an antiarrhythmic medicine for a few months to help keep your heart in a normal rhythm. You might feel symptoms, such as palpitations, after the ablation procedure. These symptoms might happen while your heart is healing. During your follow-up visits, tell your doctor if you have symptoms. If they do not go away after a few months, you may need a second ablation procedure. Why It Is Done Back to top Ablation might be done if you have symptoms that won't go away after you take an antiarrhythmic medicine to control your heart rhythm. Either your medicine did not bring back a normal heartbeat, or your medicine caused side effects that are hard to live with. 3, 4 Catheter ablation does have some serious risks, but they are rare. Many people decide to have ablation because they hope to feel much better afterward. That hope is worth the risks to them. But the risks may not be worth it for people who have few symptoms or for people who are less likely to be helped by ablation. How Well It Works Back to top Catheter ablation can stop atrial fibrillation from happening and can relieve symptoms. Catheter ablation works better in people who have atrial fibrillation that comes and goes (paroxysmal) than in people who have atrial fibrillation that is persistent (lasts longer than 7 days and doesn't go away on its own). Ablation might be less likely to work the longer a person has persistent atrial fibrillation. 4 Other things that limit how well catheter ablation works include older age, other heart problems, obesity, and sleep apnea. 4 Your doctor can help you decide if ablation is a good choice based on your health. Catheter ablation is still being studied to see how well it works and how safe it is in the long term. Paroxysmal atrial fibrillation - Research shows that ablation helps more than 70 to 80 out of 100 people. 5 That means it does not help in about 20 to 30 out of 100 cases. - In a worldwide survey, ablation helped 84 out of every 100 people. 6 Persistent atrial fibrillation - Research shows that ablation helps about 50 out of 100 people. 4, 1 That means it doesn't work in about 50 out of 100 cases. - In a worldwide survey, ablation helped about 65 out of every 100 people. 6 Repeated ablation procedures If the first procedure doesn't get rid of atrial fibrillation completely, you may need to have it done a second time. Repeated ablations have a higher chance of success. Research shows that a second ablation is needed in 20 to 40 people out of 100. This means that 60 to 80 out of 100 people don't need another ablation. 4 Risks Back to top Catheter ablation is considered safe. Most people do well afterward. Your doctor can help you decide whether the possible benefits of ablation outweigh these risks: Problems during the procedure If problems happen during the procedure, your doctor is prepared to fix them right away. In studies and a worldwide survey, serious problems happened in about 4 out 100 people. 7, 6 These problems include an accidental hole in the heart, the need for emergency surgery, and nerve damage in the chest. Rare problems include cardiac tamponade and stroke. They happen in about 1 out of 100 people. 5 This means that they do not happen in about 99 out of 100 people. Another serious problem affects the pulmonary vein and happens in about 1 to 6 people out of 100 people. 5, 7 This means that it does not happen in about 94 to 99 people out of 100. Death from the procedure is very rare. It happens to about 1 out of 1,000 people. 5 This means that 999 out of 1,000 people don't die from the procedure. Problems after the procedure Problems after the procedure can be minor (such as mild pain) or serious (such as bleeding). Your doctor will check you closely after the procedure. He or she can fix most of these problems. The most common problems are related to the catheter that was inserted in a vein. Most of these vein problems aren't serious. They include minor pain, bleeding, and bruising. Vein problems happen in 0 to 13 people out of 100. 4 This means that they don't happen in 87 to 100 people out of 100. In a worldwide survey, serious vein problems happened in 1 out every 100 people. 6 Serious problems aren't common. These problems include stroke and new heart rhythm problems. A rare problem is a life-threatening problem with the esophagus (atrio-esophageal fistula) that happens to about 1 out of 1,000 people. 5 This means it doesn't happen to 999 out of 1,000 people. What To Think About Back to top Certain people shouldn't have ablation Ablation isn't a choice for some people, including those who: - Aren't able to lie still or cooperate with the doctor who is doing the test. - Have a history of bleeding problems. - Have a blood clot in the left atrium of the heart. References Back to top - Morady F, Zipes DP (2012). Atrial fibrillation: Clinical features, mechanisms, and management. In RO Bonow et al., eds., Braunwald's Heart Disease: A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine, 9th ed., vol. 1, pp. 825–844. Philadelphia: Saunders. - Chatterjee NA, et al. (2012). Atrioventricular nodal ablation in atrial fibrillation: A meta-analysis and systematic review. Circulation: Arrhythmia and Electrophysiology: 5(1): 68–76. - Fuster V, et al. (2011). 2011 ACCF/AHA/HRS focused update incorporated into the ACC/AHA/ESC 2006 guidelines for the management of patients with atrial fibrillation: A report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation, 123(10): e269–e367. - Calkins H, et al. (2012). 2012 HRS/EHRA/ECAS expert consensus statement on catheter and surgical ablation of atrial fibrillation: Recommendations for patient selection, procedural techniques, patient management and follow-up, definitions, endpoints, and research trial design. A report of the Heart Rhythm Society (HRS) Task Force on Catheter and Surgical Ablation of Atrial Fibrillation. Heart Rhythm, 9(4): 632–696.e21. - Tedrow UB, et al. (2011). Electrophysiology and catheter-ablative techniques. In V Fuster et al., eds., Hurst's The Heart, 13th ed., vol. 1, pp. 1058–1070. New York: McGraw-Hill. - Cappato R, et al. (2010). Updated worldwide survey on the methods, efficacy, and safety of catheter ablation for human atrial fibrillation. Circulation: Arrhythmia and Electrophysiology, 3(1): 32–38. - Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (2009). Comparative Effectiveness of Radiofrequency Catheter Ablation for Atrial Fibrillation (AHRQ Publication No. 09-EDC015-EF). Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Also available online: http://www.effectivehealthcare.ahrq.gov/ehc/products/51/114/2009_0623RadiofrequencyFinal.pdf. Credits Back to top |Primary Medical Reviewer||Rakesh K. Pai, MD, FACC - Cardiology, Electrophysiology| |Specialist Medical Reviewer||John M. Miller, MD, FACC - Cardiology, Electrophysiology| |Last Revised||December 14, 2012| Last Revised: December 14, 2012 To learn more visit Healthwise.org © 1995-2013 Healthwise, Incorporated. Healthwise, Healthwise for every health decision, and the Healthwise logo are trademarks of Healthwise, Incorporated.

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Mindful Eating May Lead to Weight Loss When following a "mindful eating" practice, meditation helps people identify and change their eating habits, without having to count calories A new technique that raises awareness about the cues that lead to overeating may take over as a long-term approach to weight-loss. When following a "mindful eating" practice, meditation helps people identify and change their eating habits, without having to count calories, says a new study in Complementary Therapies in Medicine. As waistlines around the world continue to grow, weight-loss diets and supplements have become big business. But what if losing weight had more to do with your response to food, and less to do with the amount of carbs or fat you eat? That's the notion researchers from the Oregon Research Institute and University of New Mexico tested in a pilot study on the effect of mindful eating on ten obese people. A weight-loss MEAL Mindful Eating and Living, or MEAL, is less of a diet and more of a shift in attitude. "In contrast to a focus on cutting calories, mindfulness helps people reduce weight and improve health by restoring the individual's ability to detect and respond to natural cues," explains Jeanne Dalen, lead author of the study from the Center for Family and Adolescent Research in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Designed for overweight and obese people, MEAL is a six-week training program that includes mindfulness meditation, group eating exercises, and group discussions. Pairing daily meditation with eating enables people to identify and examine eating triggers, hunger and fullness (satiety) cues, the quality of craved foods, and emotions associated with eating. The new study included ten obese people (average age was 44) who followed the program for six weeks. They were encouraged to engage in as much mindful eating as possible and to increase their physical activity by about 5 to 10% each week. The participants were assessed during the trial and again after three months for changes in eating behavior, psychological functioning, and weight and inflammation markers. Weight loss starts in the mind All of the participants lost a significant amount of weight, almost nine pounds over 12 weeks, on average. A measure of inflammation in the body (C-reactive protein,), decreased significantly, as well. Measures of mindfulness--the ability to observe, be aware of, accept, and describe their eating patterns--saw moderate to large increases throughout the study and follow-up periods. The participants' self control improved dramatically, and binge eating was significantly reduced. In addition, significant improvements were seen in depressive and physical symptoms (like indigestion and headache), as well as negative affect (mood) and perceived stress. Although the study was only preliminary, "MEAL appears to be a promising approach to mindful eating, weight loss, and possibly for initiating a host of positive changes in health and functioning," Dalen says. Another study to confirm these results is currently under way. (Complement Ther Med doi:10.1016/j.ctim.2010.09.008) Kimberly Beauchamp, ND, received her doctoral degree from Bastyr University, the nation's premier academic institution for science-based natural medicine. She co-founded South County Naturopaths in Wakefield, RI, where she practiced whole family care with an emphasis on nutritional counseling, herbal medicine, detoxification, and food allergy identification and treatment. Her blog, Eat Happy, helps take the drama out of healthy eating with real food recipes and nutrition news that you can use. Dr. Beauchamp is a regular contributor to Healthnotes Newswire.

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Stream Erosion and Landscape Development Almost all the landscape of Earth is the result of erosion. Only small areas are constructional, including volcanoes, river plains and deltas, coral reefs, and the surfaces of glaciers and ice sheets. Mountain ranges are built by forces within the Earth, but individual mountains are only the remnants left behind by the erosion of the valleys that separate them. Although hills and mountains are visually dominant, valleys are the active, evolving part of a landscape. Rivers and Landscape Shaping Rivers do most of the erosional work of landscape shaping. Rivers have been credited with 85 to 90 percent of the total sediment transported to the sea. (A grain of sand may require 1,000 years to be carried through a large river network to the sea.) This contrasts with about 7 percent transported by glaciers, 1 to 2 percent by groundwater and ocean waves, and less than 1 percent each by wind and volcanoes. Presumably, these volumes of sediment transport are proportional to the relative volumes of landscape eroded by the various agents. Therefore, any general consideration of landscape development must deal primarily with the work of rivers. River networks are multiple-branching systems, beginning with tiny rivulets flowing downhill during rainstorms that join into rills and gullies and eventually into creeks and streams that continue to flow even when the rain has stopped. These are fed by water that has soaked into the soil and that then slowly reemerges from streambanks to maintain what is called the base flow of the stream. Small tributary streams eventually merge into progressively larger ones and finally into a trunk stream that enters the sea. The entire branching network covers a drainage basin , also known as a watershed. Drainage basins of small streams are nested within those of these trunk systems and are the basic units of landscapes. Erosive and Transport Capacity In their headwater regions, river networks are primarily erosional. They acquire soil and weathered rock debris from hillslopes and valley walls, ranging in grain size from fine mud, sand, and gravel to huge boulders. Each sediment size can be moved by an appropriate river-current velocity. As larger pieces of rock roll and tumble in a river, they are gradually reduced in size until they can be moved more easily. During heavy runoff intervals, the discharge of water in rivers increases by factors of one thousand to ten thousand, or even more. When the river channel can no longer accommodate all the water, some of it overflows onto the adjacent floodplain . For many rivers, overbank flooding is nearly an annual event related to seasonal precipitation or snowmelt. Most erosion by rivers is accomplished during the brief intervals of high discharge and flooding. At these times, rivers flow not only faster, deeper, and wider, but also much muddier. Because of the great increase in turbulence in a deep, fast-flowing stream, it can carry one hundred to one thousand times more sediment than it can at low-water stages. Thus, if a river at flood has one thousand times as much water, and that water is one thousand times muddier than at low flow, then one million times more sediment is being moved. Such numbers are typical of actual measured values. Rivers erode their channels by: - Grinding the rocky channel with abrasive particles already being carried; - Plucking , or tearing out large blocks along preexisting fractures ; and - Dissolving rocks (such as limestone). As with sediment transport, most riverbed erosion occurs during brief times of high discharge. By far, however, the most sediment in a river comes from the hillslopes on the valley sides rather than by direct river action. In that sense, rivers act more like passive gutters or storm drains that are forced to carry water and sediment that are delivered to them from their drainage basins rather than actively producing their own. Yet, unless a river has eroded at least a narrow slot in the landscape, there will be no adjacent hillslopes from which soil and rock can be delivered to the river channel by gravity. Thus, hillslope and river development are closely integrated during landscape evolution. Any abrupt change in any part of the system, whether by a landslide, climate change, or human intervention, will propagate uphill across the landscape as well as downstream through the drainage network. Landscape evolution involves a constant reaction among many processes that tend toward a balanced state. Consequent, Subsequent, and Superimposed Streams On a new landscape such as might be created by a volcanic eruption, the uplift of the ocean floor, or the melting of glacier cover, the initial river runoff follows chance irregularities downhill toward the sea. Lakes form in closed basins, and then overflow to continue the downhill trend. This kind of initial drainage network is called a consequent system because it is a direct consequence of the preexisting landscape. Generally, though, the drainage network becomes better organized as basins are filled in and shortcuts are established by erosion. As they evolve, drainage networks become well adjusted to their climate region and the rock types over which they flow. Rivers gradually change their courses to follow belts of the most easily eroded rocks, avoiding resistant rocks that form highlands. River networks that show a high degree of adjustment to rock structure are called subsequent systems because whatever their original patterns may have been, they have subsequently evolved in response to structural control. Typically, subsequent drainage networks consist of either long, parallel tributaries eroded along belts of weak rock, or of angular "zigzag" valleys following fracture patterns in the rocks. Where a river crosses rocks resistant to erosion, it usually cuts a steep, narrow gorge or canyon. Its gradient is steeper because it erodes the underlying rocks less rapidly. Channel segments can become rapids or waterfalls as they lag behind the more rapid erosion farther downstream. These channel segments then become the local base level for erosion farther upstream because the valley upstream cannot be lowered any faster than the resistant rock can be eroded. It is common to find a beautiful broad, open mountain valley eroded in soft rocks upstream from a steep, narrow gorge cut through resistant rocks. The gorges form natural sites for dams by which the upstream valleys are flooded as reservoirs. If a river manages to erode through or around a resistant rock obstacle, the base level of the upstream region is suddenly lowered. As the river then entrenches the valley floor, sequences of river terraces may be left behind on the valley sides, recording the progressive downcutting. Other causes of river terraces include such events as landslides that can dam a gorge until the upstream valley fills with sediment. When the dam is broken, the river quickly entrenches the valley fill, again leaving behind terraces. Many river valleys in formerly glaciated regions have terraces that were built when temporary dams created by glaciers blocked main valleys and flooded tributary valleys. Arthur L. Bloom Bloom, Arthur L. Geomorphology: A Systematic Analysis of Late Cenozoic Landforms, 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1998. Ritter, Dale F., R. Craig Kochel, and Jerry R. Miller. Process Geomorphology, 4th ed.New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002.

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WHO urges countries to act on new anti-resistance malaria medicines 25 April 2002 - Tackling rising levels of medicine resistance is one of the key challenges to African States in their efforts to control malaria and meet the declared target of saving the lives of half the 800,000 young children who die of the disease every year by 2010. The cheapest and most readily available medicines are increasingly ineffective. That's why the World Health Organization (WHO) in its programme to Roll Back Malaria is urging countries to switch to a new type of combination therapy when there is strong evidence that existing conventional medicines are no longer working. The Artemisinin-Based Combination Therapies (ACTs) are derived in part from a Chinese herb and are the most exciting prospect in new malaria treatments. They kill the malaria parasite very fast, allowing the patient to recover rapidly, and with very few side effects. Because ACTs combine two medicines which work in different ways, it is unlikely that the malaria parasite – which has rapidly developed resistance to other, single treatments – would evolve to resist these medicine combinations. WHO has just added one of the combination medicines (artemether/lumefantrine) to its Essential Medicines List – a list which prioritises essential medicines for countries.* This medicine, known by the brand name Coartem, is the only medicine which combines an artemisinin and non-artimisinin compound in a single tablet. WHO also recommends other combinations of artemisinin compounds with currently used medicines, such as amodiaquine or sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine, for use where these medicines are still effective. The Board of the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, TB and Malaria, meeting in New York, have decided to fund proposals to “Roll Back Malaria” in Zanzibar and Zambia. These proposals include purchasing and phasing-in the use of new ACTs. "We hope that the Fund and other funding mechanisms will be used to purchase ACTs where they are needed to treat malaria and improve the control of the disease in communities at risk," Dr Gro Harlem Brundtland, Director-General of WHO. "WHO has worked with a variety of partners including the manufacturers to reduce the price of ACTs in developing countries. It is important that countries which need ACTs are able to access and use them in a sustainable manner." For decades, the best known treatment for malaria was chloroquine, an inexpensive medicine that has saved millions of lives. However, in recent years, the malaria parasite has developed resistance to chloroquine and so, in many countries, it is no longer an effective treatment. Many countries in Eastern, Central and Southern Africa are already experiencing high levels of resistance to chloroquine, and resistance is also appearing more and more in West Africa. As a result, many countries have moved to sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine, known as SP or “Fansidar”, as first line treatment. However, resistance to SP is also spreading. There is new evidence that the number of child deaths due to malaria has begun to increase as a result of failing medicines and medicines of poor quality. Recent evidence also indicates that, due to rising levels of medicine resistance, almost half of the money spent on anti-malarial medicines is being used to pay for inappropriate treatments. This also highlights the need for more efforts on preventing malaria, using proven cost-effective measures such as insecticide treated bednets. It takes time to change medicine policy and to implement the change. New sources of materials and financing have to be found, medical personnel trained, and distribution channels ensured. As more countries start deploying these new combination medicines it is expected that their production will be scaled up to meet the demands. Additional safety information on these medicines is now being sought in special groups at risk such as young infants and pregnant women. Improved packaging of these medicines will help to ensure that patients adhere to the full treatment course. WHO recommends that countries begin the transition as soon as levels of resistance exceed 15% and that the change will be implemented before resistance reaches 25%. NOTE FOR EDITORS: * In the current WHO definition. "Essential medicines are those that satisfy the priority health care needs of the population, are intended to be available within the context of functioning health systems at all times in adequate amounts, in the appropriate dosage forms, with assured quality, and at a price the individual and the community can afford."

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More than 69 American Elk roam across our 50-acre Elk Prairie, the first and last exhibit visitors encounter on their drive-thru adventure. Second largest of the deer family, exceeded only by moose, Elk once ranged through Canada, the United States (except Florida) and northern Mexico. They were first called "wapiti," a Shawnee Indian term meaning "white rump." Male Elk antlers can reach five feet across and five feet front to back. Each year, Elk shed their antlers to grow another pair. Fun Fact: Did you know Elk are ruminants, meaning they have a four-chambered stomach.

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Image of Voyager spacecraft Click on image for full size The rare arrangement of planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune in the 1980's made it possible for the Voyager spacecrafts to visit them over a 12 year span instead of the normal 30. They used gravity assists to swing from one planet to the next, conserving fuel. Voyager 2 was launched on Aug. 20, 1977, followed by Voyager 1 on Sep. 5. Both encountered Jupiter in 1979, returning photographs and information on its many moons. Scientists learned that Jupiter's Great Red Spot is really a complex storm, and that Io, one of Jupiter's moons, has active volcanism. These volcanoes are caused by extreme tidal bulges, due to the gravitational pull of Jupiter and its other moons on Io. Voyagers 1 and 2 then continued to Saturn, with Voyager 1 arriving in November 1980 and Voyager 2 in August 1981, where they studied the true composition of Titan's atmosphere, believed to be similar to Earth's ancient environment. They also learned that Saturn's rings formed from particles broken off its moons by comets and meteors. Voyager 2 then headed for Uranus and Neptune. It gave us our first close-range look at the two planets, finding an unusually shaped magnetic field around Uranus, caused by the tilt of that planet's axis. Voyager 2 later learned that the strongest winds in our solar system exist on Neptune, and that Neptune's Great Dark Spot is really a hole in its atmosphere. The Voyager missions discovered a total of 21 new moons and returned information that has changed the field of space science. The two spacecrafts have almost reached the boundary of our solar system called the heliopause. They will continue transmitting for another 20 years until their nuclear generators no longer supply adequate energy. Shop Windows to the Universe Science Store! Our online store includes fun classroom activities for you and your students. Issues of NESTA's quarterly journal, The Earth Scientist are also full of classroom activities on different topics in Earth and space science! You might also be interested in: The Great Red Spot is thought to be a hurricane which has been raging on Jupiter for at least 400 years. The connected page shows an image of the Great Red Spot next to Tropical Storm Emily for comparison....more This is Administrator Goldin's speech about NASA's 40th anniversary: "Forty years ago, in 1958, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration was created with the boldest and most noble of missions:...more The servicing mission to the Hubble Space Telescope in early March was a great success. The Telescope has been declared healthy and fit...and is better than ever! Though instruments will be tested for...more At approximately 5:00 p.m. EST on February 17, 1998, the Voyager 1 spacecraft will become the spacecraft that has traveled farthest away from the Earth. For 25 years, Pioneer 10 has been in the lead in...more NASA's Voyager mission is 25 years old and still going strong! Both spacecrafts Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 continue to travel through space sending signals back to the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in California....more Jupiter is the largest planet in our solar system. It is also one of the brighter objects in the night sky. No one knows for sure who discovered Jupiter, but we know the ancient Greeks named him after...more Like the inner planets and Jupiter, Saturn is clearly visible in the night sky. The ancient Greeks named the planet after the god of agriculture and time. It wasn't until 1655, however, that we knew Saturn...more

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American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition - adj. Operated or designed for operation at high speed: a high-speed food processor. - adj. Taking place at high speed: a high-speed chase. - adj. Having a speed of 50-500 frames per second, as movie film, to record events that occur too rapidly for usual photography. - adj. That operates, moves or takes place at a greater than normal speed. GNU Webster's 1913 - adj. same as fast. Opposite of - adj. performed at a high rate of speed. - adj. operating at high speed “Imprecision and misunderstanding over the term "high-speed rail" is widespread.” “Unsecured creditors, who may not collect anything on the $40 million they are owed, want the company to slow the sale process, which they called a "high-speed train wreck.” “Compared to other modes of transport, in the long-term high-speed rail will be a cheap and efficient way to travel, he says.” “He called high-speed rail a "once-in-a-generation opportunity to transform the way we travel in the 21st Century".” “I think the real reason the Obama administration is pushing for the so-called high-speed trains has nothing whatsoever to do with meeting transportation needs or saving energy.” “LaHood gave Scott a reprieve until the end of this week to make a final decision on the funding, which would go toward a high-speed rail line between Tampa and Orlando; Scott last week renewed his criticism of the project, calling high-speed rail "a federal boondoggle.” “In May of 1984, Continental experienced what the FDIC described as a high-speed electronic bank run.” “It's known as high-speed rail money, but don't picture bullet trains zipping by at 200 mph.” “The iPhone 4S for AT&T uses a faster version of technology called high-speed packet access that increases speeds to as much as 14.4 megabits per second.” “Aptly, Eurostar was the name given to the high-speed train service that linked Continental Europe to Britain under a significant body of water.” These user-created lists contain the word ‘high-speed’. Looking for tweets for high-speed.

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Climate-Related Migration Often Short Distance and Cyclical, Not International New Worldwatch Institute report examines global migration patterns related to climate change, and their impact on international policy Washington, D.C.—Recent reports, as well as extreme weather events such as Superstorm Sandy, suggest that climatechange, and particularly sea-level rise, may be occurring faster than earlier anticipated. This has increased public and policy discussions about climate change’s likely impacts on the movement of populations, both internally and worldwide. Research suggests that when climate-related migration does occur, much of it is short distance and within national borders, as opposed to international, according to new analysis conducted by Lori Hunter, Associate Professor of Sociology at the University of Colorado at Boulder, for the Worldwatch Institute’s Vital Signs Online service (www.worldwatch.org). Recent research has added nuance to the scientific understanding of the potential connections between climate change and human migration. Previous studies over the past two decades relied largely on descriptive data and simplistic assumptions to put forward at-times alarmist estimates of future numbers of “environmental refugees,” ranging from 150 million to 1 billion people. But such broad-sweeping generalizations mask several central issues that are important in the development of appropriate policy responses. These include: - Environmental drivers, such as changing climatic patterns, are rarely the only factor leading to migration.Rainfall shortages and heat waves interact, for example, with persistent impoverishment and land degradation, as well as political and economic pressures. In addition, in many regions women’s inability to limit their family size, combined with the unmet demand for family planning, results in unsustainable population pressures on local and natural resources. - Environmentally related migration is not new: migration has represented a livelihood strategy for millennia.In low-lying Bangladesh, for example, migration has long served as an adaptive strategy. Over two-thirds of Bangladeshis work in agriculture, forests, or fisheries—all livelihoods that depend on environmental conditions. Natural disasters plague rural Bangladesh with regular exposure to flooding as well as crop failure due to rainfall deficits, and food insecurity abounds. - Migration comes with costs—social, financial, and otherwise.People tend to be attached to their homelands, their cultures, and their ways of life, so it is likely that they will seek to remain close to home, and to maintain their accustomed patterns, to the extent possible. “In all, climate pressures on human migration cannot be denied,” said Hunter. “Yet new data and research are shedding light on the complexities underlying migration decision making, as well as providing more precise estimates of vulnerable populations. Future estimates of potential climate-related migration must take these insights into account.” Around the world, environmental change interacts with existing challenges, including persistent impoverishment, unsustainable livelihoods, and population pressures. Such challenges can encourage relocation in some cases, but constrain it in others. Research suggests that when climate-related movement does occur, much of it will be short distance and within national borders, as opposed to international. And, like much environmentally influenced migration, people’s movements may be cyclical as opposed to permanent. More-rapid climate change, however, could increase both the overall number of individuals who are affected and the desperation brought on by a lack of viable livelihood alternatives. Further highlights from the report: - Over half of Africa’s urban residents are in cities located in arid zones vulnerable to water scarcity and lacking the infrastructure and resources needed to improve resilience and lessen potential outmigration. - Researchers estimate that some 20 million people in the United States will be affected by sea-level rise by 2030. - Research focused on urban vulnerability in Africa, Asia, and South America estimates the population at risk of climate change in two zones expected to experience serious impacts: low-level coastal zones, which are vulnerable to flooding and related health risks (such as cholera and diarrheal diseases), and arid drylands, where urban residents are often not adequately served by distribution systems even if water is plentiful. |PRINT/EMAIL | PURCHASE FULL REPORT HERE||TUESDAY, NOVEMBER 13, 2012| Notes to Editors: For a complimentary copy of this report, please contact Supriya Kumar at [email protected].

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Posted: Monday, July 26, 2010, 10:13 am Who knew that you could prove a principle of physics using just a leaf blower and some toilet paper? You can, and not only will kids in kindergarten through eighth grade be treated to a demonstration of the Bernoulli effect and learn how it helps airplanes fly, more scintillating science insights will be revealed during Dr. Dave's Whiz Bang Science Show, scheduled Wednesday, August 4 at Northwest Library. In fact, kids will have so much fun, they won't even realize they're learning! For seven years, "Dr. Dave" Lohnes, a computer technician at the Ohio Agricultural Research & Development Center, has performed his science show, teaching more than 10,000 people about topics like the history of flight, different states of matter and more. Those attending the August 4 show, which starts at 2 pm, will watch a real hot air balloon take off and get wet with water rockets, all in the name of science! Presented in partnership with the Ohio State University's Science & Engineering Library. More like this: Featured events

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http://www.worthingtonlibraries.org/about/news/2010-7/program-will-get-kids-excited-about-science?theme=wpl_plus

2013-05-22T15:35:34Z

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(1) A data structure accessed beginning at the root node. Each node is either a leaf or an internal node. An internal node has one or more child nodes and is called the parent of its child nodes. All children of the same node are siblings. Contrary to a physical tree, the root is usually depicted at the top of the structure, and the leaves are depicted at the bottom. (2) A connected, undirected, acyclic graph. It is rooted and ordered unless otherwise specified. Thanks to Joshua O'Madadhain ([email protected]) for the figure, 6 October 2005. Formal Definition: (1) A tree is either Specialization (... is a kind of me.) heap, B-tree, binary tree, balanced tree, multiway tree, complete tree, search tree, digital tree. See also other vocabulary: descendant, ancestor, tree traversal, height, depth, degree (3), technical terms: ordered tree, rooted tree, free tree, arborescence. Note: Appearing in the Dictionary of Computer Science, Engineering and Technology, Copyright © 2000 CRC Press LLC. A tree in the data structure sense (1) is not the same as a tree in the graph sense (2). Consider possible binary trees with two nodes. There are two possible data structures: a root and a left subtree or a root and a right subtree. However there is only one possible graph: a root and a subtree. The graph definition doesn't allow for "the subtree is the right subtree and the left subtree is empty". Also there is no "empty" graph tree. Thanks to Sharat Chandran ([email protected]) for clarifying the difference between these two senses. The formal definition is after [CLR90, page 94]. If you have suggestions, corrections, or comments, please get in touch with Paul E. Black. Entry modified 14 August 2008. HTML page formatted Fri Mar 25 16:20:35 2011. Cite this as: Paul E. Black and Algorithms and Theory of Computation Handbook, CRC Press LLC, 1999, "tree", in Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures [online], Paul E. Black, ed., U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology. 14 August 2008. (accessed TODAY) Available from: http://www.nist.gov/dads/HTML/tree.html

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By the World Bank, 2007. The report is currently in press and will be published in December 2007. However, it is already available in the public domain. This paper is a “must read” and has important implications for agricultural and food security programmes aimed at tackling hunger and malnutrition. Based on a review of the evidence, the argues that hunger and malnutrition in the world will not be eliminated through agricultural production or raising incomes alone, unless such interventions are complemented by interventions that address other determinants of nutrition, such as improving the quality of diets, child feeding practices, water, sanitation and healthcare. The study posits that the concept of "food security", defined by the 1996 World Food Summit as existing: "... when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life" is seldom employed in its complete form. "The agricultural community frequently neglects the nutritional aspects of the definition and in so doing misses an opportunity to contribute to improved nutrition outcomes". The paper presents fresh evidence which supports earlier findings showing that agricultural interventions are most likely to be successful in reducing child malnutrition if they incorporate a strong nutrition information/education component and employ gender considerations. According to the report, studies from Asia show that: "....households with nutrition knowledge and skills allocate substantially larger shares of their household food budgets to foods rich in micronutrients and are unwilling to reduce consumption when staple food prices increases. This impact is not due to maternal schooling per se, which has been independently demonstrated to improve child nutrition outcomes". Similarly, evidence from Afica shows that interventions that successfully translate increased and diversified production into better nutrition outcomes, especially for children, usually include strong nutrition education and demand creation components, using multiple channels and targeting multiple audiences. Most of the evidence examined comes from small-scale projects with an experimental design. A major challenge remains how to scale up such interventions to achieve a broader impact.

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2013-05-22T15:37:08Z

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There are HTML elements and attributes that we use every day. Headings, paragraphs, lists and images are the mainstay of every Web developer’s toolbox. Perhaps the most common tool of all is the anchor. The humble a element is what joins documents together to create the gloriously chaotic collection we call the World Wide Web. Anatomy of an Anchor The power of the anchor element lies in the href attribute, short for hypertext reference. This creates a one-way link to another resource, usually another page on the Web: href attribute sits in the opening a tag and some descriptive text sits between the opening and closing tags: <a href="http://allinthehead.com/">Drew McLellan</a> “Whoop-dee-freakin’-doo,” I hear you say, “this is pretty basic stuff” – and you’re quite right. But there’s more to the anchor element than just the The Theory of You might be familiar with the rel attribute from the link element. I bet you’ve got something like this in the head of your documents: <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="screen" href="styles.css" /> rel attribute describes the relationship between the linked document and the current document. In this case, the value of rel is “stylesheet”. This means that the linked document is the stylesheet for the current document: that’s its relationship. Here’s another common use of <link rel="alternate" type="application/rss+xml" title="my RSS feed" href="index.xml" /> This describes the relationship of the linked file – an RSS feed – as “alternate”: an alternate view of the current document. Both of those examples use the link element but you are free to use the rel attribute in regular hyperlinks. Suppose you’re linking to your RSS feed in the body of your page: Subscribe to <a href="index.xml">my RSS feed</a>. You can add extra information to this anchor using the Subscribe to <a href="index.xml" rel="alternate" type="application/rss+xml">my RSS feed</a>. There’s no prescribed list of values for the rel attribute so you can use whatever you decide is semantically meaningful. Let’s say you’ve got a complex e-commerce application that includes a link to a help file. You can explicitly declare the relationship of the linked file as being “help”: <a href="help.html" rel="help">need help?</a> Although it’s completely up to you what values you use for the rel attribute, some consensus is emerging in the form of microformats. Some of the simplest microformats make good use of rel. For example, if you are linking to a license that covers the current document, use the rel-license microformat: Licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons attribution license</a> That describes the relationship of the linked document as “license.” The rel-tag microformat goes a little further. It uses rel to describe the final part of the URL of the linked file as a “tag” for the current document: Learn more about <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microformats" rel="tag">semantic markup</a> This states that the current document is being tagged with the value “Microformats.” XFN, which stands for XHTML Friends Network, is a way of describing relationships between people: <a href="http://allinthehead.com/" rel="friend">Drew McLellan</a> This microformat makes use of a very powerful property of the rel attribute. Like the rel can take multiple values, separated by spaces: <a href="http://allinthehead.com/" rel="friend met colleague">Drew McLellan</a> Here I’m describing Drew as being a friend, someone I’ve met, and a colleague (because we’re both Web monkies). You Say You Want a rel describes the relationship of the linked resource to the current document, the rev attribute describes the reverse relationship: it describes the relationship of the current document to the linked resource. Here’s an example of a link that might appear on <a href="shoppingcart.html" rev="help">continue shopping</a> rev attribute declares that the current document is “help” for the linked file. The vote-links microformat makes use of the rev attribute to allow you to qualify your links. By using the value “vote-for” you can describe your document as being an endorsement of the linked resource: I agree with <a href="http://richarddawkins.net/home" rev="vote-for">Richard Dawkins</a>. There’s a corresponding vote-against value. This means that you can link to a document but explicitly state that you don’t agree with it. I agree with <a href="http://richarddawkins.net/home" rev="vote-for">Richard Dawkins</a> about those <a href="http://www.icr.org/" rev="vote-against">creationists</a>. Of course there’s nothing to stop you using both rev on the same hyperlink: <a href="http://richarddawkins.net/home" rev="vote-for" rel="muse">Richard Dawkins</a> The Wisdom of Crowds The simplicity of rev belies their power. They allow you to easily add extra semantic richness to your hyperlinks. This creates a bounty that can be harvested by search engines, aggregators and browsers. Make it your New Year’s resolution to make friends with these attributes and extend the power of hypertext.

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How to Learn Haskell How This Guide Works So you want learn Haskell, and somehow or another you've ended up at this page. Good! This isn't really a tutorial though. Maybe you could call it a meta-tutorial. Our goal is to give you a better idea of the big picture when it comes to learning Haskell. So, you should be using this tutorial in conjunction with other resources. On that note, we point to lots of them from this page, so don't worry if you're not sure where to start. We've selected useful resources, tried to make connections, and attempted to offer some sort of linearity. Hopefully you can use this guide to better navegate your way through the learning process. Good luck! If you have any questions or comments, the authors would love to hear from you! Our emails are on the main page. Make sure you understand the reasons for learning Haskell Unlike some modern languages, Haskell is not a language you will pick up in two days and then be able to write your homework 10x faster in. Haskell will make you sweat to write simple programs, but it can also make writing things you thought were really complex quite a bit simpler. Mostly, it's a good learning experience since the patterns and ways of thinking you develop will serve you in any computer science work you do. Find some articles or blog posts about "Why Haskell" and try to get an idea of what the Haskell world is like. Some good places to start are listed on the page Why Functional Programming. Installing and running Haskell The first thing you should do is install a Haskell compiler/interpreter on your system. GHC are the most common options. We recommend GHC for its power and flexibility. It seems to be the de-facto standard, so using it will give you the same platform as most online tutorial writers. One last option to check out is Try Haskell. It's an online, interactive interpreter with limited functionality that can be useful if you don't want to install anything. (Note: it's currently in alpha, and only offers a subset of the language). Editors & GHCI To make the most of the code examples you find, you should set up a good editor environment for yourself. We tend to use emacs and vim. In emacs, haskell-mode lets you automatically load ghci and evaluate your whole file just by typing C-c C-l. If you prefer vim, you'll probably want one terminal running vim and a second running ghci. You can use :r to reload a file once it's loaded into ghci. Raghu has pointed out that haskell-mode is much easier to set up in emacs than xemacs. It should be doable in xemacs, but if you're new to the emacs world, we recommend just using plain emacs instead of xemacs. Don't be confused by the names either, emacs also has a gui mode built on X if that's what you prefer; the fork between xemacs and emacs was more of an ideological one -- you'll have to consult google to find out more! If you want to use GHCI, you should learn how to use it, check out The GHCI page on the Haskell wiki, and realize that you're always writing code in the I/O monad when using GHCI. GHCI is kind of weird. I said it. But, it's weird because it's awesome. As you start studying Haskell you'll soon find out all about the distinction between writing code "in a monad" and writing code outside of one. To give you a quick example of what I mean, compare: a = 5 let a = 5 Consider this section to be your warning that GHCI is a little strange. Because everything is in the I/O monad when you use GHCI (this sentence doesn't need to make sense to you yet), expect it to seem strange until you've started reading some of the main tutorials and books we've referenced. We recommend writing your code in text files until you've built up a little experience with I/O and feel comfortable writing code directly in GHCI. First of all, you should probably pretend like you've never programmed before. If you run into a word like return or class don't assume that you know what that means; chances are that you don't. Here's a general idea of where you stand, depending on what languages you already know well: So now that you have a general idea of where you stand, and are starting to worry about how weird Haskell is going to be, let's go through a quick (probably incomplete) list of the main distinctions between programming in Haskell and writing code in more "traditional" imperative programming languages. - C, C++, Java: Haskell will probably blow your mind. The notion of classes is almost completely different, return doesn't mean what you think it does, the algorithmic patterns are distinct, you don't get loops, and code doesn't run in the order it's typed on the screen. It's pretty awesome. - Python, Perl: You might be in the same boat as the previous group, but you may have run into some useful functions like reduce, map, etc. that use functions as first-class objects, and use this feature to abstract away some common looping patterns. This shows up all the time in Haskell. If you're a Perl whiz, who knows what you've run into, but depending on whether you write Perl like a C coder, or write Perl like a Lisp coder you may find yourself accordingly prepared. - Ruby: Ruby's mixins and duck-typing actually bear some similarities to Haskell's typeclass system, so lookout for parallels, but don't assume you know everything since Ruby is object oriented and Haskell is not. Another handy thing is that Ruby coders tend to use Ruby's inject, map, collect, etc. functions quite a bit, which all represent very common patterns in Haskell. - Scheme, Lisp: You'll probably have a good start on the basic functional design idioms. What will drive you insane will be the typesystem, though you will also probably learn to love it pretty fast. - ML, OCaml: You've still got a few things to learn, but these languages aren't that different. The main distinction (which is not small) is Haskell's purity, which will also be freaking out everyone in the above groups. - Syntax is different, for all of the reasons below - Order of evaluation is non-intuitive. Haskell is lazy. This takes some getting used to, but fortunately most Haskell tutorials you'll find will try to explain it early on. Also, SICP section 3.5 can be useful (if you're willing to learn some Scheme). - The notion of types is not the same. In most languages a variables type is just a way of defining how it's represented in the machine as bits. In Haskell a type is more general and can include a function signature, an enumeration, a tuple, a list, or a composite data type. - The notion of classes is not the same. Typeclasses in Haskell are a bit like Java's interfaces, or Common Lisp's generic method specifications. Fortunately, there are some good tutorials we can point you at later, including Learn you a Haskell. - Haskell is pure. Good explanations exist, and you're guaranteed to find them. Expect this to make you debug most of your functions a lot less, but also to make you struggle for a long time with writing simple I/O and state. Common Patterns in Haskell Code Before you dive into the details, we think it will serve you to have a basic understanding of some common functional idioms, mostly for dealing with lists of data. This tend to show up frequently in Haskell code, and if you're used to for loops, you might be caught off guard. These are all examples of functional programming's verb-centric style. First of all, Haskell does have arrays, but they're almost never a good idea. Almost everything is done with lists, which are primitives in the language. Even strings are just lists of characters, so any list function is equally applicable to a string. So how do you iterate over your non-arrays and do things? Usually you'll use recursion. Essentially, you grab the first element from your list, do something, and then re-call your function on the remainder of your list. Most of the time, what you're doing fits into one of the following common patterns: - Map: mapping a function over a list means calling that function on each of the items in the list, and generating a new list from the results. - Fold: folding a function over a list means recursively calling it with its previous return (or a given initial value) along with the next element in the list. A good example is sum, which can be expressed as: fold (+) 0 list. Essentially, you start with 0, then add the first element of the list. Now you add the next item to that result, and then the next item to the new result, and so on, until you run out of items and have accumulated the sum of all the elements as your result. In Haskell you can fold from the left or from the right; you'll figure out the difference later. - Filter: filtering a list with a function involves calling some function on every item in your list, and collecting just the items for which that function returns true. So for instance, you can filter all the even numbers from a list of integers this way, or all the valid positions from a list of game states. Below are some of the best general language resources we've found; using these resources (or ones like them) is how you'll learn Haskell. - Learn you a Haskell for Great Good (The very best full-language tutorial, from the basics all the way out to the advanced stuff) - Erik Meijer's Channel 9 Functional Programming Lectures (Recommended by a pro-active reader! This series of lectures appears to be a rather excellent introduction to functional programming with Haskell. This link takes you to an index of the microsoft pages themselves. There is also a link in the Video Lectures section below that takes you to a different index that includes downloads of slides, solutions, etc.) - Hitchiker's Guide to Haskell (Kind of advanced, and throws you right in, but also gives a good idea of using the language top to bottom... compiling, IO, etc.) - Write Yourself a Scheme in 48 Hours (One to tackle once you've got some of the basics under your belt, a nice example of writing a full project in Haskell). - Roll your own IRC bot (Like Write Yourself a Scheme it flies a bit fast, but is a nice example of writing a project in Haskell and doing something cool - Lisperati.com's Haskell Picnic (Probably a good one once you've got some experience reading code) - The Haskell Wikibook (Has some very good pages at the moment on various topics, especially some of the more advanced stuff) - Real World Haskell (A pretty good resource, and freely available online -- has some cool projects and code examples, just don't expect it to teach you the language on its own) - #haskell on irc.freenode.net is a terrific place with terrific people. Stop by and say hi! The Steps to Learning Haskell These steps are not strictly linear nor are they a perfect guide to learning the language. Everyone learns languages differently, so you should find some good books or tutorials for your skill level and goals (some good ones are listed above) and use them in parallel with this guide. The steps below are in the order we expect you to master the concepts, not in the order you'll see them. The first thing you have to master is syntax if you want to read Haskell code. We don't suggest trying to learn syntax on its own, but before trying to tackle more advanced features of the language you should have a good understanding of all the strange syntax Haskell has to offer. A good guide is the Tour of the Haskell Syntax. Commonly Used Functions & Basic Programming Techniques You'll also probably want to have read chapters 1 and 2 of Learn you a Haskell, and/or chapters 1 - 7 of Real World Haskell and gotten some practice using the Prelude (Haskell's standard library). - You should be able to understand and tinker with the breadcrumbs up to RPN. - You should attempt problems 1 - 20 of H99. Try to use fold, map, the . operator, and other higher-order concepts when you can, to really immerse yourself in "the Haskell way". Laziness isn't that tricky of a concept, but it can lead to some pretty strange (and beautiful) things so make sure you have a good grasp of it. If you read any book or full-language tutorial it's guaranteed to talk about laziness, but for the lazy (hah!) the following resources offer concise introductory explanations of Haskell's laziness (in order of depth): Two (advanced) places to focus in particular when studying laziness are the following: - Using laziness to define sequences. Check out this breadcrumb and this, more advanced one and make sure you understand this. Try implementing a list of factorials, or a list of primes on your own. SICP's stream chapter, especially the lazy part is full of good examples and practice problems that are very applicable to Haskell. - File I/O -- don't worry about this if you haven't run into I/O yet. Laziness in IO has some interesting consequences. If you say text <- getContents , that evaluates instantly, but then as you you read text from text the file gets read retroactively. The bad consequence is that sometimes Haskell needs special care if you're reading really big files since techniques like the above can get weird when you exhaust the available cache memory. The type system can be deceptively simple since it's relatively easy to define your own data types in Haskell and do other routine things. Don't let yourself be fooled though; it's in fact quite deep and thorough understandings of typeclasses, newtype, and currying are essential to using Haskell effectively and to understanding the more advanced facets of the language. If you haven't already, be sure to read chapter 2 of Real World Haskell for an overview of how Haskell handles types. So does Learn you a Haskell. Once you can understand things like: foo :: Int -> [Char] -> (a,b) -> ((a,b) -> Int -> Char) -> [Char] you can move on to defining your own types using data, type, and Learn you a Haskell has an excellent chapter on custom typeclasses and types. Reading this chapter should give you a much more thorough understanding of types and data in Haskell. Lastly, be sure you understand newtype, especially when used like this since it's a pretty common pattern in monad definitions and uses. A good example of that case is in this section of Real World Haskell. - You should be able to understand and tinker with related breadcrumbs. - You should know the newtype operators; be able to compare and contrast them. - You should be familiar with GHCi's :i shortcut. Try :i Num to get started. The next big thing in your quest to understand Haskell is the Monad. Monad is a typeclass. So make sure you understand those first. If you don't have a good grasp of the core language, understanding monad examples on the internet will be very difficult. There are a ton of (mostly good) monad tutorials on the haskell wiki. Take a look at sections 8.1 and 8.3. Monad tutorials can normally be broken down into three categories: The approach that you probably want to take is to start by skimming the "why" ones. Then you want to skim some code-based ones to get an idea of "what" a monad is in terms of programming. Before you start writing your own monads though, you should actually skip to our next section and do some I/O stuff as a way to practice using monads. Once you have a fairly good idea of what a monad is and how it might fit into a program, you should try to roll your own monad from scratch. We did that by building a limited Forth interpreter as one of our projects. Once you've then played with the internals of writing a monad, a good next step is to look through All About Monads' Catalog of Built-in Monads and try to play with their source code examples. Monads take a while to become "natural" so you'll mostly just want to read a lot of different tutorials, and try to write as much code as you can. - Tutorials that explain the Why of Monads - Tutorials where you'll actually see code - People using monads to do cool things Before moving on make sure you: IO is essential to writing useful programs, and also a terrific first exposure to using monads in your Haskell programs. Good resources are the following, but keep in mind that the best thing to do, as always, is write your own code! The best thing you can do at this point is to try to find cool examples using IO to do things you care about on the internet or in whatever books you have. Trying (and failing at first) to write effective IO code in Haskell will teach you what you need to know pretty fast. Advanced Stuff and Further Reading Having learned everything mentioned so far, be aware that there's still a ton of stuff to learn. Some places to go from here: Page content written by Gordon Sommers and CJ Carey.

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en

The Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication (SWIFT) describes itself as, “a member-owned cooperative through which the financial world conducts its business operations with speed, certainty and confidence. More than 9,000 banking organisations, securities institutions and corporate customers in 209 countries trust us every day to exchange millions of standardised financial messages.” SWIFT is the backbone of global free trade. By means of SWIFT, businessmen in virtually any country can digitally buy or sell products to other businesses anywhere else on the globe. Without access to SWIFT, global trade would be slow, uncertain and difficult. The US gov-co has recently ordered Iranian banks be denied access to SWIFT until the Iranian government agrees to meet US demands concerning Iranian nuclear weapons. Nations such as India (which are buying crude oil from Iran) are also threatened with restricted access to SWIFT unless they stop purchasing Iranian crude. According to Bloomberg (“U.S. Wants Iran Oil Buyers to Pledge Cuts or Risk Sanctions”), “If a country doesn’t prove it’s making the necessary reductions [in the purchase of Iranian crude oil] by the end of June, any institution in that nation that settles petroleum trades through Iran’s central bank will be cut off from the U.S. banking system.” And conversely, the US banking system (and US dollar) will be “cut off” from any nation that continues to trade with Iran. The question is: Who needs who? The US prints 100% of the “world reserve currency”. But Iran pumps 5% of the world’s oil. So, how many foreign nations need the US banking system more than they need Iran’s oil? How many foreign nations need Iran’s oil more than they need US banking and fiat dollars? If a significant number of nations stick with Iran and are therefore denied access to SWIFT and/or the US banking system, those nations will undoubtedly agree to execute their transactions by means of a currency other than fiat dollars and by means of a new international settlement system other than SWIFT. If the Iranian conflict persists, a new international settlement currency may emerge. It might be the yuan, euro or even gold. A new “international settlement currency” will not necessarily replace the dollar as world reserve currency. But insofar as an alternative to dollars emerges, the fiat dollar’s purchasing power will fall. • How did the fiat dollar come to be? How did the intrinsically-worthless fiat dollar come to have value? Back in A.D. 1933, the US gov-co stopped backing our domestic dollar with gold. By A.D. 1968, the domestic dollar was no longer backed by silver. In A.D. 1971, the Nixon administration stopped backing international dollars with gold and the dollar became a pure fiat currency without any intrinsic value. The dollar should’ve collapsed shortly thereafter. However, in 1971, the Nixon administration negotiated an agreement with Saudi Arabia whereby the US would guarantee the Saudi’s security so long as the Saudi’s guaranteed to sell their crude oil only for dollars. Soon after, the OPEC nations also agreed to sell their crude only for fiat dollars. As a result of these agreements, any nation that wanted to purchase crude oil on the international markets needed to first have fiat dollars in order to make the purchase. This created an international demand for fiat dollars. This international demand created a perceived value for the intrinsically-worthless dollar. The dollar was implicitly backed by crude oil (rather than gold or silver) and became the “petro-dollar”. So long as the world needed fiat dollars to purchase crude oil, the fiat dollar remained the world reserve currency. So long as the world needs and demands fiat dollars to purchase its oil, the dollar will remain valuable. But, insofar as the world begins to transact international trade in currencies other than dollars, the foreign demand for dollars will fall and the dollar’s perceived value must decline. • The dollar’s decline began in A.D. 2000 when Saddam Hussein started selling Iraqi crude for euros rather than dollars. Saddam thereby threatened the “petro-dollar’s” monopoly on purchasing crude oil and thereby threatened to devalue the dollar. Under the pretext of destroying “weapons of mass destruction,” the US invaded Iraq in A.D. 2003 and hanged Hussein. Last year, Libya’s Colonel Gaddafi tried to create a pan-African currency that would be backed 100% by gold—rather than dollars. Under the pretext of protecting Libyan people from Gaddifi, the West attacked Libya, wrecked that nation and killed Gaddifi. The recent wars in Iraq and Libya were currency wars. Despite pretexts to the contrary, hundreds of thousands have died in the name of preserving the apparent value of the fiat dollar. For the past seven years, Iran has repeatedly threatened to open a “bourse” (market) to sell crude oil for currencies other than dollars. Each time the bourse neared opening, the US threatened Iran with military force, and Iran postponed the bourse. However, the Tehran Times recently reported that the Iranian oil bourse would start trading oil in currencies other than the dollar on March 20. Given that the US is closing Iranian access to SWIFT in order to restrict Iran’s ability to sell its crude oil on the international market, Iran has little choice but to sell its crude for currencies other than dollars on a bourse that doesn’t depend on SWIFT. Therefore, to protect the fiat dollar, the US is again threatening to bomb Iran. But are these threats rational? Have the forces opposing the fiat dollar’s status a “petro-dollar” and world reserve currency become too large and diffuse for the US to resist? • The Bloomberg article reports, “The Obama administration wants China, India and 10 other nations to present plans detailing how they will curtail Iranian oil imports, saying past cuts aren’t enough to win them an exclusion from new U.S. sanctions.” Dahyam! The US is attempting to control the purchase of crude oil by twelve nations—including China (#2 world economy), Japan (#3), India (#9) and some nations of the EU. If there were only one or two nations continuing to do business with Iran, the US might be able to pressure or even invade them. But even the almighty US can’t simultaneously invade or intimidate a dozen nations. I think by threatening Iran and its twelve customers, the US has bitten off more than it can chew. “Secretary of State Hillary Clinton this week granted Japan and European Union countries six-month, renewable exemptions from the measures that take effect June 28, crediting them with ‘significantly reducing’ imports from Iran.” Oooh, how grand! Queen Hillary has “granted” some “exemptions” to some of her vassal states. I’ll bet the peons just love it when the almighty US grants them the occasional “royal” crumb. Carlos Pascual, the State Department’s special envoy and coordinator for international energy affairs declared, “What we are looking for is for countries to come to us and tell us if they believe that they should be in that category that deserves an exemption, what are the kinds of significant reductions that they are willing to pursue.” “Come to us and tell us”?! Maybe these Bloomberg quotes are taken out of context. Perhaps, originally, these quotes weren’t as idiotic and insensitive as they now seem. But for me, the gov-co’s expectation that the nations of the world will “come to us and tell us” reflects an imperial attitude that presumes those nations to be mere supplicants. I hear an arrogance in that expectation that seems astonishingly un-diplomatic. Is our gov-co that stupid, or are they trying to make these people mad? • Out of 13 nations involved in buying and selling Iranian crude for currencies other than dollars, twelve are buyers and only one (Iran) is the seller. Iran is the central player in this current threat to the fiat dollar. Therefore, there’s no need to bomb the other twelve buyers. Just bomb the one seller (Iran) and the threat disappears. If Iran were bombed to destroy its oil wells, pipelines or port facilities for pumping crude oil onto ships, Iran could no longer sell its crude for any currency—not dollars, rupees, yen, yuan or gold. Thus, the dollar’s hegemony might be preserved by simply bombing Iran and killing several tens of thousands of Iranians who had the audacity to think they could sell their own crude oil for any currency they pleased. The problem with bombing Iran is that Iran supplies 5% of the world’s crude oil. It’s virtually impossible to reduce the world’s supply of crude oil by 5% without pushing the global and US economies deeper into recession and perhaps into a depression. It’s estimated that global crude oil production is about 90 million barrels per day, and there’s only about 2 million barrels a day of unused production capacity (down from 6 million in A.D. 2009). Thus, 1) the globe’s oil-producing capacity can’t be cut at all without raising the price of oil (which is bad for the US and global economies); and 2) global production can’t be cut by more than 2 million barrels per day without adding further recessionary pressures (also bad for the economies). Iran produces about 4.5 million barrels of crude per day. If the maximum sustainable reduction in oil production is about 2 million barrels per day (the current excess oil production), then it follows that if US bombs Iran to destroy their ability to pump and sell crude oil, global oil sales could decline enough to precipitate global economic recession/depression and thereby antagonize most of the rest of the world. It’s possible that the US could bomb only enough of Iranian oil production capacity to cause Iran great hardship, but not reduce the total global oil supply by enough to increase the forces of recession/depression. For example, if Iran produces 5% of global oil and the U.S. destroyed 25% of Iranian oil production, the world would only suffer a supply loss of about 1%. That would be a huge blow to Iran, but a seemingly tolerable blow to global economies. But—in the “fog of war,” mistakes happen. What if the US tries to only reduce Iranian oil production by 25%, but “accidentally” causes Iranian oil production to be reduced by 50%? That could wipe out the world’s 2% excess production, raise prices dramatically, and push the world into recession/depression. The world’s economies are all precarious. Any reduction in the global supply of crude oil, should cause the price of remaining crude oil to increase. Global agriculture is so dependent on crude oil that every increase in crude oil prices results in an increase in food prices. While food price increases may be merely annoying to the wealthy Western nations, they can be devastating to the poorer nations of North Africa and the Middle East. Rising prices for crude oil and food in A.D. 2010 inspired the “Arab Spring” of A.D. 2011. In consequence, a number of governments were overthrown, and all nations of North Africa and the Middle East were destabilized and exposed to further political turmoil or revolutions. In the event of further Middle East turmoil, the current supplies of crude oil may be diminished, contributing to higher prices, even more political turmoil—all of which can precipitate even more recession/depression for the US and global economies. Point: Because crude oil supplies are already strained and because the nations of North Africa and the Middle East are already destabilized by last year’s “Arab Spring,” any attempt to adversely affect the world’s supply of crude oil is a game every bit as dangerous as Russian Roulette. Yes, the US may be able to attack Iran “just enough” to cause Iran great harm, but not hurt global economies. But if there’s any miscalculation or any unforeseen consequences, an attack on Iran could cause a global depression. The US gov-co would be blamed. Is the gov-co willing to take that risk? If not, how significant is the US threat to cut Iranian oil sales by denying access to SWIFT and/or the US banking system? • To the extent that the gov-co restricts Iran’s ability to sell its crude oil, the US could become the world’s foremost villain. On the other hand, if the gov-co does not destroy or significantly restrict Iran’s ability to sell crude oil for currencies other than fiat dollars, the dollar could be significantly devalued—perhaps destroyed—and the US gov-co could assume the title of World’s Foremost Fool. The gov-co is caught between the rock and the hard place. The Iranian confrontation is very nearly a must-lose situation for gov-co. No matter what the gov-co decides to do, it run the risk of either starting a global depression, or allowing significant devaluation of the fiat dollar. • The fundamental point is that the world’s economies need crude oil like you and I need oxygen. The global economy can’t survive without a constant supply of crude oil. Iran is a significant supplier of crude oil. The world economy can’t easily survive without Iran’s oil production. But does the world also need fiat dollars? And, if so, what does the world need more—Iranian crude or fiat dollars? For the answer to that question, go back to A.D. 1971 when the Nixon administration negotiated its agreements with the Saudis and OPEC to turn the worthless fiat dollar into the “petro-dollar”. Did crude oil derive its value from the fiat dollar? Or did the fiat dollar derive its perceived value from crude oil? The answer’s obvious. Since A.D. 1971, the fiat dollar’s perceived value was derived from petroleum. That tells us something that even our gov-co has known for 41 years: crude oil has intrinsic value; fiat dollars do not. The Nixon administration recognized the world’s dependence on crude oil and finagled an artificial monopoly whereby the world couldn’t purchase crude oil without first having dollars. By making the fiat dollar indispensable to the purchase of crude oil, the Nixon administration gave the fiat dollar value derived from crude oil. Crude has real value; fiat dollars are intrinsically worthless. For the past 41 years, crude oil has been an absolute necessity while the fiat dollar has been, at best, a convenience. People have persistently demanded petroleum, but only tolerated the fiat dollar. Some people—perhaps including our own government—have been so confused by the world’s habitual reliance on the fiat dollar that they’ve come to believe that the fiat dollar (which is intrinsically worthless) is more valuable than crude oil. That belief is absurd. Oil has real value. Fiat dollars do not. That’s the primary info needed to predict how the conflict with Iran will probably be resolved. The world needs Iranian oil. The world may want—but does not need—fiat dollars. If the world is forced to choose between fiat dollars and Iranian oil, the world will choose Iranian oil and reject fiat dollars. And, yet, that’s exactly what the US gov-co doing by engaging in confrontation with Iran: forcing the world to choose between fiat dollars and Iranian oil. By denying nations which purchase Iranian oil access to SWIFT and/or the US banking system, the US is forcing nations to choose between acquiring the Iranian crude they need and the convenience of the fiat dollars that they want or perhaps merely tolerate. In the end, needs trump wants. If the world is forced to choose, it will choose Iranian oil over US dollars. More, by forcing the world to choose between fiat dollars and Iranian crude, the US gov-co is helping to break the link between crude oil and fiat dollars and thereby devalue the dollar. Whether the gov-co is risking this devaluation intentionally or stupidly is debatable, but the conflict with Iran can have only one monetary outcome: the fiat dollar will be devalued. In consequence of dollar devaluation, the prices of crude oil, food and gold will rise—perhaps dramatically. The big questions are: 1) How badly can the fiat dollar be devalued before it dies; and, 2) What currency or precious metal will come to supplant or replace the fiat dollar as a reliable store of wealth? Answer the first question, and you’ll have some idea of how long you have to prepare for a dollar collapse. Answer the second question, and you’ll know what you should be buying now as a medium for preserving your wealth in the future. And for extra credit, here’s a third question: How long can a nation survive that’s ruled by fools? • In relation to Iran, our gov-co may be damned if it does, and damned if it don’t. The only question is When do we hit that moment of “damnation” (judgment)? That moment will be whenever the American people and the world recognize that the fiat dollar really is intrinsically worthless and dependent on crude oil for its support. The current confrontation with Iran is not the final battle in the currency wars. But that final battle is getting close.

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is one of the most polyphagous and widely distributed aphid species. Common names. Bean aphid, Black bean aphid. Distribution. This aphid is globally distributed, found commonly in temperate regions of the northern hemisphere and in cooler regions of South America, Africa, and the Middle East. Host associations. It has one of the broadest host ranges, having been recorded from nearly 120 plant families. Economic importance. It is particularly important on beans, peas, beets, crucifers, cucurbits, potato, tobacco, tomato, and tulip. Three recognized subspecies, in addition to the previously mentioned host plants, attack Arctium and Cirsium (Asteraceae), Euonymus (Celastraceae), Viburnum (Caprifoliaceae), Philadelphus (Hydrangeaceae), and Tropaeolum (Tropaeolaceae) and others. It has been implicated in the transmission of over 40 plant viruses. See also. Taxonomy at Aphid Species File. Aphids on the World's Plants. Literature references. Blackman, R.L. and V.F. Eastop. 1994. Aphids on the World’s Trees. CAB International with The Natural History Museum, London. viii + 987 pages, 135 figures, 16 plates. Blackman, R.L. and V.F. Eastop. 2000. Aphids on the World’s Crops, Second Edition. John Wiley & Sons with the Natural History Museum, London. x + 466 pages, 58 figures, 51 plates. Blackman, R.L. and V.F. Eastop. 2006. Aphids on the World’s Herbaceous Plants and Shrubs. Volume 2 The Aphids. John Wiley & Sons with the Natural History Museum, London. viii + pages 1025-1439. Chan, C.K., A.R. Forbes, and D.A. Raworth. 1991. Aphid-transmitted viruses and their vectors of the world. Agriculture Canada Technical Bulletin 1991-3E. 1-216 pp. Holman, J. 2009. Host Plant Catalog of Aphids, Palaearctic Region. Springer Science and Business Media B.V. 1216 pp.

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Shark Conservation Week They are an ancient species with a lineage that extends back millions of years. They are perfectly adapted to their environment. They inspire fear and fascination. They are sharks. But due to prejudice, habitat destruction, climate change and over-hunting, sharks are rapidly becoming one of the most imperiled creatures on Earth. Every year, humans harvest millions of sharks from the world's oceans, sometimes for food or sport, often due to a misunderstanding or prejudice against the species. This year, join the Aquarium in the spirit of stewardship and help us raise awareness about sharks, both along the Oregon coast and throughout the world. Activities & Opportunities Shark Conservation Week runs from Saturday, August 10 through Friday, August 16 during the Aquarium's regular business hours. The majority of special events will be held on Saturday and Sunday, August 10 & 11. Throughout the entire Aquarium, our guests can enjoy a variety of self-guided activities, events, crafts and educational opportunities that will help you become a "Shark Steward." Watch this page as additional information will be posted as the date approaches. For questions, contact us at [email protected]. Learn More About Sharks: Check out these pages on our website and learn more about these shark species, some of which can be viewed at the Aquarium. - Blue Shark - Broadnose Sevengill Shark - Filetail Cat Shark - Horn Shark - Leopard Shark - Spiny Dogfish Shark - White Shark

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The Enlightenment of 18th century Europe had a profound effect on people interested in nature and philosophy, leading to the creation of the first sciences including the study of archaeology. History of Archaeology - Part 1: The Treasure Hunters - You are here --> Part 2: Effects of the Enlightenment - Part 3: Tyranny of the Text - Part 4: Birth of a Science - Part 5: The Development of Method The first tentative step forward towards archaeology as a science took place during the Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Reason. Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries was a time of great growth in scientific and natural exploration. Scientists, poets, philosophers, and painters reached into classical antiquity, particularly Greece, to wonder how rationalism, what they considered the supreme human reason, ever came to be realized. Human society everywhere must develop linearly, it was felt, beginning with stone tools, growing with the invention of agriculture, and ending with the pinnacle of human culture--European scientific society (at least according to European scientific society). The only systematic archaeological investigation during the Enlightenment project was Thomas Jefferson's excavations in Virginia in 1784; most antiquarians were content to theorize. The Enlightenment ended with the American and French Revolutions, but the main concept of the Enlightenment--that of the "Great Chain" of human cultural evolution--was to lead men (rich European men) to investigate the globe over the next century. A "Natural" Sovereignty Unfortunately, the concept of equality, that all societies were the same, just at different levels of evolution, was dropped. Instead, a classificatory system was developed, producing both studies of the individual histories of various societies, and a fierce underlying chauvinism in the scientists themselves of the "natural" sovereignty of the European peoples. One of those lit by the fires of the Enlightenment was Jacques Boucher de Perthes, a French customs officer. During the 1830s-1850s, he discovered a mess of extinct animal bones, numerous handaxes, and other artifacts in Ice Age deposits at the site of Abbeville along the Somme River in France, and had the nerve to call them "Ante-Diluvian" (that is, "before the flood"). To make any kind of claim questioning the purely factual basis of the Bible was, well, heresy. In 1847, de Perthes published a long rambling account of these artifacts, arguing that they were clear evidence that humanity was clearly older than 6,000 years. He was widely ignored until 12 years later when two British archaeologists visited Abbeville, found elephant bones in situ with stone axes, and published a treatise supporting de Perthe's assertions of the antiquity of humans. Schliemann, Botta and Layard Better known to the general public, partly because of Irving Stone, and partly because of rudiments of his own sense of PT Barnum, is Heinrich Schliemann, a German whose insatiable search for the Troy of the Odyssey and the Iliad led him to Turkey to the site of Hisarlik. Schliemann spent four years in the early 1870s digging through nine levels of occupation at Hisarlik, interestingly enough excavating right through the classic period Hellenic occupation without recognizing it in the process. Other early scientists who excavated for answers to questions, not necessarily gold artifacts, included Paul Emile Botta, an Italian who excavated the Palace of Sargon II of Assyria in the 1840s, under the mistaken impression that he had found the biblical site of Nineveh. The Three Age System Christian J. Thomsen and Jens Jacob Asmussen Worsaae, succeeding curators of the National Museum of Denmark argued against the prevailing theory that in prehistoric times, iron tools were for poor people and bronze for rich, and in the 1840s looked for and provided the evidence for the Three Age System (Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages) throughout Europe. The modern science of archaeology still grapples with three issues believed by European antiquarians in the century after the Enlightenment. First, they firmly believed that all white, propertied men were equal--but nobody else. Secondly, they believed European scientific society was the pinnacle of human endeavor, and that any society not there yet was inferior in some way. Thirdly, due to their efforts, much of the artifacts they found are in European museums, far from their countries of origin. It is only relatively recently that archaeology has begun to let go of these tenets, and, to some extent, returned to the original notions of equality of the Enlightenment itself. A bibliography of the history of archaeology has been assembled for this project.

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http://archaeology.about.com/cs/18th19thcentury/a/history2.htm

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The red-legged frog was once so plentiful that it was frequently served… (KQED ) The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service on Tuesday designated 1.6 million acres in California as critical habitat for the endangered red-legged frog, made famous by Mark Twain in his story, "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County." The amphibian, once so plentiful that it was commonly featured on restaurant menus, eventually became endangered because of development encroaching on its habitat and the effects of pesticides and other chemicals. The habitat area is divided into 50 units across 27 California counties, including six counties that previously did not have designated critical habitat: Mendocino, Sonoma, Placer, Calaveras, Stanislaus and Kings. It was the third time the agency has attempted to assign a protected area for the frog. Prior efforts were thwarted, first in 2001 by a lawsuit from the building industry, which objected to setting aside 4.1 million acres for frog habitat. Most recently, the agency reduced critical habitat to 450,000 acres in a controversial 2006 decision by Interior Department official Julie MacDonald, who was found to have provided internal documents to lobbyists and pressured scientists to alter their conclusions. MacDonald later resigned. Noah Greenwald, an attorney with the Center for Biological Diversity, which sued over the original habitat decision, said the decision was a "step in the right direction" and noted that protecting California red-legged frogs has the benefit of protecting the greater ecosystem. "Red-legged frogs are a strong indicator for clean flowing water and wetlands," Greenwald said. "As we've lost wetland habitats and as we've polluted water, we've lost this species. That has consequences for all of us." Tuesday's decision includes a provision formulated in 2006 that exempts ranchers and farmers from violations of the Endangered Species Act if their activities unintentionally harm protected frogs. The rule was crafted to credit private landowners for any benefit they provide for the frog, such as providing habitat in livestock ponds. The Fish and Wildlife Service estimated the 20-year economic impact of the habitat designation to be $159 million to $500 million, with about 90% of the impacts on new development. Of the total cost, $48.4 million of the cost is projected crop loss.

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http://articles.latimes.com/2010/mar/17/local/la-me-frog-habitat17-2010mar17

2013-05-24T23:21:11Z

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en

Divorce or dissolution of marriage is the ending of a marriage, which can be contrasted with an annulment which is a declaration that a marriage is void, though the effects of marriage may be recognized in such unions, such as spousal support, child custody and distribution of property. In developed countries, divorce rates have increased markedly during the twentieth century. Among the states in which divorce has become commonplace are the United States, Japan, Korea and members of the European Union. In U.S, Canada, the United Kingdom and other some other developed Commonwealth countries, this boom in divorce developed in the last half of the twentieth century. In addition, acceptance of the single-parent family has resulted in many women deciding to have children outside marriage as there is little remaining social stigma attached to unwed mothers. The subject of divorce as a social phenomenon is an important research topic in sociology. Some researchers argue that divorce rates do not always reflect actual interactions among people; that is, some countries may show a low divorce rate because, in such countries, people rarely get married in the first place. The term between divorce and remarriage varies depending on the country and the gender of the divorcee. In some countries, women need to wait longer than men before remarrying to avoid confusion about paternity. Children born after divorce may or may not be recognized as children of their father depending on the period between divorce and birth, although recognition of maternity is usually automatic. In most common law jurisdictions there is a presumption that the child born during the marriage is the husband's child, however this presumption can be overcome by identifying the putative father and bringing a paternity or affiliation proceeding. If the child was conceived before the divorce but born afterward this may involve litigation. If a man accepts the child as his own he may be declared the father by estoppel as the parens patrie power of the court would rather the child have a male role model responsible for child support and other parental obligations rather than have the child grow up in a single-parent family. No similar obligation exists for women who accept a man's children as her own. A man who has been divorced is a divorcé; a divorced woman is a divorcée (from French). Material to fill in. History of divorce Divorce in some jurisdictions is a relatively recent phenomenon. In Canada there was no divorce law until the 1960s. Before that the only way to get divorced was to apply to the Canadian Senate where a special committee would undertake an investigation of a request for a divorce and if they found that the request had merit, the marriage would be dissolved by an Act of Parliament. Prior to 1670 a marriage could only be ended by the Church courts if it could be shown to have never existed in the first place, either through inability to consent (e.g. insanity) or by want of capacity to marry (e.g. precontract, consanguinity, the two parties were related by a previous marriage). A marriage could also be ended if one of the parties were impotent or frigid when the marriage was contracted. It was also possible to get a legal separation from the church known as divorce a mensa et thoro (from board and hearth). Grounds for the separation included adultery, cruelty and heresy, and it meant that any offspring were not rendered illegitimate. However neither spouse could remarry until the other had died. In the 1530s, Henry VIII decided that he wished to divorce his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, on the grounds of affinity; he argued that, since Catherine was his brother Arthur's widow, the marriage had never really existed. Catherine claimed that her marriage to Arthur had never been properly consummated. In 1533 Thomas Cranmer was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury and he declared that Henry's marriage to Catherine was void, effectively bastardizing their daughter Mary (later Mary I). In 1536 Cranmer similarly declared Henry's marriage to Anne Boleyn void, most probably due to Henry's pervious relationship with Anne's sister Mary Boleyn. Cranmer tried to reform the Church of England's Canon law so that it allowed divorce for adultery, cruelty, and desertion, but these changes were not implemented. Following Lord Roos's divorce on the grounds of adultery in 1670, the procedure for divorce in English law went as follows: first the husband brought an action for "criminal conversation" to establish the adultery, then he obtained a divorce a mensa et thoro from the church and then finally he petitioned the House of Lords to grant the divorce. In 1853 a Royal Commission made recommendations on how to improve the procedure of getting a divorce. In 1857 the Court for Divorce and Matrimonial Causes, based in London, was established, taking over the divorce duties of the church courts. Men could obtain divorce for adultery, but women had to prove cruelty or desertion, in addition of their husband's adultery. In 1923 women were allowed to use the same grounds for divorce as men. In 1969, after much debate, 'irretrievable breakdown', on the basis of one of five grounds became the test for divorce. Alternatives to divorce are 'nullity' (see annulment) or 'judicial separation' which may be suitable where there is religious scruples against divorce. Religious/cultural attitudes to divorce David Instone-Brewer has an extensive website at www.instone-brewer.com which discusses marriage and divorce from 1st century context. Needs to be filled in Social and psychological issues Women are generally the financial victims of divorce due to the lack of equal pay for equal work in many countries and the fact that many women give up employment after marriage to bring up children. They are often left with the burden of looking after the children after the divorce while having to find work in low-paid jobs. Child support collection is a major problem as many fathers do not accept that they have an obligation towards their children. Many national and local governments provide some kind of welfare system for divorced mothers and their children. See single mother for details. Men are generally the financial victims of divorce due to court-ordered alimony and child support which women often are not required to pay, and the fact that many men are entirely denied custody of their own children. Some men are left with the burden of never seeing their children, which is a major problem as many mothers may relocate the children, not accepting that they have an obligation to provide a stable and supportive family with both parents involved. Although women are less likely to pay child-support, they are more likely to neglect support payments when they are required. Recognition of the problems faced by fathers and other relatives is given by self-help groups such as Families Need Fathers . Causes of divorce Divorce may be a result of one or more factors, usually more than one, which make a couple unable or unwilling to continue the relationship. In some cases, incompatibilities arise due to financial needs, vast differences in career goals, or conflicts concerning time spent outside the home. Legal aspects of divorce Divorce in the United States is a matter of state law, not federal law. Each state's legislature has enacted divorce laws that set forth the requirements for obtaining a divorce. These requirements vary from state to state. In general there is a residency requirement and a waiting period after the separation. For example, in North Carolina, a spouse must have lived in North Carolina at least six months and must wait one year after separating to file for divorce. Other states have different residency requirements and waiting periods. Some states have requirements that issues like custody must be settled prior to the divorce. Another issue is whether or not a divorcing party has to prove that the divorce is the other party's fault. Generally speaking, states offer no-fault divorces where the issue who is responsible for the dissolution of the marriage is irrevelevant. In Canada while civil and political rights are in the jurisdiction of the provinces of Canada, the Constitution of Canada specifically made marriage and divorce the realm of the federal government. Essentially this means that Canada's divorce law is uniform throughout Canada, even in Quebec, that differs from the other provinces in its use of the civil law as codified in the Civil Code of Quebec as opposed to the common law that is in force in the other provinces and generally interpreted in similar ways throughout the Anglo-Canadian provinces. The Canada Divorce Act recognizes three grounds for divorce: adultery, cruelty, and being separated for one year. Most divorces proceed on the basis of the spouses being separated for one year, even if there has been cruelty or adultery. This is because proving cruelty or adultery is expensive and time consuming. (http://www.ottawadivorce.com) The one-year period of separation starts from the time at least one spouse intends to live separate and apart from the other and acts on it. A couple does not need a court order to be separated, since there is no such thing as a "legal separation" in Canada. (http://www.A1-ontario-divorce.com) A couple can even be considered to be "separated" even if they are living in the same dwelling. Either spouse can apply for a divorce in the province in which either the husband or wife has lived for at least one year. On September 13, 2004, the Ontario Court of Appeal declared the Divorce Act also unconstitutional for excluding same-sex marriage, which are recognized in three provinces and one territory. It ordered same-sex marriages read into that act, permitting the plaintiffs, a lesbian couple, to divorce. (http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20040913.wdivor0913/BNStory/National/) In Japan, there are four types of divorce. Divorce By Mutual Consent (kyogi rikon), Divorce By Family Court Mediation (chotei rikon), Divorce By Family Court Judgement (shimpan rikon), and Divorce by District Court Judgment (saiban rikon). Divorce by mutual consent is a simple process of submitting a declaration to the relevant government office that says both spouses agree to divorce. This form is often called the "Green Form" due to the wide green band across the top. If both parties fail to reach agreement on conditions of a Divorce By Mutual Consent, such as child custody which must be specified on the divorce form, then they must use one of the other three types of divorce. It should also be noted that another type may also be necessary in the case of an international divorce, as Japan's Divorce By Mutual Consent is not recognized by all countries. Divorce By Mutual Consent in Japan differs from divorce in many other countries in that it is not always possible to verify the identity of the non Japanese spouse in the case of an international divorce. This is due to two facts. First, both spouses do not have to be present when submitting the divorce form to the government office. Second, a Japanese citizen must authorize the divorce form using a personal stamp (hanko), and Japan has a legal mechanism for registration of personal stamps. On the other hand, a non-Japanese citizen can authorize the divorce form with a signature. But there is no such legal registry for signatures, making forgery of the signature of a non-Japanese spouse difficult to prevent at best, and impossible to prevent without forsight. The only defense against such forgery is, before the forgery occurs, to submit yet another form to prevent a divorce form from being legally accepted by the government office at all. This form must be renewed every six months. Divorce is commenced by the issuing of a petition, which must be acknowledged by the other party. Whilst it is possible to defend a divorce, the vast majority proceed on an undefended basis. A decree of divorce is initially granted 'nisi', i.e. (unless cause is later shown), before it is made 'absolute'. Relevant laws are: Where people from different countries get married, and one or both then choose to reside in another country, the procedures for divorce can become significantly more complicated. Although most countries make divorce possible, the form of settlement or agreement following divorce may be very different depending on where the divorce takes place. In some countries there may be a bias towards the man regarding property settlements, and in others there may be a bias towards the woman, both concerning property, and also custody of any children. One or both parties may seek to divorce in a country which has jurisdiction over them. Normally there will be a residence requirement in the country in which the divorce takes place. Some of the more important aspects of divorce law involve the provisions for any children involved in the marriage, and problems may arise due to abduction of children by one parent, or restriction of access rights to children. In the United States, it is often quoted that "50% of marriages end in divorce," however we must closely examine the actual statistics to understand the actual divorce rate. According to the National Center for Health Statistics (part of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention), in 2001 the per capita marriage rate was 7.8 marriages in 1,000 people (0.78%). (http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/divorce.htm) This means that for every 1,000 people living in the US, in 7.8 marriages were performed during the year 2001, or 15.6 individuals got married. (http://www.divorcereform.org/rates.html) The divorce rate was 4.0 divorces per 1,000 people (0.40%), or 8.0 out of every 1,000 people got divorces during 2001. (http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/divorce.htm) A more accurate concluding statement to draw from this data would be "The divorce rate is half the marriage rate." The statement "50% of marriages end in divorce" would instead have to study a sample of marriages throughout their duration, that is, over a period of many years, and determine how many of the marriages actually performed ended in divorce (as compared to annulment or death of a spouse). These two statements would be equivalent if (1) marriage and divorce trends did not change over a time period equal to the length of a marriage (say, 50 years), and (2) all divorces were performed in the same country as their marriage. While the second statement is close enough to true, the first one is clearly not, as during the ten year period from 1991 to 2001 the divorce rate decreased from 0.47% to the above stated 0.40%. (http://www.divorcereform.org/rates.html) da:Skilsmisse de:Scheidung fr:Divorce he:גירושים nl:Echtscheiding zh:离婚

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://askfactmaster.com/Divorce

2013-05-24T23:47:25Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705284037/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115444-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

A new university-led study with NASA participation finds ancient Antarctica was much warmer and wetter than previously suspected. The climate was suitable to support substantial vegetation -- including stunted trees -- along the edges of the frozen continent. The team of scientists involved in the study, published online June 17 in Nature Geoscience, was led by Sarah J. Feakins of the University of Southern California in Los Angeles, and included researchers from NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, Calif., and Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge. By examining plant leaf wax remnants in sediment core samples taken from beneath the Ross Ice Shelf, the research team found summer temperatures along the Antarctic coast 15 to 20 million years ago were 20 degrees Fahrenheit (11 degrees Celsius) warmer than today, with temperatures reaching as high as 45 degrees Fahrenheit (7 degrees Celsius). Precipitation levels also were found to be several times higher than today. - IOW: AGW = TFBS. - PEOPLE WHO ARGUE THAT CLIMATE CHANGE IS MAN-MADE AND THAT WE NEED TO CURB OUR PRODUCTION OF CO2 ARE DUPES, HUCKSTERS OR SCOUNDRELS. - PEOPLE LIKE OBAMA - WHO HAS SAID HE WILL MAKE MAN-MADE CLIMATE CHANGE HIS MAJOR GOAL IF HE GETS A SECOND TERM.

<urn:uuid:44ed3daa-a006-4d94-ae02-10ca08852f8b>

CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://astuteblogger.blogspot.com/2012/06/er-um-was-there-lot-of-man-made-co2-in.html

2013-05-24T23:48:41Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705284037/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115444-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

Construction projects can be complex. This complexity is increasing as architects and builders are being asked to design and construct more technically demanding structures. Add political pressures, financial shortfalls, simultaneous construction schedules and an increasingly large group of decisionmakers, and the web of school construction becomes even more tangled. For many public school districts, modernization can be a daunting process. Establishing a detailed and specific plan at the beginning is critical to success. Schools are planning more than $33 billion in modernization projects in the next three years. Factor in school additions and new construction, and the total is predicted to reach up to nearly $85 billion. This volume of activity will create a tremendous demand for funding, and the resources to design and deliver the projects. Having a detailed plan will minimize the risk that a school district will run out of funding before work is complete. In most cases, a district's needs will exceed the dollars available. To ensure the optimum use of dollars, program stakeholders must plan in detail. This includes deciding how to sequence the steps in a project. Because renovations can be messy and disruptive, a district must identify potential problems and minimize the impact of construction on students and staff. This should be done before any construction work has begun. IDENTIFYING A NEED In many cases, the need to renovate and modernize a school is clear — old electric wiring, asbestos, air conditioning that is run down or non-existent, leaky roofs, inadequate technology, and areas inaccessible to persons with disabilities. Unfortunately, districts' maintenance budgets often are inadequate, and upgrades usually are limited to the most pressing projects. To clearly establish a comprehensive list of all district needs, an institution should complete a needs assessment of all facilities. In most districts, the school board will approve funds for this evaluation. The district facilities department, an independent architect, program manager or other consultant can complete this assessment. The assessment will include walking every campus and inspecting each district facility to identify every area in need of improvement. Areas to evaluate: mechanical, electrical and plumbing systems; windows; roofs; Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) requirements; asbestos and lead- paint abatement needs; seismic retrofit; and potential technology upgrades. Other items related to curriculum also must be factored into this assessment, such as issues relating to classroom- size reduction and special education. The list of needs also should include cost estimates. FIRST THINGS FIRST In setting up a districtwide modernization program, administrators must establish priorities for spending capital outlay funds. Often, because needs are so great, a district may begin work without clear priorities. But without a careful plan, money can run out before all work is complete. Before beginning to prioritize needs, a district must identify who will participate in decisionmaking. In many instances, a citizens advisory committee helps set priorities. The level of participation by the community can vary greatly. But the important factor is a district's ability to make timely decisions in the best interest of the schools. Once a district identifies the key decisionmakers, it should prioritize the needs assessment list. In most instances, the top priorities are projects that will make sure all campuses meet a minimum health and safety standard. This helps to establish a clear perception of equity across the district. Once these items have been identified and ranked, the district can begin adding discretionary projects to its “wish list.” These second-tier items can be completed if funds are available. SHOW ME THE MONEY Now, the district can seek out potential funding sources. In general, funding possibilities include federal and state resources, local or state bonds, developer fees, private contributions and special grants. Categorize each potential funding source, based on the certainty and timing of availability. Districts may have to identify specific projects as “contingent” depending on funding availability. Next, a district needs to develop its program budget. This involves two levels: individual projects and the overall program. For each individual project, clearly define the hard costs (such as the building materials) and soft costs (fees for design, construction management, consultants, permits, zoning and licensing fees). Combining this information with the established priorities helps a district determine an overall schedule for cash flow. The schedule will help define the total program budget requirements. At some point during the planning, a district must determine which construction delivery method it will use. Some methods are limited by state statute, but in general the options include traditional design-bid-build, construction manager/owner agent, construction manager/general contractor or design/build. SETTING THE SCHEDULE The most important factor in developing a program schedule is a district's educational mission. When developing a schedule, a district must balance this mission against the potential for the modernization to disrupt the mission. The ultimate goal should be a solution that has the least effect on operations, while allowing the maximum opportunity for the modernization team to deliver a cost-efficient and high-quality project. An experienced builder, in collaboration with other team members, can help evaluate the capacity of the district as a whole and its capabilities to accommodate construction at multiple sites. As they formulate their plans, administrators also must consider summer school schedules, student enrollment shifts and potential community response. A plan also must take into account time delays or additional costs that can arise from “unforeseen” or hidden conditions that occur commonly in every school modernization. As-built documents from the original construction rarely are available. In addition, many small projects completed over the years are not properly recorded and are just “handled” by district personnel. Even though school modernization can be complex, the basic elements of proper planning can make the difference between success and failure. The work itself is not necessarily complex; however, all stakeholders must remain focused on the goal of modernizing yesterday's schools into tomorrow's learning environments. Henry is vice president, education services for McCarthy Building Companies, St. Louis. Henry leads the firm's Education Services Group, which provides construction services for elementary and secondary education facilities nationwide. McCarthy worked on the John Burroughs and Cedar Oak Primary Schools.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://asumag.com/mag/university_fixing_right

2013-05-24T23:39:45Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705284037/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115444-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

The Bauhaus was founded in Weimar by Walter Gropius on 1st April 1919. Walter Gropius created the Staatliches Bauhaus in Weimar from the merger of the former Großherzoglich-Sächsische Kunstgewerbeschule (Grand Ducal Saxonian school of arts and crafts)and the Großherzoglich-Sächsische Kunstschule (Grand Ducal Saxonian school of arts), founded by the Belgian designer Henry van de Velde. Even though it was originally nationally orientated, it had already made a name for itself internationally by 1923. The high calibre artists Gropius appointed as masters at the Bauhaus Weimar included Gerhard Marcks, Lyonel Feininger, Johannes Itten, Paul Klee, Oskar Schlemmer, Wassily Kandinsky and László Moholy-Nagy. His employment policy was distinguished by its internationalism, cosmopolitanism and artistic diversity. During its existence in Weimar until late March 1925, the Bauhaus became an important meeting place for the European avant-garde. In his manifesto and programme for the Staatliches Bauhaus Weimar, Walter Gropius called for a new beginning for building culture with elements that were considered visionary for that era. Art should once again serve a social role, and there should no longer be a division between the crafts-based disciplines. Instead of academic theory, the Bauhaus relied on a pluralistic educational concept, on creative methods and the individual development of the students’ artistic talents. Academic requirements for enrolment were dispensed with, so that talented young people could study at the Bauhaus Weimar irrespective of their educational background, gender or nationality. Between 150 and 200 students were registered at the Bauhaus Weimar. Depending on the semester, this included a 25 to 50 per cent ratio of women and a 17 to 33 per cent ratio of foreign students. Based on the manifesto and programme of the Bauhaus, the Bauhaus masters in Weimar developed a new type of teaching programme based on the preliminary course developed by the Swiss artist and art teacher Johannes Itten, the famous form and colour theory of Paul Klee and Wassily Kandinsky and practical training in the workshops. The ultimate goal of the educational programme was collaborative work on a representative building, the Gesamtkunstwerk or the “total work of art”, as Gropius called it, to which all the Bauhaus workshops were to contribute. The Bauhaus’s first publisher’s mark, the so-called Sternenmännchen (star mannequin) by Karl Peter Röhl, was designed in 1919 for a students’ competition and was replaced in 1922 by a design by Oskar Schlemmer. The new publisher’s mark was used to label the Bauhaus products and for all of the school’s important printed goods. Schlemmer’s impressive publisher’s mark is underpinned by the concept that the human being should stand at the centre of all the school’s endeavours. Training in the workshops was preceded by the preliminary course, a trial semester where the personal skills of the students were tested and the foundations of craftsmanship and design were taught. Developed gradually up to 1921, the workshops were the centrepiece of the Bauhaus Weimar. One special feature of education at the Bauhaus Weimar was the stage workshop, which was directed by Lothar Schreyer from 1921 to 1923 and Oskar Schlemmer from 1923 to 1925. The stage department was seen as an integrational workshop where the entire spectrum of visual and performing arts was fostered by an interdisciplinary approach. Historically, the Bauhaus was more closely associated with the political, socio-economic and cultural developments of the Weimar Republic than any other German institute of education. The Bauhaus’s beginnings in Weimar were influenced by expressionism and, to a greater extent, the esoteric – largely thanks to Johannes Itten’s persona. In 1923, Walter Gropius initiated a decisive change of direction at the Bauhaus Weimar. Theo van Doesburg, a Dutch artist, member and propagandist of the group De Stijl, served as a catalyst for this development, which was furthered by the confrontation with Constructivism and the demands of a technologically-orientated world. In this context, a pragmatic, functional approach prevailed – but this was not accepted without question at the Bauhaus. There is no doubt that this new direction triggered a rise in productivity as early as the Bauhaus’s Weimar phase, manifested in many design classics, such as the famous Bauhaus lamp by Jucker and Wagenfeld. The Bauhaus exhibition of 1923, which was the first major exhibition by the Bauhaus about the Bauhaus, was to convey this new direction to the public. The Haus am Horn was built in this context as the first architectural testimonial to the early Bauhaus in Weimar. It still exists today. From its foundation, the Bauhaus was caught in the crossfire between different political parties. The right wing dismissed it as utopian and Bolshevist. The city’s populist nationalist politicians launched salvos against the school. Criticism also arose from the left wing spectrum for the first time. Between 1919 and 1923, the state government generally promoted Gropius’s plans. In the 1924 elections, the right wing party Thüringer Ordnungsbund gained a majority in the Landtag, the state legislative assembly. The budget for the Bauhaus was immediately cut by half and the teachers’ contracts cancelled as of 31st March 1925. In an act of self-assertion, Gropius and the Bauhaus masters resigned their posts in December. Various cities signalled an interest in providing a new home for the Bauhaus. Ultimately, the city of Dessau, which was governed by the Social Democratic Party of Germany, was favoured by the teachers due to its excellent economic perspectives. After the move to Dessau in 1925, Walter Gropius donated 160 products made in the workshops of the Staatliches Bauhaus in Weimar to the state’s collection. Weimar therefore possesses the oldest authorised Bauhaus collection worldwide.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://bauhaus-online.de/en/atlas/das-bauhaus/idee/bauhaus-weimar

2013-05-24T23:20:07Z

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en

By H.J. Fracaro Anticipatory grief is when a death is expected typically due to a terminal illness or the aging process. The relative could be cared for in the home, at a hospital, or hospice. Medical equipment can be frightening even to children (and teens and adults). When the child visits the patient make sure to explain in advance any physical changes their loved one has undergone, such as weight loss, hair loss, and the medical devices that are being used, so they aren’t shocked or scared during the visit. Invite them to help make the person comfortable, whether getting them a glass of water or reading a book aloud; contributing to care can make them feel better about the situation, but never force it. Always support the parents wishes when answering tough questions from the children. Typically you should answer questions honestly even if the question is, “Is he going to die?” Although it is important for the children to be able to prepare themselves and say goodbye to a loved one, as a nanny you must always respect the parents wishes even if you disagree with their choices in dealing with the terminal illness or death of the loved one. Even with preparedness the actual death will still be upsetting. Children may worry about their own security. Experts recommend being honest and to explain whom they would live with in such an event and assure them they will always be taken care of. Usually what they are imagining is worse than reality. Again, it is the parents and family that should guide you in how to answer these questions. It is your role to support the family's wishes. Many children feel loss even before the death because their family members are distracted and depressed. Make sure to keep their routine as normal as possible and make time to discuss their feelings. Have them finish sentences like: I feel saddest when ____________. When I am alone I______________. Since _________ got sick my family doesn’t _______________. This is a great way to start a dialogue about their concerns. Welcoming outside help such as a social workers, therapists, ministers, friends and neighbors, lends extra support to the child and to the parent who may be overwhelmed with their new responsibilities. It also allows another set of eyes to make sure the child is coping when the parent may be too depressed to notice any warning signs themselves.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://bestnannynewsletter.blogspot.com/2012/02/have-you-ever-worked-for-parent-with.html

2013-05-24T23:27:46Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705284037/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115444-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

In a recent post, Tom Paone described the plans of William Powell, a resident of Mobile, Alabama, for a Confederate helicopter. In fact, Powell’s scheme was only the tip of the iceberg. In researching a scholarly paper on Civil War Planes, I have catalogued a score of plans for powered flying machines developed on both sides of the battle lines. Perhaps the most interesting of these was the work of Colonel Edward Wellman Serrell , a professional engineer serving with the Union Army of the James in 1864. Inspired by the well-known hand-held helicopter toy, Serrell had begun studying aeronautics several years before the War. Once in uniform he conducted full-scale tests of metal rotor blades in the field, then convinced his commander, General Benjamin Butler, to order him to duty in Philadelphia, where he raised the money with which to build his Reconoiterer, a flying machine designed to conduct reconnaissance missions over enemy lines. The machine would be lifted into the air by twin rotary wings set above and below the fuselage, and driven forward by propellers at the front and rear. Two large flat copper plates, each measuring nine feet in span and 45 feet, 8 inches long, were to be positioned on either side of the shell. The two plates were connected to a crank running through the fuselage, so that the crew could incline or depress the wings up to six degrees above or below the horizontal to provide additional lift. Plans called for the fuselage to be a cigar-shaped copper shell measuring 52 feet long, with landing runners on the underside. A chamber at the bottom of the shell would serve as a reservoir for the boiler water, with a second chamber above it for the coal. A light-weight, high pressure vertical steam engine with a vertical boiler were housed in the rear of the shell. A series of moveable balls were to be used to balance the Reconnoiterer. The designer estimated the total weight at take-off, with a crew of three on board and enough water and fuel for an eight-hour flight, at 8½ tons. Unlike William Powell, and most other armchair aviators of the Civil War era, Serrell conducted serious engineering tests, obtained what he thought would be a suitable steam power plant, and had large sections of the hull of a smaller three-man demonstration craft under construction when hostilities ended. He continued his effort for a time, corresponding with leading aeronautical researchers in Europe, but ultimately abandoned the venture when it became apparent that steam propulsion was inadequate. While Serrell and others who dreamed of winged flight during this era were destined never to get off the ground, the number of flying machine projects that appeared during the middle years of the nineteenth century underscores American enthusiasm for technology, even for the possibility of a machine that most feet-on-the-ground citizens regarded as something akin to a perpetual motion machine. Dreamers and doers like E.W. Serrell deserve to be remembered. Fortunately, the collection of research materials regarding what might be thought of as the pre-history of aviation continues to grow. During the course of research on aeronautical experimentation in nineteenth century America, and with the help of my colleague Mark Ragan, an important cache of Edward Wellman Serrell’s papers relating to his flight experiments was discovered in the hands of his descendants. Through the generosity of the family, the records of this pioneering foray into heavier-than-air flight are now safely preserved in the archive of the National Air and Space Museum, where they will be available to researchers in generations to come. Tom Crouch is a senior curator in the Aeronautics Department of the National Air and Space Museum.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://blog.nasm.si.edu/tag/early-aviation/

2013-05-24T23:42:25Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705284037/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115444-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

It’s the size of Jupiter, orbits at about the distance of Mercury, and isn’t too far from the temperature range of Earth. Meet Corot-9b, the newest find in the cavalcade of exoplanets and the one its discoverers say is most like the worlds of our own solar system. “Like our own giant planets, Jupiter and Saturn, the planet is mostly made of hydrogen and helium,” said team member Tristan Guillot of the Côte d’Azure Observatory in Nice, France. “And it may contain up to 20 Earth masses of other elements, including water and rock at high temperatures and pressures” [Space.com]. The large group of astronomers reporting the find in Nature estimate the planet’s temperature at a range between just below zero and slightly above 300 degrees Fahrenheit. It completes an orbit in 95 days, though it’s about 1,500 light years away. Astronomers have conclusive evidence that a planet spotted in a star system 500 light years away is rocky and solid, just like Earth. Scientists have long figured that if life begins on a planet, it needs a solid surface to rest on, so finding one elsewhere is a big deal. “We basically live on a rock ourselves,” said co-discoverer Artie Hartzes…. “It’s as close to something like the Earth that we’ve found so far. It’s just a little too close to its sun” [AP]. Yes, for while the exoplanet, Corot-7b, is rocky like Earth and is only about five times more massive than our home planet, it’s hardly our twin. Its close proximity to its star means that it completes an orbit (its “year”) in just 20 hours, and the climate extremes are punishing. Temperatures soar above 2,000 degrees on its day side and sink to minus 200 degrees on the night side. It means the surface could be covered with molten lava or boiling oceans and it certainly could not hold any form of life as we know it [Scientific American]. Four hundred years ago, Galileo observed the phases of Venus as the planet orbited our sun and caught its light in different ways, helping to disprove the idea that all celestial bodies twirled around the Earth. Now, the professional descendants of Galileo have observed the phases of an exoplanet for the first time, observing the distant planet in the act of orbiting a foreign star. The planet, CoRoT-1b, is about 1,600 light years away from Earth, and was discovered about 2 years ago. It’s a “hot Jupiter,” a class of exoplanets that are the size of Jupiter but orbit very closely to their stars (CoRoT-1b orbits its star in just 36 hours). Hot Jupiters are expected to be tidally locked, with one side always facing their stars, the other permanently dark (our own moon is tidally locked with the Earth, only showing its “near side” to us) [SPACE.com]. While astronomers have found more than 300 planets beyond our solar system in the last 15 years, none of those “exoplanets” has been a likely candidate for extraterrestrial life. The exoplanets discovered thus far are all either too close to the hot sun or too far away and therefore too frigid to host life as we know it. But Alan Boss says it’s just a matter of time before we find Earth-like planets in the “Goldilocks zone”: he calculates that 100 billion of them may exist within our own Milky Way galaxy. And NASA’s Kepler satellite, which is expected to launch on March 5, may be the key to finding them, he says. Boss, an astrophysicist and author of the new book “The Crowded Universe: The Search for Living Planets,” says that if any of the billions of Earth-like worlds he believes exist in the Milky Way have liquid water, they are likely to be home to some type of life. “Now that’s not saying that they’re all going to be crawling with intelligent human beings or even dinosaurs,” he said. “But I would suspect that the great majority of them at least will have some sort of primitive life, like bacteria or some of the multicellular creatures that populated our Earth for the first 3 billion years of its existence” [CNN]. A rocky world about twice the size of Earth has been detected orbiting a sun-like star 390 light years away from our solar system. While the “super-Earth” is hot and inhospitable to life as we know it, its discovery puts researchers firmly on the path towards finding other habitable planets. “For the first time, we have unambiguously detected a planet that is ‘rocky’ in the same sense as our own Earth” [Wired News], said project scientist Malcolm Fridlund. The exciting find was made by the CoRoT satellite, which was launched by the French space agency to scan the skies for exoplanets (planets outside our solar system). The results were announced at a CoRoT symposium in Paris. CoRoT team member Suzanne Aigrain explains that the planet is so close to its parent star that it orbits around it once every 20 hours, and is subject to inferno-like conditions. “It’s likely that there is a solid surface somewhere,” says Aigrain. But the extreme surface temperatures of around 1000°C [around 1800 degrees Fahrenheit] could mean that the planet is host to vast lava fields and boiling oceans. It also may be ‘tidally locked’ to its parent star, leaving one face bathed in constant, searing sunlight while the other is shrouded in continuous night. “It would be a very odd place to set foot on,” she says [Nature News]. A starlit sky may look serene, but those stars are actually quivering and quaking; now, researchers have recorded the stellar vibrations of distant stars for the first time. The pulsations reflect changes in temperature caused when roiling heat makes the outer surface of the star vibrate. Portions of the surface expand and cool, while others contract and get warmer [New Scientist]. The initial discovery of oscillations in our Sun in the late 1970′s led to the creation of “solar seismology,” which has since been used to measure the movement and transport of heat around the Sun. Solar seismology led to rapid progress in understanding the Sun’s internal structure, but eventually researchers hit a wall [COSMOS]. For accurate measurements, researchers need a long stretch of uninterrupted observations, which is impossible from ground-based telescopes.

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http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/80beats/tag/Corot/

2013-05-24T23:34:06Z

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Teaching kids to care more... on March 12, 2013 in Education | 0 comments Some children are born outgoing; many are not, preferring to hide behind their parents at barbecues, refusing to make eye contact with new people. In itself, shyness is not something that should cause too much concern. Many children are shy as toddlers, and begin to outgrow it in preschool or early primary school when they develop a sense of independence. Some children retain their shyness for longer, their inability to warm up to people seeming to be a fundamental part of their temperament. As a parent, you can help your shy child feel more comfortable in their own skin. One of the worst things you can do for a shy child is point out to everyone how shy they are: “This is Tom. He’s shy.” No child is intentionally shy, much of it seems to be ingrained when we are born. Labelling a shy child can often hem them in, instead of giving them new ways of overcoming their worries in social situations. It gives a sense of finality, and it also suggests that it’s some kind of flaw. There is nothing wrong with being shy. Shy kids tend to be sensitive and as a result more cautious in all areas of life, preferring to skirt around the edges of life rather than jumping in like their more adventurous peers. This tendency stems from that part of our brain that controls our responses to new or unfamiliar situations. Cautious kids are often the last to jump in the pool, hold on to their training wheels the longest, and stand at the sidelines of the birthday party while the other children run amok. (As a mum to at least two sensitive, cautious kids, I have to say this isn’t always a bad thing. Broken limbs in our household: O) If your child’s shyness seems to be getting in the way of their achievements, growth or prevents them from taking up new opportunities, like performing in concerts, talking in front of the class, or in social situations, then perhaps they will need a little extra help inovercoming the more paralysing aspects of their shyness. Encourage your shy child to always use their manners and make eye contact with people when they are speaking. They should never feel pressured to talk if they don’t feel comfortable, but engaging with people in a respectful and good-natured way is important. Shyness can come across as rudeness, particularly in older children and adults, so good manners go a long way. Shyness can be overcome if you let your child proceed at their own pace; give them space and time to warm up in unfamiliar situations. Never force them into things, it will only compound their anxieties. Gentle encouragement is key: “I know you’re worried about talking in class, but your friends would really like to hear your story. You’ll be fine” Don’t allow your child to avoid difficult situations altogether. This can set a bad precedent, and sow the seeds of social anxiety. The more your shy child is exposed to new situations, the more opportunity they have to hone their coping skills and the sooner they warm up. Never make your child feel like their shyness is terminal. Many people overcome the worst parts of their shyness, and go on to become perfectly functional adults. If your child shows no interest in making friends, or their shyness is affecting their schoolwork, they might need further support. Begin by talking to their teacher or your family GP. Source: Better Health Channel This post is part of the Learning matters story sponsored by Australian Scholarships Group. Check out more great education and family advice at ASG's Blog. Calculate what your child's education could cost using this calculator.

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http://blogs.kidspot.com.au/villagevoices/helping-shy-child/

2013-05-24T23:13:04Z

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en

The C# team posts answers to common questions and describes new language features A string literal such as @"c:\Foo" is called a verbatim string literal. It basically means, "don't apply any interpretations to characters until the next quote character is reached". So, a verbatim string literal can contain backslashes (without them being doubled-up) and even line separators. To get a double-quote (") within a verbatim literal, you need to just double it, e.g. @"My name is ""Jon""" represents the string My name is "Jon". Verbatim string literals which contain line separators will also contain the white-space at the start of the line, so I tend not to use them in cases where the white-space matters. They're very handy for including XML or SQL in your source code though, and another typical use (which doesn't need line separators) is for specifying a file system path. @"My name is ""Jon""" My name is "Jon" It's worth noting that it doesn't affect the string itself in any way: a string specified as a verbatim string literal is exactly the same as a string specified as a normal string literal with appropriate escaping. The debugger will sometimes choose to display a string as a verbatim string literal - this is solely for ease of viewing the string's contents without worrying about escaping. [Author: Jon Skeet]

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http://blogs.msdn.com/b/csharpfaq/archive/2004/03/12/what-does-an-before-the-start-of-a-string-literal-mean.aspx

2013-05-24T23:50:01Z

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California Water Science Center Sacramento River Basin National Water-Quality Assessment In 1991 the U.S. Geological Survey initiated the National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Program. The long term goals of this program are to assess the status of and trends in the quality of freshwater streams and aquifers, and to provide a sound understanding of the natural and human factors that affect the quality of these resources. As part of the program, investigations are conducted within "study units" throughout the Nation to provide a framework for national and regional water-quality assessment. Beginning in October 2004, and continuing for a period of 4 years, the NAWQA Program will again intensively investigate the quality of water resources in the Sacramento River Basin, as part of the second decadal cycle of the program. While the long term goals remain the same, the emphasis of these renewed investigations will shift from status of water quality to trends in water quality and understanding of natural and anthropogenic factors affecting water quality. If you have questions and comments related to the Sacramento River Basin NAWQA study, contact: Joseph Domagalski ([email protected]) or write:

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http://ca.water.usgs.gov/sac_nawqa/

2013-05-24T23:28:00Z

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en

The authorship of Hebrews cannot be known for certain, but we can know several things about the author. - The early church counted Hebrews among the letters of Paul, even though it does not bear Paul's name. Clement of Alexandria and Origen noted that the writing style did not match Paul's, but did not consider it a forgery. This indicates that they believed Hebrews contained teaching from Paul and likely was written by someone who traveled with him. - The author quotes extensively from the Septuagint (the Greek translation of the Jewish Bible) and has an extensive Greek vocabulary. This indicates a highly educated Jew who was also a Roman citizen. The Book of Acts provides us with several names that fit this profile: - Barnabas, a Levite from Cyprus (Acts 4:36) - Apollos, an Alexandrian Jew (Acts 18:24) - Aquila, native of Pontus (Acts 18:2) - Luke, the author of Acts The original intended audience of Hebrews also may provide clues as to its authorship. Harnack (among others) suggested the original recipients were in Rome, for the following reasons: - Of all Paul's letters, Romans is the most similar to Hebrews in terms of its treatment of Jewish law and customs. - Second century Roman Christians quoted Hebrews much earlier than Christians in other locations. - The mention of the recipients' previous suffering, persecution, imprisonment, and confiscation of property (Hebrews 10:32-34) appears to be a reference to Nero's persecution of Christians after the fire in Rome. - The reference to "those from Italy send their greetings" in Hebrews 13:24 Harnack took to refer to Christians who had been exiled from Rome by Claudius (Acts 18:2) If the letter was addressed to Roman Christians, Priscilla and Aquila are the most natural candidates for authorship. They had hosted a house church in Rome (Romans 16:3-5). They were also known to have "explained the way of God more fully" to Apollos (Acts 18:24-26). Furthermore, the author of Hebrews sometimes uses the pronoun "I" and sometimes "we", which would make sense if Priscilla and Aquila both had a hand in organizing the material. Finally, Harnack argued that because of the lower status given to most women in ancient times, Priscilla would have had a greater incentive to have written anonymously than any of the other possible authors. (Or alternatively, that the original recipients would have had a greater incentive to delete her name from the beginning of the letter before distributing it.)

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http://christianity.stackexchange.com/questions/11471/what-was-von-harnacs-case-that-priscilla-wrote-hebrews?answertab=active

2013-05-24T23:13:41Z

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en

“This photo comes from Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen. It show a school (?) of nautiluses devouring some chicken. Allen owns a large yacht called the Octopus, which has a couple of ROVs on board. This photo was taken by one of the ROVs at a depth of 876 feet, near the Pacific island of Palau.” Cool shot of very focused Nautiluses munching on chicken seen from Octopus ROV at a depth of 876 feet off Palau. http://pic.twitter.com/8l33KOxY ” According to a UNICEF report, Children’s Vulnerabilities to Climate Change and Disaster Impacts in East Asia and the Pacific(PDF), children will be among those most affected by climate change. Millions of children across East Asia and the Pacific already suffer from a lack of access to clean water and proper sanitation, and are vulnerable to food shocks and risks of disease. Climate change is expected to worsen this situation. The leading killers of children worldwide are highly sensitive to climate change. UNICEF Pacific Representative, Dr. Isiye Ndombi said “higher temperatures have been linked to increased rates of malnutrition, cholera, diarrhoeal disease and vector-borne diseases like dengue and malaria, while children’s underdeveloped immune systems put them at far greater risk of contracting these diseases and succumbing to their complications.” The UNICEF report released today presents an analysis of the climate change trends and potential impacts on children in East Asia and the Pacific, drawing on findings from five UNICEF-commissioned country studies in Indonesia, Kiribati, Mongolia, the Philippines and Vanuatu, as well as children’s own perspectives on climate change and other research. This research was supported by Reed Elsevier, which works in partnership with the global science and health communities to publish more than 2,000 journals, including The Lancet and New Scientist. “The findings in this report remind us of the connection between climate change and the other challenges confronting children,” said Anupama Rao Singh, UNICEF Regional Director for East Asia and the Pacific. “They also remind us that children’s experiences, and the risks they face in terms of their health, education and development, are unique.” “

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http://climateadaptation.tumblr.com/tagged/pacific-islands

2013-05-24T23:39:28Z

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en

Peaches and their cousins, the nectarines, can be grown in all most all areas of the United States. They do best in warm pockets and, when trained into espaliers, can be fitted into just about any small space in the yard. Welcome to the wonderful world of peaches! First things first. Peaches are fuzzy and Nectarines are their smooth-skinned cousins. They are very popular in the home garden seeing that they are self-fertile so only one tree is really needed to obtain the fruit. One mature tree will also be all that is needed for the average family to eat and put back for use the rest of the year. Any good, well-drained soil is suitable for peach trees. Plant them deep and in amended soil with lots of compost mixed in. In winter, plants only need nitrogen added to the soil if you have well-fertile soil. Remember also to add compost to the whole area of the branch spread. After the first few years of feeding and mulching with compost, you will have less and less work to do as the years roll by. Water the soil liberally whenever there is danger that the soil might be dried out. Nectarines need more water than Peaches on the whole, but both plants need to stay away from being too dry for too long or the fruiting the next year will suffer. To ensure a good crop, most home gardeners will take a paintbrush and dabble it over the blooms when open. When the peaches are the size of marbles you will need to thin out the fruit to one to three per stem. Reduce all clusters to just one single fruit. If you do not, the fruit will never reach full size and will be stunted. When the peaches are the size of ping pong balls thin out again to ensure that the branches will not break under the weight. The fruit is ready to pick when the tops of the peach yields to gentle pressure with your finger. Training The Tree The first year you have your peach tree you will need to train the tree. This will help with shape and long life for years to come, so take the time and do these step right. In spring when the growth buds have appeared on the tree, cut the central leader to just about 2 feet above the ground, just above a bud. Remove all the lower shoots up to the top three or four shoots on the tree. This will feel like cruel punishment but this is a great way to get the tree you are looking for in the future. In years to come, just remove the crossing branches. Remove any shoots under the lowest branch and watch for any and all shoots from the roots and remove quickly. Any dying tips should also be removed and any branches that held too much fruit in the previous year and took damage need to be fully removed. Peaches and Nectarines are among the easiest and simplest trees to grow in the home garden. They only need one tree to produce. They are mostly pest free when they are kept healthy, and they have many cultivars that can be grown with more and less chill hours. This classic tree is still among the best and should be placed in a spot of honor in all home gardens. The trees are stunning, the leaves are wonderful, the flowers are bright and cheery in the early spring, and the fruits are one of the best and most simple pleasures in life. Thank you to blckwolf256 for the images. About Mitch Fitzgerald I am a pentecostal preacher, gardener,husband, and a father. I love natives, daylilies, iris, and roses. I love teaching others, be they children or adults, about the garden and plants.

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http://davesgarden.com/guides/articles/view/644/

2013-05-24T23:35:49Z

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||May 7, 2002 GSA Release No. 02-27 || Ann Cairns Director Communications and Marketing Recent Dinosaur Discoveries in Utah and Wyoming Imagine a one-ton Big Bird à la Sesame Street, but instead of friendly "hands," he has Freddie Claws. That's basically what the Therizinosaurid dinosaur looks like that geologist David Gillette's team from the Museum of Northern Arizona (MNA) found in Kane County, Utah. "This is a one ton plant-eating carnivore with really bizarre claws," said Gillette. "It had slender arms and really long bones in the hand with bladed claws that look like sickles. With the sheath, the claws are about 15 inches long." In 2001, Gillette's crew found an almost complete skeleton, which is a rare find. Some Therizinosaurid remains found in China caused quite a stir because they were found with feather-like structures on them. The idea that these creatures were among the ancestors of birds has been gaining increased acceptance. Gillette will present a preliminary report on their discovery May 7 at the Geological Society of America Rocky Mountain Section Meeting at the Southern Utah University campus. He will also report on another uncommon find--skin impressions of a duck-billed dinosaur known as a Hadrosaur. Gillette's group found the impressions while excavating the dinosaur's tail in the new Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument (GSENM) in Kane County. "This is the second reported discovery of skin impressions in Utah," Gillette said. "On the global scale, however, this is a rare occurrence. This was a great discovery, especially in the context of the Hadrosaur with an articulated tail--that means the bones were still connected--that extended from the base of the tail (at the hips) to near the tip, about 13 feet long. In addition, the tendons that in life held the tail rigid were still preserved in life position." The Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument is about two million acres large and much of it is exposed and eroded rock, so fossils are usually only found in unrecognizable bits and pieces. But the MNA discovery was different. "The rear half of the body was in beautiful state of preservation and in articulation. The discovery of the skin impressions came during the excavation, to our great delight and surprise," Gillette said. "I would describe the skin as pebbled, with radiating grooves in each bump. The bumps were polygonal, nearly equilateral diamonds, pentagons, and hexagons. This texture surely added strength and toughness to the skin, which in turn would resist decay following death and burial. The carcass did not decay much prior to burial, but had to be desiccated to resist decomposition by bacteria--that is, the local environment must have been very dry." Scott Sampson from the Utah Museum of Natural History will provide updates on his and his team's discoveries from GSENM at the same May 7 session as Gillette--"Paleontological Research in Grand-Staircase Escalante National Monument and Surrounding Area." Their findings include two previously unknown horned dinosaurs (ceratopsians), a partial skull of a dome-headed dinosaur (pachycephalosaur), a partial skeleton of a large-bodied tyrannosaur that is the first tyrannosaur from this time period in Utah, and the remains of two previously unknown giant crocodiles. Research for this project was funded by GSENM as part of a collaborative paleontological survey. "Given how little is known of the dinosaurs from GSENM, chances are high that most of the dinosaur remains represent species new to science," Sampson said. "Now the goal is to find enough of each of these ancient beasts to establish that they do represent new species. Our efforts and those of others over the past several years suggest that GSENM has perhaps greater potential to yield new and interesting kinds of dinosaurs than any other region in North America." Based on different types of Late Cretaceous plants and animal discoveries in Montana and Alberta versus those found in New Mexico and Texas, Sampson and others speculate that Utah may be an important boundary area between two major "biozones." "To really understand this paleoecological story, however, will require a good record from the Late Cretaceous of Utah," Sampson said. "And GSENM will provide that record." Brent H. Breithaupt, from the University of Wyoming's Geological Museum, will take a look at what he calls "Theropod family values" via a "live-action" glimpse of their lives through intensive study of over 1,000 dinosaur tracks at the Red Gulch Dinosaur Tracksite in northern Wyoming. He will present his report May 8 at the Stratigraphy, Paleontology, Paleobotany, Archaeological Geology, and History of Geology session at the meeting. "We have evidence of gregarious carnivorous dinosaurs. These are groups of animals moving together," Breithaupt said. "Trace fossils such as tracks are unique in that they actually preserve the activities of ancient animals. In addition, as we have a very large and statistically valid database we can make some unique interpretations. This is important as evidence for gregarious carnivorous dinosaurs is relatively rare." Using data from a variety of resources including aerial photography of the entire tracksite and close-range photogrammetric images of a single track, Breithaupt and his co-authors speculate there were family groups, ranging from yearlings to adults, interacting near their nesting area by a shore. "The data also suggest a certain level of parental care and the level of dependence of the young dinosaurs, as we have juveniles traveling with adults" he said. "From what we know about dinosaur growth, it appears that they grew at the same rates as some modern ground birds such as ostriches and emus. If our dinosaurs represent animals of different ages of the same species then the smallest ones can't be very old--a year or perhaps less. Little animals of this sort probably aren't going to travel long distances during the first year. Thus, they were probably relatively near a large ground nesting area. If we accept the paradigm of theropod dinosaurs being similar to modern birds, then some of the behaviors and family structures may be similar as well." - David D. Gillette - Department of Geology - Museum of Northern Arizona - 3101 N. Fort Valley Rd. - Flagstaff, AZ 86001 USA - Abstract: gsa.confex.com/gsa/2002RM/finalprogram/abstract_33860.htm - Abstract: gsa.confex.com/gsa/2002RM/finalprogram/abstract_33475.htm - Scott D. Sampson - Utah Museum of Natural History - 1390 East Presidents Circle - Salt Lake City, UT 84112 USA - Abstract: gsa.confex.com/gsa/2002RM/finalprogram/abstract_34003.htm - Brent H. Breithaupt - Geological Museum - University of Wyoming - Laramie, WY 82071 USA - Abstract: gsa.confex.com/gsa/2002RM/finalprogram/abstract_34304.htm Geological Society of America Rocky Mountain Section Meeting May 7-9, 2002 Southern Utah University, Cedar City, Utah For information and assistance during the meeting, please call the GSA registration desk at 435-865-8437.

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2013-05-24T23:46:59Z

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|a printed punctuation mark (‽), available only in some typefaces, designed to combine the question mark (?) and the exclamation point (!), indicating a mixture of query and interjection, as after a rhetorical question.| |an arrangement of five objects, as trees, in a square or rectangle, one at each corner and one in the middle.| |1.||the act of arranging or being arranged| |2.||the form in which things are arranged: he altered the arrangement of furniture in the room| |3.||a thing composed of various ordered parts; the result of arranging: a flower arrangement| |4.||(often plural) a preparatory measure taken or plan made; preparation| |5.||an agreement or settlement; understanding| |6.||an adaptation of a piece of music for performance in a different way, esp on different instruments from those for which it was originally composed| |7.||an adaptation (of a play, etc) for broadcasting| in music, traditionally, any adaptation of a composition to fit a medium other than that for which it was originally written, while at the same time retaining the general character of the original. The word was frequently used interchangeably with transcription, although the latter carried the connotation of elaboration of the original, as in the virtuosic piano transcriptions of J.S. Bach's organ works by Franz Liszt, the Italian composer-pianist Ferruccio Busoni, and others. In later times the definitions were almost reversed, with arrangement connoting musical liberty in elaboration or simplification. In popular music and jazz, the word is often used synonymously with "score." Learn more about arrangement with a free trial on Britannica.com.

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2013-05-24T23:20:53Z

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Date of this Version A sample of 608 adult pigs from Cape York and adjacent islands was examined for parasites and their serum tested for livestock diseases associated with the Queensland tropics. Feral pigs from North Queensland pose a significant health threat to humans with the incidence of Spargana (the plerocercoid of Spirometra erinacei) through the consumption of undercooked pork. Meliodosis (Pseudomonas pseudomalleO. Leptospirosis (L. yar. pomona). and Brucellosis (Brucella suis) are capable of infecting humans directly during unhygienic butchering of infected carcasses. In North Queensland, the widespread intermingled distribution of feral pigs and cattle increases the potential for the transmission of Actinobacillus, Leptospirosis, and Brucellosis from feral pigs to cattle. Both Europeans and Aborigines on Cape York also raise wild-caught feral pigs for meat. It is important to realize that parasites and diseases are present in young pigs and that poor husbandry practices increase the risk of infection from several parasites, i.e., Lungworm (Metastrongylus sp.) Stomach worm (Physocephalus sexalatus. Hvostrongvlus rubidus). Thorny headed worm (Macracanthorrhynchus hirudinaceus) and Kidney worm (Stephanurus dentatus). Heavy infection of these parasites reduce growth rates and cause unthriftiness in infected ani¬mals.

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http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/vpcthirteen/29/

2013-05-24T23:35:48Z

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As communities from the Carolinas to Maine brace for high storm surges, winds and downpours, there’s a growing climate discussion building around #Frankenstorm, which is the favored Twitter handle for the extraordinarily vast and potent nor’easter that is evolving as Hurricane Sandy, already a killer, collides with an Arctic cold front. But what is the role, if any, of greenhouse-drive global warming in this kind of rare system? It’s easy to say, as some climatologists have, that “climate change is present in every single meteorological event.” As you’ll hear below, some climate scientists are telling me this event is precisely what you’d expect following a summer in which much of the Arctic Ocean was open water. But there remains far too much natural variability in the frequency and potency of rare and powerful storms — on time scales from decades to centuries – to go beyond pointing to this event being consistent with what’s projected on a human-heated planet. While the echo of Frankenstein in that Twitter moniker can imply this is a human-created meteorological monster, it’s just not that simple. There are several areas in which greenhouse-driven warming is thought to be a potential influence. The first is in the buildup of heat in southern surface waters. A paper published earlier this month in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences was the latest to draw this conclusion, in this case through detailed analysis of storm surges recorded by Atlantic coast tide gauges: Read more…

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2013-05-24T23:27:03Z

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Every gallon of gasoline that is manufactured, distributed, and then burned in a motor vehicle, emits 25 pounds of carbon dioxide, the primary global warming gas, into the atmosphere. In California, transportation causes more than half of the state’s global warming emissions. Nationwide, motor vehicles are responsible for a quarter of the United States’ global warming emissions, more than most other countries emit from all sources combined. And things are only going to get worse. National fuel efficiency standards have stagnated for the past decade and regulation loopholes for SUVs, minivans, and light pickups are driving up emissions by dragging down fuel economy. At the same time, the number of motor vehicles in the United States is expected to double in the next several decades. In California, the number of vehicles and the number of miles those vehicles travel are supposed to double within two decades. What Does Global Warming Mean for California? In a study commissioned by Union of Concerned Scientists and the Ecological Society of America, the state’s leading scientists predict that global warming will cause more frequent and severe storms such as El Nino, flooding, erosion and landslides in the winter. In summer, Californians can expect more droughts as a result of reduced winter snow pack, and more frequent and severe wildfires, winds, and heat waves. Global warming will cost California dearly. In addition to increased natural disasters, increased temperatures will reduce crop productivity and make crops more vulnerable to new pests and pathogens. Many of California’s rare and unique species will not be able to adapt quickly enough to survive the climate changes. Increased temperatures will cause more smog and more convective storms that in turn carry acid rain and pollute out fresh water systems. Warmer ocean temperatures will result in loss of coastal fisheries and ocean productivity. How Can ZEV’s Help? The global warming reductions that fuel-efficient gasoline vehicles provide are offset by the increasing number of vehicles and vehicle miles traveled in California. We need clean, advanced vehicles, such as battery electrics, fuel cells, and super-efficient hybrids. By providing Californians with clean alternatives to gasoline vehicles, the Zero Emission Vehicle (ZEV) program reduces global warming emissions. Electric vehicles reduce global warming emissions by 70 percent, even with the power plant emissions caused by recharging. Battery electrics that run on clean power and fuel cells that run on hydrogen can reduce global warming emissions 100 percent. The ZEV program is the only program in the country that is spurring the development of the technology that can eliminate global warming pollution in cars and trucks. The ZEV program is delivering the clean, fuel-efficient vehicles that will benefit California’s economy, environment, and public health. Source: Confronting Climate Change in California, with special thanks to

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Modern test and measurement instruments go from simple DMMs to handheld oscilloscopes to very sophisticated spectrum and harmonic analyzers. The variety of test and measurement products available today can boggle the mind. They go from the mundane to the exotic. These amazing instruments can practically lead you by the hand. But, if you don't have a full understanding of the measurements you're getting, you can be confused and even mislead others. Let's take a brief walk through this potential mine field and discuss some important instrument measurements and performance characteristics. Alternating rms current. Looking at Fig. 1 (In the original article; this is a standard representation of a sinusoidal wave, with 30 degree increments shown. 90 degrees is a quarter cycle, 180 degrees a half cycle, and so on), we see the current waveform starting at zero, reaching a peak on the positive side of the zero axis, returning to zero, continuing onto another peak on the negative side of this axis, and then returning to zero again. One combination positive and negative loop represents one cycle. In the United States, 60 Hz-current goes through 60 complete sets of this loop in 1 sec. So, if current reverses itself 60 times in 1 sec, how can we measure it? After all,equal positive and negative values cancel each other. The net result, then, is zero amperes. The answer: We don't measure the actual current of the sine wave. Instead, we measure its heating effect. The equipment of choice is our trusty ammeter, whether it's a clamp-on or handheld digital multimeter (DMM) with a current transformer (CT). The unit manufacturer calibrates the ampere scale in effective amperes. Another term used is root-mean-square (rms) amperes. Let's expand on the concept of heating effect. When you pass a direct current through a given resistance, this current produces heat. A car cigarette lighter is a good example of this phenomenon. Now, if you pass an alternating current through this same resistance, it will also produce heat. For both direct and alternating currents, their respective heating effects are proportional to I2R. In other words, their heating effects vary as the square of their respective currents for the specific resistance. The larger the current, the more heat produced in the given circuit. So, you don't base the value of alternating current on its average; instead, you base it on its heating effect. In fact, the definition of an alternating current ampere is "that current which, when flowing through a given ohmic resistance, will produce heat at the same rate as a direct current ampere" Let's look at an example for clarification. Suppose we have one ampere of direct current and one rms ampere of alternating current. Because the magnitude of rms alternating current equals the magnitude of direct current, the former is equal in heating to the latter. If we square the alternating current by squaring each of its instantaneous values for both its positive and negative loops, we generate an I2 waveform. Since negative quantities squared are positive, the I2 wave for the negative loop of alternating current appears above the zero axis. As you see, the average value of the I2 wave is one ampere. As discussed, heating varies as the square of the current (I2). The square root of one is one, so the one rms ampere of effective current is equal to the square of one ampere of direct current. Crest factor. This is the ratio of peak current value to the rms current value of a waveform. In a pure, undistorted current sine wave, the instantaneous peak current equals to 1.414 times the rms amperes. So, this waveform has a crest factor of 1.414. A "true-rms" measuring instrument typically has a crest factor performance specification. It relates to the amount of peaking this instrument measures without error. The higher the performance number, the better the performance of the device. You'll find these specification numbers in the range of 2.0 to 7.0. A typical DMM will have a crest factor number of 3.0, which is adequate for most distribution measurements. Total harmonic distortion. Presence of harmonic currents will distort sinusoidal waveforms. The main culprit of power distribution harmonic problems is voltage distortion. As harmonic currents pass through a power distribution system's total impedance, they create voltage distortion. This is a simple application of Ohm's Law (Vh4Ih2Zh), where Vh is the voltage at Harmonic h, Ih is the current at Harmonic h, and Zh is the system impedance at Harmonic h. The cumulative effect of these drops at each harmonic frequency produces voltage distortion. Total harmonic distortion (THD) indicates the amount of waveform distortion. Voltage THD (VTHD) is the root mean square of all harmonic voltage drops. Current THD (ITHD) is the root mean square of all the harmonic currents. Percent harmonic distortion is the ratio of the square root of the sums of the squares of all rms harmonic voltages and currents to the fundamental. You can characterize harmonic distortion at any point by the frequency spectrums of the voltages and currents present. But, take measurements over time and determine statistical characteristics of the harmonic components. This is where spectrum and harmonic analyzers come into play. (This information is from IEEE paper "Interpretationand Analysis of Power Quality Measurements" by Christopher Melhorn and Mark McGranaghan, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol.31, No. 6, Nov./Dec. 1995.) IEEE Std. 519-1992, IEEE Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electric Power Systems, lists current distortion limits for general distribution systems. Methods of meter calculations. All multimeters and DMMs are calibrated to give rms indication. However, depending on the voltage or current signal you're measuring, the different methods used in instruments to calculate rms value may yield vastly different measurements. Let's look at the most popular types to see how they arrive at rms values. Peak method. Meters using this method read the peak of the measured signal and divide the result by 1.414 to obtain rms value of that signal. So, if the signal waveform is undistorted, this method gives relatively accurate measurements. Averaging method. With this method, a meter determines the average value of a rectified signal. For a clean sinusoidal signal, it relates to the rms value by the constant k (1.1). As with the peak method, it gives accurate measurements if there's no waveform distortion. True rms-sensing method. It uses an rms converter that does a digital calculation of rms value. It squares the signal on a sample-by-sample basis, averages the result, and takes the square root of the result. It gives accurate measurements, regardless of waveform distortion.

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- This article is about the King Mahipala of Pala dynasty. For the Gurjara-Pratihara king, see Mahipala I. Mahipala I (c. 988 – 1038 CE) is considered the second founder of the Pala dynasty. Gopala I established the dynastic rule of the Palas in the middle of the 8th century CE. The Pala Dynasty ruled Bengal and Bihar for about four centuries from the middle of the 8th century CE. Mahipala succeeded in recovering the lost fortune of the dynasty and in checking the forces of disintegration for the time being, but could not totally remove them. But his success gave the dynastic rule of the Palas a second lease on life. During the reigns of Gopala II and Vigrahapala II, the two immediate predecessors of Mahipala, Bengal had to face repeated invasions of the Chandellas and the Kalachuris, the new powers that arose out of the ruins of the Pratihara empire in northern India. Mahipala reign over his kingdom for 60 years, as his two Imadpur inscriptions are dated in his 48th year. Mahipala, on his accession, found the Pala empire confined to southern Bihar and in his early years. Due to the Candra's encroachment on the Kamboja Palas, he fought successfully to recover northern and western Bengal from them, including Radha and the ancestral homeland of the Pala dynasty. By 990 CE of his reign, he succeeded in spreading Pala authority into northern Bihar. He must be given the credit for re-establishing Pala authority over their original kingdom, except for southern Bengal, where the Candra dynasty held power. The Belwa and Bangarh copperplates proclaim that Mahipala, by slaying all his enemies, obtained his paternal kingdom which had been snatched away through pride of prowess by people who had no claim to it. Mahipala's success in recovering the paternal kingdom was his most important achievement, since it gave a new lease of life to the Pala Empire. Mahipala held authority over southern Bihar (Magadha) and towards the close of his reign over northern Bihar. Scholars also ascribe to him conquests beyond Bihar on the basis of his Sarnath inscription. The inscription, dated c. 1083 or 1026 CE, is of a purely religious nature and records the construction and rebuilding of religious edifices at the famous Buddhist site near Benares. However, based solely on this inscription Mahipala cannot be taken to have controlled Benares. Campaign of Rajendra Chola The Chola inscription (Tirumulai inscription), which records Rajendra Chola's invasion of Bengal some time in between 1021 and 1024 CE, throws further light on the condition of Bengal. The inscription records that after conquering Odisha the Chola general seized Dandabhukti after having destroyed Dharmapala (possibly belonging to the Kamboja line) and reached southern Radha where he met Ranashura. Then the army reached Vangaladesha, where the 'rains never ceased'. Although Mahipala was defeated by Rajendra Chola in battle, he continued to retain his kingdom upon the Chola king had return home. Civic works Mahipala was better known for his peaceful pursuits. A number of towns and large tanks still bear his name. Mahiganj in Rangpur district, Mahipur in Bogra district, Mahisantosa in Dinajpur[disambiguation needed] district and Mahipala in Murshidabad district; Mahipaladighi (tank) in Dinajpur and Mahipala's Sagardighi in Murshidabad - all these still bear testimony to his deeds and the high esteem in which the people held him. It is further reflected in the numerous ballads believed to exist in Bengal commemorating his name. Brindaban Das wrote in his Chaitanya Bhagavat (c. 1572 CE) that the people of Bengal in the early part of the 16th century were very fond of these songs of Mahipala. The popularity of these songs and the name of Mahipala are reflected in the common saying, Dhan bhante Mahipaler git (songs of Mahipala while husking rice), which is still prevalent in rural Bengal. After early years of war, Mahipala may have devoted himself to peaceful pursuits and religious activities. His public works endeared him to the hearts of the people of Bengal. The excavations at Paharpur have revealed the revival of Pala power under Mahipala as manifest in the wholesale renovation of the main temple and in the monastic cells and in the numerous votive stupas at the shrine of Tara in the Satyapir Bhita. See also - Banglapedia - National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (http://banglapedia.org/HT/M_0066.HTM) |This biography of a member of an Indian royal house is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.|

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Mormon fundamentalism (also called fundamentalist Mormonism) is a belief in the validity of selected fundamental aspects of Mormonism as taught and practiced in the nineteenth century, particularly during the administration of Brigham Young, an early president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). Mormon fundamentalists seek to uphold tenets and practices no longer held by mainstream Mormons (members of the LDS Church). The principle most often associated with Mormon fundamentalism is plural marriage, a form of polygyny first taught by Joseph Smith, Jr., the founder of the Latter Day Saint movement. A second and closely associated principle is that of the United Order, a form of egalitarian communalism. Mormon fundamentalists believe that these and other principles were wrongly abandoned or changed by the LDS Church in its efforts to become reconciled with mainstream American society. Today, the LDS Church will excommunicate any of its members who practice plural marriage or who otherwise closely associate themselves with Mormon fundamentalist practices. There is no single authority accepted by all Mormon fundamentalists; viewpoints and practices of individual groups vary. Fundamentalists have formed numerous small sects, often within cohesive and isolated communities in the Western United States, Western Canada, and northern Mexico. At times, sources have claimed there are as many as 60,000 Mormon fundamentalists in the United States, with fewer than half of them living in polygamous households. However, others have suggested that there may be as few as 20,000 Mormon fundamentalists with only 8,000 to 15,000 practicing polygamy. The largest Mormon fundamentalist groups are the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (FLDS Church) and the Apostolic United Brethren (AUB). The LDS Church began prohibiting the contracting of plural marriages within the United States in 1890 after a decree by the president of the church, Wilford Woodruff. However, the practice continued underground in the U.S. and openly in Mormon colonies in northern Mexico and southern Alberta. According to some sources, many polygamous men in the United States continued to live with their plural wives with the approval of church presidents Woodruff, Lorenzo Snow, and Joseph F. Smith. Some fundamentalists have argued that the 1890 Manifesto was not a real revelation of the kind given by God to Joseph Smith, Jr., Brigham Young, John Taylor and others, but rather was a politically expedient document intended by Woodruff to be a temporary measure until Utah Territory gained statehood. They make their argument based upon textual evidence and the fact that the "Manifesto" is not worded in accordance with similar revelations in the LDS scriptures. This argument further holds that after joining the Union, Utah would have had the authority to enact its own laws with respect to marriage, rather than being bound by U.S. territorial laws that prohibited polygamy. Before statehood could be granted in 1896, however, the federal government required Utah to include a provision in its state constitution stating that "polygamous or plural marriages are forever prohibited". Fundamentalists (and many scholars of Mormon history) also believe that a primary impetus for the 1890 Manifesto was the Edmunds-Tucker Act of 1887, a stringent federal law that legally dissolved the LDS Church, disenfranchised women (who had been given the vote in Utah in 1870), and required voters to take an anti-polygamy oath before being permitted to vote in an election. With the selection of Latter-day Saint Reed Smoot to be one of Utah's representatives to the U.S. Senate in 1903, national attention was again focused on the continuation of plural marriage in Utah, which culminated in the Reed Smoot hearings. In 1904, LDS Church president Joseph F. Smith issued a "Second Manifesto", after which time it became LDS Church policy to excommunicate those church members who entered into or solemnized new polygamous marriages. The seriousness with which this new measure was taken is evinced in the fact that no less eminent an LDS member than apostle John W. Taylor, son of the third president of the church, was excommunicated in 1911 for his continued opposition to the Manifesto. Today, the LDS Church continues to excommunicate members who advocate early Mormon doctrines such as plural marriage, enter into or solemnize plural marriages (whether in the United States or elsewhere), or actively support Mormon fundamentalist or dissident groups. Although some LDS Church members continue to believe in the doctrine of plural marriage without practicing it, Joseph Smith's teachings on plural marriage remain part of the scriptural canon of the LDS Church. The LDS Church prevents any of its members who sympathize with Mormon fundamentalist teachings from entering its temples. During the 1920s, a church dissenter named Lorin C. Woolley claimed a separate line of priesthood authority from the LDS Church's hierarchy, effectively setting in motion the development of Mormon fundamentalism. Most of the Mormon polygamous groups can trace their roots to Woolley's legacy. For the most part, the Utah state government has left the Mormon fundamentalists to themselves unless their practices violate laws other than those prohibiting bigamy. For example, there have been recent prosecutions of men who belong to fundamentalist groups for marrying underage girls. In one highly publicized case, a man and one of his polygamist wives lost custody of all but one of their children until the wife separated herself from her husband. The largest government effort to crack down on the practices of fundamentalist Mormons was carried out in 1953 in what is today Colorado City, Arizona, which became known as the Short Creek Raid. Other fundamental doctrines of the Latter Day Saint movement besides polygamy, notably the United Order (communalism), while equally important in the practices of some fundamentalist sects, have not come under the same scrutiny or approbation as has plural marriage, and the mainline LDS Church has mostly ignored this aspect of fundamentalism; in any case, no revelation or statement condemning it has ever been issued. Distinctive doctrines and practices Most Mormon fundamentalists embrace the term Fundamentalist (usually capitalized). Mormon fundamentalists share certain commonalities with other fundamentalist movements, but also possess some clear distinctions of their own. Fundamentalists within the Mormon tradition do see religious authority as inerrant and unchanging, but tend to locate this authority within their view of "Priesthood", which is conceived of as more of a charismatic authority and often physical lineage than an external organization. In this view, ordination lineage becomes all-important and an external organization such as a church may "lose" its theological authority while the "priesthood" (conceived in this abstract and individualistic sense) may continue via an alternative lineage. Mormon fundamentalists frequently assert that priesthood is prior to the Church. Unlike more prevalent Biblical (non-Mormon) fundamentalist groups, who generally base their authority upon an unchanging and closed canon of scripture, Mormon fundamentalists generally hold to a concept of "continuing revelation" or "progressive revelation", in which the canon of scripture may be continually augmented. Another of the most basic beliefs of Mormon fundamentalist groups is that of plural marriage, which many of them view as essential for obtaining the highest degree of exaltation in the celestial kingdom. Mormon fundamentalists dislike the term polygamy and view polygyny as a term used only by outsiders. They also refer to plural marriage generically as "the Principle", "celestial marriage", "the New and Everlasting Covenant", or "the Priesthood Work". The practice of plural marriage usually differs little from the manner in which it was practiced in the nineteenth century. However, in some fundamentalist sects it is considered acceptable for an older man to marry underage girls as soon as they attain puberty. This practice, which is illegal in most states, apart from polygamy itself, has generated public controversy. Examples include the Tom Green case, and the case in which a man from the Kingston clan married his 15-year-old cousin, who was also his aunt. Other sects, however, do not practice and may in fact vehemently denounce underage or forced marriages and incest (for example, the Apostolic United Brethren.) In addition to plural marriage, Mormon fundamentalist beliefs often include the following principles: - the law of consecration also known as the United Order - the Adam–God teachings taught by Brigham Young and other early leaders of the LDS Church - the principle of blood atonement - the exclusion of black men from the priesthood - the belief that missionaries should teach "without purse or scrip" Mormon fundamentalists believe both that these principles were accepted by the mainstream LDS church at one time, and that the LDS Church wrongly abandoned or changed them, in large part due to the desire of its leadership and members to assimilate into mainstream American society and avoid the persecutions and conflict that had characterized the church throughout its early years. Terminology and relationship with the LDS Church The term "Mormon fundamentalist" appears to have been coined in the 1940s by LDS Church apostle Mark E. Petersen to refer to groups who had left the LDS Church. However, Mormon fundamentalists do not universally embrace this usage and many simply consider themselves to be "Mormon". Today the mainline LDS Church considers the designation "Mormon" to apply only to its own members and not to members of other sects of the Latter Day Saint movement. One LDS leader went as far as claiming that there is no such thing as a "Mormon fundamentalist", and that using the two terms together is a "contradiction." The LDS Church suggests that the correct term to describe Mormon fundamentalist groups is "polygamist sects". In rebuttal to this nomenclature argument, certain Mormon fundamentalists have argued that they themselves are in fact more correctly designated as "Mormons" in so far as they follow what they consider to be the "true" and/or "original" Mormon teachings as handed down from Joseph Smith and Brigham Young. Within this context, the mainline LDS Church is often regarded by such fundamentalists as having abandoned several foundational aspects of Mormonism as noted above. Mormon fundamentalist sects The majority of Mormon fundamentalists belong to sects that have separated themselves from the LDS Church. As such, most are considered to be "Brighamite" sects within the Latter Day Saint movement. Apostolic United Brethren The Apostolic United Brethren (AUB) is estimated to have about 5000 to 9000 members throughout Utah, Montana, Arizona, Wyoming, Missouri, and Mexico. Several of its towns are organized into United Orders; the church has established a temple in Mexico, an Endowment House in Utah, and operates several schools. The AUB emerged when their leader, Joseph W. Musser, ordained Rulon C. Allred as an apostle and counselor, which led to a split between Mormon fundamentalists in Salt Lake City and those in Short Creek, Arizona. The AUB is currently headed by J. LaMoine Jenson and a priesthood council of seven men. The AUB is one of the more liberal of the Mormon groups practicing plural marriage. The leaders of the AUB do not arrange marriages nor do they authorize plural marriages for people under 18 or for those who are closely related. Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints The Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (FLDS Church) is estimated to consist of 6000 to 8000 members. A succession crisis has been brewing in the church since 2002, when Warren Jeffs, recently convicted of accessory to rape and sentenced to life in prison, became president of the church. There has been extensive litigation regarding the church for some time, as property rights of disaffected members are weighed against the decisions of church leaders who hold trust to the land their homes are built upon. A large concentration of members lives in the twin cities of Colorado City, Arizona, and Hildale, Utah, as well as in Bountiful, British Columbia. The church has built a temple near Eldorado, Texas. The members of the FLDS Church tend to be very conservative in dress and lifestyle. Beginning April 4, 2008, over a four-day period, troopers and child welfare officials searched the church's YFZ Ranch and removed 416 children into the temporary custody of the State of Texas. Originally officials from the Texas Department of Family and Protective Services took 18 girls into temporary custody of the state, after responding to a phone call from the YFZ ranch alleging physical and sexual abuse of a 16-year-old girl, who also claimed to have been married at age 15 to a 49-year-old man. On the following day, Judge Barbara Walther of the 51st District Court issued an order authorizing officials to remove all children, including boys, 17 years old and under out of the compound. The children were being held by the Child Protective Services 45 miles away, north of the ranch. 133 women also voluntarily left the ranch with the children. On May 29, 2008 the Texas Supreme Court ruled that CPS must return all of the children. The court stated, "On the record before us, removal of the children was not warranted." The call that provoked the raid was a hoax. Despite this, investigations resulting from this raid resulted in charges against twelve men associated with the FLDS Church, six of which have resulted in convictions ranging from 5 to 75 years in prison. Blackmore/Bountiful Community This group was formed in September 2002, when FLDS Church president Warren Jeffs excommunicated Winston Blackmore, who for two decades was Bishop of the Bountiful, British Columbia group of the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (FLDS Church), The community split nearly in half—about 700 people continue to follow Blackmore, while about 500 follow Jeffs. Latter Day Church of Christ (Kingston clan) The Kingston clan, officially known as the Latter Day Church of Christ, includes approximately 1200 members. This secretive group runs several businesses including pawnshops, restaurant supply stores, and a coal mine. The Kingston clan is one of the fundamentalist groups that have allowed marriage to girls just attaining puberty. Righteous Branch of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints The Righteous Branch of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is a group of about 100 to 200 people; most live near Modena, Utah, or Tonopah, Nevada. The Righteous Branch was organized in 1978 by Gerald Peterson, Sr., who claimed that, he was ordained a High Priest Apostle by AUB leader Rulon C. Allred. Later, after he was murdered, Rulon C. Allred appeared to him as an angel to instruct him to preside over the keys of the priesthood. This church has built a pyramid-shaped temple and Gerald Peterson, Jr. is their current leader. Like the AUB they are modern in their dress and do not allow girls under 18 to be married. True and Living Church of Jesus Christ of Saints of the Last Days The True and Living Church of Jesus Christ of Saints of the Last Days (TLC) is headquartered in Manti, Utah. Membership is estimated at 300 to 500. Organized in 1994, the TLC was a new "restoration" for the "very last days" before the Second Coming of Jesus. While the church initially grew rapidly, it has since stagnated and declined in numbers and converts since it ceased missionary efforts in 2000. Centennial Park group About 1,500 people are members of a group located in Centennial Park, Arizona, called The Work of Jesus Christ. In the early 1980s there was a conflict of leadership in the FLDS Church. Some of the members were very unhappy with the changes being made by various influential men in the community. When the FLDS Church abandoned leadership by council and instituted a "one-man rule" doctrine, those who wanted to maintain leadership by a priesthood council founded Centennial Park in 1986, approximately 3 miles (5 km) south of the twin communities of Colorado City, Arizona and Hildale, Utah. (Location of Centennial Park). The name "Centennial Park" is a reference to the 1886 events surrounding Lorin C. Woolley, which serve as the basis for fundamentalist claims of priesthood authority. Members of this group (referred to by members as "The Work") denounce all violence and abuse, do not permit marriage of young girls, and disavow the extreme practices of the FLDS Church. However, like the FLDS Church, they practice a form of arranged marriage. They dress in modern, modest attire. The Centennial Park group has built a meetinghouse for weekly services and a private high school. A charter school was built in 2003 for the town's growing elementary-age population. About 300 members of this group live in the Salt Lake Valley, where they hold meetings monthly. Members living in Salt Lake City often travel to Centennial Park every month to help in building the community. This group is led by a Priesthood council. Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and the Kingdom of God The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and the Kingdom of God is based in the Salt Lake Valley, and has around 200 members. The sect was founded by Frank Naylor and Ivan Nielson, who split from the Centennial Park group, another fundamentalist church. This group trace their authority through Alma Adelbert Timpson and Frank Naylor. The church is estimated to have 200-300 members, most of whom reside in the Salt Lake Valley. Most—if not all—of the members of this group were previously associated with the Centennial Park or FLDS Church.The group is also known as the Third Ward or the Naylor group, after Frank Naylor. Independent Mormon fundamentalists There is a large movement of independent Mormon fundamentalists. Independents do not belong to organized fundamentalist groups and do not generally recognize any man as their prophet or leader. Because Independents are not one cohesive group, they are very diverse in their beliefs and interpretations of Mormonism; therefore, their practices vary. Many Independents come from a background in the LDS Church, while others come from other Christian or Mormon fundamentalist backgrounds. Independents rely upon personal inspiration and revelation to guide them; there is no ecclesiastical structure among the Independents, although Independents often socialize with each other and may meet together for religious services. Statistically, it is difficult to estimate how many Independents there are, but a recent estimate indicates that there may be more independent fundamentalists than there are in any one of the formally organized polygamous groups and may number as many as 15,000. According to this informal survey, about half of Mormon fundamentalists, both those in groups and those outside of groups, currently practice polygamy. There is a large concentration of Independents in Utah, Arizona, Missouri and Brazil SC,SP,RJ. See also - Alex Joseph - Big Love, an HBO series about a fictional independent polygamous Mormon fundamentalist family - Ervil LeBaron - Lost boys (Mormon fundamentalism) - Messenger magazine – a fundamentalist publication - Sister Wives - Sons of Perdition (film) - Under the Banner of Heaven, a non-fiction book by Jon Krakauer - Dobner, Jennifer (August 20, 2006). "Teens defend polygamy at Utah rally". Associated Press. Archived from the original on September 2, 2006. - Martha Sonntag Bradley, "Polygamy-Practicing Mormons" in J. Gordon Melton and Martin Baumann (eds.) (2002). Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia 3:1023–1024. - Dateline NBC, 2001-01-02. - Ken Driggs, "Twentieth-Century Polygamy and Fundamentalist Mormons in Southern Utah", Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought, Winter 1991, pp. 46–47. - Irwin Altman, "Polygamous Family Life: The Case of Contemporary Mormon Fundamentalists", Utah Law Review (1996) p. 369. - D. Michael Quinn, "Plural Marriage and Mormon Fundamentalism", Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought 31(2) (Summer 1998): 1–68, accessed 2009-03-27. - Stephen Eliot Smith, "'The Mormon Question' Revisited: Anti-Polygamy Laws and the Free Exercise Clause", LL.M. thesis, Harvard Law School, 2005. - Authorized Plural Marriage 1835-1904 MormonFundamentalism.com - Utah Code — Constitution — Article 03 — Ordinance. Utah State Legislature web site. Retrieved 2011-08-23. - Church Educational System. Church History in the Fulness of Times Student Manual, Chapter 36. (Salt Lake City, Utah: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints). - For example, one LDS Church commentator has said regarding plural marriage that "[o]bviously the practice will commence again after the Second Coming" of Jesus Christ: see Bruce R. McConkie, Mormon Doctrine, p. 578. - Doctrine and Covenants Section 132. - Anderson, Lavina F. (ed) (Spring 1998). "History of LDS Temple Admission Standards: Plural Marriage" [[Journal of Mormon History]]. Layton, UT: Mormon History Association. pp. 144–146. Wikilink embedded in URL title (help) - Biography of Lorin C. Woolley Mormonfundamentalism.com - Hummel, Debbie "Eight children removed from polygamist family in Utah", Associated Press, 20 October 2004, as quoted at The Ross Institute Internet Archives for the Study of Destructive Cults, Controversial Groups and Movements, accessed 1 April 2008. - Kraut, Ogden. The Holy Priesthood. Genola, UT: Pioneer Publishing, 2005. - In the LDS Church, celestial marriage has evolved a meaning compatible with monogamy. - "Man sentenced for marrying his 15-year-old cousin", 26 January 2004, CNN.com, Accessed 8 June 2007 - Anderson (1992, p. 532). - Ken Driggs, "'This Will Someday Be the Head and Not the Tail of the Church': A History of the Mormon Fundamentalists at Short Creek", Journal of Church and State 43:49 (2001) at p. 51. - Brooke Adams, "Fundamentalists: We're Mormon, too", Salt Lake Tribune, 2008-07-09, accessed 2008-07-11. - ""Fundamentalist Mormon" is the Correct Term Contrary to LDS Church Claims" (Press release). Principal Voices. July 9, 2008. Retrieved 2009-08-07. - Gordon B. Hinckley, "What Are People Asking about Us?," Ensign, Nov. 1998, p. 70. - "Church Responds to Questions on HBO's Big Love," dated 6 March 2006, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Accessed 8 June 2007. - Kraut, Ogden. Compromise and Concession. Genola, UT: Pioneer Publishing, 2005. - West, Brian (April 8, 2008). "Affidavit: FLDS raid spurred by girl's reports of physical, sexual abuse". Deseret News. - "52 children taken during raid". The Eldorado Success. 4 April 2008. Retrieved 2008-04-24.[dead link] - "Update: Judge orders all children out of FLDS compound". The Salt Lake Tribune. 5 April 2008. Retrieved 2008-04-05. - "Affidavit: Teen bride's cry for help led to raid". CNN. April 9, 2008. Archived from the original on April 12, 2008. - Sullivan, John (29 May 2008). "Court Rules Sect Children Should Go Home". New York Times. - Blumenthal, Ralph (23 May 2008). "Court Says Texas Illegally Seized Sect's Children". The New York Times. Retrieved 13 May 2010. - Owens, Ryan (April 9, 2009). "Polygamist Sect Marks First Anniversary of Texas Ranch Raid". ABC News. - Utah Attorney General’s Office and Arizona Attorney General's Office. The Primer, Helping Victims of Domestic Violence and Child Abuse in Polygamous Communities:Fundamentalist Mormon Communities. Updated June 2006. Pages 11-22. - Utah Department of Commerce - Business Entity Search: Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and the Kingdom of God, The - Brooke Adams, Fundamentalists: Most espouse polygamy as a tenet, but fewer actually practice it as their lifestyle, Salt Lake Tribune, 11 August 2005, as quoted at principlevoices.org, Accessed 8 June 2007 - Anderson, J. Max (1992). "Fundamentalists". In Ludlow, Daniel H. Encyclopedia of Mormonism. New York: Mcmillan. pp. 531–32. ISBN 0-02-904040-X. - The Four Major Periods of Mormon Polygamy[dead link] - Bradley, Martha Sontag, Kidnapped from That Land: The Government Raids on the Short Creek Polygamists - Hales, Brian C. (2007). Modern Polygamy and Mormon Fundamentalism: The Generations After the Manifesto. Greg Kofford Books. ISBN 1-58958-035-4. - Quinn, D. Michael (1998). "Plural marriage and Mormon fundamentalism". Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought 31 (2): 1–68. - Krakauer, Jon (2003). Under the Banner of Heaven: A Story of Violent Faith. Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-50951-0. - Van Wagoner, Richard S. Mormon Polygamy: A History ||This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. (August 2010)| - Polygamy Leadership Tree (PDF document) - Principle Voices - Advocacy Organization in support of Fundamentalist Mormons - True Mormonism- An overview of Mormon Fundamentalist doctrine written by members of the movement - "The Primer: A Guidebook for Law Enforcement and Human Services Agencies Who Offer Assistance to Fundamentalist Mormon Families" (PDF document) - Journal of a Mormon Fundamentalist woman – excerpts on marriage and plural marriage - Shield and Refuge Ministry Information & Resources on Mormon fundamentalism from evangelical Christian perspective - Media presentations - Lifting the Veil of Polygamy A documentary film on Mormon Fundamentalism (Main Street Church; viewable online) - Banking on Heaven A documentary film on the FLDS, the largest Mormon Fundamentalist group (Over the Moon Productions) - Damned to heaven documentary feature about polygamy and Warren Jeffs

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Second Empire architecture ||This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. (June 2011)| ||This article cites its sources but does not provide page references. (June 2011)| Second Empire is an architectural style, most popular between 1865 and 1880, and so named for the architectural elements in vogue during the era of the Second French Empire. As the Second Empire style evolved from its 17th century Renaissance foundations,it acquired an eclectic mix of earlier European styles, most notably the Baroque often combined with mansard roofs and low, square based domes. The style quickly spread and evolved throughout Europe and crossed the Atlantic. Its suitability for super-scaling allowed it to be widely used in the design of municipal and corporate buildings. In the USA, where one of the leading architects working in the style was Alfred B. Mullett, buildings in the style were often closer to their 17th-century roots than examples of the style found in Europe. Second Empire in France - Palais du Louvre (1852–57 additions), Paris, Louis Visconti and Hector Lefuel, architects. - Most buildings on the Champs-Élysées (1852–70), Paris. - Élysée Palace (1853–67 renovation), Paris, Joseph-Eugène Lacroix, architect. - Hôtel du Palais (1854), Biarritz. - Musée de Picardie (1855–67), Amiens. - Palais Garnier (1861-1875), Paris. Second Empire in the United States In the United States, the Second Empire style usually combined a rectangular tower, or similar element, with a steep mansard roof, the roof being the most noteworthy link to the style's French roots. This tower element could be of equal height as the highest floor, or could exceed the height of the rest of the structure by a story or two. The mansard roof crest was often topped with an iron trim, sometimes referred to as "cresting". In some cases, lightning rods were integrated into the cresting design, making the feature useful beyond its decorative features. Although still intact in some examples, this original cresting has often deteriorated and been removed. The exterior style could be expressed in either wood, brick or stone. More elaborate examples frequently featured paired columns as well as sculpted details around the doors, windows and dormers. The purpose of the ornamentation was to make the structure appear imposing, grand and expensive. Floor plans for Second Empire residences could either be symmetrical, with the tower (or tower-like element) in the center, or asymmetrical, with the tower or tower-like element to one side. The McAlesters [see references] divided the style into five subtypes: - Simple mansard roof – about 20% - Centered wing or gable (with bays jutting out at either end) - Asymmetrical – about 20% - Central tower (incorporating a clock) – about 30% - Town house The architect H.H. Richardson designed several of his early residences in the style, "evidence [Ochsner, see references] of his French schooling." These projects include the Crowninshield House, Boston Massachusetts, 1868, the H.H. Richardson House, Staten Island, New York, 1868 and the William Dorsheimer House, Buffalo, New York, 1868. Leland M. Roth [see references] refers to the style as "Second Empire Baroque." Mullett-Smith [see references] terms it the "Second Empire or General Grant style" due to its popularity in building government buildings during the Grant administration. The style was also used for commercial structures, and was often used when designing state institutions. Several psychiatric hospitals proved the style's adaptability to their size and functions. Prior to the construction of The Pentagon during the 1940s, the Second Empire-style Ohio State Asylum for the Insane in Columbus, Ohio was reported to be the largest building under one roof in the U.S., though the title may actually belong to Greystone Park Psychiatric Hospital, another Kirkbride Second Empire asylum. Second Empire was succeeded by the revival of the Queen Anne Style and its sub-styles, which enjoyed great popularity until the beginning of the "Revival Era" in American architecture just before the end of the 19th century, popularized by the architecture at the Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893. Notable buildings United States - Old City Hall (1862–5), Boston, Massachusetts, Bryant and Gilman, architects. - Terrace Hill (1866–9), Des Moines, Iowa (State of Iowa governor's residence), William W. Boyington, architect. - Alexander Ramsey House (1868), St. Paul, Minnesota, Sheire and Summers, architects. - St. Ignatius College Prep (1869), Chicago, Illinois, Toussaint Menard, architect. - Heck-Andrews House (1869–70), Raleigh, North Carolina, George S. H. Appleget, architect. - Gilsey House (1869-71), New York City, New York, Stephen Decatur Hatch, architect. - Baltimore City Hall (1869–75), Baltimore, Maryland, George A. Frederick, architect. - City Hall Post Office and Courthouse (1869–80), New York City, New York, Alfred B. Mullett, architect. - Grand Union Hotel (1870), Saratoga Springs, New York. - Atlanta Union Station (1871), Atlanta, Georgia, Max Corput, architect. - Reitz Home (1871), Evansville, Indiana. - Eisenhower Executive Office Building (1871–88), Washington, D.C., Alfred B. Mullett, architect. - Philadelphia City Hall (1871–1901), Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, John McArthur, Jr., architect. - South Hall (1873), University of California, Berkeley, Farquharson and Kenitzer, architects. - United States Customhouse and Post Office (1873–84), St. Louis, Missouri, Alfred B. Mullett, architect. - Woodburn Hall (1874–6), Morgantown, West Virginia, additions by Elmer F. Jacobs, architect. - George W. Fulton Mansion (1874–7), Rockport, Texas. - Central Hall on the Hillsdale College Campus (1875), Hillsdale, Michigan. - Providence City Hall (1878), Providence, Rhode Island, Samuel J. F. Thayer, architect. - Spring Hill Ranch House (1881), Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve, Strong City, Kansas. - United States Post Office (1884–8), Hannibal, Missouri, Mifflin E. Bell, architect. - Vigo County Courthouse (1884–8), Terre Haute, Indiana, Samuel Hannaford, architect. - Caldwell County Courthouse (1894), Lockhart, Texas, Giles and Guidon, architects. Old City Hall, Boston, Massachusetts Terrace Hill, Des Moines, Iowa Heck-Andrews House, Raleigh, North Carolina Baltimore City Hall, Baltimore, Maryland Atlanta's 1871 Union Station, Atlanta, Georgia (demolished in 1930) Hotel Vendome, Boston, Massachusetts (destroyed by fire in 1972) Eisenhower Executive Office Building, Washington, D.C. Philadelphia City Hall, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Woodburn Hall, Morgantown, West Virginia U.S. Post Office, Hannibal, Missouri Vigo County Courthouse, Terre Haute, Indiana Caldwell County Courthouse, Lockhart, Texas United Kingdom - Langham Hotel (1863–5), City of Westminster, London, Giles and Murray, architects. - 95 Chancery Lane (1865; former Union Bank of London Limited), London, F.W. Porter, architect. - National Bank Belgravia (1868), Victoria, London, T. Chatfeild Clarke, architect. - Great North Western Hotel (1871), Liverpool, Alfred Waterhouse, architect. - Criterion Theatre (1874), Piccadilly Circus, London, Thomas Verity, architect. - Western Pumping Station (1875), Chelsea, London. - Old Billingsgate Market (1875), London, Horace Jones, architect. - Cambridge Gate (1876–80), Regent's Park, London, Archer and Green, architects. - Garden House (1879), Chelsea, London, J.T. Smith, architect. - 75 Holland Road (1893), Brighton and Hove, Thomas Lainson, architect. Langham Hotel, City of Westminster, London Great North Western Hotel, Liverpool Old Billingsgate Market, London In Canada, Second Empire became the choice of the new Dominion government in the 1870s and 1880s for numerous public buildings and the provinces followed suit. - Montreal City Hall (1872–8), Montreal, Quebec, Perrault and Hutchison, architects. - General Post Office (1873, razed 1958), Toronto, Ontario, Henry Langley, architect. - Windsor Hotel (1875–8), Montreal, Quebec. - Saint John City Market (1876), Saint John, New Brunswick, McKean and Fairweather, architects. - Parliament Building (1877–86), Quebec City, Quebec, Eugène-Étienne Taché, architect. - Mackenzie Building (1878), Royal Military College of Canada, Kingston, Ontario, Robert Gage, architect. - New Brunswick Legislative Building (1882), Fredericton, New Brunswick, J.C. Dumaresq, architect. - Government House (1883), Winnipeg, Manitoba. - Langevin Block (1884–9), Ottawa, Ontario, Thomas Fuller, architect. Windsor Hotel, Montreal, Quebec Saint John City Market, Saint John, New Brunswick Parliament Building, Quebec City, Quebec Mackenzie Building, Royal Military College of Canada, Kingston, Ontario New Brunswick Legislative Building, Fredericton, New Brunswick Government House, Winnipeg, Manitoba Langevin Block, Ottawa, Ontario - Bendigo Town Hall (1859), Bendigo, Victoria. - Melbourne General Post Office (1859–87), Melbourne, Victoria, A.E. Johnson, architect. - Kew Asylum, also known as Willsmere (1864–71), Kew, Victoria. - Parliament House (1865–8), Brisbane, Queensland, Charles Tiffin, architect. - Sydney Town Hall (1868–89), Sydney, New South Wales, J.H. Willson, architect. - South Melbourne Town Hall (1879–80), Melbourne, Victoria, Charles Webb, architect. - Royal Exhibition Building (1880), Melbourne, Victoria, Joseph Reed, architect. - Bathurst Hospital (1880), Bathurst, New South Wales, William Boles, architect. - Bendigo Post Office (1883–7), Bendigo, Victoria, George W. Watson, architect. - Hotel Windsor (1884), Melbourne, Victoria, Charles Webb, architect. - Collingwood Town Hall (1885–90), Melbourne, Victoria, George R. Johnson, architect. - Princess Theatre (1886), Melbourne, Victoria, William Pitt, architect. - Chief Secretary’s Building (1890–5), Sydney, New South Wales, Second Empire additions by Walter L. Vernon, architect. - Shamrock Hotel (1897), Bendigo, Victoria, Phillip Kennedy, architect. - Former Records Office (1900–4), Melbourne, Victoria, S.E. Brindley, architect. Sydney Town Hall, Sydney, New South Wales (roof detail) South Melbourne Town Hall, Melbourne, Victoria Bendigo Post Office, Bendigo, Victoria Hotel Windsor, Melbourne, Victoria Collingwood Town Hall, Melbourne, Victoria Shamrock Hotel, Bendigo, Victoria Turkey (Ottoman Empire) - McAlester, Virginia & Lee, A Field Guide to American Houses, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 1986 - McCue, George and Frank Peters, A Guide to the Architecture of St. Louis, University of Missouri Press, Columbia, Missouri, 1989 - Ochsner, Jeffrey Karl, H.H. Richardson:Complete Architectural Works, MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1984 - Roth, Leland M., A Concise History of American Architecture, Harper & Row, New York, 1980 - Scott, Pamela and Antoinette J. Lee, Buildings of the District of Columbia, Oxford University Press, New York, 1991 - Smith, D. Mullett, A.B. Mullett: His Relevance in American Architecture and Historic Preservation, Mullett-Smith Press, Washington, D.C., 1990 - Stern, Mellins and Fishman, New York 1880: Architecture and Urbanism in the Gilded Age, The Monacelli Press, New York,1999 - Whiffen, Marcus, American Architecture Since 1780, The M.I.T. Press, Cambridge Massachusetts, 1977 - Copplestone, Trewin (1963). World Architecture. Hamlyn. Page 310 - Copplestone, Trewin (1963). World Architecture. Hamlyn. Page 311. |Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Second Empire architecture|

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The Magnetic Tail of the Earth February 05, 2001 This is a false color image of the transparent, electrified gas (plasma) trapped inside Earth's magnetic field collected by NASA's Imager for Magnetopause to Aurora Global Exploration (IMAGE) spacecraft. By tracking the motion of this plasma, scientists are getting the first large-scale, global views of the Earth's magnetic field and magnetic storms. The IMAGE spacecraft is looking down at the Earth from above the north pole. The Sun is outside the picture area towards the top right corner (note the shadow cast by the Earth in its own plasma cloud at the bottom left of the blue image). The blue represents the ultraviolet glow from relatively cold plasma as seen by the Extreme Ultraviolet imager (EUV) instrument on board IMAGE. A hook-shaped "tail" of plasma streaming toward the Sun can be seen at the top left of the picture. Note also the small, faint circle near the center of the image - this is the ultraviolet glow from the aurora, also known as the northern lights. The region laced by Earth's magnetic field, called the magnetosphere, dominates the behavior of electrically charged particles in space near Earth and shields the planet from the solar wind. Explosive events on the Sun can charge the magnetosphere with energy, generating magnetic storms that occasionally affect satellites, communications and power systems.

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Incombustible, hence (according to the theory of phlogiston of the 17th and 18th centuries) pure and irreducible. Phlogiston theory was the dominant chemical theory of the 18th century. It was promoted by Georg Ernst Stahl (1660–1734), and finally disproven and replaced by Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794). Phlogiston was thought to be a universally occurring element, not unlike Aristotle’s ether, which formed compounds with many other substances. The process that we know as combustion was considered to be the liberation of this phlogiston, and the "dephlogisticated" ash left behind was the true substance of the burned matter. Much chemical research centered on identifying the "dephlogisticated" materials produced by combustion, and there was a running debate between Lavoisier's Antiphlogistians and defenders of phlogiston theory such as the eminent Joseph Priestley (1733-1804). Apart from its historical interest, I think dephlogisticated is an attractive word that might be put to occasional use in the sense of "pure and irreducible".

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Select Records to SearchEdit This Page From FamilySearch Wiki Principles of Family History Research Step 3. Select Records to Search Selecting a record to search is the most complex part of the research process. You will need to— - Identify a category of sources. - Choose a record type. - Select specific records. - Describe the record on a research log. This is called a record selection strategy—an orderly approach for identifying the records most helpful for your research objective. At the end of this step you will have a research log with descriptions of records you will search to meet your objective. You may want to view the tutorial at FamilySearch Learning Center:"Ancestors Season 1: The Paper Trail". Table of Contents for Step 3. Select Records to Search - 2.1 Genealogical Records - 2.2 Reference Tools - 3.1 Choose a Record Type#Sources_Useful_to_GenealogistsSources_Useful_to_Genealogists - 3.2 Other Tools for Choosing a Record Type - 4.1 Helpful Guessing Skills - 4.2 Catalogs and Record Lists - 4.3 Selection Criteria - 4.4 Jurisdictions

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George A. Riley High frequency power transistors would perform better with flip chip mounting, because replacing wire bonds with bumps reduces the electrical inductance, improving gain at higher frequencies. However, flip chip assembly, even with gold bumps, is inadequate to carry away the heat from a device producing 100 watts in a few square millimeters. Consequently, these high power devices are conventionally mounted face up on a grounded metal package placed directly on a heat sink, so that the entire back side can be a cooling path. Connection is through wire bonds, at some penalty in performance, In December, Fujitsu announced a solution to this problem, with the world’s first successful application of carbon nanotubes as heat sinks for semiconductor devices. The higher thermal conductivity of the nanotubes compared to gold allows high power devices to be mounted face down, with flip chip bumps replacing wire bonds. Fujitsu’s test vehicle was an in-house gallium nitride high power transistor. Figure 1 schematically shows the transistor die mounted face up with wire bond connections, allowing backside heat dissipation to the substrate. Figure 1. Face-up mounting with wire bonds. (Fujitsu Photo) Figure 2 illustrates the steps in assembly. The package with carbon nanotube bumps is shown on the left. The die is flipped to face down, aligned with the nanotube bumps and attached to the package. Figure 2. Assembly of die and package. (Fujitsu Photo) Figure 3 shows SEM photos of the nanotube bumps at three magnifications: first on the substrate metal; then an enlarged view of one portion of a bump; then a further enlargement of that portion, showing the vertical nanotubes. Figure 3. SEM photos of the nanotube bumps. (Fujitsu Photo) The multi-wall nanotubes are grown on the aluminum nitride substrate using hot-filament chemical vapor deposition (HF-CVD) of acetylene and argon gases at 650 ºC. An aluminum-iron catalyst is first patterned on the substrate, to define the bumps and control their growth. The nanotubes have minimum height of 15 micrometers, consistent with flip chip bump heights. Bump widths are limited to 10 micrometers, to match the chip pad widths. Nanotube density is estimated at 1011 cm-2. The completed substrate nanotubes are plated with about one micrometer of gold, and a standard GaN high power amplifier chip is attached by thermo-compression bonding. The electrical and thermal operating performance of the test device was compared with that of an identical die, wire-bonded with backside cooling. Eliminating the bond wires reduces inductance to ground more than 50%, increasing gain compared the face-up wire bonded device by more than 2 decibels at frequencies above 5 gigahertz. The resulting temperature increase is equivalent to face-up devices with backside mounting. In 2002, Fujitsu was the first to demonstrate control of multi-wall nanotube length and diameter, using catalysts suitable for semiconductor interconnection. Fujitsu’s ongoing development now will include increasing the site density of the carbon nanotubes to further improve heat transfer. Their goal is high frequency, high power flip chip amplifiers for mobile communication base stations. Fujitsu expects first product introduction of these devices in about three years. FOR MORE INFORMATION contact Fujitsu

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<operating system> An early time-sharing operating system developed in Edinburgh by Robin Popplestone and others. It was inspired by MIT' Project MAC, via a "MiniMac" project which was aborted when it became obvious that Elliot Brothers Ltd. could not supply the necessary disk storage. Multipop was highly efficient in its use of machine resources to support symbolic programming, and effective - e.g. in supporting the development of the Boyer-Moore theorem prover and of Burstall and Darlington's transformation work. It was not good at supporting the user programs which were then the standard fare of computing, e.g. matrix inversion. This arose from the fact that while the POP-2 compiler generated good code for function call (which is a lot of what layered systems like operating systems do) it did not generate efficient code for arithmetic or store access, because there was no way to police the generation of illegal objects statically. (Hindley-Milner type checking did not exist). Indeed, since many OS features like file-access were performed by function-call (of a closure) rather than an OS call requiring a context switch, POP-2 actually gained performance. Multipop68 was efficient primarily because the one language, POP-2 served all purposes: it was the command language for the operating system as well as being the only available programming language. Thus there was no need to swap in compilers etc. All store management was accomplished uniformly by the garbage collector, as opposed to having store management for the OS and store management for each application. There was a substantial amount of assembly language in Multipop68. This was primarily for interrupt handling, and it is difficult to handle this without a real-time garbage-collector. [Edited from a posting by Robin Popplestone]. Try this search on Wikipedia, OneLook, Google Nearby terms: multiplexor « Multiplexor Channel « multiplex printer « Multipop-68 » multiprocessing » multiprocessor » multiprogramming

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IP Subnets and Netmasks Demystified I had to explain the purpose of netmasks to my field tech yesterday and recalled the great difficulty I had with the concept when I started taking an interest in networking. In this article I will attempt to put the matter in terms I wish I had heard first. The Internet is a network composed of networks which may be composed of smaller networks ad infinitum. These networks are called sub-networks or “subnets.” Hosts on the same subnet can generally communicate directly with one another. Hosts on different subnets communicate with one another by sending the traffic via one or more gateways or “routers” which have a presence on each subnet. Some say proper protocol is to only call a router a gateway when it connects two or more different layer 2 technologies, however in OS network configuration common parlance is usually just gateway. Hosts on a network need to know what traffic they can send directly over the layer 2 (or otherwise transparently local) network to other hosts and what packets need to be passed to the gateway. The value of the configured netmask is laid over the host’s own IP address in such a way that is difficult to visualize in dotted-decimal notation, so let’s take the IP address 192.168.0.1 and netmask 255.255.255.0 and look at them in binary: A netmask of 255.255.255.0 when applied to 192.168.0.1 means “anything that doesn’t match the first 24 digits of your IP is NOT local traffic and must be sent to the gateway.” The bits in the local address which are in the same position as the 1 bits of the netmask determine if an address is local or not, so it could be said that the “1 bits” are masked out. The “0 bits” are called the rest field and by ignoring them the host can quickly tell 192.168.0.22 is on the local subnet but 192.168.1.22 is not, and neither is 184.108.40.206: 11111111111111111111111100000000 255.255.255.0 netmask There are 8 rest bits in this example so we can tell that the address space of this subnet is 256 addresses deep and they range from 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.0.255 (00000000 – 11111111). Before Classless Inter-Domain Routing or CIDR, the subnets of the Internet were divided into fixed-width blocks called classes. Class names were given to subnets of various sizes and specializations, starting with large Class A subnets at the beginning of Internet address space and advancing to smaller and even experimental subnets as it descends. CIDR did away with the concept of classes and opened the netmask to single-bit-level control; subnets could now be created at sizes of any power of two, in any position of the global address space. CIDR also brought with it a new notation for routing prefixes, a slash after an IP followed by the number of “1 bits” in the netmask. In this way the IP 192.168.0.1 netmask 255.255.255.0 can be written 192.168.0.1/24. Whle CIDR notation can be used to determine the netmask of a subnet and vice versa it is typically used only to describe whole subnets or convey that a given IP is part of a certain sized subnet. |255.255.255.255||11111111.11111111.11111111.11111111||/32||Host (single address)| |255.255.255.0||11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000||/24||“Class C” 254 usable| |255.255.254.0||11111111.11111111.11111110.00000000||/23||2 Class C’s| |255.255.252.0||11111111.11111111.11111100.00000000||/22||4 Class C’s| |255.255.248.0||11111111.11111111.11111000.00000000||/21||8 Class C’s| |255.255.240.0||11111111.11111111.11110000.00000000||/20||16 Class C’s| |255.255.224.0||11111111.11111111.11100000.00000000||/19||32 Class C’s| |255.255.192.0||11111111.11111111.11000000.00000000||/18||64 Class C’s| |255.255.128.0||11111111.11111111.10000000.00000000||/17||128 Class C’s| |255.254.0.0||11111111.11111110.00000000.00000000||/15||2 Class B’s| |255.252.0.0||11111111.11111100.00000000.00000000||/14||4 Class B’s| |255.248.0.0||11111111.11111000.00000000.00000000||/13||8 Class B’s| |255.240.0.0||11111111.11110000.00000000.00000000||/12||16 Class B’s| |255.224.0.0||11111111.11100000.00000000.00000000||/11||32 Class B’s| |255.192.0.0||11111111.11000000.00000000.00000000||/10||64 Class B’s| |255.128.0.0||11111111.10000000.00000000.00000000||/9||128 Class B’s| It should be noted here that in any size subnet you create you will be shy two usable IP addresses from the full number of slots. This is because subnets have a broadcast address that reaches every host at the last IP and their routes are represented by their lowest, therefore 192.168.0.0 represents the subnet, 192.168.0.255 is the broadcast address and 192.168.0.1 – 192.168.0.254 can be used for real hosts, a total of 254 usable addresses.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://foxpa.ws/2010/05/01/ip-subnets-and-netmasks-demystified/

2013-05-24T23:48:42Z

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en

(This essay was originally published in The New American magazine.) In August 1914, Europe's major powers threw themselves into war with gleeful abandon. Germany, a rising power with vast aspirations, plowed across Belgium, seeking to checkmate France quickly before Russia could mobilize, thereby averting the prospect of a two-front war. Thousands of young Germans, anticipating a six-week conflict, boarded troop trains singing the optimistic refrain: "Ausflug nach Paris. Auf Widersehen auf dem Boulevard." ("Excursion to Paris. See you again on the Boulevard.") The French were eager to avenge the loss of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany in 1870. The British government, leery of Germany's growing power, mobilized hundreds of thousands of young men to "teach the Hun a lesson." Across the continent, writes British historian Simon Rees, "millions of servicemen, reservists and volunteers ... rushed enthusiastically to the banners of war.... The atmosphere was one of holiday rather than conflict." Each side expected to be victorious by Christmas. But as December dawned, the antagonists found themselves mired along the Western Front – a static line of trenches running for hundreds of miles through France and Belgium. At some points along the Front, combatants were separated by less than 100 feet. Their crude redoubts were little more than large ditches scooped out of miry, whitish-gray soil. Ill-equipped for winter, soldiers slogged through brackish water that was too cold for human comfort, but too warm to freeze. The unclaimed territory designated No Man's Land was littered with the awful residue of war – expended ammunition and the lifeless bodies of those on whom the ammunition had been spent. The mortal remains of many slain soldiers could be found grotesquely woven into barbed wire fences. Villages and homes lay in ruins. Abandoned churches had been appropriated for use as military bases. As losses mounted and the stalemate hardened, war fever began to dissipate on both sides. Many of those pressed into service on the Western Front had not succumbed to the initial frenzy of bloodlust. Fighting alongside French, Belgian, and English troops were Hindus and Sikhs from India, as well as Gurkhas from the Himalayan Kingdom of Nepal. These colonial conscripts had been transported from their native soil and deployed in trenches carved out of wintry Belgian cabbage patches. Highland Scots were also found at the Front, proudly wearing their kilts in defiance of the bitter December cold. The German troops were led by elite Prussian officers, representatives of the bellicose Junker aristocracy. The German rank and file included Bavarian, Saxon, Westphalian, and Hessian reservists, more than a few of whom had lived – or even been born – in England and spoke perfect English. Bismarck's efforts to unite the scattered German principalities notwithstanding, many German troops remained more attached to their local communities than to what for them was an abstract German nation. Comrades at Arms Wallowing in what amounted to cold, fetid sewers, pelted by freezing rain, and surrounded by the decaying remains of their comrades, soldiers on both sides grimly maintained their military discipline. On December 7, Pope Benedict XV called for a Christmas cease-fire. This suggestion earned little enthusiasm from political and military leaders on both sides. But the story was different for the exhausted frontline troops. A December 4 dispatch from the commander of the British II Corps took disapproving notice of a "live-and-let-live theory of life" that had descended on the Front. Although little overt fraternization was seen between hostile forces, just as little initiative was shown in pressing potential advantages. Neither side fired at the other during meal times, and friendly comments were frequently bandied about across No Man's Land. In a letter published by the Edinburgh Scotsman, Andrew Todd of the Royal Engineers reported that soldiers along his stretch of the Front, "only 60 yards apart at one place ... [had become] very 'pally' with each other." Rather than flinging lead at their opponents, the troops would occasionally hurl newspapers (weighted with stones) and ration tins across the lines. Barrages of insults sometimes erupted as well, but they were delivered "generally with less venom than a couple of London cabbies after a mild collision," reported Leslie Walkinton of the Queen's Westminster Rifles. As December waxed, the combat ardor of the frontline troops waned. With Christmas approaching, the scattered and infrequent gestures of goodwill across enemy lines increased. About a week before Christmas, German troops near Armentieres slipped a "splendid" chocolate cake across the lines to their British counterparts. Attached to that delectable peace offering was a remarkable invitation: We propose having a concert tonight as it is our Captain's birthday, and we cordially invite you to attend – provided you will give us your word of honor as guests that you agree to cease hostilities between 7:30 and 8:30.... When you see us light the candles and footlights at the edge of our trench at 7:30 sharp you can safely put your heads above your trenches, and we shall do the same, and begin the concert. The concert proceeded on time, with the bewhiskered German troops singing "like Christy Minstrels," according to one eyewitness account. Each song earned enthusiastic applause from the British troops, prompting a German to invite the Tommies to "come mit us into the chorus." One British soldier boldly shouted, "We'd rather die than sing German." This jibe was parried instantly with a good-natured reply from the German ranks: "It would kill us if you did." The concert ended with an earnest rendition of "Die Wacht am Rhein," and was closed with a few shots deliberately aimed at the darkening skies – a signal that the brief pre-Christmas respite was ended. Elsewhere along the Front, arrangements were worked out to retrieve fallen soldiers and give them proper treatment or burial. In a letter to his mother, Lt. Geoffrey Heinekey of the 2nd Queen's Westminster Rifles described one such event that took place on December 19. "Some Germans came out and held up their hands and began to take in some of their wounded and so we ourselves immediately got out of our trenches and began bringing in our wounded also," he recalled. "The Germans then beckoned to us and a lot of us went over and talked to them and they helped us to bury our dead. This lasted the whole morning and I talked to several of them and I must say they seemed extraordinarily fine men.... It seemed too ironical for words. There, the night before we had been having a terrific battle and the morning after, there we were smoking their cigarettes and they smoking ours." Soon talk along the Front turned to the prospect of a formal cessation of hostilities in honor of Christmas. Again, this idea met resistance from above. Comments historian Stanley Weintraub, in his book, Silent Night: The Story of the World War I Christmas Truce: Most higher-ups had looked the other way when scattered fraternization occurred earlier. A Christmas truce, however, was another matter. Any slackening in the action during Christmas week might undermine whatever sacrificial spirit there was among troops who lacked ideological fervor. Despite the efforts of propagandists, German reservists evidenced little hate. Urged to despise the Germans, [British] Tommies saw no compelling interest in retrieving French and Belgian crossroads and cabbage patches. Rather, both sides fought as soldiers fought in most wars – for survival, and to protect the men who had become extended family. In a sense, the war itself was being waged within an extended family, since both Germany's Kaiser Wilhelm II and England's King George V were grandsons of Queen Victoria. More importantly, the warring nations were all part of what had once been known as Christendom. The irony of this fact was not lost on those sentenced to spend Christmas at the Front. By Christmas Eve, the German side of the Front was radiant with glowing Tannenbeume – small Christmas trees set up, sometimes under fire, by troops determined to commemorate the holy day. "For most British soldiers, the German insistence on celebrating Christmas was a shock after the propaganda about Teutonic bestiality, while the Germans had long dismissed the British as well as the French as soulless and materialistic and incapable of appreciating the festival in the proper spirit," writes Weintraub. "Regarded by the French and British as pagans – even savages – the pragmatic Germans were not expected to risk their lives on behalf of each beloved Tannenbaum. Yet when a few were felled by Scrooge-like gunfire, the Saxons opposite the [British line] stubbornly climbed the parapets to set the endangered trees up once more." The radiant Christmas trees reminded some Indian conscripts of lanterns used to celebrate the Hindu "Festival of Lights." Some of them must have been puzzled over finding themselves freezing, undernourished, and confronting a lonely death thousands of miles from their homes as soldiers in a war which pitted Christian nations against each other. "Do not think that this is war," wrote one Punjabi soldier in a letter to a relative. "This is not war. It is the ending of the world." But there were souls on each side of that fratricidal conflict determined to preserve the decencies of Christendom, even amid the conflict. As Christmas dawned, German Saxon troops shouted greetings to the British unit across from it: "A happy Christmas to you, Englishmen!" That welcome greeting prompted a mock-insulting reply from one of the Scottish troops, who was mildly irritated at being called an Englishman: "The same to you Fritz, but dinna o'er eat youself wi' they sausages!" A sudden cold snap had left the battlefield frozen, which was actually a relief for troops wallowing in sodden mire. Along the Front, troops extracted themselves from their trenches and dugouts, approaching each other warily, and then eagerly, across No Man's Land. Greetings and handshakes were exchanged, as were gifts scavenged from care packages sent from home. German souvenirs that ordinarily would have been obtained only through bloodshed – such as spiked pickelhaube helmets, or Gott mit uns belt buckles – were bartered for similar British trinkets. Carols were sung in German, English, and French. A few photographs were taken of British and German officers standing alongside each other, unarmed, in No Man's Land. Near the Ypres salient, Germans and Scotsmen chased after wild hares that, once caught, served as an unexpected Christmas feast. Perhaps the sudden exertion of chasing wild hares prompted some of the soldiers to think of having a football match. Then again, little prompting would have been necessary to inspire young, competitive men – many of whom were English youth recruited off soccer fields – to stage a match. In any case, numerous accounts in letters and journals attest to the fact that on Christmas 1914, German and English soldiers played soccer on the frozen turf of No Man's Land. British Field Artillery Lieutenant John Wedderburn-Maxwell described the event as "probably the most extraordinary event of the whole war – a soldier's truce without any higher sanction by officers and generals...." This isn't to say that the event met with unqualified approval. Random exchanges of gunfire along the Front offered lethal reminders that the war was still underway. From his rearward position behind the lines, a "gaunt, sallow soldier with a thick, dark mustache and hooded eyes" witnessed the spontaneous eruption of Christian fellowship with hateful contempt. The German Field Messenger of Austrian birth heaped scorn on his comrades who were exchanging Christmas greetings with their British counterparts. "Such a thing should not happen in wartime," groused Corporal Adolf Hitler. "Have you no German sense of honor left at all?" "More than patriotic scruples were involved" in Hitler's reaction, notes Weintraub. "Although a baptized Catholic, he rejected every vestige of religious observance while his unit marked the day in the cellar of the Messines monastery." What If ...? In a January 2, 1915 account of the Christmas Truce, the London Daily Mirror reflected that "the gospel of hate" had lost its allure to soldiers who had come to know each other. "The soldier's heart rarely has any hatred in it," commented the paper. "He goes out to fight because that is his job. What came before – the causes of the war and the why and wherefore – bother him little. He fights for his country and against his country's enemies. Collectively, they are to be condemned and blown to pieces. Individually, he knows they're not bad sorts." "Many British and German soldiers, and line officers, viewed each other as gentlemen and men of honor," writes Weintraub. The rank and file came to understand that the man on the other end of the rifle, rather than the soulless monster depicted in ideological propaganda, was frightened and desperate to survive and return to his family. For many along the Front, these realities first became clear in the light cast by the German Tannenbaum. In the shared symbol of the Christmas tree – an ornament of pagan origins appropriated by Christians centuries ago – British and German troops found "a sudden and extraordinary link," observed British author Arthur Conan Doyle after the war (a conflict that claimed his son's life). "It was an amazing spectacle," Doyle reflected, "and must arouse bitter thought concerning the high-born conspirators against the peace of the world, who in their mad ambition had hounded such men on to take each other by the throat rather than by the hand." In a remarkable letter published by The Times of London on January 4, a German soldier stated that "as the wonderful scenes in the trenches [during Christmas] show, there is no malice on our side, and none in many of those who have been marshaled against us." But this was certainly not true of those who orchestrated the war, the "high-born conspirators against the peace of the world." As British historian Niall Ferguson points out, the war-makers' plans for the world required "Maximum slaughter at minimum expense." The informal truce held through Christmas and, at some points along the Front, through the following day (known as "Boxing Day" to British troops). But before New Year's Day the war had resumed in all of its malignant fury, and the suicide of Christendom continued apace. Most wars are senseless exercises in mass murder and needless destruction. World War I, however, is remarkable not only for being more avoidable and less justifiable than most wars, but also for its role in opening the gates of hell. Mass starvation and economic ruin inflicted on Germany during the war and its aftermath cultivated the National Socialist (Nazi) movement. Nearly identical ruin wrought in Russia thrust Lenin and the Bolsheviks to power. Benito Mussolini, a socialist agitator once regarded as Lenin's heir, rose to power in Italy. Radical variants of intolerant totalitarian nationalism ulcerated Europe. The seeds of future wars and terrorism were deeply sewn in the Middle East. What if the Christmas Truce of 1914 had held? Might a negotiated peace have ensued, preserving Christendom for at least a while longer? We do not know. It is doubtful that the "high-born conspirators against the peace of the world" would have been long deterred in pursuing their demented plans. But the truce – a welcome fermata in the symphony of destruction – illustrated a timeless truth of the nature of the human soul as designed by its Creator. Reflecting on the Christmas Truce, Scottish historian Roland Watson writes: "The State bellows the orders 'Kill! Maim! Conquer!' but a deeper instinct within the individual does not readily put a bullet through another who has done no great offense, but who rather says with them, 'What am I doing here?'" For a tragically short time, the Spirit of the Prince of Peace drowned out the murderous demands of the State. Tune in for Pro Libertate Radio weeknights from 7:00-8:00 Central on the Liberty News Radio Network.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://freedominourtime.blogspot.com/2009/12/truce-of-god.html

2013-05-24T23:12:43Z

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en

Histidine protein kinases (HPKs) are a large family of signal-transduction enzymes that autophosphorylate on a conserved histidine residue. HPKs form two-component signaling systems together with their downstream target proteins, the response regulators, which have a conserved aspartate in a so-called 'receiver domain' that is phosphorylated by the HPK. Two-component signal transduction is prevalent in bacteria and is also widely used by eukaryotes outside the animal kingdom. The typical HPK is a transmembrane receptor with an amino-terminal extracellular sensing domain and a carboxy-terminal cytosolic signaling domain; most, if not all, HPKs function as dimers. They show little similarity to protein kinases that phosphorylate serine, threonine or tyrosine residues, but may share a distant evolutionary relationship with these enzymes. In excess of a thousand known genes encode HPKs, which are important for multiple functions in bacteria, including chemotaxis and quorum sensing, and in eukaryotes, including hormone-dependent developmental processes. The proteins divide into at least 11 subfamilies, only one of which is present in eukaryotes, suggesting that lateral gene transfer gave rise to two-component signaling in these organisms. Gene organization and evolutionary history Histidine protein kinases (HPKs), together with their partner response regulators, are undoubtedly the most widely used of all signal-transduction enzymes in nature. They are present in all three major kingdoms of life (the Bacteria, Archaea and Eukarya) [1,2], and function in the sensing of a cell's external environment . For unicellular organisms this usually equates to sensing nutrients, chemoattractants, osmotic conditions and so on. HPKs are also responsible for coordinating the behavior of cell populations. In bacteria this takes the form of quorum sensing . In Eukarya, where HPKs appear to be confined to plants and to free-living organisms, such as yeasts, fungi and protozoa, HPKs have roles in regulating hormone-dependent developmental processes ; for example, HPKs are responsible for transducing the effects of the hormone ethylene in plants , and for coordinating the development of the fruiting body of the slime mold Dictyostelium discoideum . No HPK (or response regulator) genes are present in the completed genome sequences of Caenorhabditis elegans , Drosophila melanogaster , or Homo sapiens , and it is thought that these enzymes are absent from the animal kingdom as a whole. HPKs (and response regulators) probably arose in bacteria and, with few exceptions, are found in all bacterial species , which have a wide variation of HPK gene numbers: for example, the Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis genomes both contain about 25 HPK genes; in contrast, Helicobacter pylori has only four HPKs, and the three Mycoplasma species whose genomes have been sequenced (M. genitalium, M. pneumoniae, and M. pulmonis) are among the rare exceptions with no HPK genes. There are well over a thousand HPK genes currently in sequence databases, and HPK genes are found much less frequently in archaea and eukaryotes than in bacteria. HPK proteins can be divided by sequence analysis into 11 subfamilies, and virtually all eukaryotic HPKs belong to a single subfamily . This, and the relative scarcity of HPK genes in archaea and eukaryotes, supports the notion that HPK (and response regulator) genes arrived in eukaryotes and archaea by lateral gene transfer from bacteria. In prokaryotes, the genes for cognate pairs of HPKs and response regulators are typically found together in a single operon, such as the EnvZ-OmpR system that controls osmosensing in E. coli . The functional relationship between these signaling partners is therefore reflected in their gene organization. Cross-regulation of a response regulator by additional histidine kinases does occur, however. For instance, the OmpR response regulator receives phosphate in vivo not only from its cognate HPK EnvZ, but also from the ArcB histidine kinase , although the ArcB and OmpR genes are not on the same operon. In eukaryotes, HPK and receiver domains, containing the aspartate that is phosphorylated by the HPK, are generally encoded within a single gene, whereas in bacteria the receiver domain is part of the response regulator. Eukaryotic HPK proteins therefore contain both elements of the traditional two-component pathway, and are referred to as 'hybrid kinases'. Such hybrid kinases, while predominating in eukaryotes, are only a small minority among prokaryotic HPKs; all hybrid HPKs (both eukaryotic and prokaryotic) belong to a subdivision of the HPK1 gene family, one of the 11 HPK families (Figure 1) . Figure 1. Conserved sequence motifs in the 11 histidine protein kinase subfamilies. (a) Motifs representative of conserved sequences in the HPK1 family, which includes a majority of all HPKs, including all eukaryotic HPKs . (b) The relative positions of the conserved motifs in a representative HPK (E. coli EnvZ). Regions known or predicted to be α helical are shown as rectangles, and β sheets as arrows [14,21]. The conserved regions that make up the HPK core, designated the H, N, D, F and G boxes (shown in blue), typically span approximately 200 residues in total [1,19]. HAMP is a linker domain, and TM1 and TM2 are transmembrane helices. Sequence alignments of (c) the H box, (d) the N box, (e) the D and F boxes, and (f) the G box for one representative member of each of the 11 HPK subfamilies (except for the HPK1 family, where one member of HPK1a and one member of HPK1b are shown). The proteins used to make this alignment were: HPK1a, Pseudomonas aeruginosa KinB (595 amino acids in total); HPK1b, E. coli TorS (914 amino acids); HPK2, E. coli EnvZ (450 amino acids); HPK3, E. coli PhoQ (486 amino acids); HPK4, E. coli NtrB (349 amino acids); HPK5, E. coli DcuS (543 amino acids); HPK6, Archaeoglobus fulgidus g2648416 (607 amino acids); HPK7, E. coli NarQ (566 amino acids); HPK8, E. coli YehU (561 amino acids); HPK9, E. coli CheA (654 amino acids); HPK10, Streptococcus pneumoniae ComD (441 amino acids); HPK11, Methanobacterium mth292 (564 amino acids). The regions chosen for these alignments were taken from subfamily-specific alignments carried out in one of our previous studies , and are indicated in parentheses. Sequences were aligned using ClustalW. To simplify the alignment, a 25 amino-acid region of HPK9 was removed in the D-box region (indicated by an open square), and a 3 amino-acid region of HPK8 was removed in the G-box region (indicated by a filled square). HPK9 does not contain an H box in its dimerization domain, so HPK9 was left out of the H-box alignment. HPK7 and HPK8 do not contain an F box. The HPK11 subfamily contains a partially conserved F box, but the example used for this alignment does not. Highly conserved residues (those present in a majority of the subfamilies) are shown boxed in dark blue, and a consensus sequence is presented below the aligned sequences; positions containing chemically similar residues are shown boxed in light blue and indicated by a dot in the consensus sequence. Characteristic structural features HPKs catalyze the transfer of phosphate from ATP to a unique histidine residue, and all HPKs have a conserved ATP-binding catalytic domain that is required for kinase activity. This catalytic domain, together with a dimerization domain, forms the kinase core. The HPKs are classified into 11 subfamilies on the basis of the sequences of these two core domains . Figure 1 shows a sequence alignment of the core domains with a representative of each subfamily. The core domains Histidine kinase activity depends on homodimer formation, with the dimerization domains, which have two-stranded coiled-coils, coming together to form a four-helix bundle [11,12]. It can be seen in Figure 1 that, except for the hpk9 family (the CheA family), the dimerization domain includes a motif, known as the H-box, which contains the site of autophosphorylation. As in the case of tyrosine protein kinases, such as the insulin receptor, HPK-mediated autophosphorylation appears to occur in trans, with the catalytic domain of one subunit in a dimer phosphorylating the H-box histidine in the opposing subunit . Many HPKs also have phosphatase activity which dephosphorylates the response regulator and opposes kinase function [3, 13] (for details see the Mechanism section); phosphatase activity is mediated by the dimerization domain in these HPKs. The catalytic domain of HPKs has clear sequence and structural homology to the ATP-binding domains of type II topoisomerases (such as GyrB), the mismatch repair protein MutL, and the heat-shock protein Hsp90 [14,15,16]. These domains form a family with a conserved structure of several α helices packed over one face of a large, mostly antiparallel, β sheet, forming a loop that closes over the bound ATP (the 'ATP lid'). The ATP lid and the entire ATP-binding site are poorly organized in the absence of ATP or ATP analogs [14,15,17]. A substantial ordering of structure and other conformational changes in the ATP lid can be seen in the X-ray crystal structures of nucleotide-bound forms of MutL and GyrB as well as the HPKs CheA (which is involved in bacterial chemotaxis) and PhoQ (which senses environmental concentrations of Ca2+ and Mg2+) . Within the HPK catalytic domain four conserved motifs, the N, D, F, and G boxes, are involved in ATP binding [16,18], and probably also in catalysis and phosphotransfer. The motifs can be seen in Figure 1. Some subfamilies (HPK7 and HPK8) appear to have no identifiable F box, and the HPK10 subfamily has no identifiable D box. The D and G boxes [1,19] have also been labeled the G1 and G2 boxes, respectively . Figure 2 shows representations of the only three available structures of HPKs, from which a number of insights have been gained about the overall structure of HPKs [14,15,21], as well as the role of conserved residues of the catalytic domain in interactions with the Mg2+ co-factor, which is required for ATP binding, and the nucleotide substrate [14,16,18]. The aspartate that defines the D box is hydrogen-bonded directly to the adenine ring of the ATP. Buried water molecules form hydrogen bonds that connect additional amino-acid residues in the N and D boxes to the adenine. The bound Mg2+ bridges from the nucleotide phosphates to residues in the N box. The F box is part of the ATP lid, whereas the G box forms the flexible hinge at the end of the ATP lid. Hydrolysis of ATP is coupled to Mg2+ release and conformational changes in the ATP-binding cavity, and the ATP lid does not remain wellordered with ADP in the binding site. The ordering of the ATP lid may couple ATP binding to interactions between domains, such as those between the catalytic domain and the H-box region. On the basis of the CheA structure, it seems that there is substantial flexibility in the region of the hinge that joins the dimerization and catalytic domains . This flexibility maybe critical for the domain rearrangements that occur during the catalytic cycle . Figure 2. A comparison of the three-dimensional structures of three HPK families (HPK2, HPK3, and HPK9) shows the strong conservation of the catalytic domain structure. (a) The kinase core (dimerization and catalytic domains) of an HPK9, the Thermotoga maritima CheA (Protein Data Bank, PDB, entry 1B3Q) . (b) The catalytic domain of T. maritima CheA complexed with Mg2+ and the nucleotide analog ADPCP (PDB entry 1I58) . (c) The catalytic domain of the HPK2 E. coli EnvZ complexed with ADP (model 1 from PDB entry 1BXD) . (d) The catalytic domain of an HPK3, PhoQ of E. coli, complexed with Mg2+ and the nucleotide analog AMPNP (PDB entry 1ID0) . The figure was created with Swiss-PdbViewer 3.7 and rendered with POV-Ray 3.1. The sensing and linker domains On the basis of gene sequence analyses, the typical HPK appears to be a transmembrane sensor. This type of HPK usually has an uncleaved signal sequence, which serves as a first transmembrane helix (TM1), an extracellular sensing domain, and a second transmembrane helix (TM2); this is similar to typical type I tyrosine protein kinase receptors, such as the receptors for the epidermal growth factor (EGF) and insulin , but in eukaryotic tyrosine protein kinase receptors the signal sequence is generally cleaved to remove TM1. The extracellular sensing domains of HPKs are extremely diverse and, in contrast to the type I tyrosine protein kinase receptors, no conserved structural motif can be inferred from sequence comparisons . It seems that almost any type of sensory domain can regulate HPK activity. In Gram-negative bacteria some HPKs sense through interaction with a periplasmic binding protein that may also interact with ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transport systems . Inside the cytoplasm, a typical HPK has a HAMP domain, a widely distributed putative regulatory element in transmembrane and other signaling proteins , that consists of about 50 residues with two helical segments and a non-helical, compact subdomain in between [25,26]. The HAMP domain (also called the linker) is located between the second transmembrane domain and the dimerization domain (Figure 1) and may play a criticial role in HPK signal transduction [25,26]. It may also directly participate in binding sensory co-factors, such as flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) . The HAMP domain might have a structure analogous to that of helix-loop-helix transcription factors . As mentioned above, hybrid HPKs contain both an HPK and an additional carboxy-terminal receiver domain. They are not stand-alone signaling systems, however, but have to communicate with a separate downstream response regulator with an output activity. They achieve this by using a multi-step phosphorelay mechanism, rather than the single phosphotransfer mechanism that operates in normal two-component signaling pathways . In phosphorelays, an intermediate histidine phosphotransfer protein (HPt) is involved either as a soluble protein or as an attached carboxy-terminal domain of the hybrid HPK. HPt proteins receive phosphates from hybrid HPKs and shuttle them to the receiver domains of the downstream response regulators . In certain phosphorelay systems, receiver domains of hybrid HPKs also mediate the hydrolysis of phosphorylated HPt intermediates . The phosphate group is carried on a conserved histidine residue of the HPt protein. A number of three-dimensional structures of HPt domains have been solved, including those of the bacterial HPKs ArcB , and CheA as well as the yeast Hpt protein Ypd1 . Despite their diversity of sources, these structures reveal a nearly identical four-helix-bundle core structure . Structures of a range of response regulator receiver domains have also been determined, although not of a hybrid kinase and only of a few intact response regulators. The structure of the receiver domain of the chemotaxis response regulator CheY is generally taken as the stereotypical example of this domain [33,34]. The receiver domain is a five-stranded parallel β sheet that is wound twice, and the site of aspartate phosphorylation is in an acidic pocket near the carboxy-terminal edge of the β sheet . Localization and function Transmembrane receptor HPKs Most HPKs are transmembane proteins that are presumed to be receptors for extracellular signals . In the vast majority of cases, the putative ligands are not known. Furthermore, membrane localization does not necessarily mean that the HPK has to bind a soluble extracellular ligand. For example, the well-studied E. coli osmosensing HPK EnvZ is an integral membrane protein that appears to have a periplasmic sensing domain. Removal of this domain does not disrupt osmosensing via EnvZ, however , and it is unlikely that EnvZ senses osmolarity by directly binding small soluble molecules. It is more likely that changes in osmolarity modulate interactions of EnvZ with outer membrane proteins, or affect membrane tension, and such changes might in some other way shift the equilibrium between kinase and phosphatase activity of EnvZ. A similar mechanism might regulate the activity of the osmosensing HPK Sln1p in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, given that the Sln1p transmembrane regions are required for transducing changes in osmolarity . Some HPKs are soluble cytosolic proteins that couple to discrete transmembrane receptors, and another group of HPKs are predicted to be soluble proteins that so far have no known membrane-linked receptor. The best-studied example of a soluble HPK that couples to transmembrane receptors is CheA [11,22]. In E. coli, CheA couples to five different chemotaxis receptors, four of which bind - either directly or through the use of a separate binding protein - small ligands, such as amino acids and sugars, which in turn act as chemoattractants for the bacteria. Through interactions between the receptors and CheA, ligand binding regulates CheA HPK activity and thus controls activity of the chemotaxis two-component system. This situation is operationally very similar to that of mammalian cytokine receptors that control the activity of soluble cytosolic tyrosine protein kinases: like the E. coli chemotaxis receptors, cytokine receptors have no enzymatic activity of their own, but couple to intracellular protein kinases [23,38]. In a similar vein, receptor HPKs function analogously to growth factor receptors with tyrosine kinase activity in animal cells: both classes of receptor are type 1 membrane proteins with an amino-terminal extracellular sensing domain that is linked to the intracellular signaling domain via a single transmembrane helix. Both types of receptor also function as dimers, trans-phosphorylating their partner subunit . But whereas phosphotyrosine-bearing receptors act as binding sites for Src-homology 2 (SH2) domain proteins, autophosphorylated receptor HPKs transfer their phosphate to downstream response regulators, and so must in fact become dephosphorylated in order to transmit their signals. It is interesting to note that there are currently no examples of organisms that have both receptor tyrosine kinases and receptor HPKs, and this suggests that these receptors fulfill equivalent roles. The E. coli chemotaxis receptors that regulate CheA show higher-order organization in the bacterial inner membrane, where they are predominantly clustered in one macromolecular patch . Although the chemotaxis receptors themselves are not HPKs, they might provide a model for the organization of those HPKs that function as receptors. The higher-order structures are thought to be necessary for the exquisite sensitivity and dynamic signaling properties of the chemotaxis signaling system . Although chemotaxis may be a specialized signaling system, in principle its properties could be important for other signaling pathways that must be able to respond to small changes in ligand concentration and/or over a wide range of ligand concentrations. The responses generated by HPK signaling are mediated by response regulators, which - like HPKs - form a large family of proteins . Most bacterial response regulators have an amino-terminal receiver domain containing the site of aspartate phosphorylation. Signaling proceeds by autophosphorylation of the HPK domain followed by phosphotransfer to a receiver domain [41,42]. A carboxy-terminal DNA-binding domain allows the response regulator to function as a transcriptional regulator . The presence of the conserved receiver domain defines a protein as a response regulator, but not all response regulators are transcription factors. Other examples of output activities include enzymatic activity, such as that of the receptor methylesterase CheB , responsible for adaptation in bacterial chemotaxis, and protein-protein interaction, mediated, for example, by the chemotaxis effector protein CheY . Regardless of the particular output function of a response regulator, its activity is strongly dependent on the state of aspartate phosphorylation of its receiver domain. Thus, extracellular signals are transduced into a cytosolic output response via a protein phosphorylation cascade mediated by an HPK and a response regulator. HPK sensor domains regulate kinase activity, but as discussed above, many HPKs also have a phosphatase activity [3,13]. When the kinase state predominates, the net activity of the two-component pathway is phosphorylation of the response regulator; when the phosphatase state predominates, the net activity is dephosphorylation of the response regulator. Because two antagonistic states are in equilibrium, ligands exert tight regulation over pathway activity because a shift in the equilibrium between kinase and phosphatase steady states is amplified by zero-order ultrasensitive kinetic effects [43,44]. In many HPKs, the regulatory effects of the phosphatase activity predominate [3,45]. Thus, the dominant phenotype of a mutant strain lacking a particular receptor-HPK is often a low-level constitutive activity of the response regulator under conditions in which, in wild-type cells, phosphatase activity of the HPK leads to response regulator inactivation. Regulation of these dual-function receptor-HPKs appears to involve modulation of a balance between two distinct states, namely kinase on and phosphatase off, or kinase off and phosphatase on . This phosphatase activity is not simply a reverse phosphotransfer, however, because phosphatase activity is retained in some mutant HPKs lacking the H-box histidine , and most HPKs do not have intrinsic autophosphatase activity. HPKs and two-component systems are an exciting area of research for a growing number of research groups studying the basic biochemistry of these systems as well as those focused on medically relevant topics such as pathogenesis, quorum sensing, and biofilm formation. Of medical interest is the potential for using HPKs as targets for new classes of antimicrobial drug. HPKs are particularly attractive for this purpose because they are not found in animals, and also because interfering with a pathogen's HPK signaling systems may expose it to destruction by the host immune system rather than being directly toxic. This type of indirect antibiotic would be less likely to evoke resistance in the target strain. Although some potential HPK inhibitors have been discovered [16,48], none of them has yet advanced to the stage of being used as a pharmaceutical. Research in this area is likely to accelerate as more HPK structures become available and can be examined for structure-based drug design. The HPK10 family is one that needs more basic study to determine structural information. It is a distinct and widely distributed family that includes six-transmembrane HPK receptors with hydrophobic amino-terminal domains; they are referred to as 'six-transmembrane' receptors, but both algorithmic predictions and measurements of topology have determined only that HPK10 receptors have between five and seven transmembrane helices [49,50]. These receptors appear generally to function in cell-cell communication. In the few cases where stimulatory ligands have been identified, they are small peptides or modified peptides that are secreted by the same organism. For example, the AgrC system in Staphylococcus aureus is a quorum-sensing system that exports and then senses modified peptides of eight to nine amino acids that have a thio-lactone ring . There is no direct evidence that the six-transmembrane HPKs are dimers, and the kinase core domains of members of the HPK10 family differ from other HPKs; in particular, the HPK family has no D box, and the region near the H box does not show a high similarity to other HPK dimerization domains . This suggests substantial differences in the geometry of the active site, and transmembrane signal transduction mediated by the HPK10 family may proceed by analogy to the events mediated by eukaryotic seven-transmembrane receptors, whereas signaling through other families of HPK receptors is analogous to signaling through type I tyrosine protein kinases. Finally, the study of HPK signaling in eukaryotes lags behind that in prokaryotes and many challenges lie ahead, including identifying the signaling connections between hybrid HPKs, HPt proteins and response regulators, and determining the interactions between the phosphorelay pathways and the other signaling pathways in eukaryotic cells. In Arabidopsis thaliana (and presumably in many other plants as well) the HPK gene family has undergone great expansion . In Arabidopsis, at least five different HPK proteins act as receptors for the hormone ethylene, and the genes encoding these receptors show redundancy. Thus, plants with mutations in one, two or even three of these receptor HPKs have no phenotype; only a quadruple mutant strain shows a phenotype, namely a constitutive response to ethylene . This complexity presents a significant practical challenge to the genetic analysis of HPK signaling in plants. Similar challenges arise in studying Dictyostelium HPK genes, of which there are at least 15 . Rather than responding to the same ligand, it is probable that many of these HPKs signal to the same output pathway (the response regulator RegA that controls intracellular cAMP levels), so the HPKs are likely to have overlapping functions. The HPK signaling pathways that control cAMP levels must be coordinated with other signaling systems, such as G-protein-dependent pathways, that also regulate cAMP levels in the same cells . A similar signal transduction network must also operate in other eukaryotic HPK systems that are known to control the activity of mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase pathways, such as those involved in ethylene signaling in Arabidoposis and osmosensing in yeast [6,42]. Our traditional view of signal transduction is heavily biased towards the mechanisms used by animal cells, and so HPKs are not the main focus of studies of signal-transduction enzymes, but outside the animal kingdom they are the most important transducers of extracellular signals. P.M.W. was supported by NIH fellowship 1F32 GM064228. P.A.T. was supported by a fellowship from the Wellcome Trust. This work was also supported by a grant from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (3416183). Adv Microb Physiol 1999, 41:139-227. The first thorough classification of HPK and response regulator families on the basis of sequence alignments and motifs.PubMed Abstract Mol Biol Evol 2000, 17:1956-1970. An attempt to classify HPKs and response regulators into families, which includes some interesting speculation on evolutionary relationships between HPKs and eukaryotic protein kinases.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text A collection of reviews by experts in two-component signal transduction that is considered the starting point for most literature searches. This is still the best source of reviews for some areas, though others have become dated. Annu Rev Genet 2001, 35:439-468. A review of work on quorum sensing via acylated homoserine lactones, including their production and their detection by receptor HPKs.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text J Cell Sci 2000, 113:3141-3150. A review of HPK systems in eukaryotes and their interaction with downstream pathways such as MAP kinase cascades and the cAMP/PKA pathway.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Cell 1998, 94:261-271. An outstanding genetic study of ethylene receptor signaling in plants. Isolation of loss-of-function alleles of four ethylene receptor genes shows functional redundancy between the receptors, and also demonstrates that ethylene acts to inhibit the receptors rather than activating them.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Science 1998, 282:2012-2018. Sequencing of the 97-megabase C. elegans genome was completed in 1998 and was the first genome of a multicellular organism to be fully sequenced.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Science 2000, 287:2185-2195. This paper reports the completion of the genome sequence of D. melanogaster, one of the most important experimental models in biology.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Nature 2001, 409:860-921. A draft sequence of the human genome and intial analysis of the data.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Matsubara M, Kitaoka SI, Takeda SI, Mizuno T: Tuning of the porin expression under anaerobic growth conditions by His-to-Asp cross-phosphorelay through both the EnvZ-osmosensor and ArcB-anaerosensor in Escherichia coli. Genes Cells 2000, 5:555-569. An excellent example of networking between two-component signal transduction systems.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text A detailed and thorough review of the chemotaxis system in E. coli and Salmonella, though some sections have been superseded by more recent research. Mol Microbiol 1999, 34:633-640. A review and hypothesis paper that includes some speculations about HPK architecture and the interrelation between the different HPK domains.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Trends Genet 1996, 12:97-101. A review of the role of HPK phosphatase activity and HPK-independent phosphatases in controlling the output of two-component systems.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Nature 1998, 396:88-92. The first structural analysis of an HPK catalytic domain and demonstration of the HPK structural homology to Hsp90 and DNA gyrase B.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Cell 1999, 96:131-141. The first X-ray crystal structure of an HPK, and the only one that includes both the dimerization and catalytic domains.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Nat Struct Biol 2001, 8:353-360. An important paper that shows the structural effects of binding different nucleotide analogs to the CheA catalytic domain.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Cell 1999, 97:85-97. A seminal paper that provides a basis for understanding the relation of ATPase activity to conformational transitions in MutL and its homologs, such as the HPKs.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text J Biol Chem 2001, 276:41182-41190. This paper presents a high-resolution X-ray structure of the PhoQ catalytic domain with an ATP analog bound. Together with the papers by Bilwes et al. [15,16], it provides a good understanding of the HPK catalytic domain structure.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Stock A, Chen T, Welsh D, Stock J: CheA protein, a central regulator of bacterial chemotaxis, belongs to a family of proteins that control gene expression in response to changing environmental conditions. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1988, 85:1403-1407. The first sequence of a CheA protein and analysis that shows its relatedness to other HPKs through conserved sequence motifs.PubMed Abstract | PubMed Central Full Text Annu Rev Genet 1992, 26:71-112. A review of two-component systems in which the receiver domain and transmitter domain terminology was introduced, as well as the designation of various HPK sequence motifs asPubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Nat Struct Biol 1999, 6:729-734. The first structure of the dimerization domain of an orthodox HPK, which shows a close relationship to the CheA structure.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Wolanin PW, Stock JB: Transmembrane signaling and the regulation of histidine kinase activity. In In Histidine Kinases in Signal Transduction. Edited by Inouye M, Dutta R. New York: Academic Press; in press. A forthcoming thorough review of HPK signaling in a new collection of reviews on two-component systems. Cell 2000, 103:211-225. The most recent and thorough review of receptor tyrosine kinase signaling.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Mol Microbiol 1996, 20:17-25. A review of periplasmic binding protein structures and their roles in transport and chemotaxis.PubMed Abstract FEMS Microbiol Lett 1999, 176:111-116. Definition of the HAMP domain family as a widely occurring element in signal transduction systems and identification of the HPK 'linker as an important representative of this family.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Williams SB, Stewart V: Functional similarities among two-component sensors and methyl-accepting chemotaxis proteins suggest a role for linker region amphipathic helices in transmembrane signal transduction. Mol Microbiol 1999, 33:1093-1102. An examination of, and speculation on the role of, the linker region (or HAMP domain) in HPK transmembrane signaling.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2000, 97:5830-5835. This paper demonstrates conclusively that Aer binds FAD and explores the relative roles of the PAS (a widely distributed sensory domain that is often involved in binding prosthetic groups such as heme or FAD) and HAMP domains in FAD binding.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | PubMed Central Full Text Annu Rev Biochem 2000, 69:183-215. A recent and comprehensive review of two-component signaling that focuses especially on protein structures.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Mol Microbiol 2000, 35:139-149. A detailed analysis of a phosphorelay network in bacteria that controls quorum sensing.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Kato M, Shimizu T, Mizuno T, Hakoshima T: Structure of the histidine-containing phosphotransfer (HPt) domain of the anaerobic sensor protein ArcB complexed with the chemotaxis response regulator CheY. Acta Crystallogr D Biol Crystallogr 1999, 55:1257-1263. This is the second X-ray structure of the ArcB HPt domain, and the only structure of an HPt domain in complex with a response regulator.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Mourey L, Da Re S, Pédelacq J-D, Tolstykh T, Faurie C, Guillet V, Stock JB, Samama J-P: Crystal structure of the CheA histidine phosphotransfer domain that mediates response regulator phosphorylation in bacterial chemotaxis. J Biol Chem 2001, 276:31074-31082. The first X-ray crystal structure of the HPt domain of the CheA family of HPKs. The paper includes a detailed comparison with the structure of other HPt proteins, and argues against the conclusions advanced by Appleby et al. .PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text J Mol Biol 1999, 292:1039-1050. The first structure of the yeast HPt protein Ypd1p and an analysis suggesting that HPt proteins have a common, distinct core structure.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Nature 1989, 337:745-749. The first X-ray crystal structure of a response regulator.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text J Biol Chem 2001, 276:16425-16431. The first crystal structure of CheY complexed with Mg2+ and BeF3-, a phosphate analog, and a comparison of this structure with other CheY structures.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Curr Opin Microbiol 2000, 3:165-170. A recent review by the original discoverer of phosphorelays. Hoch points out that we should not be tempted to use the few well-characterized two-component and/or phosphorelay systems so far studied as a universal template for the function of all the others. We are also a long way from truly understanding the function of any single pathway.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Mol Microbiol 1996, 22:405-413. This paper reports the surprising finding that the periplasmic domain of the HPK EnvZ could be completely replaced without disruption of osmosensing, suggesting that EnvZ senses by a mechanism other than ligand binding.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text J Bacteriol 1999, 181:2527-2534. The authors presents evidence that the extracellular domain of Sln1p may be a dimerization region required for Sln1p kinase activity. The first transmembrane domain of Sln1p is also required for sensing osmolarity.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | PubMed Central Full Text Science 1995, 268:251-255. A review of the functions of cytokine receptors and their interactions with soluble protein tyrosine kinases.PubMed Abstract Science 1993, 259:1717-1723. An important paper reporting the discovery that chemotaxis receptors are localized in clusters at the cell pole.PubMed Abstract Curr Biol 2000, 10:R11-14. A minireview advancing the idea that receptor clusters, such as those discovered by Maddock and Shapiro , have much greater information-processing capacity than previously appreciated.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Cell 1996, 86:845-848. An influential but speculative minireview, written to accompany Posas et al. , which posits the existence of phosphorelays as a widespread and general biochemical mechanism on the basis of superficial similarities in protein structure and function.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Cell 1996, 86:865-875. Discovery of the first eukaryotic phosphorelay. The Ypd1 gene encodes an HPt protein that transfers phosphate between the hybrid HPK Sln1p and the response regulator Ssk1p.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Science 1982, 217:220-225. This seminal paper defined the relationship between gain and sensitivity in biological systems, and introduced the concept of ultrasensitivity.PubMed Abstract Trends Microbiol 1993, 1:306-310. A study of the ultrasensitivity that is achieved in the EnvZ-OmpR system through the balance of kinase and phosphatase activities.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2000, 97:7808-7813. Definitive experimental results showing that the dimerization domain of HPKs can retain response regulator phosphatase activity in the absence of the catalytic domain.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | PubMed Central Full Text J Bacteriol 1998, 180:4538-4546. A mutational analysis showing the distinction between kinase and phosphatase activities in terms of both structure and function.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | PubMed Central Full Text J Bacteriol 1997, 179:3729-3735. A demonstration that the phosphorylated histidine is important, but not essential, for HPK phosphatase activity.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | PubMed Central Full Text Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2000, 9:2351-2369. A review of past attempts to find specific inhibitors of two-component signaling and of more recent efforts using structure-based drug design.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text J Bacteriol 1999, 181:4540-4548. One of the few experimental analyses of the membrane topology of a six-transmembrane HPK receptor, ComP, using PhoA and LacZ fusions as well as proteolytic studies.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | PubMed Central Full Text Mol Microbiol 2000, 38:891-903. Another of the rare experimental studies of the membrane topology of a six-transmembrane HPK receptor using phoA and lacZ fusions.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Lyon GJ, Mayville P, Muir TW, Novick RP: Rational design of a global inhibitor of the virulence response in Staphylococcus aureus, based in part on localization of the site of inhibition to the receptor-histidine kinase, AgrC. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2000, 97:13330-13335. This paper describes the rational design of a molecule that inhibits virulence in Staphylococcus aureus through interaction with an HPK receptor.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | PubMed Central Full Text J Biol Chem 1999, 274:27379-27384. The first biochemical demonstration of a phosphorelay between the Dictyostelium proteins RdeA and RegA, and the activation of RegA by aspartate phosphorylation.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

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24 April 2008 GSA Release No. 08-20 History and Innovation: The Diverse Florissant Fossil Beds National Monument Boulder, CO, USA – The significance of the Florissant fossil beds has been widely recognized for more than a century. A new book from the Geological Society of America unearths a wealth of information on the area and is a must-have for geoscientists and national monument enthusiasts alike. Fossils reflecting more than 1700 species of plants, insects, spiders, fish, and mammals make Florissant, Colorado, USA, one of the world's greatest paleontological sites. Combine that with the Thirtynine Mile volcanic center; an ancient lake, stream, and floodplain system; and a petrified redwood forest, and you have a location sure to excite the imagination and inspire minds, young and old, toward understanding and discovery. The Florissant area has drawn visitors and scientists for more than 130 years. Editors Herbert W. Meyer, Florissant Fossil Beds National Monument’s park paleontologist, and Dena M. Smith, the University of Colorado’s invertebrate paleontologist, explain that the "breadth of the papers in this volume not only illustrates the importance of Florissant, but shows how this site continues to contribute to our understanding of paleoecology, macroevolution, and taphonomy." Chapters in Paleontology of the Upper Eocene Florissant Formation, Colorado, cover * A detailed account of the history of fossil studies at the site, from the 1870s to today * Microbial mats and the remarkable preservation of fossils in lacustrine shale * Climate and ecosystem interactions and similarities with modern forests * Fossil spider identification by comparison to more than 200 spiders living today * Interactions between plants and insects in the fossil record * A summary of the site's mammalian fauna, including new occurrences of rodents and small herbivorous mammals * Examinations of the Petrified Forest, which preserves some of the largest-diameter fossilized trees in the world, along with conservation strategies * Efforts toward creation of a new database to inventory the fossils and synthesize data about their taxonomy. This volume is partially generated from a 2004 GSA Annual Meeting special topical session and field trip, and it reports many of the newest advances in our understanding of Florissant during the past decade. Individual copies may be purchased through the Geological Society of America online bookstore or by contacting GSA Sales and Service, Book editors of earth science journals/publications may request a review copy by contacting Jeanette Hammann, Paleontology of the Upper Eocene Florissant Formation, Colorado Herbert W. Meyer and Dena M. Smith (editors) Geological Society of America Special Paper 435 2008, 177 pages, US$60, GSA member price US$42

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About Site Map Contact Us |A service of the U.S. National Library of Medicine®| On this page: Reviewed August 2007 What is the official name of the IRGM gene? The official name of this gene is “immunity-related GTPase family, M.” IRGM is the gene's official symbol. The IRGM gene is also known by other names, listed below. Read more about gene names and symbols on the About page. What is the normal function of the IRGM gene? The IRGM gene provides instructions for making a protein that plays an important role in the immune system. This protein is involved in a process called autophagy, which cells use to surround and destroy foreign invaders such as bacteria and viruses. Specifically, the IRGM protein helps trigger autophagy in cells infected with certain kinds of bacteria (mycobacteria), including the type of bacteria that causes tuberculosis. In addition to protecting cells from infection, autophagy is used to recycle worn-out cell parts and break down certain proteins when they are no longer needed. This process also plays an important role in controlled cell death (apoptosis). How are changes in the IRGM gene related to health conditions? Where is the IRGM gene located? Cytogenetic Location: 5q33.1 Molecular Location on chromosome 5: base pairs 150,226,084 to 150,228,230 The IRGM gene is located on the long (q) arm of chromosome 5 at position 33.1. More precisely, the IRGM gene is located from base pair 150,226,084 to base pair 150,228,230 on chromosome 5. See How do geneticists indicate the location of a gene? in the Handbook. Where can I find additional information about IRGM? You and your healthcare professional may find the following resources about IRGM helpful. You may also be interested in these resources, which are designed for genetics professionals and researchers. What other names do people use for the IRGM gene or gene products? See How are genetic conditions and genes named? in the Handbook. Where can I find general information about genes? The Handbook provides basic information about genetics in clear language. These links provide additional genetics resources that may be useful. What glossary definitions help with understanding IRGM? You may find definitions for these and many other terms in the Genetics Home Reference Glossary. See also Understanding Medical Terminology. References (5 links) The resources on this site should not be used as a substitute for professional medical care or advice. Users seeking information about a personal genetic disease, syndrome, or condition should consult with a qualified healthcare professional. See How can I find a genetics professional in my area? in the Handbook.

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Delft University of Technology A Dutch design firm imagines floating cities as a response to climate change. The Dutch have long been known for innovative ways of managing water in flood-prone regions. So perhaps it is not surprising that designers in the Netherlands are envisioning floating cities that would make parts of low-lying nations habitable amid dramatically rising sea levels and storm surges linked to climate change. “Floating development cannot solve all issues, but it can be a means of expanding the spectrum of possible solutions,” said Rutger de Graaf, a founding partner of DeltaSync, a Delft-based design and research company that specializes in floating urbanization and that was spun-off from the Delft University of Technology. Mr. de Graaf said floating buildings would rise as the sea level rises, making them particularly suited to flooded population centers. Under DeltaSync’s plan for a floating city, large blocks of polystyrene foam connected by a frame of special, high-strength concrete would be used as floating devices, allowing the cities to be located in shallow waters. Dome-like structures would be linked to one another by floating pedestrian bridges. A floating highway would connect with existing cities. Last year, the International Energy Agency projected that the number of cars in China would grow seven-fold, to 270 million, by 2030. This year it adjusted that prediction to reflect a 20-fold increase. In one sense, this is a positive indication of rising standards of living, and an expanding middle class, unfolding across the developing world. At the same time, however, experts warn that to limit climate change, it will be crucial to get a handle on emissions growth associated with transport — particularly in developing countries. Last week, I wrote about bus rapid transit systems — essentially above-ground subway systems — as one method of achieving this. These so-called B.R.T. systems are being constructed in more than a dozen cities and, when done well, draw passengers out of their cars and off of polluting minibuses, reducing emissions by over 50 per cent in cities like Bogota. But there are many ideas on the table. While visiting India two years ago, Stef Van Dongen, director of Enviu, an environmental think tank in Rotterdam, had a different kind of inspiration: A low-emissions auto-rickshaw, or “tuk tuk” as they are known in Thailand.

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Better information alone doesn’t make a product green, but it does make it a lot easier to see just how green that product actually is. We can make more informed purchasing decisions when we know what’s in a product, not just manufacturer’s claims about what it’s “free-of”; and when we know the actual environmental impacts of manufacturing the product relative to alternatives, not just a trade association’s claim that it’s “green.” Making information public can also help manufacturers get greener. It’s often the manufacturers that are already greener that are willing to share more information in the first place, but in the process of doing so they see where they still need to improve. Products with Environmental Product Declarations are included here, along with products with other forms of disclosure, such as products from companies that participate in the Global Reporting Initiative, or provide full disclosure of ingredients, potentially via the Health Product Declaration format. GreenSpec also lists products that help track buildings' energy and water performance, especially when those tracking tools can be used to publicly display or report energy and water usage. With energy-consuming equipment, such as water heaters and refrigerators, we have good data on energy consumption and can set clear standards accordingly. In some product categories—clothes washers, for example—Energy Star standards were adopted because those standards provide a high enough threshold to represent just the very top segment of the product market (less than 10%). In other product categories—e.g., refrigerators and dishwashers—we set a higher threshold than ENERGY STAR: for example, exceeding those standards by 10% or 20%. With lighting and lighting control equipment, certain generic products qualify, such as compact fluorescent lamps and occupancy/daylighting controls, while in other categories only a subset of products qualify. In some cases, products that meet the energy efficiency requirements are excluded, because of evidence of poor performance or durability. Microturbines are included here because of the potential for cogeneration (combined heat and power) that they offer. The Energy Detective (TED) is a simple, inexpensive device for displaying real-time electricity use in a home or from a single circuit within a home. A transmitting device is installed in the home’s circuit breaker by clamping it onto the main incoming electrical leads, with data being transmitted to the receiver. More expensive models can monitor energy usage from up to four sources. Data can be viewed on a personal computer or mobile device, allowing load-shedding and graphing of historical electricity use, and most models can connect with Google's PowerMeter monitoring tool. An optional wireless display is available. Electrical metering and submetering equipment provide valuable diagnostic information and verification of building energy loads and usage, from plug loads to whole building energy systems. All but the most basic measurement and verification (M&V) systems submeter individual building systems, such as lighting, heating, and cooling. Especially in mixed-use buildings, submetering different areas of the building, such as office and laboratory space, can also provide useful information. Some products in this section are also specifically designed to be educational tools. EAc1: Optimize Energy Performance EAc2: Enhanced Commissioning EAc3: Enhanced Commissioning EAc3: Measurement and Verification EAc5: Measurement and Verification EAc5.1: Measurement and Verification—Base Building EAp1: Fundamental Commissioning of Building Energy Systems EAp1: Fundamental Commissioning of the Building Energy Systems EAp2: Minimum Energy Performance EAp2: Minimum Energy Efficiency Performance Ratings and Commentary

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Grade Range: 9-12 Resource Type(s): Lessons & Activities, Primary Source Date Posted: 8/18/2008 Gear and Lever voting, meant to ensure the confidentiality and efficiency of the election process, is the focus of this section of the Smithsonian’s National Museum of American History’s online exhibition entitled Vote: The Machinery of Democracy. Students will learn about the connection between the 19th Amendment, the suffrage movement and improved voting technology. Historical Thinking Standards (Grades 5-12) United States History Standards (Grades 5-12)

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2013-05-24T23:19:37Z

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en

Historical ideas of beauty are certainly as fascinating as our own and the curious habit of “patching” – applying a piece of fabric or leather to the face with glue – is one of those seemingly odd points of fashion that perhaps we as moderns should pay attention to. Patching became a habit, one might even say an addiction, for certain fashionable people in the era mentioned above. Some renowned belles and beaus patched whole sections of their face, neck and décolleté. In other instances, patches were used to signify political affiliation. Much like tattoos today, patches had multiple meanings and were not limited on some bodies to one here and there. Patches began as small lozenges made of black velvet, silk or leather that were glued to the skin of the face. Occasionally, the patch was a bright scarlet red. These were used as beauty enhancers on the stark white makeup that was made popular by Elizabeth I of . Known as ceruse, the makeup was manufactured from lead and could do damage not only to the skin but the whole body. Lesions and sores, as well as pimples, warts, moles and other “disfigurements” could be covered with the patches to achieve a seemingly perfect complexion. England As the fad for patching increased, particularly after the Restoration in England, patches themselves grew more and more fanciful in shape and even size. Along with lozenges, which grew large enough in some instances to cover half of one’s chin, horseshoes, crescent moons, stars and in very extreme cases silhouettes of a coach and four were popular. , where patches were often shaped like little bees in flight, critics began to call the things mouche meaning fly because they appeared to swarm on fashionable skins. There is, as usual with French speakers, a bit of an in joke to this dig; mouche a miel. “honey fly”, is the term for bee in French and mouche, like puce (flea) or chou (cabbage) was a term of affection. France Placement of the patches also became a language unto itself. As Downing points out a patch placed on a dimple in the chin or cheek, popular with dandies, was known as “gallant.” “Coquette” brought attention to a lovely smile while “passion” appeared at the corner of the eye. Later, during the reign of ’s Queen Anne and beyond, women patched to show their political opinions. From the Spectator of 1711: England Politically minded dames used their patches as party symbols: the Whigs patching on the right, and the Tories on the left side of their faces, while those who were neutral, decorated both cheeks. Certainly not far from modern tattooing or t-shirt designs as fashion that makes a statement goes. Even Samuel Pepys, the famous diarist who originally decried patching, came around in his entry of November 4, 1660 where he writes, “My wife seemed very pretty today, it being the first time I had given her leave to wear a black patch.” This response seems to have broken the dam for young Elizabeth Pepys, who the rest of her short life became an avid wearer of patches. A votre santé mes petite mouches ~ Header: A Lady Fastening Her Garter by Francois Boucher

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A new scientific study claims that women who dine out during lunch tend to lose less weight than those who stay at home. In a year-long study at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center in Seattle, researchers discovered a significantly different result in the weight among older overweight and obese women who kept "food journals" (recording what they ate, how much of it and how many calories) versus those who didn't. The women who participated were 50 to 75 years old, and were divided into two groups: diet only and exercise plus diet. Both groups lost an average of 10% their body weight. The study revealed that women who kept the journals lost 6 pounds more than those who didn't. Even more surprising is that women who skipped meals lost 8 pounds LESS than those who ate regularly. The study also determined that something as simple as avoiding restaurant meals, keeping a ‘food diary’ and ensuring you don’t skip meals were more effective than fancy diets when it comes to successful slimming. Dr Anne McTiernan, who led the study, explains: 'When it comes to weight loss, evidence from randomised, controlled trials comparing different diets finds that restricting total calories is more important than diet composition such as low-fat versus low-carbohydrate. 'Therefore, the specific aim of our study was to identify behaviours that supported the global goal of calorie reduction.' And of exercising, McTiernan said: "Exercise alone does not cause very much weight loss. Most studies have shown that with exercise alone you might be able to lose about two to three pounds over a year. What exercise does do is keep weight off-long term and it helps prevents loss of muscle." the first study among women of this age group that examined a range of weight-loss strategies and eating behaviors to see which worked and

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Exact Matching Concepts from Other Schemes - found: Work cat.: Ashman, A.F. Cognitive strategies for special education : process-based instruction, 1989. - found: Rowntree dict. educ. (Cognitive learning : Learning that emphasizes thought rather than feeling or movement ... involves the learning of concepts and principles) - notfound: ERIC thes.;Hennepin;Hills dict. educ. - 1988-08-15: new The LC Linked Data Service welcomes any suggestions you might have about terminology used for a given heading or concept. Would you like to suggest a change to this heading? Please provide your name, email, and your suggestion so that we can begin assessing any terminology changes. Fields denoted with an asterisk (*) are required.

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en

Introduction / History Over one million Tukulor live in West Africa. While most of them live in the nation of Senegal, another group can be found in Gambia, where they comprise about a small percentage of the population. The Tukulor are thought to have descended from the Fulani and the Wolof or Serer tribes. The name "Tukulor" is derived from the word Takrur, which is an Arabic term used to describe an eleventh century realm near the middle Senegal River Valley. Today, the Tukulor are known by a number of names, including Pulaar, Haal Pulaar, and Torobe. They have retained their respective languages, and many are also fluent in Arabic. Most of the Guinea Tukulor live a rural lifestyle, raising livestock, farming, and fishing. Sadly, a steadily rising population and an unequal distribution of land have resulted in the emigration of large numbers of Tukulor (particularly youth) to the cities in search of better job opportunities. What are their lives like? Traditional Tukulor society is divided into four main social classes, each having twelve "castes." Their social life is a mixture of native customs and Islamic traditions. Neither Islam, the effects of colonization, nor the goals of various national leaders have been able to erase the old social divisions. The torobe are the aristocratic class. The middle class, or rimbe, is made up of fishermen, farmers, tradesmen, and administrators. The middle class also includes the craftsmen, and the lower class includes the freed slaves and the slaves. Social status rarely changes; however, slaves are freed at every third generation. The Tukulor marry within their class divisions, women usually between the ages of 16 and 18, and men between the ages of 25 and 30. Although it is uncommon, a man may have up to four wives. Families are generally large, with an average of six children per family. Traditional, rural Tukulor villages are small. They have round huts made of clay or rough bricks, with straw roofs. Villages are governed by a group of elders from the aristocratic caste. Dietary staples include rice, millet, sorghum, fish, nuts, and fruit. The average per capita income is only $150 to $200 per year. Tukulor women often wear large, embedded pieces of wood in the soft lobes of their ears and have two small facial slits near the outside corners of both eyes. Although female genital mutilation is becoming increasingly illegal, over half of Tukulor girls from the ages of three to nine undergo this practice in order to be considered "clean" and worthy of marriage. What are their beliefs? The Tukulor first accepted Islam in the eleventh century. Traditional Muslim beliefs, such as the nature of man and his destiny after death, play a significant role in the people's outlook on life. Muslim brotherhoods teach a mystical approach to Islam: the people seek closer relationships to God through rituals, prayer, and other techniques. However, Islam has not brought any major changes to Tukulor attitudes toward spiritism and magic. The people still use charms, amulets, and witchcraft. The Tukulor attribute supernatural powers to various Muslim clerics who practice divination, the use of supernatural powers. What are their needs? Decreasing income from the sale of agricultural products, encroachment by the Sahara Desert on farm land, deforestation, and increasing population are resulting in extreme financial concerns for the Tukulor. Nearly all village water sources are polluted. Malaria and other infectious diseases inflict a heavy toll each year. Although there is some literacy among the aristocracy, most of the Tukulor are illiterate. Islam has enormous penetration into every aspect of Tukulor life. A somewhat isolated people with minimal exposure to other religious ideas, the Tukulor view the world and gain their personal identities from their rigid beliefs in the Islamic family and community. They are extremely reluctant to leave the world they know. * Ask the Lord to grant wisdom and favor to missions agencies currently focusing on the Tukulor. * Pray that the Holy Spirit will anoint the Gospel as it goes forth via radio among the Tukulor. * Ask God to give the small number of Tukulor believers boldness to share Christ with their own people. * Pray that God will reveal Himself to the Tukulor through dreams and visions. * Ask God to save key Tukulor leaders who will share the love of Jesus with their own people. * Ask God to raise up prayer teams who will break up the spiritual soil of Gambia through worship and intercession. * Pray that strong local churches will be raised up among the Tukulor.

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Social Capital and the Spiral of Silence For decades, social scientists have studied a community phenomenon often called the “spiral of silence” — a pattern in which individuals are reluctant to express opinions when they perceive that the majority does not support their views. Opinion becomes homogenous and dissent rare. Another parallel idea out of academia is the notion of “social capital,” defined by the scholar Robert Putnam as “features of social life — networks, norms, and trust — that enable participants to act together more effectively to pursue shared objectives.” A 2012 study published in the International Journal of Public Opinion Research, “Social Capital and the Spiral of Silence,” analyzed survey data from 319 registered voters of Guam to determine the likelihood that citizens with higher levels of social capital would be more inclined to publicly share their private opinions. The context for the survey was the U.S. military’s plan to increase its presence on the island of Guam. The researchers, from Cleveland State University, the University of Arizona, the University of Wisconsin-La Crosse and Shepherd University, wanted to test how the community might express disagreement with a policy that many of the island’s leaders had already endorsed. The study focused on three key indicators of social capital: the degree of trust among community members; the degree of “neighborliness” — the willingness to help others in need; and degrees of civic engagement, usually defined as membership in social groups and community activities. The study’s findings include: - Preexisting levels of “civic engagement had a direct effect on people’s willingness to express opinions” on the U.S. military’s desire to expand its presence on Guam. A high degree of civic engagement and the strong willingness to express one’s opinion did not depend on believing that the majority agreed. - “Civic engagement is more conducive to connecting people across social divides,” the researchers found. “Participating in civic activities such as community organizations and public meetings could enable people to meet and interact with those from different social and cultural backgrounds, and learn different ideas and perspectives that they may not regularly encounter in everyday life. This bridging quality of civic engagement, combined with its orientation to larger social goals, may enable people to overcome the expectation that others hold similar opinions to their own.” - Increased levels of trust and neighborliness were associated with a higher perception of support for one’s own opinions — in other words, people who had a high degree of trust and a willingness to help neighbors often assumed that others agreed with them. Based on such assumptions, individuals were more willing to express their own opinions. - This suggests that “strong neighborly ties and trust form the perception that others share one’s opinions because intimate social interaction and identification tend to stem from networks that rest on strong bonds among group members.” The study concludes that “individual-level social capital serves as a protective factor against the spiral of silence. Those with higher levels of individual-level social capital, as measured with our indicators, may be more likely to perceive that their opinions are held by the majority and more willing to express their opinions; those with low capital may be less likely to perceive that their opinions are held by the majority and less willing to express their opinions.” For a sense of how these dynamics play out in an online environment, see a related 2012 study, “The Spiral of Silence and the Internet,” also published in the International Journal of Public Opinion Research. Read the issue-related article titled "Bowling Alone: America's Declining Social Capital." - What key insights from the news article and the study in this lesson should reporters be aware of as they cover community issues? Read the full study titled "The Spiral of Silence and the Internet." - What are the study's key technical term(s)? Which ones need to be put into language a lay audience can understand? - Do the study’s authors put the research into context and show how they are advancing the state of knowledge about the subject? If so, what did the previous research indicate? - What is the study’s research method? If there are statistical results, how did the scholars arrive at them? - Evaluate the study's limitations. (For example, are there weaknesses in the study's data or research design?) - How could the findings be misreported or misinterpreted by a reporter? In other words, what are the difficulties in conveying the data accurately? Give an example of a faulty headline or story lead. Newswriting and digital reporting assignments - Write a lead, headline or nut graph based on the study. - Spend 60 minutes exploring the issue by accessing sources of information other than the study. Write a lead (or headline or nut graph) based on the study but informed by the new information. Does the new information significantly change what one would write based on the study alone? - Compose two Twitter messages of 140 characters or fewer accurately conveying the study’s findings to a general audience. Make sure to use appropriate hashtags. - Choose several key quotations from the study and show how they would be set up and used in a brief blog post. - Map out the structure for a 60-second video segment about the study. What combination of study findings and visual aids could be used? - Find pictures and graphics that might run with a story about the study. If appropriate, also find two related videos to embed in an online posting. Be sure to evaluate the credibility and appropriateness of any materials you would aggregate and repurpose. Class discussion questions - What is the study’s most important finding? - Would members of the public intuitively understand the study’s findings? If not, what would be the most effective way to relate them? - What kinds of knowledgeable sources you would interview to report the study in context? - How could the study be “localized” and shown to have community implications? - How might the study be explained through the stories of representative individuals? What kinds of people might a reporter feature to make such a story about the study come alive? - What sorts of stories might be generated out of secondary information or ideas discussed in the study?

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History of the Delta Launch Vehicle Frequently Asked Questions Programs and Links To Reach the High Frontier: A History of U.S. Launch Vehicles Many other excellent books about spaceflight are recommended here. Current NASA Programs launched by Delta rockets WIND (Delta 227) has far surpassed its five year design lifetime and continues to make detailed observations of the solar wind. Rossi X-Ray Timing Explorer (Delta 230) is providing scientists with a wealth of data on cosmic x-ray sources. Advanced Composition Explorer (Delta 247) is making continuous solar observations from the Earth-Sun L1 libration point, where it has sufficient propellant to maintain its orbit until approximately 2024. Landsat-7 (Delta 268) is the latest addition to the program, frequently referred to as "the central pillar of the national remote sensing capability," that has been continuously providing Earth images in visible and infrared wavelengths since 1972. 2001 Mars Odyssey (Delta 284), the third orbiter in NASA’s Mars Surveyor program, contains three primary science instruments that map the Martian surface in terms of mineralogy, morphology, and elemental composition, and measure the surface environment’s radiation levels. Mars Odyssey began science operations in February 2002. Its primary science mission ended in August 2004, but it continues to return spectacular images during its extended mission and in December 2010 it set the record for the longest-serving spacecraft at Mars. TIMED (Delta 289) is studying the uppermost layers of Earth’s atmosphere, and will provide a baseline global map of this region. TIMED is an acronym for Thermosphere Ionosphere Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics. Aqua (Delta 291) is carrying six state-of-the-art instruments to comprehensively study Earth’s water cycle, including "atmospheric temperature and humidity profiles, clouds, precipitation and radiative balance; terrestrial snow and sea ice; sea surface temperature and ocean productivity; [and] soil moisture." The Mars Exploration Rovers (Delta 298 and Delta 299) both far exceeded their design lifetime of 90 days, proved that at one time Mars was "soaking wet," and continue to send a wealth of imagery and scientific evidence. Spirit landed in Gusev Crater, 15 degrees south of Mars’ equator, on 4 January 2004; it finally gave up the ghost on 22 March 2010 after becoming mired in a sand pit. Opportunity landed at Meridiani Planum, about two degrees south of the equator and halfway around the planet from Gusev, on 25 January 2004; in 2011 it completed an audacious four-mile trek to Endeavour crater. Spitzer Space Telescope (Delta 300) is the last of the Great Observatories, a highly successful group that includes the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, the Chandra X-Ray Observatory, and the venerable Hubble Space Telescope. Known at launch as SIRTF (Space Infrared Telescope Facility), Spitzer is mapping the sky in the infrared spectrum with resolution and sensitivity far surpassing its predecessors, IRAS (Delta 166) and COBE (Delta 189). Aura (Delta 306), the third spacecraft in the Earth Observing System, carries a suite of instruments which will provide comprehensive data on atmospheric composition, chemistry and dynamics. MESSENGER (Delta 307) became the first spacecraft to orbit Mercury on 18 March 2011 and will map the entire planet from an altitude of as little as a couple hundred kilometers. MESSENGER is an acronym for MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry, and Ranging. Swift (Delta 309) is an Earth-orbiting observatory dedicated to the study of gamma-ray burst (GRB) science. As it detects new gamma-ray bursts, it "swiftly" relays their location to ground stations and then autonomously reorients itself to study the burst using its array of multi-wavelength telescopes. Swift discovers approximately 100 bursts per year. Deep Impact (Delta 311) intercepted comet Temple 1 on 4 July 2005, firing an 820-pound copper projectile with precision accuracy into the comet’s nucleus. The spacecraft survived its passage through the harsh environment of the coma; its extended mission, known as EPOXI took it past comet Hartley 2 on 4 November 2010. EPOXI’s mission will conclude at the end of 2011. CALIPSO (Delta 314), jointly operated by NASA and CNES (Centre National d’Études Spatiales) of France, is at work generating a global map of atmospheric aerosol particles. CALIPSO is an acronym for Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations. CloudSat (Delta 314) is studying the formation and function of clouds, answering some basic questions about how they generate rain and snow, to improve the science of climatology. STEREO (Delta 319) is the Solar TErrestrial RElations Observatory, a pair of satellites that are imaging the Sun’s eruptions and prominences in three dimensions by viewing it from separate positions in heliocentric orbit. THEMIS (Delta 323) is a constellation of five mini-satellites that examined the Earth’s magnetosphere and its interaction with the solar wind from various points along the magnetotail. THEMIS (Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions during Substorms) completed its primary mission in 2010, although three of its satellites continue to gather data. Meanwhile, the other two satellites have been repurposed as ARTEMIS (Acceleration, Reconnection, Turbulence and Electrodynamics of the Moon’s Interaction with the Sun) and arrived in lunar orbit in June–July 2011, where they will study the Moon’s interior and surface composition, as well as how the solar wind flows past it. Dawn (Delta 327) is on an eight-year asteroid tour, and arrived at asteroid Vesta on 16 July 2011. It is mapping the asteroid’s surface and providing data that could address the role of size and water in determining the evolution of the planets. After a nine-month stay Dawn will depart for asteroid Ceres, a six-month visit that is expected to occur in 2015. Dawn is using a xenon ion engine similar to that used on the highly successful Deep Space 1 mission, which launched aboard Delta 261 in 1998. The Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope (Delta 333), formerly known as GLAST (Gamma-ray Large Area Space Telescope), is an exploration of the cosmos in the gamma-ray spectrum. It will expand on the knowledge only hinted at by the complete sky survey of the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory. OSTM/Jason-2 (Delta 334) has completed its primary goals for the Ocean Surface Topography Mission and continues to provide data on sea surface height for climate forecasting research. Kepler (Delta 339) is the first mission specifically designed to hunt for terrestrial (i.e. Earth-sized) planets in our local region of the Milky Way galaxy. As of February 2011 it has found twenty confirmed planets ranging in size from roughly 1½ times Earth radius to 1½ times Jupiter radius. Aquarius (Delta 354) will measure sea surface salinity, an important facet of climate studies. The mission is a collaboration between NASA and Argentina’s Comisión Nacional de Actividades Espaciales. GRAIL (Delta 356) consists of a pair of satellites flying in precise formation to create the most accurate gravitational map of the Moon to date. Launched on 10 September 2011, the spacecraft will take a four-month circuitous route past the Earth-Sun L1 libration point, arriving at the Moon on the cusp of New Year’s, 2012. Other linksUnited Launch Alliance, a joint venture of The Boeing Company and Lockheed Martin Corporation, markets and launches the Delta II. Pratt & Whitney acquired Rocketdyne in 2005 and produces the Delta II main engine, RS-27A. Aerojet builds the highly reliable Delta second stage engine, the AJ10-118K. ATK produces the GEM-40 booster motors used on Delta II and the GEM-46 motors developed for Delta III and now used on Delta II-Heavy. Since its aquisition of Thiokol in 2001, ATK has also built the Star 48B and Star 37FM solid motors used as Delta II third stages. Visits since 04-Dec-97

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Maya — who has type 1 diabetes — started feeling tired and sluggish all the time, but her blood sugar levels were in a healthy range, so her mom thought she was OK. She didn't realize that another problem could be causing the fatigue until medical tests revealed that Maya had a thyroid problem. Maya's situation isn't uncommon — kids and teens with type 1 diabetes have a greater risk for certain other health problems, many of which also are autoimmune disorders. Although their diabetes health care teams will monitor kids for signs of these problems, parents also should know what to watch for so that they can alert doctors and seek treatment, if necessary. About Autoimmune Disorders In autoimmune disorders, the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's healthy tissues as though they were foreign invaders. A severe attack can get interfere with the function of that body part. Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease in which the pancreas can't make insulin because the immune system attacks it and destroys the cells that produce insulin. Kids and teens with type 1 diabetes are at risk for other autoimmune problems, but these disorders are not actually caused by the diabetes. Doctors still aren't exactly sure why autoimmune diseases occur, but genetic factors probably play an important role because relatives of people with type 1 diabetes are more likely to have autoimmune diseases. Most kids with type 1 diabetes never need treatment for any other autoimmune disorder. But those who do might develop: These disorders, which aren't caused by problems with blood sugar control, can develop before a child is diagnosed with type 1 diabetes or months or years after the diabetes diagnosis. Kids and teens with type 1 diabetes are more likely to get disorders affecting the thyroid, a gland located behind the skin and muscles at the front of the neck, just at the spot where a bow tie would rest. The thyroid, which is part of the endocrine system, makes hormones that help control metabolism and growth. These hormones play a role in bone development, puberty, and many other body functions. Thyroid disease is fairly common in people with type 1 diabetes, affecting 15% to 20% of them. Thyroid disease can cause the thyroid gland to make too much thyroid hormone (hyperthyroidism) or too little hormone (hypothyroidism). Both hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism can be accompanied by an enlarged thyroid gland, also called a goiter, though it's not always apparent. Hyperthyroidism can cause nervousness, irritability, increased perspiration, intolerance to heat, fatigue, difficulty sleeping, a fast heartbeat, irregular menstrual periods in girls, and muscle weakness. People with this problem might lose weight even though they're eating more than usual. The eyes may feel irritated or look like they're staring. Sometimes the tissues around the eyes become inflamed and swollen, and the eyes appear to bulge out. Someone with mild hypothyroidism may feel just fine, and in fact, might have no symptoms at all. However, symptoms can become more obvious if the condition worsens. People with underactive thyroids might feel depressed and sluggish, may gain weight even though they're not eating more or getting less exercise than usual. Kids with hypothyroidism also might have slow growth in height, slow sexual development, irregular menstrual periods in girls, muscle weakness, dry skin, hair loss, poor memory, and difficulty concentrating. To check for thyroid disorders, the doctor may ask about symptoms and feel your child's neck for an enlargement of the thyroid gland or order blood tests. Kids with thyroid problems might be prescribed medication to bring their thyroid hormone levels back to normal. Celiac disease is another autoimmune disorder that's more likely to occur in people with type 1 diabetes, affecting about 1 in 20. It interferes with the intestine's ability to tolerate the protein gluten, which is found in grains like wheat and barley. When kids with celiac disease eat foods containing gluten, their immune systems react to it, causing gastrointestinal symptoms. Over time, exposure to gluten damages the small intestine and prevents it from properly absorbing nutrients from food. Some people have no symptoms, but others may have frequent diarrhea, abdominal pain, gas, bloating, weight or appetite loss, or fatigue. Some kids and teens with celiac disease have growth problems because they aren't getting enough nutrients. If not treated, celiac disease can lead to hypoglycemia, osteoporosis (a disease that causes brittle, fragile bones), and certain types of cancer. If your child has type 1 diabetes, your doctor may do a blood test to check for celiac disease, even if there are no symptoms. If the doctor suspects celiac disease, your child might undergo a small-bowel biopsy (the removal of a piece of tissue from the small intestine for examination) to confirm the diagnosis. Kids and teens who have celiac disease must follow a gluten-free diet (no wheat, rye, and barley products). They'll still need to eat a balanced diet to stay healthy and maintain good control of blood sugar levels, though, so the doctor may recommend that you meet with a registered dietitian to learn about choosing and preparing gluten-free foods. Addison's disease, a type of adrenal insufficiency, is an autoimmune disease that affects the adrenal glands of the endocrine system. These glands, located just above the kidneys, produce hormones, including cortisol and aldosterone, that help control many body functions, particularly those related to its response to stress. They affect blood pressure, fluid balance, heart function, the immune system, the body's response to insulin, metabolism, and a person's sense of alertness and well-being. If someone has Addison's disease, the adrenal glands don't produce enough cortisol and also might not produce enough aldosterone. Signs and symptoms of Addison's disease start slowly. These can include fatigue, muscle weakness, appetite loss, or weight loss. Some people experience nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, dizziness and low blood pressure, skin discoloration (especially in skin creases, like the elbows), irritability, depression, or irregular periods. For about 1 in 4 people with Addison's disease, symptoms don't appear until they're triggered by a stressful event, such as illness or an accident. These symptoms can be more severe and come on suddenly. This is called an addisonian crisis, or acute adrenal insufficiency. If this happens to your child, it's important to get medical help immediately. When doctors suspect Addison's disease, they'll run tests, including urine and blood tests, to diagnose it. The condition is treated with medication to bring adrenal hormone levels back to normal. What You Can Do Although you can't prevent these health problems related to type 1 diabetes, the good news is that thyroid disorders, celiac disease, and Addison's disease can all be treated successfully most of the time. Knowing which signs and symptoms to watch for and making sure your child gets regular checkups and the tests recommended by your doctor will help reduce or prevent the effects of these disorders.

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What Other Parents Are Reading Ectopic means "out of place." In a normal pregnancy, the fertilized egg implants and develops in the uterus. In most ectopic pregnancies, the egg settles in the fallopian tubes. This is why ectopic pregnancies are commonly called "tubal pregnancies." The egg can also implant in the ovary, abdomen, or the cervix, so you also might see these referred to as cervical or abdominal pregnancies. None of these areas has as much space or nurturing tissue as a uterus for a pregnancy to develop. As the fetus grows, it will eventually burst the organ that contains it. This can cause severe bleeding and endanger the mother's life. A classical ectopic pregnancy does not develop into a live birth. Signs and Symptoms Ectopic pregnancy can be difficult to diagnose because symptoms often mirror those of a normal early pregnancy. These can include missed periods, breast tenderness, nausea, vomiting, fatigue, or frequent urination. The first warning signs of an ectopic pregnancy are often pain or vaginal bleeding. There might be pain in the pelvis, abdomen, or, even the shoulder or neck (if blood from a ruptured ectopic pregnancy builds up and irritates certain nerves). The pain can be mild or crampy early on, and can become sharp and stabbing. It may concentrate on one side of the pelvis. Any of these additional symptoms can be seen with an ectopic pregnancy: - vaginal spotting - dizziness or fainting (caused by blood loss) - low blood pressure (also caused by blood loss) - lower back pain What Causes an Ectopic Pregnancy? An ectopic pregnancy results from a fertilized egg's inability to work its way quickly enough down the fallopian tube into the uterus. An infection or inflammation of the tube might have partially or entirely blocked it. Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), which can be caused by gonorrhea or chlamydia, is a common cause of blockage of the fallopian tube. Endometriosis (when cells from the lining of the uterus implant and grow elsewhere in the body) or scar tissue from previous abdominal or fallopian surgeries can also cause blockages. More rarely, birth defects or abnormal growths can alter the shape of the tube and disrupt the egg's progress. If you arrive in the emergency department complaining of abdominal pain, you'll likely be given a urine pregnancy test. Although these tests aren't sophisticated, they are fast — and speed can be crucial in treating ectopic pregnancy. If you already know you're pregnant, or if the urine test comes back positive, you may have a quantitative hCG test. This blood test measures levels of the hormone human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), which is produced by the placenta. You may also have an ultrasound to look for a developing fetus in the uterus or elsewhere. Early in pregnancy, the ultrasound may be done using a wand-like device in your vagina. The doctor might give you a pelvic exam to locate the areas causing pain; to check for an enlarged, pregnant uterus; or to find any masses outside of the uterus. Even with the best equipment, it's hard to see a pregnancy less than 5 weeks after the last menstrual period. If your doctor can't diagnose ectopic pregnancy but can't rule it out, he or she may ask you to return every few days for blood work and an ultrasound until it is clear whether or not there is an ectopic pregnancy. Options for Treatment Treatment of an ectopic pregnancy varies, depending on how medically stable the woman is and the size and location of the pregnancy. An early ectopic pregnancy can sometimes be treated with an injection of methotrexate, which stops the growth of the embryo. If the pregnancy is farther along, you'll likely need surgery to remove the abnormal pregnancy. In the past, this was a major operation, requiring a large incision across the pelvic area, and this can still be necessary in cases of emergency or extensive internal injury. But sometimes ectopic tissue can be removed using laparoscopy, a less invasive surgical procedure. The surgeon makes small incisions in the lower abdomen and then inserts a tiny video camera and instruments through these incisions. The image from the camera is shown on a screen in the operating room, allowing the surgeon to see what's going on inside of your body without making large incisions. The ectopic tissue is then surgically removed and any damaged organs are repaired or removed. Whatever your treatment, the doctor will want to see you regularly afterward to make sure your hCG levels return to zero. This may take several weeks. An elevated hCG could mean that some ectopic tissue was missed. This tissue may have to be removed using methotrexate or additional surgery. What About Future Pregnancies? Many women who have had an ectopic pregnancy will go on to have normal pregnancies in the future, but some will have difficulty becoming pregnant again. This difficulty is more common in women who also had fertility problems before the ectopic pregnancy. Your prognosis depends on your fertility before the ectopic pregnancy, as well as the extent of any damage incurred. The likelihood of a repeat ectopic pregnancy increases with each subsequent ectopic pregnancy. Once you have had one ectopic pregnancy, you face an approximate 15% chance of having another. Who's at Risk for an Ectopic Pregnancy? While any woman can have an ectopic pregnancy, the risk is higher for women who are over 35 and those who have had: - a previous ectopic pregnancy - surgery on a fallopian tube - infertility problems or medication to stimulate ovulation Some birth control methods also can affect a woman's risk of ectopic pregnancy. Those who become pregnant while using an intrauterine device (IUD) might be more likely to have an ectopic pregnancy. Smoking and having multiple sexual partners also increase the risk of an ectopic pregnancy. When to Call Your Doctor If you believe you're at risk for an ectopic pregnancy, meet with your doctor to discuss your options before you become pregnant. You can help protect yourself against a future ectopic pregnancy by not smoking and by always using condoms when you're having sex but not trying to get pregnant. Condoms can protect against sexually transmitted infections (STDs) that can cause PID. If you are pregnant and have any concerns about the pregnancy being ectopic, talk to your doctor — it's important to make sure it's detected early. You and your doctor might want to plan on checking your hormone levels or scheduling an early ultrasound to ensure that your pregnancy is developing normally. Call your doctor immediately if you're pregnant and experiencing any pain, bleeding, or other symptoms of ectopic pregnancy. When it comes to detecting an ectopic pregnancy, the sooner it is found, the better. Share this page using: Note: All information on KidsHealth® is for educational purposes only. For specific medical advice, diagnoses, and treatment, consult your doctor. © 1995- The Nemours Foundation. All rights reserved.

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Alzheimer's Disease and Caregiving Three out of four people with Alzheimer's disease will end up in a nursing home unless better systems of community care and support are built in states. Even without robust systems, today, nearly 15 million caregivers provide care valued at $202 billion. Download the Excel Version of the Table: "Persons with Alzheimer’s Disease and the Burden of Caregivers" Alzheimer’s disease—a progressive and fatal condition in which cells in certain parts of the brain are destroyed—creates severe problems in memory, judgment, ability to organize simple tasks and even speech. The most common form of irreversible dementia, Alzheimer’s has no cure or even disease-modifying treatment. Most people survive an average of four to eight years after an Alzheimer’s diagnosis, but some live as long as 20 years.5 This prolonged duration often places increasingly intensive demands on family members and friends who provide care, which can take a deep physical and financial toll. Nearly 15 million caregivers provide an estimated 17 billion hours of care each year for individuals with Alzheimer’s disease. The Alzheimer’s Association estimates the economic value of that care in 2010 totaled more than $202 billion.6 Caregiver health can be compromised: Many caregivers of people with Alzheimer’s experience poor health, multiplying the overall cost of the disease. Stress is well-documented as a health risk for chronic disease, and 61 percent of caregivers for people with Alzheimer’s or other dementia rate the emotional stress of caregiving as high or very high.7 Public health data from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System show that caregivers of people with Alzheimer’s and dementia are more than twice as likely as caregivers of people without these conditions to say the greatest difficulty associated with caregiving is that it creates or aggravates health problems.8 State policymakers can provide relief to family caregivers and reduce state Medicaid expenses by providing both direct and indirect support to Alzheimer’s caregivers. Several states have adopted programs that touch individuals and families directly. States also can become involved in planning and other activities that develop the infrastructure to support caregivers. Help Alzheimer’s caregivers locate and arrange care. In 2009, the North Dakota legislature passed the Dementia Care Services Act (House Bill 1043) to provide resources, care planning assistance and support to caregivers across the state. The intent of the act was to create a mechanism to help families navigate between health and social services and to more effectively utilize community services, including from the private sector. The law calls for a study of the impact on nursing home long-term care costs under Medicaid and health cost outcomes of the intervention. The Center for Rural Health is conducting the evaluation and recently published its first preliminary findings. (Available at http://ruralhealth.und.edu/pdf/alzheimerspolicybrief1210.pdf.) Those findings indicate that families who participated in the Dementia Care Services Project had a “reduced intention for placement of persons with dementia in nursing homes.”18 Additional results will be released later this year. Participate in the federal Alzheimer’s Disease Supportive Services Program. This program provides federal funding to states to expand the availability of community-level supportive services for individuals with Alzheimer’s disease and their caregivers. It funds both proven methods to deliver services as well as innovative ideas; it also supports efforts to translate evidence-based models into community-wide programs. Thirty-four states, the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico currently receive funds. More information on the Alzheimer’s Disease Supportive Services Program is available at http://www.aoa.gov/AoARoot/AoA_Programs/HCLTC/Alz_Grants/index.aspx. Promote use of evidence-based programs as part of home- and community-based services. A number of demonstration projects have shown positive impacts on caregiver and care recipient health and on reducing health care costs. For example, when spouse caregivers of someone with Alzheimer’s participated in a counseling program developed at New York University, the rate of nursing home placement dropped nearly 30 percent, with an average overall delay in placement of more than a year and a half.19 Counseling programs can be easily translated to community settings, and states can integrate them into home- and community-based services funded by Medicaid and state aging programs. Examples of such programs—many of which were initially funded through the ADSSP—are available at http://www.aoa.gov/AoARoot/AoA_Programs/HCLTC/Alz_Grants/compendium.aspx Shift priorities under the National Family Caregiver Support Program, which is implemented by state units on aging. This program offers a range of services to support family caregivers of older Americans. Under this program, states provide five types of services: (1) information to caregivers about available services; (2) assistance to caregivers in gaining access to the services; (3) individual counseling, organization of support groups and caregiver training; (4) respite care; and (5) supplemental services, on a limited basis. The most recent data available suggest that a majority of the funds are spent on information and assistance activities, with significantly less spent on individual counseling and caregiver training. Redirecting funds to place a greater emphasis on counseling, training and respite care would allow persons with Alzheimer’s disease to remain in community settings longer.In addition, the National Family Caregiver Support Program specifically allows Alzheimer’s and dementia caregivers to qualify for services even if the individual with the disease is under age 60. Very little data exists, however, as to whether services are reaching this younger-onset population. Lawmakers could request data to ascertain the extent of participation by this group of Alzheimer’s caregivers. Expand respite services and adult day care. Almost all states offer some form of respite care and/or adult day services through a Medicaid waiver program. By tying these programs to Medicaid, however, states are reaching primarily the caregivers of the frailest and oldest individuals with Alzheimer’s disease—those whose nursing home placement may be imminent. This reduces any potential benefit that such services provide in delaying institutionalized care and thus saving Medicaid dollars. States could expand eligibility for respite services and adult day care to include individuals who are not Medicaid-eligible but with such services may be able to significantly delay placement in long-term care facilities. The Affordable Care Act provides states new options to expand respite services and adult day care. Improve Medicaid home- and community-based services by providing assessment of caregiver health and needs. As states—for both budgetary and quality-of-life reasons—move more Medicaid-supported care to home and community settings, the needs of caregivers cannot be forgotten. Without willing and able family caregivers, many Medicaid home- and community-based care plans simply cannot be implemented. A family caregiver assessment can help identify a caregiver’s support needs and connect them with needed supports. Some programs focus assessment solely on the person with care needs, but assessing the caregiver’s health, willingness to provide care, and training and support needs would identify strategies and resources to enable caregivers to better care for themselves and the person for whom they are caring. Support transportation services for caregivers and individuals with Alzheimer’s disease, and eliminate barriers for those with younger-onset Alzheimer’s—those under age 65—to utilize these services. Mobility is essential for caregivers and care recipients to access health care services and daily essentials such as grocery shopping. While many local transportation systems are accessible to seniors and the disabled in general, they often are not fully capable of meeting the particular needs of those with dementia. Furthermore, access can be especially difficult for individuals under age 60 with younger-onset Alzheimer’s disease because of statutory or regulatory restrictions that make only older individuals eligible for alternative transportation services. - Create a state Alzheimer’s disease plan: More than 30 states have published or are in the process of writing a state Alzheimer’s disease plan—a comprehensive blueprint to deal with the growing numbers of citizens with Alzheimer’s disease. State Alzheimer’s disease plans include strategies for improved caregiver support. Published state plans can be found at http://www.alz.org/join_the_cause_state_plans.asp. - Conduct caregiving surveillance through the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System. Surveillance is a proven public health technique to develop data that can pinpoint problems, identify where resources are needed most and evaluate long-term results of interventions. Each state and territory public health department conducts an annual surveillance survey, known as the BRFSS. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has developed a series of 10 questions on caregiving to more fully assess the needs and health of caregivers that can be added to the annual survey. Since 2009, 16 states have added these questions to their BRFSS surveys, providing important planning data for service providers. Encourage existing caregiver support programs to add health promotion and wellness activities. Explicit messaging and outreach to caregivers regarding healthy lifestyles and wellness (e.g. maintaining a healthy body weight, regular physical activity, and tobacco cessation) can be a little- or no-cost initiative that improves the health and well-being of caregivers and reduces overall health care spending. Engage caregivers to provide direct feedback in shaping programs. Pennsylvania and New York have considered developing family Caregiving Councils as a way of recognizing the vital role played by family caregivers and to give them a voice in policymaking. Many states also are developing coalitions to explore and plan respite programs, such as the Lifespan respite approach funded by the federal Administration on Aging (see http://archrespite.org/lifespan-programs), which could be a model for increasing participation. |Alzheimers.pdf||974.94 KB||201||4 weeks 5 days ago| |Alzheimers.xls||37.5 KB||191||3 weeks 2 days ago|

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G. I. Bill of Rights The GI Bill of Rights transformed America. The Serviceman’s Readjustment Act of 1944, more popularly known as the G. I. Bill of Rights was introduced in Congress in January 1944, and President Franklin Roosevelt signed it into law on June 22, 1944. The G. I. Bill provided books, tuition, and a monthly stipend for veterans who enrolled in colleges and universities. More than 2 million veterans attended college on the G.I. Bill, and it is estimated that, in 1947, veterans accounted for 49 percent of college students. Another 5 million veterans attended vocational schools or participated in on-the-job training opportunities funded through the G. I. Bill. The unemployment pay included in the G.I. Bill was known as 52/20 Club, which provided a payment of $20 dollars a week for up to 52 weeks while veterans looked for jobs following their discharge. Another important provision of the G.I. Bill was low interest, zero down payment home loans for servicemen. This enabled millions of American families to move out of urban apartments and into suburban homes. Harry Colmery of Topeka was a member of the American Legion’s national legislative committee before, during, and after WWII. Between World War I and World War II, he worked to change regulations to allow veterans to be treated at Veteran’s Hospitals for non-service related illnesses and to allow for the expansions of the veteran’s hospital system. During WWII, he was involved in the debate of how to assist the millions of veterans that would be returning to the work force at the end of the war. Many feared a return to the Great Depression with men and women who had served their country joining the ranks of the unemployed after they were discharged. These members of the American Legion worked for the passage of the G. I. Bill Historians believe that the benefits of the G. I. Bill changed the nature of American society in the years following WWII. Enrollment at colleges and universities increased dramatically, allowing millions of veterans to receive professional training and thus increase their earning potential. Suburbs were built to accommodate the boom in post war home building spurred by the G. I. Bill’s home loan provisions. The American Legion insisted that the provisions of the bill were also available to African-Americans and women. In essence, the middle class of the United States expanded with home ownership and college education for veterans and their children becoming the standard. Subsequent versions of bills to benefit veterans were based on the first highly successful version. Entry: G. I. Bill of Rights Author: Kansas Historical Society Author information: The Kansas Historical Society is a state agency charged with actively safeguarding and sharing the state's history. Date Created: February 2011 Date Modified: March 2013 The author of this article is solely responsible for its content.

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Sri Lanka, formerly Ceylon island republic, is an island in the Indian Ocean and located south of the Indian subcontinent. It measures 435 km (270 miles) in length and 225 km (140 miles) in width at its broadest point, a total land area of 65,600 sq.km. (25,000 sq.miles). This entire stretch encompasses beautiful tropical beaches, a blend of tropical splendor, verdant vegetation, and ancient ruins that testifies to great civilizations of ages past. The climate of Sri Lanka is typically tropical with an average temperature of 27C°. The mercury often drops in the mountains to 16C°. The four seasons do not exist in Sri Lanka. Mainly an agricultural country, the chief crop of Sri Lanka is rice. Tea, rubber and coconut are also important agricultural crops, with tea being a major foreign exchange earner. Other crops of importance are cocoa and spices. Sri Lanka is also a major exporter of precious and semi-precious stones. In the last three decades tourism has emerged as an important industry.

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Note: This lesson was originally published on an older version of The Learning Network; the link to the related Times article will take you to a page on the old site. Teaching ideas based on New York Times content. Overview of Lesson Plan: In this lesson, students work in small groups to investigate the similarities and differences between organic and conventional agricultural practices. Students coordinate and present their findings to the class. Students assimilate their knowledge by composing reflective essays. Eric J. Miller, The New York Times Learning Network Suggested Time Allowance: 45 minutes – 1 hour 1. Brainstorm possible theories that explain a fact presented on the board. 2. Examine the implementation of organic farming research on rice fields in China by reading and discussing, “Simple Method Found to Vastly Increase Crop Yields.” 3. Research the basic components of both conventional and organic agricultural methods. 4. Work in groups to organize and present their research findings to the class. 5. Compose reflective essays discussing the global implications of this research. Resources / Materials: –student journals or lab notebooks –copies of “Simple Method Found to Vastly Increase Crop Yields” (one per student) –large poster paper (optional) –computers with Internet access Activities / Procedures: 1. WARM-UP/DO-NOW: Students respond to the following in their journals (written on the board prior to class): “Thousands of rice farmers in China have doubled the yields of their most valuable crop and nearly eliminated its most devastating disease. Describe your theories about what might have happened to cause this radical shift in farming yields.” After five to ten minutes, students share and discuss their responses. Record and discuss all student ideas on the board. Students may suggest ideas such as biogenetically engineered rice seeds or development of a new pesticide. Explain to the class that they will read a related article that explains the techniques employed by these rice farmers. 2. As a class, read and discuss “Simple Method Found to Vastly Increase Crop Yields,” focusing on the following questions: a. What enabled farmers to make this radical change in their rice production? b. Why do the results of this research excite scientists? c. Why weren’t diversified plantings put into practice more in the past? d. How does this study relate to and support current research on biodiversity? e. What is known about rice blast fungus? f. What was the hypothesis of the researchers? g. How did scientists and farmers implement the experiment (what did they do)? h. What observations did the farmers and researchers make about how the two varieties of rice grew together? i. What are some of the challenges of using this kind of organic farming technique? 3. Explain that the class will be exploring in depth the components of both organic and conventional agricultural methods. Divide the class in half. Assign one half of the class to the broad topic of conventional agriculture and the other half of the class to the broad topic of organic agriculture. Within each half of the class, students form small groups of 3 or 4 and investigate a specific component or subtopic of the agricultural system to which they were previously assigned. Students will work in small groups to research their assigned subtopic. Groups will later share their findings for development of two “half-class” presentations on organic and conventional farming methods. Groups should be formed in each half of the class for the following research sub-topics: –crop management (rotation, companion planting, crop variety, etc.) –maintaining soil fertility –rate/quantity of production Using computers with Internet access, small groups explore the role their subtopic plays in either organic or conventional farming. Groups should be sure to address the challenges and benefits related to their subtopic (both for growers and consumers). When research is complete, two half-class groups convene to share information and coordinate two presentations on organic and conventional agriculture. Where applicable, students should create posters to illustrate processes, represent data graphically, etc. Students present their findings at a future class. Following the presentations, conduct a class discussion on the similarities and differences between conventional and organic farming methods. Students compose short one-two page essays discussing the global implications of the rice research in China. Students may address issues such as hunger, crop production, trade, global economies, etc. Students should address the pros and cons of the research results. Further Questions for Discussion: –What is your opinion about the use of pesticides on the foods you eat? –Do you think that organic farming has mass market potential or will it remain a more expensive specialty item? –Have you ever eaten organic food or products? –What world ecosystems have been threatened by a loss of biodiversity? –Do you think natural or organic practices can provide solutions to all agricultural problems? Why or why not? Evaluation / Assessment: Students will be evaluated based on written journal responses, participation in class discussions, cooperative participation in group research and presentations, and well planned and executed reflective essays. implemented, fungicides, suppression, arsenal, biodiversity, monocultures, garnered, organic, indoctrinated 1. Visit the Cornell Web site database about the Rice Blast Fungus (http://ascus.cit.cornell.edu/blastdb/). Prepare a presentation about this fungus. Where does it come from? What conditions contribute to its spreading? Does the fungus affect other crops? What are the known methods of controlling the fungus? What impact does the fungus have on agriculture? 2. Find out more about the organic method of companion planting. How are different varieties of plants, flowers, and herbs used to maintain balance in the growing environment? What plants are used to encourage beneficial insects and organisms? What plants grow better when grown next to or near other plants? What plants are inhibiting companion plants’ growth when planted nearby? 3. In a future class, debate the strengths and weaknesses of conventional vs. organic farming methods. Take on different roles (organic farmer, conventional farmer, integrated-approaches farmer, supplier, food processor/manufacturer, and consumer) as you conduct your debate. 4. Develop your own plant growing experiment. Using the scientific method presented in the feature article, develop a companion planting experiment that you could perform indoors or outdoors (if space is available). Develop a hypothesis, list of materials, procedures, observations, and data analysis/conclusion upon finishing your experiment. Be sure to set up control groups as explained in the featured article to help clarify and justify your findings. Civics- Examine the recent public debate over determining United States national organic standards by the US Department of Agriculture. What concerns were presented by the public over the initial draft proposal? How did the legal definition finally end up being written? Did any groups still have concerns about the final definition? What are the advantages and disadvantages of having a national standard definition of “organic”? Global History- Compare traditional agricultural methods across a variety of world cultures. Explore similarities and differences between groups. In what ways do plant diversity and companion planting fit into these different styles of agriculture? A starting place could be the Iroquois Native American’s practice of growing “the three sisters” (corn, beans, and squash) together in the field. How did such ideas develop? What cultural beliefs surrounded traditional farming practices? What techniques are still used today in either conventional or organic farming? -Research an ecosystem that has been significantly impacted by the loss of its biodiversity. What caused the loss of diversity? How has this loss impacted the system and/or related systems? What changes need to occur to remedy this situation? Health- Research the impact of pesticides on the environment. How are people and the environment affected by pesticide application onto crops? Can pesticides be used in a safe manner? What would happen if all pesticides were banned? Technology- Learn more about genetically engineered crops. What are the pros and cons to the use of such technology? What concerns do some people have about the growing of genetically engineered crops? How do scientists and industry leaders respond to such concerns? Other Information on the Web: Rice Blast DB (http://ascus.cit.cornell.edu/blastdb/) is a database for the rice blast fungus, Magnaporthe grisea. Academic Content Standards: Science Standard 4- Knows about the diversity and unity that characterize life. Benchmark: Knows that animals and plants have a great variety of body plans and internal structures that serve specific functions for survival (CTSS – ‘science’, ’6-8’, ’4’) Science Standard 7- Understands how species depend on one another and on the environment for survival. Benchmarks: Knows how an organism’s ability to regulate its internal environment enables the organism to obtain and use resources, grow, reproduce, and maintain stable internal conditions while living in a constantly changing external environment; Knows ways in which species interact and depend on one another in an ecosystem (CTSS – ‘science’, ’6-8’, ’7’) Science Standard 16- Understands the scientific enterprise. Benchmarks: Understands ethics associated with scientific study; Knows ways in which science and society influence one another (CTSS – ‘science’, ’6-8’, ’16’) Geography Standard 16- Understands the changes that occur in the meaning, use, distribution and importance of resources. Benchmarks: Understands the reasons for conflicting viewpoints regarding how resources should be used; Knows strategies for wise management and use of renewable, flow, and nonrenewable resources; Knows world patterns of resource distribution and utilization; Understands the consequences of the use of resources in the contemporary world (CTSS – ‘social’, ’6-8’, ‘geo5’) Geography Standard 18- Understands global development and environmental issues. Benchmarks: Understands how the interaction between physical and human systems affects current conditions on Earth; Understands the possible impact that present conditions and patterns of consumption, production and population growth might have on the future spatial organization of Earth (CTSS – ‘social’, ’6-8’, ‘geo6’) Technology Standard 3- Understands the relationships among science, technology, society, and the individual. Benchmarks: Knows that science cannot answer all questions and technology cannot solve all human problems or meet all human needs; Knows ways in which technology has influenced the course of history; Knows that technology and science are reciprocal; Knows ways in which technology and society influence one another Science Standard 4- Knows about the diversity and unity that characterize life. Benchmarks: Knows how variation of organisms within a species increases the chance of survival of the species, and how the great diversity of species on Earth increases the chance of survival of life in the event of major global changes (CTSS – ‘science’, ’9-12’, ’4’) Science Standard 7- Understands how species depend on one another and on the environment for survival. Benchmarks: Knows how the interrelationships and interdependencies among organisms generate stable ecosystems that fluctuate around a state of rough equilibrium for hundreds or thousands of years; Knows ways in which humans can modify ecosystems and cause irreversible effects (CTSS – ‘science’, ’9-12’, ’7’) Science Standard 16- Understands the scientific enterprise. Benchmark: Knows that science and technology are essential social enterprises, but alone they can only indicate what can happen, not what should happen (CTSS – ‘science’, ’9-12’, ’16’) Geography Standard 8- Understands the characteristics of ecosystems on Earth’s surface. Benchmarks: Understands how relationships between soil, climate, and plant and animal life affect the distribution of ecosystems; Knows ecosystems in terms of their biodiversity and productivity; Knows the effects of both physical and human changes in ecosystems (CTSS – ‘social’, ’9-12’, ‘geo3’) Geography Standard 16- Understands the changes that occur in the meaning, use, distribution and importance of resources. Benchmarks: Understands the relationships between resources an exploration, colonization, and settlement of different regions of the world; Understands programs and positions related to the use of resources on a local to global scale (CTSS – ‘social’, ’9-12’, ‘geo5’) Geography Standard 18- Understands global development and environmental issues. Benchmarks: Understands the concept of sustainable development and its effects in a variety of situations; Understands contemporary issues in terms of Earth’s physical and human systems (CTSS – ‘social’, ’9-12’, ‘geo6’) Technology Standard 3- Understands the relationships among science, technology, society, and the individual. Benchmarks: Knows that science and technology are pursued for different purposes; Knows ways in which social and economic forces influence which technologies will be developed and used; Knows that alternatives, risks, costs, and benefits must be considered when deciding on proposals to introduce new technologies or to curtail existing ones; Knows examples of advanced and emerging technologies and how they could impact society

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http://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/2000/08/22/the-cream-of-the-crop/

2013-05-24T23:41:02Z

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A tsunami is not just one giant wave, but a group of waves with an extremely long wavelength and period. These waves begin by dispersing energy from displaced water outwards. Near the source of energy, a tsunami can have wavelengths greater than 300 miles long with periods as long as an hour. Typically, the wavelength and period increase proportionally to the depth of the water. One period is the time between two waves. Due to the great length of the waves, tsunamis behave as shallow water waves, meaning the ratio between the water depth and wavelength is very small. In deep water, tsunamis are capable of traveling at very high speed. The acceleration of a tsunami is the product of the acceleration of gravity multiplied and the water depth. A tsunami in the Pacific Ocean can travel at speeds up to 450 mph, over half the speed of sound. As the waves approach the shore, the depth gradually decreases, decelerating the tsunami. However, due to the conservation of energy, the waves are forced to grow taller until reaching heights between 30 and 100 feet. Some of the energy is lost to friction and turbulence, but the waves still have a significant amount of energy and can reach many feet inland.

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2013-05-24T23:27:03Z

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The Joy of Spontaneous Expression Children need to stop worrying about what they do. The pressure of doing it right can take over and prevent them from being creative. Parents and teachers should support children in finding their own way naturally by listening inside themselves. When they are not told how to do something and are not asked to follow ready-made tracks, they find inspiration spontaneously and learn to listen to their intuition. There is never a call for a model or a path to follow. Each creation is born out of children's needs and is unique in its expression. Creativity is experienced as pure play, and with that the joy and desire to create can bloom. "I don't know how to paint a person!'" cried Margaret, a worried, cute nine-year-old in a long brown dress covered with a multicolored apron. "Oh! I am glad you don't know how!" I exclaimed. "Then you can invent! Make it completely yours. I keep the paintings here in the closet like a secret. You can play and invent your own without worrying about people criticizing them, and you can give your images any size, any shape, and any color. You can paint, not to copy things as they look but to reinvent them and have fun doing it. You can make a person any way you want. Okay?" I asked, looking in her doubting eyes. "I love painting people myself," I added. "I paint the arms as long as I want and the head any shape I want. Once I even painted a square one . . ." She laughed then. That's all that was needed: a sense of play about painting, not a sense of work or accomplishment. "I want to paint a skyscraper but I don't know how to do it!" complained Victor, a robust nine-year-old boy who always filled his pockets with gadgets. He seemed quite restless; he must have had a difficult day at school. "You can be your own architect! These days architects build all kinds of buildings. Some are even made with tires or beer cans, all sorts of sizes and shapes, and some are very strange. I am sure you must have seen some unusual ones. Why don't you invent your own? You are the creator of your building and are allowed to do anything you want. It's fun to follow your fantasy," I told him with excitement. He looked back at me with dull eyes. "You can construct your own building. Can you imagine a special one?" I insisted. I had to talk to him for a few more minutes before he was willing to try. Victor painted the most amazing modern-shaped building. Built on green posts, it had a round solarium station on top. Alien ships were circling around it. Victor was grinning with satisfaction, He had found a way to enter his own world where there was no need for help and where nothing was missing. I was glad he didn't force himself to paint what he first thought he should do: a stereotypical building that had nothing to do with his present dream. It is very revealing to witness children being afraid to explore on their own. It points to the fact that we have made our children dependent by constantly showing them and telling them how to proceed. In certain activities, like math or science, it is a necessary step, but it is very important to offer them at least one activity in which they can fend for themselves and find their way, an activity in which they can invent, express, and create freely. If we don't give them that option, they may become afraid or hesitant to experiment, and their creative spirit may fade away. Their only other choice would be to copy, repeat, or follow instructions, but never to trust the immense possibilities of creation. More on: Crafts for Kids From Kids Play: Igniting Children's Creativity by Michele Cassou. Copyright © 2004 by Michele Casso. Used by arrangement with Penguin Group (USA) Inc. If you'd like to buy this book, visitAmazon.

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http://life.familyeducation.com/creativity/painting/35837.html

2013-05-24T23:49:01Z

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The lower portion of the canine urinary tract is comprised of the bladder and urethra. The upper portion consists of the kidneys and ureters, a pair of thick-walled tubes that carry urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder. The prostate gland encircles the urethra in males. The entire system barring the urethra is normally sterile, but pathogens from the environment enter into the urethra, the duct through which urine is discharged in most mammals. Certain breeds of dogs are more prone to develop urinary tract infections. In addition, proximity to human populations has lead to a situation where dogs have become more susceptible to common human ailments like UTIs. In fact, urinary tract infection in dogs is far more common than it is in humans. Urinary tract infections usually occur at a single site - the bladder, ureters, kidneys, urethra, or the prostate glands-- but it can affect more than one site at the same time. Common signs of a UTI in puppies and adult dogs include the amount, color, frequency, and odor of urine. These are generally enough to suspect the prevalence of a urinary infection in dogs. Further confirmation is provided by a physical examination and palpation of the bladder. Complete diagnosis, however, must include a laboratory examination and a urine culture to check prevalence of pus and blood to identify the disease- causing bacterium, and to rule out or confirm co-occurrence of any underlying disease. Treatment of UTIs involves the use of antimicrobials to control bacterial growth, with therapy lasting until the time the dog's own bodily defense is strong enough to prevent further colonization of the pathogen. Effective drugs are usually metabolized by the kidneys and passed off through urine, requiring high and prolonged drug concentration of the antimicrobials to achieve desired results. Upper tract infections affect the kidneys. Instances of scarring or inflammation of the kidney by a bacterial infection or the presence of calculi requires a different approach to treatment. If the prostate gland in males has been infected as well, it can cause canine incontinence. The same principal applies to feline urinary incontinence, too. These issues can be addressed with prostatitis medication. Antibiotics work quickly and provide quick relief from symptoms. The full course of antibiotic therapy prescribed for treatment should be completed to avoid recurrence of canine urinary tract infections, as chronic UTI treatment can cause direct as well as indirect problems for the dog. Frequent infections would more often than not lead to infections of distant organs in the body if the bacteria travel through the blood stream. In addition, regular administration of antibiotics causes overall weakening of the immune system, which could be an invitation to other diseases.

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http://m.nativeremedies.com/petalive/articles/treating-canine-uti.html?mobile=1

2013-05-24T23:47:55Z

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TEPCO considers dumping water from Fukushima nuclear plant into ocean Tokyo Electric Power Co. (TEPCO) has started to consider dumping massive amounts of water from the crippled Fukushima No. 1 Nuclear Power Plant into the Pacific Ocean after treating the radiation-tainted water. The utility is considering taking the measure because space on the premises of the nuclear power station for storage tanks for contaminated water is nearing its limit. Before releasing the contaminated water into the ocean, TEPCO plans to introduce new purification equipment to remove radioactive substances from the contaminated water as early as the end of March and conduct a test operation. But with the local fisheries industry standing firmly against any move to release the water into the ocean, the situation remains far from resolved. At an expert meeting of the Nuclear Regulation Authority (NRA) held in Tokyo on March 1, a TEPCO official commented on how to deal with the ever-increasing contaminated water, saying, "We will treat it with new purification equipment. If we were to release the water into the ocean, we would like to obtain the understanding of the people concerned." Responding to this, Prime Minister Shinzo Abe told a plenary session of the House of Representatives on March 5, "The water will not be released into the ocean easily." There is about 360,000 cubic meters of contaminated water on the premises of the Fukushima No. 1 Nuclear Power Plant. Of the total volume of the water, about 80,000 cubic meters is in reactor buildings at the No. 1 to No. 4 reactors and about 40,000 cubic meters is in other reactor buildings and elsewhere, leaving storage tanks that can hold only about 240,000 cubic meters available. TEPCO is currently using cesium absorption equipment to remove radioactive substances such as cesium from the contaminated water. The utility then separates it into pure water and condensed salt water, and reuses the pure water to cool molten fuel and store the condensed salt water in tanks. There is apparently an influx of about 400 cubic meters of groundwater per day beneath the reactor buildings, but the influx routes have not been confirmed. TEPCO plans to build more storage tanks by September 2015 to boost the capacity to a total of 700,000 cubic meters. But space on the premises of the plant for such storage tanks is nearing its limit. Furthermore, the condensed salt water in storage tanks and the pure water to be used as coolant still contain not only cesium but also many other radioactive substances such as strontium. A senior NRA official voiced concern, saying, "There is always a danger of radioactive substances being released from storage tanks into the general environment." Problems have emerged one after another, hampering efforts to decommission the nuclear power station. This led TEPCO Managing Director Akio Komori to declare the need to consider the release of water into the ocean as an option. Hoping to make the option a reality, the utility introduced a water purification system called "ALPS." On Feb. 21, an NRA expert panel endorsed TEPCO's plan to conduct a test run on ALPS, saying, "The risk involved in the problem of contaminated water can be reduced by introducing ALPS." TEPCO plans to test the new system soon. However, while the new system is capable of removing a total of 62 of the 63 radioactive substances so far detected, it cannot remove radioactive tritium for technical reasons. The concentration of tritium contained in contaminated water and other areas is about 1,300 becquerels per 1 cubic centimeter, exceeding the government-imposed limit of 60 becquerels per 1 cubic centimeter. Therefore, the NRA demanded TEPCO store condensed salt water on the premises of the nuclear plant even after treating it using ALPS. University of Tokyo professor Satoru Tanaka, who is knowledgeable on tritium, said, "Tritium removal equipment is operating in Canada, but a huge device is needed to remove the substance from such a large amount of contaminated water as that from the Fukushima plant. It is unrealistic. Even if the water were to be released into the ocean, it would have to be diluted to push the levels of tritium below the prescribed standard." On how to treat the tritium, TEPCO said, "It is under consideration at present." Shoichi Abe, a senior official of the Soma Futaba fisheries association, angrily said, "Even if tritium is diluted, it cannot be removed 100 percent. If it is released into the ocean, consumers will look at Fukushima's seas with suspicion." On April 2, 2011 -- shortly after the outbreak of the nuclear disaster -- highly radioactive water that leaked from the No. 2 reactor flowed into the ocean. Shortly after that, TEPCO intentionally released low-level radioactive water into the ocean without consulting with local residents in advance. Because of this, the fisheries industry was forced to stop operations to catch fish temporarily in waters off Fukushima. The issue of releasing the contaminated water into the ocean has emerged at a time when the local fisheries industry has just begun to rebuild itself. Therefore, the Fukushima Prefectural Federation of Fisheries Cooperative Associations has been urging TEPCO to pledge never to release contaminated water into the ocean. March 06, 2013(Mainichi Japan)

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http://mainichi.jp/english/english/newsselect/news/20130306p2a00m0na019000c.html

2013-05-24T23:19:46Z

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Totally offtopic but cool. Rehmi Post is just wrapping up his PhD. Among other things, he teaches a three month class to new students, titled “how to fabricate (almost) anything”. Students start with using CAD packages, then he takes them through fabrication of parts using machine tools, how to design circuit boards, and — literally — just about anything, up to and including MEMS, microelectromechanical machines etched out of silicon wafers using the same lithography techniques as microprocessors. “One thing we’ve learned in the course of this study is that the fabrication tools currently available all suck,” he says. Which is why he and some other researchers are working on the Fab Lab. The goal is to build a toolkit that can be sold for under $10,000 (£6500) and that contains everything you need in order to make almost anything. “We want to take arts and crafts to a level where people can do their own prototyping, build their own radios, oscilloscopes, or computers, and do it on the cheap with full support in tools and hardware.” He’s not kidding. The Fab Lab — personal fabrication — includes a CAD workstation, a modified vinyl cutter able to carve circuit boards, a computer-controlled milling machine, an FPGA programmer, and may eventually include a 3D printer and other machine tools. One important element they’re working on is a library of electronic components, royalty-free, than the system can be used to handle various tasks. Using FPGA (field programmable gate array) chips means the system can contain sophisticated electronics — FPGAs are designed to be reconfigured at the hardware level to emulate arbitrary circuits, all the way up to an ARM processor. The Fab Lab team are trying to develop a system comprehensive enough that any one Fab Lab can be used to build copies of itself, and they’re looking at a hardware design strategy akin to the GPL (GNU General Public License) — spin offs such as Project Pengachu give a feel for how they’re thinking these tools can be used. ” — article by Charlie Stross on MIT Media lab according to http://fab.cba.mit.edu/info.html, a fab lab currently costs about $30k; i’m assuming it’s not self-machinable yet.

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http://neurodudes.com/2006/02/13/offtopic-fab-labs/

2013-05-24T23:40:35Z

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Zoology / Animals Remote Access (CLP Card) A virtual trip to the zoo for elementary school-aged children, with interactive information on over 1,200 animals. Carnegie Museum of Natural History Learn all about animals, including dinosaurs, in Pittsburgh's museum. Pittsburgh Zoo and PPG Aquarium Click on "wildlife" to look up an animal at the zoo. On this website you can learn about the endangered Indiana bat and other bats that live in Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission This state agency has many publications on wildlife in Pennsylvania Pennsylvania Herpetological Atlas Project See what kinds of snakes and turtles live in Pennsylvania. Websites - Encyclopedias & Directories The Animal Diversity Web A collection of pictures and information about animals from the University of Michigan. It includes descriptions of many phyla, orders, and families. Accounts of individual species include information on distributions, natural history, conservation, and economic importance. Some pictures may not display offsite due to copyright restrictions. eNature Field Guides Check out these field guides online! Amphibians & reptiles, birds, mammals & fishes; insects, butterflies, & spiders; seashells & seashore creatures. Endangered Species Program Information from the US Fish & Wildlife Service on endangered species of the United States. Compare the number of endangered species for Pennsylvania (17) with those of California (292) and Hawaii (317)! National Geographic: Animals Colorful feature articles on a variety of animals from around the world. Learn about North American plants and animals and how the natural world works from this New Hampshire Public Television TV series for students. Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History: North American Mammals This is an online database of the mammals of North America. You can search the database or find the mammals that are found in your area. It allows you to compile and print out a field guide in .pdf format of mammals that you select. Tree of Life If you are looking for information on a specific animal, try this site where animals are arranged according to an evolutionary tree. In addition to having descriptions of many species, the site also links to web resources on that species. From David R. Maddison and Wayne P. Maddison at the University of Arizona, Tucson. World Wildlife Fund: Species Learn about the most endangered species around the world. This Cornell University Laboratory of Ornithology site offers a new bird each week, along with a wav file of its song. Project Feeder Watch Help out by counting birds at your feeder. - Project Feeder Watch Australian Museum: Fish Information on hundreds of fish species (find a fish). The Horseshoe Crab Information about this ancient marine species that is still common along the eastern coast. Rhino Information: International Rhinoceros Fund Information on the current status and threats to each species.

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http://[email protected]/research/scitech/biology/zoology.html

2013-05-24T23:47:59Z

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The ACLU is challenging same gender education programs in public school systems stating it deprives equal educational opportunities. Under this program, same-sex classrooms are learning the same subject matter but the environment is different. For example, an all-boy third grade class chose camping as a room theme while the third grade all-girl class chose under the sea. Lunch and recess are not separated. Those in favor of this teaching environment claim it allows teachers to use learning styles best suited for each gender while still covering the same lessons. Children enter grade school with gender stereotypes already formed. Girls are learning the same material as the boys. Diane Halpern, a former president of the American Psychological Association, co-authored a review of studies on single sex education and found there was no benefit to segregation of the sexes. The National Association for Single Sex Public Education, an advocacy group, estimates there are now 500 public school systems with same gender education class rooms. These schools also allow parents to opt for a mixed gender class room. Boys and girls learn differently. Is segregated class rooms the future for public schools? If education is currently middle of the road in teaching techniques, then both sexes are not receiving the best education possible. By forcing mix gender class rooms, is the ACLU depriving equal educational opportunities? Photo Source: Flickr

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2013-05-24T23:47:55Z

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Diagnostic Tests / 2D Echo Two-Dimensional Echocardiography can provide excellent images of the heart, paracardiac structures, and the great vessels. During a standard echo, the sound waves are directed to the heart from a small hand-held device called a transducer, which sends and receives signals. Heart walls and valves reflect part of the sound waves back to the transducer to produce pictures of the heart. These images appear in black and white and in color on a TV screen. They're selectively recorded on videotape and special paper, and reviewed and interpreted by a cardiologist (heart specialist). From the pictures it is possible to measure the size of each part of your heart, to study motion and appearance of the valves and the function of the heart muscle. Our physician will use the measurements to determine how your heart is working and whether or not any abnormalities are present. A Doppler echo is often done at the same time in order to determine how the blood flows in your heart. The swishing sounds you hear during the test indicate blood flowing through the valves and chambers.

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2013-05-24T23:21:37Z

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Each student has the responsibility to develop good work and study habits. The student should clarify with the teacher any questions pertaining to the instruction for homework at the appropriate time. The student should take home any materials and information needed to complete assignments. The student should learn to budget his/her time. The student should take advantage of study time provided during the day. It is the student’s responsibility to return all work completed to the teacher by the date requested. Students are required to make up work missed during absence. 1. Be prayerful: Share in daily devotions and prayer time. The Lord desires to meet your needs and answer your prayers. 2. Be prepared: Bring necessary items and assignments to class everyday 3. Be respectful: Treat others like you want to be treated. 4. Be obedient: Follow each teacher’s classroom rules and guidelines. Always be in your classroom before the bell rings or you will be marked tardy. 5. Be thankful: The Lord has given us so much. Be thankful for His provisions for you each day 1. Set aside a specific time to do assignments. 2. Choose a quiet, private place free from excessive noise, interruptions, and other distractions. 3. The study area should be well lighted and well equipped with pencils, pens, paper, ruler, dictionary, etc. 4. Organize. Successful study depends on an efficient use of time, which requires organization. Use a student assignment book to help organize your work. 5. Student assignment books are designed to help students develop organizational skills. An organized student will do better in school. It is important to use this book daily—carry an assignment book to all classes. 6. Carefully check the completed assignments. 1. Come to class prepared. Students who need to go to their lockers or forget work at home can slow down the entire class. It is important for student to have their books, pens and pencils, homework, and other materials with them when they come to class. 2. Be on time. Out of respect for your teachers and other students, arrive for class on time. Teachers lose valuable teaching time if students come to class five or ten minutes after the bell has rung. Promptness is important. 3. Try. Students should make an effort to do every assignment to the best of their ability. However, effort and results are not always equal. 4. Show respect for others. Respect others in authority and respect your peers. 5. Listen to the teacher. Listening is an important part of learning.

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http://parkchristianschool.org/index.php?id=40

2013-05-24T23:12:47Z

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Lesson Media Objects Cellular Absorption of Herbicides Singer-Nicholson’s Fluid Mosaic Model describes that all biological membranes are made up of lipids containing fatty acid tails and proteins, arranged as a lipid bilayer (Figure 2). This bilayer is oriented such that the tails are in the center of the membrane layer and the heads face the outer edges of the membrane. The tails are hydrophobic, or highly soluble in organic solvents, but not in water. In contrast, the tails are hydrophilic. The lipid bilayer keeps all the cell’s contents (i.e. organelles, cytoplasm) contained, and also allows for movement of molecules into and out of the cell. In healthy, intact membranes, hydrophobic or non-polar solutes penetrate through the membrane to the cytoplasm at rates positively related to their relative lipid solubility or lipophilicity (lipophilicity will be discussed in detail later). Conversely, hydrophilic molecules (highly soluble in water) and ions penetrate cell membranes at rates inversely related to their size. However, membrane integrity is reduced when cells are not active and metabolizing, causing membrane permeability to solutes to increase. Various aspects of herbicide transport across membranes will each be addressed next. These include passive absorption, ion trapping of weak acids and active absorption. Be the first to write a comment...

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2013-05-24T23:21:09Z

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A grid of small arteries at the surface of the brain redirects flow and widens at critical points to restore blood supply to tissue starved of nutrients and oxygen following a stroke, a study published this week has found. "This is optimistic news," said David Kleinfeld, a physics professor at the University of California, San Diego, whose group studies blood flow in animal models of stroke. Damage from stroke can continue for hours or even days as compromised brain tissue surrounding the core injury succumbs to deprivation of oxygen and nutrients. "This is the area doctors are trying to protect after a stroke," said Andy Shih, a postdoctoral fellow in Kleinfeld's group who conducted the experiments. "Those neurons are teetering on the edge of death and survival." Previous work with animal models had found that blood flow can persistently slow in the aftermath of a stroke, which would hinder the delivery of drugs that might help recovery. But those studies only measured the speed of the blood. By measuring both the speed of blood cells moving through individual small arteries and the diameters of the same vessels, the scientists found that the arteries dilate to maintain a constant delivery of blood cells. "You find that the velocity has gone down, but that the diameter—on average—exactly compensates," Kleinfeld said. Patrick Drew and Philbert Tsai in Kleinfeld's group, and Beth Friedman and Patrick Lyden, MD, of the neuroscience department at UC San Diego's School of Medicine co-authored the paper. Lyden, whose contributions to a 1995 study proved that the drug tPA can reverse the course of stroke when administered promptly, also directs the UC San Diego Stroke Center. The Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism published their new finding online January 28. Key to this resilience, it seems, is the structure of the vascular network overlying the brain. "Vessels on the surface of the brain have a mesh-like architecture," Kleinfeld said. "One consequence of that is that it operates like a grid system that redistributes "current flow as you need it." "City traffic freezes a lot less than you would think because once a street gets bogged down, you can move over to another street," he said. "This seems to be what happens on the surface of the brain." Flows through the surface vessels reversed and stalled, as previously observed, but those changes helped to redistribute blood to ensure a steady supply though vessels that penetrate into the brain. Shih focused his measurements on small arteries, called arterioles, at the point where they dive into the brain to supply a discrete patch of the cortex, a juncture that is vulnerable to occlusions that can cause microstrokes this group's previous work has found. "These are extremely important. A single penetrating arteriole will feed a column of tissue," Shih said. "These are bottlenecks in flow." The penetrating vessels neither reversed nor stalled, even though many connected to loops and bridges in the vascular network that could have allowed that to happen. Even when the pressure dropped permanently as a result of stroke damage, wider lanes allowed the network to deliver red blood cells at the same rate. "Diameter is the major determinant to how blood actually flows through vessels. Open up a blood vessel a little bit and you'll have a huge change in the amount of blood that goes through," Shih said. "Blood flow comes back, and it seems that these vessels are very resistant to the stroke. They function quite normally." Source: University of California - San Diego Explore further: Study reveals new mechanism for estrogen suppression of liver lipid synthesis

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Simple Compound Complex Sentences Worksheets Four Types of Sentences There are four basic types of sentences: 1) simple ; 2) compound; 3) complex ; and 4) compound-complex-1-A simple sentence consists of a core--subject, verb, object (sometimes) or complement (sometimes)--and modifying phrases (for example, prepositional phrases used as ... (subordinate clause modifies set ) Identifying Simple, Compound, and Complex Sentences. ... \9-TLC\TLC Web Design\Handouts Worksheets\Grammar.Punctuation.Writing\Sentence-Complex.doc 1. Simple, Compound, Complex Sentences in newspapers, like sentences everywhere, can be simple, compound or complex. ASIMPLE SENTENCE has a subject and a predicate, ... Name: _____ Types of Sentences Read each sentence and add the correct punctuation mark(s). Then, write statement ... Sara ate a slice of pizza for lunch . statement Super Teacher Worksheets ... TYPES OF SENTENCES: SIMPLE, COMPOUND, COMPLEX, and COMPOUND-COMPLEX A simple sentence consists of an independent clause, so it contains a subject and a verb . S4W.Tests.G7G. Level G Lesson 8 Name _____ Tests for Elements of Language Simple Sentences and Compound Sentences Decide whether each item is a simple sentence, a compound sentence, or a fragment. All sentences are labeled in one of the following four ways: ... Label each sentence as simple (S), compound (CD), complex (CX), or compoundcomplex (CD-CX) ... The Writing Center ■ Valle Verde ■ Tutorial Support Services ■ EPCC KINDS OF SENTENCES Simple Sentences Compound Sentences Complex Sentences Compound-Complex Sentences SENTENCE PATTERNS A simple sentence has one independent clause . SIMPLE, COMPOUND, and COMPLEX SENTENCES SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES. SIMPLE, COMPOUND, and COMPLEX SENTENCES Sentence Type What do they do? Examples When should I use it? The second paragraph contains a mixture of simple, compound, and complex sentences that makes the writing more interesting. A simple sentence has one independent clause. Other sites you could try: Find videos related to Simple Compound Complex Sentences Worksheets

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Children who experience chronic, complex trauma are vulnerable to a host of behavioral and educational problems, yet educators often feel frustrated with their attempts to respond. Natalie Turner, M.S., L.M.H.C., of Washington State University says schools have alternatives to punishing "bad" behavior by children affected by trauma. Credit: Aaron Levin Frequently those problems are treated—ineffectively—as disciplinary issues, but a more helpful way of dealing with them might involve some eye-opening training for teachers, said Natalie Turner, M.S., L.M.H.C., program director at the Area Health Education Center for Eastern Washington at Washington State University in "Too often educators focus on punishing these children, when what is needed is accountability balanced with empathy," said Turner at the National Association for Rural Mental Health annual meeting in Albuquerque in Complex trauma is pervasive, episodic trauma that persists over time and often co-occurs with poverty, family violence, substance abuse, or community violence, said Turner. "These children grow up in an unsafe, chaotic, unpredictable world where they see things as threatening even when they are not, because that is what their experience has taught them." Constant stress induced by complex trauma appears to cause changes in the brain, leading to difficulties with motor skills, language, social behavior, "It's hard for them to stay in their seats, to listen, and to process and retain information," she said. It also takes time and perhaps some teacher retraining so that the children can be helped to overcome those Although many of these children will not develop problems, the ones who do are often punished in the expectation that it will change their behavior. The child may respond to a teacher's request for quiet or control by looking away, putting his or her head down on the desk, or simply ignoring the teacher. This may result in the child's being sent to the principal's office for punishment for acting "disrespectful," the leading reason for The behavior can resemble symptoms for ADHD, anxiety, or bipolar disorder, and children are eventually so diagnosed, often because it is the only way they can get treatment, said Turner. "Teachers personalize this behavior, although 99 percent of the time it has nothing to do with them," said Turner. This behavior is a response to the trauma laying unseen by the teacher in a child's home or The teacher's reaction makes things only worse. It publicly shames the students, removes them from the learning setting in class, and doesn't change their behavior. Even though the process rarely works, educators continue to do what they've always done because they haven't developed alternatives. Counseling or medications may help many of these children, but more might be done to lessen the apparent conflict in the classroom before it Changing both students' and educators' behavior isn't easy. "Teachers may need more child-development training," she said." They don't need to know if a child is traumatized; they just need to be It can take a long time to create a sense of safety in the classroom and rebuild lost attachment. Teachers have to play a consistent, safe, and predictable role over a long period, building relationships that may not exist elsewhere in the children's lives. Students need help with skills to regulate their emotional responses and cope in healthy ways with threatening "All children have the potential to overcome adversity," she Parents need support, too. Many have grown up in households where they were traumatized and so may need help breaking the cycle that is harming their Turner and her colleagues have begun pilot programs in Washington state using a model that calls for restructuring the classroom and professional environments and helping teachers recognize, understand, and control their own responses to children's behavior without having to send them to the principal's office. They also have commitments from four school superintendents to try out the program in a clinical trial randomized on the building level. ▪

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http://psychnews.psychiatryonline.org/newsArticle.aspx?articleid=112775

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Individual differences | Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology | Photoperiodism is the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night. Photoperiodism can also be defined as the developmental responses of organisms to the relative lengths of the light and dark periods. Here it should be emphasized that photoperiodic effects relate directly to the timing of both the light and dark periods. Ethology and parts of the day Daylength, and thus knowledge of the season of the year, is vital to many animals. A number of biological and behavioural changes are dependent on this knowledge. Together with temperature changes, photoperiod provokes changes in the colour of fur and feathers, migration, entry into hibernation, sexual behaviour, and even the resizing of sexual organs. Birds', such as the canary, singing frequency depends on the photoperiod. In the spring when the photoperiod increases (more daylight), the male canary's testes grow. As the testes grow, more androgens are secreted and song frequency increases. During autumn when the photoperiod decreases (less daylight), the male canary's testes regress and androgen levels dramatically drop resulting in decreased singing frequency. Not only is singing frequency dependent on the photoperiod but also song repertoire. The long photoperiod of spring results in a greater song repertoire. Autumn's shorter photoperiod results in a reduction in song repertoire. These behavioral photoperiod changes in male canaries are caused by changes in the song center of the brain. As the photoperiod increases so does the high vocal center (HVC) and the robust nucleus of the archistriatum (RA). When the photoperiod decreases these areas of the brain regress. In mammals daylength is registered in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), which is informed by retinal light-sensitive ganglion cells, which are not involved in vision. The information travels through the retinohypothalamic tract (RHT). Some mammals are highly seasonal while humans' seasonality is largely evolutionary baggage. - D.E. Fosket, Plant Growth & Development, A Molecular Approach. Academic Press, San Diego, 1994, p. 495. - B. Thomas and D. Vince-Prue, Photoperiodism in plants (2nd ed). Academic Press, 1997. |This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).|

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CISRA Puzzle Competition 2007 - Solutions This is the archive of the 2007 Puzzle Competition. Please visit the current competition site for information about the latest Puzzle Competition. Intuitive leap: When the missing letters are filled in, each column forms three words: a three-letter word, a four-letter word, and a five-letter word. We need to find five-letter words in each column such that the last four letters and last three letters of each five-letter word are also words. Some words which fit in each column are: An anagramming program may help to find these words. (Note that other more obscure words are possible, if using an unabridged dictionary.) The first letters of each five-letter word form the following: The only word matching this pattern is the solution: SABOTAGE

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Adult Identity Mentoring (Project AIM) - Overview of the Curriculum - Unique Features of the Curriculum - Theoretical Framework - Ordering and Training Information - Evaluation Fact Sheet Overview of the Curriculum Project AIM is a group-level youth development intervention designed to reduce HIV risk behaviors among middle school youth. Core elements must be maintained without alteration to ensure program effectiveness. Project AIM core elements include: - Engage youth in thinking about a positive possible future self. - Look ahead to the future as successful adults. - Envision a positive future self. - Set goals and plans to achieve a positive future as an adult. - Articulate the specific details of a positive future self. - Engage youth in present actions to achieve future success. - Develop skills to achieve effective communication. - Identify their strengths and the resources needed for future success. - Experience success to reinforce youths' positive future selves. - Encourage youth to safeguard the future through risk reduction. - Develop strategies to safeguard the likelihood of a positive future self through risk reduction and a balance of their future possible positive and negative selves. Project AIM consists of ten 50-minute sessions delivered to groups of 10 to 20 youth. The intervention is divided into four parts. - Unit 1: Legacy, Role Models, and Peers (three sessions). Uses group discussions and interactive activities to encourage youth to explore their personal interests, social surroundings, and what they want to become as an adult. Youth also identify people in their lives who may be barriers or supporters to their successful adulthood. Young adults from the community who are on their road to success are invited to speak with youth. - Unit 2: Self-Projection: Expanding Visions of Possible Selves (two sessions). Youth envision themselves in a future career and connect current behavior with success as an adult through activities such as completing a career interest inventory, developing business cards and resumes, and participating in interviews. - Unit 3: Self-Expression Through Work: Development of Possible Self (two sessions). Engages youth in role-plays around communication and small group activities involving planning and decision-making. - Unit 4: Skills of Fulfilling Positive Future Possible Selves (three sessions). Provides the opportunity for youth to think about their future in terms of milestones to accomplish goals and overcome potential obstacles they may encounter in life. Unique Features of the Curriculum Replicating Effective Programs (REP) is a CDC-initiated project that identifies HIV/AIDS prevention interventions with demonstrated evidence of efficacy. REP supports the original researchers in developing a user-friendly package of materials designed for prevention providers. Project AIM is one the REP interventions and is the product of extensive collaboration among researchers, educators, providers, community agencies, and youth. Project AIM has been field tested in two community-based settings, including a church setting, by non-research staff with African American and Latino youth. Therefore, this intervention package is appropriate for implementation in community settings by agency staff serving African American and Latino youth. With minor adaptation, the intervention package also may be appropriate for youth of other races or ethnicities living in low-income neighborhoods. Project AIM is based on the Theory of Possible Selves, which proposes that individuals are motivated in their present life by mental images of possible future selves, and that a person’s motivation is determined by a balance of positive and negative ways people see themselves in the future. Individuals who are able to imagine both possible positive and negative futures are more likely to work toward their life goals and achieve future success. Project AIM seeks to help adolescents develop positive images of their future selves. Project AIM encourages students to articulate their future goals and think about how risky behavior choices might jeopardize their path toward achieving those goals. Ordering and Training Information Ordering: Per youth, the program costs $14.90. The implementation kits (including two facilitator manuals, a poster, a CD-ROM, and delivery kit) cost $240. There is a licensing fee for distribution purposes for one to three years which is negotiated on a case-by-case basis. Youth-specific materials and facilitator materials are available at a cost by contacting Leslie Clark, Ph.D., MPH, University of Southern California, Children’s Hospital Los Angeles, [email protected]. Training: Program staff from agencies adopting Project AIM attend a 2- or 3-day training in which they learn about the intervention objectives, why it works, and how to conduct the program in their setting. They also have the opportunity to practice intervention delivery skills, and identify agency-specific intervention strategies. Facilitators must be certified to implement Project AIM. A two to three day training session costs $2,500 to $4,500 plus travel arrangements depending on the size of the training. Evaluation Fact Sheet Project AIM is a school-based program for middle school students designed to promote abstinence, delay the initiation of sex, and decrease the intention to engage in sex for the purpose of reducing HIV risk behaviors. To accomplish this, the program seeks to help adolescents form their "adult identity" by helping them to articulate their future goals and think about how risky behavior choices might jeopardize their path toward achieving those goals. At a 19-week follow-up, AIM students were significantly more likely than control students to report having abstained from intercourse during the follow-up period and to report the intention to remain abstinent for the next nine months. At the one-year follow-up, AIM students were no longer more likely to report an intent to remain abstinent. Male AIM students were significantly more likely than male control students to report having abstained from sex during the one-year follow-up period; however, this difference was not observed among female students. Examining just those students who were virgins at baseline, at both the 19-week and the one-year follow-up, AIM students were more likely than control students to still be virgins. This trend was marginally significant at the 19-week follow-up, but was no longer significant at the one-year follow-up. In a random assignment study, students from 20 classes were assigned to receive the AIM program or a standard health education curriculum. Two hundred forty-eight 7th graders at a suburban middle school in the southeastern United States served as the study sample for this investigation. The vast majority of students (98%) were African American. Students were randomly assigned, by health class, to either the treatment group or the control group. Students assigned to the treatment group received the AIM intervention during their health class twice a week for six weeks. The AIM intervention was led by two trained African American graduate students. Students assigned to the control group received the standard health education curriculum. All students completed baseline surveys before the intervention began. Students completed follow-up surveys 19 weeks after baseline and again one year later. - Clark, L.F., Miller, K.S., Nagy, S.S., Avery, J., Roth, D.L., Liddon, N., & Mukherjee, S. (2005). Adult identity mentoring: Reducing sexual risk for African-American seventh grade students. Journal of Adolescent Health, 37, 337.e1-3337.e10.

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Nonverbal learning disorders (NLD) is a neurological deficit that prevents children from responding to nonverbal cues such as voice intonation and facial expressions. Though they are very bright, they have difficulty in social situations and can become depressed, withdrawn and anxious. In this updated edition of Nonverbal Learning Disorder, Whitney offers you practical suggestions and provides you with the most recent findings so that you can lead your child into a happy, fulfilling life. Paperback. Average Customer Rating: (1 Review) 1 Rating Snapshot(1 review) Customer Reviews for Nonverbal Learning Disorder: Understanding and Coping with NLD and Asperger's Review 1 for Nonverbal Learning Disorder: Understanding and Coping with NLD and Asperger's Date:April 10, 2009 Mary Anne Iseman This is the best book I have read about NLD. It offers a lot of practical advise and describes the ways NLD presents in a child's life. It is very positive, instead of the negative view of NLD. It gave me hope.

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The Aztecs thought that their sun god had pockmarks on his face. The ancient Chinese referred to them as stars inside the solar orb. One Renaissance astronomer argued that they were actually undiscovered planets. Today, some believe their appearance is linked to waves of UFO sightings and paranormal activity. Others offer them as an alternative explanation for human-caused climate change. The rest of us wonder if they're the reason for dropped cell phone calls or static-plagued radio stations. We're talking about sunspots, those peculiar dark areas that pop up regularly on the surface of the sun. They usually appear in pairs or in groups called belts on either side of the sun's equator, between 40 degrees and 50 degrees latitude north and south. Sunspots vary tremendously in size, ranging from less than 200 miles (32.8 kilometers) across to many times the size of the Earth. Some small sunspots may last for less than an hour, but larger ones can last up to six months. Some sunspots -- such as one in 2004 that measured 20 times the size of our planet -- are big enough to be seen by the naked eye. Keep in mind, however, that staring directly at the unfiltered sun is an extremely bad idea because it can harm your eyes. (Later on, we'll explore safe ways to observe sunspots.) The frequency with which sunspots appear and their location on the sun's surface changes over time in a pattern called the sunspot cycle. Lest you think that they're little more than celestial quirks, sunspots and related solar phenomena do have certain effects on the Earth -- if not in the ways that UFO enthusiasts and climate change skeptics imagine. In the next section, we'll discuss the physical processes that create sunspots.

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A recently published study has used microsatelite markers to discover that domesticated cats originated in the Middle East, a finding that reinforces earlier archeological research. The abstract reads: The diaspora of the modern cat was traced with microsatellite markers from the presumed site of domestication to distant regions of the world. Genetic data were derived from over 1100 individuals,representing 17 random-bred populations from five continents and 22 breeds. The Mediterranean was reconfirmed to be the probable site of domestication. Genetic diversity has remained broad throughout the world, with distinct genetic clustering in the Mediterranean basin,Europe/America, Asia and Africa. However, Asian cats appeared to have separated early and expanded in relative isolation. Most breeds were derived from indigenous cats of their purported regions of origin.However, the Persian and Japanese bobtail were more aligned with European/American than with Mediterranean basin or Asian clusters.Three recently derived breeds were not distinct from their parental breeds of origin. Pure breeding was associated with a loss of genetic diversity; however, this loss did not correlate with breed popularity or age. Further details can be found here. Lipinski et al. (2008) "The ascent of cat breeds: Genetic evaluations of breeds and worldwide random-bred populations" Genomics 91(1): 12-21. doi:10.1016/j.ygeno.2007.10.009

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Written by Amy Anderson of Let’s Explore. Often, one of the first things a young child learns to write is her own name. From the first scribbles to finally mastering a tricky e, name-writing is a very satisfying confidence-booster! When my girls were preschool-age, I wrote their names on large index cards and laminated for durability. They loved to carry around their name cards, trace the letters with their fingers, and scribble on the cards with dry erase markers or crayons. Here are a dozen playful ways to explore forming letters and name writing. Of course, if your child is not interested in his name right now, and would rather spell and write dinosaur or butterfly or Grammy, those are fun words to practice, too!

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Revision as of 03:28, 13 June 2007 by Gundaetiapo - Aka, ローマ字, roumaji, rômaji, rōmaji, roomaji, and misspelled romanji, is what the latin alphabet is called when used to write Japanese. Just as the above spellings of imply, there are multiple romanization methods that can lead to confusion. In general, it is always worth spending a week or so learning the kana system and avoiding romaji as much as possible. Romaji is also used in entering Japanese text with computers. See IME for more details.

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War of the Elves and Sauron |Previous war: War of Wrath| |Next war: War of the Last Alliance| |War of the Elves and Sauron| |Beginning: 1693 SA||End: 1701 SA| |Outcome: Sauron is defeated and is driven from Eriador| |Major battles: Sack of Eregion, First Siege of Imladris, and The Battle of the Gwathló| |Noldor and Sindarin Elves, Numenóreans, and Dwarves of Durin's folk||Orcs, Evil Men, and other creatures of Sauron| The War of the Elves and Sauron was a great war fought in the Second Age. For many years the Númenóreans brought their ships into Lindon, and they were welcomed. But when Gil-galad began to fear that Sauron would bring open war into Eriador, he sent messages to Númenor; and on the shores of Lindon the Númenóreans built began to build up a force and supplies for war. When Sauron invaded Eriador in 1695, Gil-galad called Númenor for aid. Then King Tar-Minastir sent out a great navy; but it was delayed, and did not reach the coasts until the year 1700. By that time all of Eriador fell under Sauron's control, save only besieged Imladris, and he reached the line of the river Lhûn. He had sent for more forces, which were coming from the south-east, and were in Enedwaith at the crossing of Tharbad, which was only lightly held. Gil-galad and the Númenóreans were holding the Lhûn in a desperate attempt to defend the Grey Havens, when finally the great army of Tar-Minastir arrived; and Sauron's host was heavily driven back. The fleets' admiral Ciryatur sent part of his ships to make a landing farther south. Sauron was driven away south-east after a great slaughter at Sarn Ford; and though strengthened by his force at Tharbad he suddenly found a host of Númenóreans to his rear, for Ciryatur's detachment of ships landed at the mouth of the Gwathló, where there was the small harbor of Vinyalondë. In the Battle of the Gwathló Sauron was utterly routed and narrowly escaped himself. The remnants of his army was assailed in eastern Calenardhon, and he with only a bodyguard fled to what was later called Dagorlad, where broken and humiliated he returned to Mordor, and vowed vengeance against Númenór. The host that was besieging Imladris was caught between Elrond and Gil-galad, and totally destroyed. Eriador was cleansed of enemies but lay largely in ruins.

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According to reports, a test that detects the two strains of human papilloma virus, which has the tendency of raising the risk of ‘invasive cervical cancer’ when joined with the Pap test, may be more effective for many women than the Pap test done alone. Also, for women that are HPV-positive, solely using the HPV test seems to be enough, according to the study author Philip Castle, a researcher at the American Society for Clinical Pathology Institute in Washington, D. C. However, the study was funded by Roche Molecular Systems, which makes the HPV test, and the researchers examined a DNA-based HPV test, created by Roche as well as approved in 2011 by the U. S. Food and Drug Administration. Hence, under the cervical cancer screening guidelines issued by the American Cancer Society in 2002 and the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists in 2003, it is stated: “Women aged 30 or older should have both a Pap test, also known as a Pap smear, as well as an HPV test”. Moreover, HPV is said to be majorly a commonly ‘sexually transmitted infection’, and some strains of the virus can result to cervical cancer.

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Imagine being able to observe the motion of a red blood cell as it moves through your vein, or being able to watch as a type of white blood cell (called a "T-cell") destroys an invading microbe by engulfing it. What would it be like to observe the vibration of molecules as the temperature rises in a pan of water? To observe sodium and chlorine atoms as they get close enough to actually transfer electrons and form a salt crystal? New scientific tools, developed and improved over the last few decades, make such observations increasingly feasible. These are examples of the effort to view, measure and even manipulate materials at the molecular or atomic scale - the major focus of nanotechnology. The prefix "nano" comes from a Greek word, νᾶνος, that means "dwarf". This prefix is used in the International System of Units (SI) to denote a factor of 10−9. If we have the "nano" prefix attached to a meter (m) then 1 nm (nanometer) = 10−9 meter (one billinoth of a meter, according to the "short scale" definition of a billion used in English-speaking countries). If the prefix is attached to a second (sec) then 1 ns =10−9 second (1 biilionth of a second). Three dimensional view of an AFM image of a Aluminum gate single-wall Carbon nanotube (SWCNT) Field Effect Transistor (FET). Image source: MSU Nanomanufacturing Lab Most quantities involving "nano" are considered "very small." Individual atoms are smaller than 1 nm (1 nanometer) in diameter. It takes about 10 hydrogen atoms arranged in a row to create a line 1 nm in length. Other atoms are larger than hydrogen, but still have diameters less than 1 nm. A typical virus is about 100 nm in diameter and a bacterium is about 1000 nm head to tail.

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|Alphabetical list of History Topics||History Topics Index| The French Revolution marked a break with the traditions of the past and many proposed new beginnings. In particular those leading the Revolution wanted to do away with the existing calendar, which was based on Christian dates, and bring in a new one based on purely secular considerations. The first problem was to choose a day on which the calendar would start - which day should be designated day 1 of year 1? Some proposed 14 July 1789, the day the Bastille fell, while another proposal was 1 January 1789. This latter idea was that the calendar should start on the first day of the year of the Revolution. Lalande, however, proposed 22 September 1792 which was the day on which the French republic was founded, and also, by coincidence, it coincided with the autumn equinox. Lalande's proposal was taken up by Gilbert Romme, a trained mathematician who had become a politician and was a friend of Lalande. Romme said:- Thus, the sun illuminated both poles simultaneously, and in succession the entire globe, on the same day that, for the first time, in all its purity, the flame of liberty, which must one day illuminate all mankind, shone on the French nation. Of course, nothing can change the fact that there are 365 days in a year - not even the French Revolution! So the new year still had to have 365 days (366 on leap years). It was divided into 12 months of 30 days each. Of course this left 5 days over which were declared to be holidays. On leap years there were six extra days holidays. Lalande proposed that the twelve months each be divided into three weeks of ten days each. Lalande wrote:- No creation of the republic will do more to break the hold of the priests over their superstitious dupes. Now Lalande realised that people may not find a ten day week pleasing so he eased the problem of getting the proposal accepted by inserting a mid-week holiday. The new calendar was accepted and came into force at the beginning of year II, in the autumn of 1793. But a second proposal suggested changes went further still. On 1 November 1795 (11 brumaire by the new calendar) a law was passed which required the creation of clocks with ten hours in the day, 100 minutes in an hour, and 100 seconds in a minute. A metric system of angles was also brought in, with 400 degrees in a full turn (100 degrees in a right angle). Now the earth would rotate 40 degrees in an hour and, since the metre had been designed so that one quarter meridian was 10 million metres, each degree of latitude would be 100 kilometres long. It was certainly a rational system but its introduction would require all watches, all clocks, all trigonometric tables, all charts etc. to be changed. Condorcet proposed that teams of out of work wig makers should be used to recalculate new mathematical tables with the new units. Why, one might ask, were the wig makers out of work? Well they had been employed by the aristocrats who, following the Revolution, no longer required their services! Laplace was enthusiastic and had his watch converted to the new time. His great five volume work Traité de Mécanique Céleste , the first two volumes of which appeared in 1799, was written using the new units of time and angle. However Laplace was one of the few to greet the changes in the units of time and angle with any enthusiasm. The proposals regarding the decimalisation of time and angle did not catch on at all, although the calendar continued to be used until 1 January 1806 when the French calendar reverted to the old style. This was a political move by Napoleon Bonaparte who decided that it was better to have the Church on his side. He persuaded the Senate to scrap the new calendar just before he was crowned Emperor. Of course the change had been made for scientific reasons, so scrapping the changes also required scientific backing. Laplace, now a senator, stated that the new calendar had scientific flaws and should be scrapped. Although the old units of time and angle continued to be used in France through the 19th century, many French scientists still felt that France, and eventually the whole world, should adopt more rational units. In 1884 an international conference was held in Washington in the United States with the aim of choosing an internationally agreed line for the zero of longitude. The decision of the conference to adopt the line through Greenwich as the zero was not made for scientific, or for that matter for political, reasons. It was made purely for economic reasons, since seventy per cent of shipping throughout the world already used British charts based on the zero of longitude through Greenwich. The French, realising that any proposal giving Paris as the zero never stood a chance of being accepted, argued strongly that the zero of longitude should be a line which did not cross any country, and so would be neutral. In the end, despite a strong showing by the French delegation, the near unanimous choice was for the zero through Greenwich but, at least partly to soften the blow for the French, the Washington Conference passed a rather vague resolution which hoped that studies on the decimalisation of time and angle would be resumed. Following the "hope" of the Washington Conference, the Bureau des Longitudes in France set up a commission in February 1897 with the remit of determining whether France should move from the traditional units of time and angle to more rational units. Poincaré was appointed as secretary to the commission. Other members were engineers, sea captains, railway representatives and astronomers, all people with serious concerns for practical units of time and angle. Bouquet de la Grye, an engineer, expressed clearly the problems encountered by the earlier attempts at decimalisation described above:- The metric system succeeded because it was the simplest and it put an end to a veritable incoherence in local measures; the decimalisation of time and circumference failed because the whole world employed the same measures and the proposals sinned precisely because of their lack of unity. There was heated discussion as to the best system. A fair degree of agreement was reached over units of time, where it was proposed that 24 hours should remain, but each hour should contain 100 minutes, and each minute 100 seconds. But there was far less agreement over angle. Some backed 400 grads (the new proposed name for a unit of angle) to the circumference of a circle. Others backed 240 grads since this fitted best with 24 hours in the day. Of course there is a strong connection between time and angle since the earth rotates through the circumference of a circle in a day, in fact in 10 grads per hour with these units. There was also support for dividing the circle into 360 parts (the traditional degree) but then decimalising subdivisions of a degree. Another group supported a division of the circle into 100 parts, and some supported a division into 200 parts. Poincaré made a table which showed the factors required to convert three different quantities: angle to time; old angular measure to new angular measure; and fractions of a circle into grads. His table, put before the commission on 7 April 1897, ignored powers of 10 in the factors (since no effort was required to multiply or divide by 10). Only 400 grads per circle satisfied the criterion that conversion never required multiplication by a two digit number. This, suggested Poincaré, made it the most practical choice. The report of the commission was, however, met with strong protests from naval men. Charts, yearbooks and table for navigators would have to be changed. All instruments such as clocks, watches, theodolites, sextants would become obsolete. Physicists also objected to the report pointing out that electrical units were based on the traditional units of time so amps, volts, ohms, and watts would have to change. Physical instruments would become obsolete and enormous expense would be incurred. In July 1900 the report was dropped. The French government saw hostility to its ideas from every country it consulted. It therefore informed the Bureau des Longitudes that the State would not back the reforms proposed in the report of the commission. The push for decimal time and angle was at an end. References (2 books/articles) Article by: J J O'Connor and E F Robertson |History Topics Index||Alphabetical list of History Topics| |Main index||Biographies Index |Famous curves index||Birthplace Maps |Mathematicians of the day||Anniversaries for the year |Search Form|| Societies, honours, etc The URL of this page is:

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