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Natural Resources Building Roof A greenish gray slate covers the roof. It is an excellent roof material for two reasons. One, slate splits along parallel planes of weakness into smooth-surfaced slabs and sheets; this splitting is called slaty cleavage. Two, slate has a fine grained surface that is relatively impervious to water. The slate was quarried from the Maine and western Vermont slate belt by the Rising and Nelson Slate Company of West Pawlett, Vermont. These slate deposits originated as sea-bottom muds during the Cambrian and Ordovician Periods (more than 450 million years ago). As the muds were deeply buried by younger sediments, they became compacted and cemented into shale, a sedimentary rock. Near the end of the Ordovician Period (438 million years ago), the earth's crust in this part of what is now New England was uplifted to form mountains. Heat and pressure produced by folding during the crustal uplift changed some minerals in the shale to micas and altered the shale to slate, a metamorphic rock. Updated 8/13/2009 SLD

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.isgs.uiuc.edu/about-isgs/build/stone.shtml

2013-05-24T16:31:28Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704752145/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114552-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

JavaRanch Cattle Drive - Classes and Objects Read the following in Just Java 2: - Chapter 2: Introducing Objects - Chapter 3: Primitive Types, Wrappers, and Boxing - Chapter 5: OOP Part II -- Constructors and Visibility - Chapter 8: More OOP -- Extending Classes. - Chapter 10: Exceptions Or, if you have the older edition (Just Java 1.2), read chapters 2, 3, 6 and the last half of chapter 7. Chapter 2 introduces object oriented programming and how it is used in Java. Read this chapter thoroughly. Maybe read it twice. The stuff in this chapter and in chapter 6 is 90% of the questions that will be asked during most Java tech interviews. (I don't think this is what should be asked during a Java tech interview, but I'll save that rant for another time.) Chapter 3 walks you through a sample program and how that program is run in the Java Virtual Machine (JVM). This jumps ahead of us a little bit by using the AWT (Abstract Windowing Toolkit), but it's easy to follow. Keep in mind that the author is one of the JVM kernel developers - so this information is right from the horse's mouth! You have already read chapters 4 and 5. Chapter 6 is going to introduce you to inheritance. More primary interview material. Inheritance is spiffy and easy. Some people have trouble with the idea of overriding a method and the "abstract" keyword. If you have trouble, be sure to ask on the Java College forum. You will want to understand it well now. Just browse the last part of the chapter ("The Class Whose Name Is Class") on reflection. You might want to try and do the exercises at the end of the chapter. You have already read the first part of chapter 7. Pick up again where you left off. Welcome to the world of exceptions. Read "Cup Size", "Pass-by-value Please" and "How my Dog learned Polymorphism" at the JavaRanch Campfire. Assignment OOP-1 (DaysOld) Purpose: To learn how to use someone else's classes, how to integrate a jar file into your program Write a program that tells you how many days old you are. and look for the GDate and JDate classes. Creating objects from these classes will help you to complete this assignment. You will need to download jr.jar and work it into your classpath in order to use these classes. In other words, I want to type java DaysOld 2000-1-2 You were born on January 2, 2000 Today is November 18, 2000 You are now 321 days old. (with the correct information for the dates and number of days) To get this to work, you must properly configure your classpath. If you write all of these programs in the C:\Java directory, you could put the .jar file in the same directory and change your classpath to "C:\Java;C:\Java\jr.jar". Be sure to put "import com.javaranch.common.* ;" at the top of your DaysOld.java Assignment OOP-2 (NaturalLanguageMultiply) Purpose: To learn how to work with a HashMap, how to use static blocks to initialize, how to throw and catch exceptions Write a program that will multiply two numbers in the range of zero to ninety-nine. In other words, I want to type java NaturalLanguageMultiply thirty-two ten It is okay to have global constants in a program. You can initialize global constants with a static block if you need to. Example of a static block: public class Test private static Vector vector ; vector = new Vector(); vector.add( "foo" ); vector.add( "bar" ); If you create a method or class attribute that is for internal use only be sure to declare it private. Use one HashMap object that contains no more than 28 objects. Include a method with this signature: "private static int toInt( String s ) throws Exception". The exception is if the string is not recognized and contains the message you want to show to your user. The program must specify what text is not recognized. Assignment OOP-3 (SortNames) Purpose: To learn how to work with an ArrayList, how to implement an interface, and how to use I/O Load an ArrayList with Strings from a text file of names. Show the names sorted in order of first name and then by last name. Use com.javaranch.common.TextFileIn to read the names. Use the Collections class for sorting. Do not create a second list with the names in a different order. Do not modify the ArrayList or its contents except by using the Collections class. Your class will be called SortNames.. Here is the list of names Assignment OOP-4 (Lookup) Purpose: To learn about polymorphism Rudy's Rental rents all sorts of stuff: videos, books on tape, furniture, etc. Every thing that Rudy rents has a serial number. Write a program called Lookup that takes in a serial number and writes information on a given item to the console. You will need to make an abstract class called Thing and three subclasses: Video, BookOnTape and Furniture. There will be an abstract method called getDescription() that returns a String. Here is a UML diagram showing the three sub classes inheriting Thing. Lookup will contain a static HashMap that contains a dozen things to rent. Make up whatever things you like as long as you use all three types. Give each of your classes relevant attributes and have the getDescription() method return as much information on an item as possible. After you have tied up this class, lasso the next one: Page maintained by Marilyn de Queiroz

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.javaranch.com/drive/3/index.jsp

2013-05-24T16:10:22Z

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en

By Mitchell Bard Muhammad was born in Mecca approximately 570 C.E. and was a member of the Quraysh tribe. As with Moses and Jesus, we know little about his childhood. His parents died when he was young, and he never learned to read or write. When he was 12, he visited Syria and had his first exposure to Jews and Christians and apparently developed a respect for these "People of the Book." At 25, Muhammad married a widow named Khadija who was involved in trade and got him involved in it as well. During one trading journey when he was about 40, Muhammad had an encounter with the angel Gabriel revealed to him special revelations. Different opinions exist on whether Mohammed miraculously read or just repeated the revelations, which said he was to become the messenger of God. Following his prophetic experience, Mohammed returned to his wife and began spreading the teachings he learned. Afterward, Muhammad began to develop a code of behavior that he said had come from Allah, or God. Some of the revelations included that the world would end, that God would judge humans mercifully if they submitted to His will, and that people should pray to show their gratitude to God. The people who accepted Muhammad's teachings came to be known as Muslims and their religion Islam, Arabic for "surrender [to the will of Allah]." Muhammad was regarded as the last and most perfect prophet. During the two centuries after Muhammad's death, the laws of Islam were codified in the Shariah, and Muhammad was regarded as the last and most perfect prophet. The word of God was revealed to him through the angel Gabriel and recorded in the Arabic language in the Koran (or Quran). The principles of Islam were developed over time and, as was the case with earlier men professing to be prophets, not everyone was willing to accept Muhammad's claim to be God's messenger. Muhammad was attacking the way of life of the more powerful families in the Quraysh tribe, and they were not happy about it. In addition to having to persevere the criticism of his views, he also suffered terribly when his wife and uncle died in the same year. In 622, Muhammad left Mecca for an oasis then known as Yathrib. This trip became known as the hejira, the flight from persecution in Mecca. The term has also come to mean leaving a pagan community for one that adheres to the laws of Islam. In his new home, which was later renamed Medina, Muhammad became a mediator, arbitrating disputes between tribes. Interestingly, Medina also had a sizeable Jewish community, which had probably moved there after being expelled from Palestine by the Romans. Muhammad respected the Jews, and his early teachings appeared to borrow from Jewish tradition. The Jews began to distance themselves from Muhammad, however, when he became critical of their not recognizing him as a prophet. Once it was clear the Jews would not accept him, Muhammad began to minimize or eliminate the Jewish influence on his beliefs. For example, he shifted the direction of prayers from Jerusalem to Mecca, made Friday his special day of prayer, and renounced the Jewish dietary laws (except for the prohibition on eating pork). Originally, he said the Arabs were descendants of Abraham through his son Ishmael, but in the Koran Abraham's connection to the Jews is denied, with Muhammad asserting that Abraham is only the patriarch of Islam, not Judaism as well, because he "surrendered himself to Allah." One of the immediate consequences of Muhammad's frustration was the expulsion of two Jewish tribes from Medina and the murder of all the members of a third Jewish tribe (except for the women and children, who were sold into slavery). But even worse for the long-term treatment of the Jews were a number of inflammatory statements about Jews that Muhammad made that appear in the Koran which, over the years, stoked Arab/Islamic anti-Semitism. Muhammad slowly began to build his power base both by the persuasiveness of his faith and the old-fashioned way: by marrying women from important families to gain political advantage. He came to control the oases and markets, which forced other traders and tribesmen to negotiate with him. When he finally returned to Mecca, it was at the head of an imposing army that forced the residents to capitulate. Muhammad died in 632, and it was left to his followers to carry on the traditions he had begun. His followers developed Islam, just as the followers of Moses and Jesus developed Judaism and Christianity over time. Bard, Mitchell G. The Complete Idiot's Guide to Middle East Conflict. 3rd Edition. NY: Alpha Books, 2005.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/Muhammad.html

2013-05-24T16:45:56Z

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How do you solve [x-1]=[x+3] How do I get a book published? what are the names given to the diffrent changes of state? Geography.../what does this mean? " The earth's physical landscape is the result of conflict between forces..." Explain what this means. Thanks. Is it possible that forces move Earth around, sometimes the movement is opposing another landforce, they collide, and one slide under? how do we get equation of ellips? I have to find out some facts about the dwarf planet vulcan. I have tried wikipedia but it was no help. Can any one please give me some facts or websites that can. This may be what you need. http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/astronomy/epsilon_vulcan_000804.html can you tell me which words are feminine or masculine radiateur miroir joueur du cd calendrier réveil boîte des bijoux lampe téléphone mobile vêtements bouteille de l'eau many thanks Thank you for using the Jiskha Homework Help Forum. First... I have a question what is 14 hours in two weeks in ratios For Further Reading

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.jiskha.com/members/profile/posts.cgi?name=liza&page=5

2013-05-24T16:32:09Z

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A controversial chemical found in many plastic water bottles could turn a person's thirst quencher into a health hazard during this heat wave. Researchers are talking about the chemical known as bisphenol A or BPA and what happens when it's exposed to the extreme heat. BPA can be found in many things, including some water bottles. Several studies show that there's a possible link between BPA and health issues, including infertility and diabetes. Other studies show that if water inside a container having BPA is heated up, the health dangers could increase. Even during a heat wave, the determined don't skip a workout. "I'm trying to get back in shape, working out," Kristen Spain said. Those working out in the heat usually know to keep hydrated and, according to several studies, that's where the hazard lies. Bottles containing BPA that were exposed to boiling hot water released the controversial chemical 55 times more rapidly than before their exposure to hot water. Local doctors don't recommend heating BPA containers at any temperature. "I went out to my car and it was 106 inside so it's heating up any liquids you have in the car," Dr. Megan Schlick with Naturopath said. "The heat almost dissolves some of the chemicals." After hearing doctors' concerns about BPA containers, Spain said she plans to make changes. Michelle Cowthran, another person out exercising, said she just heard the news herself. "Recently a friend told me about it. I was getting ready to drink out of a water bottle that had been in my car and she said 'don't do that because it's really harmful,'" Cowthran said. "It's concerning because they don't really know what BPA does. They are starting to see associations with people who have heart disease, diabetes, obesity. They are starting to see higher levels of BPA in their system. They are starting to see a correlation with BPA levels in people who have trouble getting pregnant," Schlick said. Others, like Lauren Wrinkler, said they're trying to avoid BPA altogether. "I think more people need to be aware of it," Wrinkler said. Schlick said the easiest way to avoid BPA exposure is to avoid heating their plastic containers. She said the next sure step is to replace plastic containers with glass ones. Just this week the Federal Drug Administration banned BPA from being used to manufacture baby bottles or sippy cups. A spokesperson for the FDA said the agency based the action on the industry's phasing out of the chemical. Copyright 2012 KCTV (Meredith Corp.) All rights reserved. Thursday, May 23 2013 7:30 PM EDT2013-05-23 23:30:51 GMT The Lafayette County Prosecutor has charged the father of a 10-week-old baby with her violent death.Alex Anthony Gilbert, 24, of Independence was charged with second-degree murder. His daughter died fourMore > The Lafayette County Prosecutor has charged the father of a 10-week-old baby with her violent death.More > Thursday, May 23 2013 7:13 PM EDT2013-05-23 23:13:19 GMT Police are investigating whether a person being shot in the chest is connected to a home invasion robbery.Two men attempted to burst into a home in the 106 block of Greenwood Road when shots were fired.More > A woman fired shots at three men attempting to break into her home, and one of the suspects was shot in the chest, police said. Her husband described the harrowing ordeal. More > Thursday, May 23 2013 7:44 PM EDT2013-05-23 23:44:12 GMT Police are investigating after elementary school kids in Johnson County allegedly had $30,000 stolen from them. Families at Valley Park Elementary, which is located off of West 123rd Street in OverlandMore > Police are investigating after elementary school kids in Johnson County allegedly had $30,000 stolen from them.More > Thursday, May 23 2013 8:36 PM EDT2013-05-24 00:36:54 GMT A two-vehicle wreck caused some major backup on Interstate 70 Thursday evening. The wreck closed I-70 westbound past Interstate 670. Drivers reported seeing traffic backed up for miles. Officials saidMore > A two-vehicle wreck caused some major backup on Interstate 70 on Thursday evening.More > Friday, May 24 2013 2:31 AM EDT2013-05-24 06:31:07 GMT Jodi Arias (Source: CBS 5 News) It is now in the hands of the 12 jurors to decide if Jodi Arias will live her life behind bars or if she'll be executed. The defense and prosecution gave their closing statement Tuesday afternoon andMore > The judge has declared a mistrial in the penalty phase of the Jodi Arias trial. The jury announced late Thursday afternoon that they could not reach a unanimous decision on life or death for Arias.More > Thursday, May 23 2013 7:57 PM EDT2013-05-23 23:57:02 GMT A massive tornado was carving its way through town. There was no time to hesitate. LaTisha Garcia had to get to her children. And so she raced against the storm. She had 30 miles to cover from her jobMore > A massive tornado was carving its way through town. There was no time to hesitate. LaTisha Garcia had to get to her children.More > Friday, May 24 2013 4:38 AM EDT2013-05-24 08:38:10 GMT (RNN) - A bridge in Washington has collapsed and at least two cars are in the water, according to KING 5 TV out of Seattle. The bridge is part of Interstate 5. There is no word on injuries. Copyright 2013More > A photo from the scene showed a man sitting on top of his car, which was partially submerged.More > Wednesday, May 22 2013 6:04 PM EDT2013-05-22 22:04:40 GMT MISSOURI CITY, TX (KPRC/CNN) - When a pregnant teacher in Texas collapsed, her coworkers rushed to help. The woman technically died, gave birth, and then was brought back to life. Erica Nigrelli, an EnglishMore > A pregnant woman's heart stopped, and doctors performed an emergency c-section to rescue the baby and save the woman.More > Thursday, May 23 2013 5:41 PM EDT2013-05-23 21:41:53 GMT An old-school Volkswagen Karmann Ghia is a beauty, but there's nothing old about the engineers-in-training who re-built it into an electric car. "And it runs really nice," Cornel Foster, a Minddrive student,More > Just by tweeting a certain phrase you'll be able to help a car run.More >

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.kctv5.com/story/19076338/concerns-of-bpa-exposure

2013-05-24T16:38:59Z

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|Kids' drawings can help docs diagnose migraine NEW YORK, Mar 05 (Reuters Health) - Drawings done by young headache sufferers that describe and locate their pain can help doctors diagnose whether or not the child has a migraine, according to researchers. "The study transpired because I became so struck by the details and fascinating pictures that my headache patients were drawing," lead investigator Dr. Carl E. Stafstrom of Tufts University School of Medicine in Boston, Massachusetts, told Reuters Health. The pictures may offer insight into children's headaches and provide information the children can't express verbally because they are too young or because they may be more adept at drawing. Stafstrom asked 226 children to make pencil drawings that showed the location of their pain, what their pain feels like, and any other changes or symptoms that accompany the headache. He then completed the clinical evaluation and diagnosed the headache type without examining the pictures. He diagnosed migraine or mixed headache with a prominent migraine component in 57.5% of the children. Later, Drs. Kevin Rostasy and Anna Minster, also pediatric neurologists, were asked to use the pictures to decide whether their features were more consistent with migraine or nonmigraine headache. They categorized 139 pictures as migraine-related. Compared to clinical evaluation, analysis of drawings correctly identified migraines 93% of the time. Drawings that showed pain around the eye socket always indicated migraine, the authors note. Pictures of the child lying down, drawings showing blind spots or other defects in the visual field, depictions of light intolerance and illustrations of gastrointestinal symptoms were all also closely correlated to a diagnosis of migraine. |Seventeen percent of children who drew pictures showing pounding or throbbing pain were diagnosed with nonmigraine headache. Diagnoses were nearly equally divided for those showing dizziness, sadness or crying, or different pain locations, including pain on one side of the head. The appearance of a tight band around the head or of squeezing pain was significantly associated with muscle tension-type headaches. The children's age did not affect their ability to accurately render their headache type. In fact, those younger than 8 did somewhat better than older children. The youngest patient, a 4-year-old boy, drew rocks pounding his forehead. Stafstrom recommends this technique to anyone who treats children with headaches. "It costs nothing, it's fun for kids and the doctors, and can be done while the patient is still in the waiting room so it doesn't take time from the clinic visit," he noted. He is now beginning to test the theory that such drawings can demonstrate a patient's response to therapy, and is also using the technique to analyze patients with epilepsy.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.kopzorgen.nl/nieuws/nieuws22.html

2013-05-24T16:44:12Z

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Health Officials Using Google To Track Flu Outbreaks CDC Warns Flu Season Could Be Bad Tuesday, December 4, 2012 Public health officials around the country are turning to the Internet for warning signs of flu outbreaks. Often when people have the flu, they Google information on relieving symptoms like fever, body aches and cough. A new study shows this real time data is becoming an effective tool for predicting and tracking influenza outbreaks. Researchers at Columbia University’s Mailman School of Public Health and the National Center for Atmospheric Research have created a computer model that can potentially estimate the probability of flu outbreaks up to seven weeks in advance. The model uses Google Flu Trends, which tracks the number of flu-related Internet searches in a map combined with historical flu season data. The goal is to be able to warn people and doctors of the impending outbreak. San Diego County health officials keep an eye on Google's Flu Trends, but still rely on reports from doctors, hospitals and laboratory results as their primary flu surveillance, according to Eric McDonald, deputy health officer for the County of San Diego. "We just use that as just kind of an informal adjunct," said McDonald. "I mean, we have very good surveillance systems in place and knowing that that one also is there, we kind of look at it and see that it tracks usually with the other things that we’re following. McDonald said the Google tool has tracked San Diego’s influenza reasonably well over the past three years. He said there is currently a mild level of flu activity around the county, and expects the region’s flu season to peak in January or February. Flu season is getting an early start in the Southern United States. The Center for Disease Control on Monday said suspected flu cases have jumped in five Southern states, and the primary strain circulating tends to make people sicker than other types. It is particularly hard on the elderly. "It looks like it's shaping up to be a bad flu season, but only time will tell," said Dr. Thomas Frieden, director of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Flu symptoms can include fever, cough, runny nose, head and body aches and fatigue. Some people also suffer vomiting and diarrhea, and some develop pneumonia or other severe complications. The Associated Press contributed to the information in this report.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.kpbs.org/news/2012/dec/04/health-officials-use-google-track-flu-outbreaks/

2013-05-24T16:32:40Z

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en

Solar Powered Plane to Fly the World in 2014 Some analysts have said that we are about to enter a golden age of solar technology, as the cost of solar electricity and installations becomes increasingly competitive with established fuel sources. But will we ever use solar power to fly? A team comprised of engineers and adventurers wants to build the first plane to circumnavigate the world solely on solar power. A tall order, to be sure, but solar-powered transportation has been gaining ground in recent years as solar cells become more efficient and batteries are engineered store more energy in less space. A solar-powered boat is currently sailing the world, and by 2014 the Solar Impulse team hopes to launch a plane that can fly by day or night solely on solar power. Founded in 2003 by Bertrand Piccard (whose family inspired Jean-Luc Piccard of Star Trek fame) and Andre Borschberg, Solar Impulse has already successfully flown for an entire day-night cycle, staying airborne for over 26 hours. With a wing span of 200 feet, and a weight of just 4,000 pounds, the Solar Impulse is maximized for efficiency. The carbon fiber wings hold over 11,000 individual solar cells, and the cockpit measures just 35 cubic feet, enough space for only one pilot. The team envisions eventually building an airplane that can hold a load of people, but that day is still far off. By 2014 however, they aim to circumnavigate the world in their aircraft using solely solar power. The amount of energy needed to get keep the plane off the ground is about the same as the Wright Brother's original 1903 flyer. It probably won't be much faster either, but perhaps one day solar power will be able to provide enough additional power to offset some of the energy from turbine engines.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.leadingedgeaviationinsurance.com/solarplane.html

2013-05-24T16:31:54Z

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Copyright © 2006 Leaf Mindcraft In this, the second of three Parts, I intend to discuss the concept of the Venn Diagram, which is used in the mathematical area of Set Theory.The Venn Diagram and the Universal Set The Venn Diagram is used to represent in a picture the sets and combinations of sets to which we may wish to refer. A set is simply any combination of objects or ideas. Firstly, we define a Universal Set. The Universal Set contains absolutely everything in the whole universe and we represent it by all the points within a rectangular box, U, i.e. Mathematicians also wish to refer to a set that contains absolutely nothing at all - the empty set - and given the symbol 'ø'.The Venn Diagrams of Sets We now represent a set to which we may wish to refer by a circular in the box. Let us suppose we wish to refer to all red objects and call this set A. The Venn Diagram for this is:- We say that the set of all red objects is contained within the Universal Set, or is a subset of U, the Universal Set. Let us introduce a second set of all Vauxhall cars and call it B. The Venn diagram for this is:- Having defined the sets A and B, we can define the 'intersection' of A and B as the set of objects contained within both A and B. This is the set of all red Vauxhall cars and corresponds to the shaded area in the Venn diagram below. Note that there are some red objects (e.g. the planet Mars) that are not Vauxhall cars and some Vauxhall cars that are not red. Also note that if we had defined A as the set of all red objects and B the set of all blue objects, then the intersection would have been the empty set, ø. Also we can represent the 'union' of A and B, that is the set of all objects in A or B (or both), as the shaded area in the Venn Diagram below:- We can now represent complicated combinations of sets. For example, consider the set A, but not B, or B, but not A. This is the shaded area in the Venn Diagram below:- The negation of any set is everything in the Universal Set outside of the set in question. So the Venn Diagram for the negation of A and B is as below:- But if we consider the Venn Diagram for the negation of the set A:- And the Venn Diagram for the negation of the set B:- Then if we form the set all objects in the negation of A or the negation of B, the Venn Diagram is:- Which is the same diagram as given above for the negation of all objects both in A and B, or we have proved that 'not (A and B)' is '(not A) or (not B)'. In the third part of these articles, I intend to describe the Karnaugh Map. This is a special type of Venn Diagram that can be used to work out the particular logical expression that a programmer might need in C in 'if', 'while' or 'do ... while' statements (In BBC BASIC 'IF', 'WHILE' or 'REPEAT').

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.leafmindcraft.co.uk/logic2.html

2013-05-24T16:45:23Z

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Network routers such as a Cisco Network Routers, Juniper or Brocade Network Routers use a highly distributed routing architecture to deliver feature-rich, wire-speed performance in IPv4/v6/MPLS applications. These platforms enable the delivery of advanced services over a converged IP/MPLS-based infrastructure. The Network routers offer a range of solutions such as: Point-to-point Layer 2 MPLS VPNs (Virtual Leased Line, VLL) Multi-point Layer 2 MPLS VPNs (Virtual Private LAN Service, VPLS) Layer 3 MPLS VPNs (RFC2547bis) MPLS Traffic Engineering IP over MPLS Frequently Asked Questions What is MPLS? MPLS stands for Multi-Protocol Label Switching. MPLS is a framework that allows the introduction of label switching to any combination of Layer 3 and Layer 2 protocols. In an MPLS domain, a packet is examined at the ingress point, its headers are parsed, a routing decision is made, and a label is attached to it. The packet is then forwarded to the next router and the label tells the router what to do with the packet. Hence, the switching decision is made based on the label only – not on the Layer 3 headers. The router discards the label and attaches a new label to be used by the next router. The process continues until the packet emerges at the egress point. How did MPLS evolve? MPLS evolved from technologies that were primarily developed in the mid-1990s. The concept of using label switching for a Layer 3 connectionless protocol could be traced back to the mid-1980s. At that time, the high speed networking community was faced with the challenge of increasing IP datagram forwarding rates several orders of magnitude, to the rates of OC-3 and OC-12. Routing based on IP headers used to be performed in software, consuming many CPU cycles, and hence, performance was limited by the processing power of the CPU. The technology has advanced greatly since then. Network researchers investigated the possibility of using label switching as a means of increasing the forwarding performance in an IP network. Label switching was a much simpler function, and could be implemented in hardware, which made it a very promising approach. In the mid-1990s the concept of label switching started drawing attention again, and several technologies were developed based on it, typically in the context of IP and ATM. The most notable developments were: Toshiba’s Cell Switching Router, 1995 Ipsilon’s IP Switch, 1996 Cisco’s Tag Switching, 1996 IBM’s Aggregate Route-based IP Switching (ARIS), 1996 In 1997, the MPLS working group was formed with the goal of developing a standard approach for label switching. Since then, the last 15 years, MPLS has become more and more widely used in many businesses worldwide. It’s become the standard technology used to connect multiple locations together securely and reliably regardless of the distance between the locations. MPLS can be implemented from a T1, to bonded T1′s (NxT1′s), to Ds3′s or ethernet. MPLS Ethernet has become more widely used because it is more cost effective than the MPLS Ds3 circuits. Whenever the solution is available, businesses typically will prefer the ethernet solution vs an MPLS DS3 solution if they need more than 10 mbps. What benefits does MPLS bring to my network? Originally, the main benefit of label switching was facilitating high-speed switching in Layer 3 devices. However, this is no longer perceived as the main benefit of MPLS, since ASIC-based routers, nowadays, can perform line-speed routing on most interfaces. Today, the main benefits of MPLS are: Simplifying packet forwarding: Since the routing decision is made only once at the edge of the network, the core could keep only minimal routing information, thus reducing the overall complexity of the network (e.g. BGP could be run at the edge only, but there would be no need for it in the core). Traffic Engineering: MPLS connection offers the tools to control the paths taken by different flows. Using these tools, traffic could be rerouted to avoid congestion points in an mpls network. Delivering Quality of Service (QoS) and Differentiated Services: Using MPLS’ inherent mechanisms for traffic prioritization and traffic path control, a service provider like AT&T or Sprint (or a specialized provider like Masergy) could create a network that delivers QoS, facilitates offering differentiated services to customers, and fulfills the offered service level agreements. Network scalability: Using MPLS’ label stacking capability, MPLS domains could be arranged in a hierarchy, offering multiple levels of abstraction, and therefore, scalability. Supporting VPNs: Since MPLS service provides tunneling of packets from an ingress point to an egress point, VPN applications that leverage this capability can be created easily. Who is responsible for creating the MPLS standards? The IETF has a specialized working group, the MPLS working group, which is categorized as a sub-IP group. The group is responsible for the development of standards that define the core technology. Other IETF working groups, like the Provider Provisioned Virtual Private Networks working group, might develop standards that make use of the MPLS technology. Is MPLS meant to replace the current routing protocols? No. MPLS is not a routing protocol. As a matter of fact, MPLS needs the reachability information provided by the current routing protocols in order to calculate the paths that it uses. MPLS augments the functionality of the routing protocols, but does not replace them. What is GMPLS? GMPLS stands for “Generalized MPLS.” GMPLS extends the scope of MPLS to include non-packet based devices that realize the actual Layer 1 paths used, e.g. TDM multiplexers, SONET ADMs, optical (lambda) switches, spatial switches (incoming port to outgoing port), etc. Is MPLS a protocol? No. MPLS is a framework of functions, not a protocol. The framework incorporates concepts, mechanisms, and protocols to achieve functions that enhance the current Layer 3 and Layer 2 technologies. Where does MPLS fit in the OSI reference model? Some might argue that MPLS does not fit in the OSI reference model. The fact that MPLS is a framework that contains enhancements to the current Layer 3 and Layer 2 technologies makes it hard to fit MPLS within one layer of the OSI model. MPLS alone cannot be considered a layer in the OSI sense as it doesn’t have a unified format for the transport of data from the layer above: it uses a shim header over SONET or Ethernet, it uses the existing VPI/VCI of ATM, etc. However, an individual MPLS function could be categorized as either an OSI Layer 3 or Layer 2 function. Does MPLS support other protocols other than IP? Yes. MPLS, by design, was meant to support many Layer 3 and Layer 2 protocols. At Layer 3, MPLS supports IPv4, IPv6, IPX, and AppleTalk. At Layer 2, MPLS supports Ethernet, PPP (for point to point links), Token Ring, FDDI, ATM, and Frame Relay. MPLS was designed to be flexible so that it could work with virtually any Layer 3 and Layer 2 technologies. How does MPLS compare to ATM? MPLS brings the label switching and traffic engineering functions of ATM to packet-based networks. MPLS, unlike ATM, runs over any Layer 2 infrastructure, i.e., it is not tied to a certain technology, which allows its use in a heterogeneous environment. What is the relation between MPLS and VPN’s? Since MPLS provides tunneling of packets from an ingress point to an egress point, it is an attractive technology for VPN applications. Several types of VPNs – defined in IETF drafts and RFCs – can be implemented over MPLS. These VPNs can be broadly categorized as either MPLS Layer 3 VPNs, or MPLS Layer 2 VPNs. What does VLL mean? VLL stands for “Virtual Leased Line”. VLL is a form of MPLS Layer 2 VPN offered as a service by a service provider. The service connects two Customer Edge (CE) devices at two different locations, as if they had a traditional leased line in between. That is, whatever Layer 2 frames the CE device on one end sends are transparently transported to the CE device at the other end of the VLL. What does TLS mean? TLS stands for Transparent LAN Services. A service provider offering Layer 2 connectivity to multiple customer sites in a manner that is transparent to the Customer Edge (CE) devices is said to be offering Transparent LAN Services (TLS). The provider takes care of transporting customer Layer 2 frames and switching them across the provider network from one customer site to the other(s). MPLS Layer 2 VPNs could be used to implement these services. In the context of MPLS and provider provisioned IP based VPNs, the preferred term for this service is “VPLS”, which is mentioned in RFC 2764 – “A Framework for IP Based Virtual Private Networks”. What does VPLS mean? VPLS stands for “Virtual Private LAN Segment”. A service provider offering Layer 2 connectivity to multiple customer sites in a manner that is transparent to the Customer Edge (CE) devices is said to be offering a Virtual Private LAN Segment (VPLS). This is a new term that was chosen because the service resembles connecting the CE devices via a switch, i.e., all in the same broadcast domain/LAN segment. The provider takes care of transporting customer Layer 2 frames and switching them across the provider network from one customer site to the other(s). MPLS Layer 2 VPNs could be used to implement this service. In the context of classical Layer 2 service provider networks, or ATM networks, the term TLS is used. In the context of MPLS and provider provisioned IP based VPNs, the terms TLS and VPLS are often used interchangeably; however, the preferred term for this service is “VPLS,” which is mentioned in RFC 2764 – “A Framework for IP Based Virtual Private Networks”. Are there any networks currently utilizing MPLS? Many service providers have announced that they are using MPLS in their networks. Names include: AT&T, Verizon, Sprint, Centurylink, British Telecom, Cable and Wireless, China Unicom, Deutsche Telekom, France Telecom, Global Crossing/Level 3 Communications, Infonet, Japan Telecom, NTT, Teleglobe, and Time Warner Telecom. Are there any organizations that perform MPLS interoperability testing? The Advanced Internet Lab at George Mason University provides interoperability testing services. The lab is sponsored by several equipment manufacturers – including Cisco, Brocade, and Juniper – as well as service providers. Also, the InterOperability Lab MPLS Consortium at the University of New Hampshire provides these services. Members include Brocade, Cisco, Avici, and others. This article was written with the information provided by Cisco, Juniper Networks and Brocade Networks as well as the mpls service providers like AT&T, Verizon, Sprint, CenturyLink, Level3, etc. For more details on the MPLS pricing, please fill out “the form”.

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|Leonardo da Vinci 15 April. Leonardo is born in Anchiano, near Vinci (in the province of Florence). Illegitimate son of the notary, ser Piero and a young peasant woman. Leonardo spends his childhood and early adolescence in Anchiano and Vinci. He lives with his father who, in the meantime, marries Albiera degli Amadori. After Albiera dies, he moves to Florence with his father. Joins the studio of Andrea del Verrocchio, much frequented by celebrated artists and young talented men where he learns to draw, paint and sculpt. Works on the completion of an angel in the Baptism of Christ painted in Verrocchio’s studio. Listed as a member of the Company of St. Luke, the Florentine artists’ guild. It is from this date that we begin to see his first independent works. Is accused, prosecuted and found not guilty of sodomy. Receives another commission. The friars at the church of San Donato in Scopeto, near Florence, request him to paint an altarpiece for their monastery. Leonardo begins work on the Adoration of the Magi, which he is never to complete. Leaves Florence to enter the service of Ludovico Sforza, nicknamed “the Moor”, the Seigneur of Milan, to whom he addresses a famous letter in which he lists his technical “secrets” and offers his services as engineer, architect, sculptor, painter and even musician. Leonardo lives approximately twenty years in Milan, painting, drawing, designing buildings and engineering projects. Signs a contract with the friars of the Immaculate Conception to paint the Virgin of the Rocks. Starts work on “The Horse”, the equestrian monument Ludovico wanted as a tribute to Francesco Sforza, his father. The statue, which was to be over 23 ft (7 meters) high and weigh around 71 tons (650 q), was never finished. Leonardo made the colossal clay model and the moulds for casting the bronze, but the model was later destroyed by French bowmen during the occupation of Milan in 1499. Paints the portrait of Cecilia Gallerani, the picture known as Lady with the ermine. Begins studying various areas of science and technology such as anatomy and hydraulics. Directs numerous court festivities. Starts painting The Last Supper, in the refectory of the monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie. Leaves Milan in the company of Luca Pacioli a few months after French troops occupy the city. After staying in Mantua and Venice (where he draws up a plan of defence against Turkish invasion), returns to Florence and lodges at the monastery of the Servants of the Annunciation. For a few months, is in the service of Cesare Borgia who is involved in a number of military operations in Romagna and requests his assistance as a military engineer. In Florence, he begins work on the Mona Lisa. The Seigneury commissions him to create a fresco of the Battle of Anghiari, but the work, for which he uses experimental painting techniques, will not survive very long. In the same year, he resumes his studies on flight and on anatomy. His father, Piero, dies at the age of 80. Leonardo continues work on the Battle of Anghiari and plans the canal project of the River Arno. Returns to Milan, where he stays for three months at the insistence of the French Governor, Charles d’Amboise. Is appointed artist and engineer to King Louis XII. Again returns to Milan in the service of the French. On 24 September he moves to Rome, where he resides in the Vatican, in the service of Giuliano dei Medici, the brother of Pope Leo X. Continues to paint and study. Makes plans for the port of Civitavecchia. Moves to France at the invitation of the new King François I and lodges in the manor of Cloux, near the royal castle of Amboise. On 23 April he makes his last Will and Testament, designating his pupil Francesco Melzi heir to all his manuscripts and instruments. He leaves the paintings still in his studio (including the Mona Lisa, Saint Jerome and Saint Anne) to his other pupil, Salai. He dies on 2 May and is buried in the town of Amboise, in the cloister of the church of Saint Florentin. There is no longer any trace of his remains (which were later to be moved to the chapel of Saint Hubert inside the castle) because many tombs were destroyed during the sixteenth-century Wars of Religion. Over 5,000 pages of Leonardo’s entire production are still available today. This enormous number of manuscripts is subdivided very differently from how it was originally organized and is distributed among a variety of separate codices (which were assembled long after Leonardo’ death; even the name “codex” is of a later date): A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, L, M There are twelve paper manuscripts preserved at the Institut de France in Paris some of these are bound in parchment, leather or cardboard. They have different sizes, the smallest is Codex M (3.9 x 2.8 in. - 10 x 7 cm) and the largest Codex C (12.4 x 8.7 in. – 31.5 x 22 cm). Each is traditionally identified by a letter of the alphabet, from A to M (omitting J) and together they comprise 964 folios. The subjects range from the military arts, optics, geometry, to the flight of birds and hydraulics. Probable date: 1492-1516. This is held at the British Library in London. It is an unbound (since 1991) collection of 283 pages of different formats. These pages came from unbound manuscripts and have subsequently been glued onto backing sheets (11.0 x 7.1 in. - 28 x 18 cm). They cover a variety of disciplines: studies in physics and mechanics, optics and Euclidean geometry, weights and architecture (the last two include the works for the royal residence of François I at Ramorantin, in France). It was acquired by the British Lord Arundel in Spain circa 1630. Probable date: 1478-1518. Traditionally identified by two numbers: 2037 e 2038, these are preserved in Paris, at the Institut de France. Bound in cardboard, the two manuscripts are written on paper (9.5 x 7.5 in. - 24 x 19 cm) and originally formed part of Codex A, having been torn out by Guglielmo Libri in the middle of the 19th century. They mainly contain artistic studies (2038) and a miscellaneous group of other subjects (2037). Probable date: 1489-1492. Preserved at the Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan, the Codex Atlanticus is a collection of designs and annotations. It contains a wide variety of subjects: studies in mathematics, geometry, astronomy, botany, zoology, the military arts and many other subjects. As it stands today, it has been rearranged into twelve leather-bound volumes comprising 1119 backing sheets measuring (25.6 x 17.3 in. - 65 x 44 cm) containing manuscripts of various dimensions. Probable date: 1478-1518. Forster I, II e III Preserved in London, at the Victoria and Albert Museum, these are three manuscripts on paper, bound in parchment, and known as Forster I (54 folios, 5.7 x 3.9 in. – 14.5 x 10 cm), Forster II (158 folios, 7.7 x 2.8 in. - 19.5 x 7 cm) and Forster III (94 folios, 3.5 x 2.4 in. - 9 x 6 cm). They contain studies on geometry, physics, hydraulic machines, architecture and other subjects. Probable date: 1487-1505. Hammer (formerly Codex Leicester) Acquired in 1994 by Bill Gates, this is a manuscript on paper, bound in leather and composed of 18 double sheets, i.e. 36 folios (counting front and back) of (11.4 x 8.7 in. - 29 x 22 cm) dedicated mainly to studies on hydraulics and the movement of water. There are also some studies on astronomy. The name comes from the last owner, the American, Armand Hammer; previously it had been known as the Codex Leicester, after its owner Thomas Coke, Count of Leicester, who bought it in 1717. Probable date: 1506-1510. Madrid I and II These two manuscripts were rediscovered only in 1966 at the National Library in Madrid, Spain. Their existence was unknown because they had been erroneously catalogued. Madrid I contains 184 sheets (8.3 x 5.9 in. - 21 x 15 cm) dedicated to mechanisms of various kinds (including clocks) and to studies on mechanical theory. Madrid II is composed of two manuscripts totaling 157 sheets (8.3 x 5.9 in. - 21 x 15 cm); the most remarkable designs and notes concern the project to divert the course of the Arno River, the Battle of Anghiari, perspectives and optics, and the casting of the monument to Francesco Sforza. Probable date: 1490-1508 for Madrid I, 1491-1505 for Madrid II. This is preserved at the Trivulziana Library in the Sforza castle in Milan and consists of a volume composed of 51 folios (8.1 x 5.5 in. - 20.5 x 14 cm) in respect to the 62 original folios. In addition to studies on military and religious architecture, many pages relate to studies which Leonardo made with the intention of improving his literary development. Probable date: 1487-1490. On the flight of birds Located at the Biblioteca Reale in Turin, this Codex consists of 18 pages (8.3 x 5.9 in. - 21 x 15 cm) as compared to the 18 originally present. It is mainly concerned with the mechanics of how birds fly, in which Leonardo analytically studies a way to reproduce the mechanical structure in relation to his studies on the wing, air resistance, winds and currents. Probable date: 1505. There are 234 unbound folios of different sizes preserved in the Royal Collection at Windsor Castle in Great Britain. The collection contains approximately 600 drawings of anatomic studies, geography, studies of horses, sketches and caricatures, and a series of maps. Probable date: 1478-1518.

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What If the Moon Had Never Formed? During the new DC Comics Universe series "Flashpoint," in which a time-traveling supervillain alters the past to warp the present, Life's Little Mysteries presents a 10-part series that examines what would happen if a major event in the history of the universe had gone just slightly different. Part 6: What if ... the moon had never formed? Life would be: Migratory and on shorter day-night cycles, if existent at all. Huge tides generated by the moon – which orbited much closer to Earth when it formed – washed the chemical building blocks for life from land into the oceans and helped "stir up the primordial soup," said Neil Comins, a professor of physics at the University of Maine. The moon's gravity has helped slow Earth's rotation from an initial six-hour day to our current 24-hour day, while also stabilizing the tilt of our planet's axis, and thereby moderating the seasons. Life forms on a moonless Earth would therefore have different patterns of activity per the short days and nights, Comins told Life's Little Mysteries. These creatures might need to migrate more frequently to cope with extreme climate swings as well. The absence of the moon would affect life in less profound ways, too: No moon might mean no space race, which probably means no Tempur-Pedic mattresses or freeze-dried ice cream. Previously: What would life be like if the first animals to crawl out of the sea had six legs instead of four . Next: What would life be like if Earth were twice as big? - How the Full Moon Makes Scorpions Glow in the Dark - The 'Supermoon' Did Not Trigger the Japanese Quake and Tsunami - How the Moon Got There Head to Newsarama.com for complete Flashpoint coverage. MORE FROM LiveScience.com

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What are head lice? The head louse is a parasitic insect that is normally found on a person’s head — possibly including the eyebrows or on the eyelashes. The little buggers feed on human blood and live very close to the scalp (where it is the warmest). The louse has three stages of growth leading up to adulthood and can reside on the human head for about 30 days or so, during which time they lay their eggs. Sadly, this means that as soon as you think you have sent all those nasty critters to their tiny graves, another group takes their place. (Just writing about this already has my head itching.) This nasty little vermin quickly spreads from child to child as they share hairbrushes, play dress up, construction men with helmets, trade hats, etc. There are few things in life that can place a pit in a parent’s stomach faster than a notice from school that their child has contracted head lice. First of all, we all know that the perception of the general population is that your child wouldn’t have gotten it in the first place if they had been kept clean. Second is your fear that your child will be ostracized — at least for a while since other parents will have warned their own children to be careful around your child so that they won’t catch the creepy crawlies. Yes, you understand the parents’ caution, but still are afraid of the psychological effects of this kind of treatment by their peers. Third, you know how much work it is going to be to not only delouse your child, but everything in your house, and fourth, you also know that the rest of your family could be infected if you don’t do everything just so. How do I know these things? Well, my knowledge of these critters started back in the day when a school friend caught them from a cousin. Her family was meticulously clean and she had the most beautiful long dark hair — that is, until she was infected and the only treatment involved shaving her head and scrubbing her scalp with alcohol. She was so embarrassed and it left long-lasting emotional scars due to the treatment she received at the hands of her supposed schools chums and the fact that our teacher even caught the critters. My next experience with the critters occurred when my children were in middle school and riding the school bus. By this time, treatments had advanced to the point where a pesticide was applied to the child’s scalp and hours were spent combing through their hair with a pick comb. What a pain it was. After that, my girls never went to school without having their hair French braided or in a ponytail. Luckily for those of you who may be facing an outbreak in 2012, there is a new breakthrough out there that helps you avoid the nightmare of lice and the fear of their taking over your life. This new treatment is a gadget of sorts that works without the aid of poisonous chemicals or other medications. This newest gadget for the treatment of lice is called the Lousebuster. What is a Lousebuster? Basically, a Lousebuster is a device that does two things: - Provides an even amount of heated air to the scalp. - Dries out the louses, and their eggs, causing them to die for easy removal. In its brochure, the company that makes Lousebuster states that a normal 30-minute treatment is usually enough to kill about 99% of the adult lice as well as their eggs (called nits). The only drawback that I can see to the Lousebuster machine is that a trained technician is currently required to effectively rid the head of the pests. However, don’t let that alone dissuade you from having a trained technician use the Lousebuster. It does have a distinct advantage in that it is portable for use at schools or businesses for treating the infected. For school children, this is a big plus in that it could easily prevent an epidemic from taking root. Treatments last for about 30 minutes, and depending on the number of people infected, can be completed in a day. The benefit of this type of treatment is that it eliminates the need to clean all bedding, towels, and clothing worn by the infected person. There are currently 25 states that have technicians licensed to use the Lousebuster to treat those who become infected with this nasty pest. Picture and references from Lousebuster CC licensed Flickr photo at the top of the page shared by Bryan Calabro

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Darwin's "Emotions" - Introduction Charles Darwin (1809-1882) ON THE EXPRESSION OF THE EMOTIONS IN MAN AND ANIMALS. INTRODUCTION. MANY works have been written on Expression, but a greater number on Physiognomy,--that is, on the recognition of character through the study of the permanent form of the features. With this latter subject I am not here concerned. The older treatises, which I have consulted, have been of little or no service to me. The famous `Conferences' of the painter Le Brun, published in 1667, is the best known ancient work, and contains some good remarks. Another somewhat old essay, namely, the `Discours,' delivered 1774-1782, by the well-known Dutch anatomist Camper, can hardly be considered as having made any marked advance in the subject. The following works, on the contrary, deserve the fullest consideration. Sir Charles Bell, so illustrious for his discoveries in physiology, published in 1806 the first edition, and in J. Parsons, in his paper in the Appendix to the `Philosophical Transactions' for 1746, p. 41, gives a list of forty-one old authors who have written on Expression. Conferences sur l'expression des differents Caracteres des Passions.' Paris, 4to, 1667. I always quote from the republication of the `Conferences' in the edition of Lavater, by Moreau, which appeared in 1820, as given in vol. ix. p. 257. `Discours par Pierre Camper sur le moyen de representer les diverses passions,' &c. 1792. 1844 the third edition of his `Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression.' He may with justice be said, not only to have laid the foundations of the subject as a branch of science, but to have built up a noble structure. His work is in every way deeply interesting; it includes graphic descriptions of the various emotions, and is admirably illustrated. It is generally admitted that his service consists chiefly in having shown the intimate relation which exists between the movements of expression and those of respiration. One of the most important points, small as it may at first appear, is that the muscles round the eyes are involuntarily contracted during violent expiratory efforts, in order to protect these delicate organs from the pressure of the blood. This fact, which has been fully investigated for me with the greatest kindness by Professors Donders of Utrecht, throws, as we shall hereafter see, a flood of light on several of the most important expressions of the human countenance. The merits of Sir C. Bell's work have been undervalued or quite ignored by several foreign writers, but have been fully admitted by some, for instance by M. Lemoine, who with great justice says:--"Le livre de Ch. Bell devrait etre medite par quiconque essaye de faire parler le visage de l'homme, par les philosophes aussi bien que par les artistes, car, sous une apparence plus legere et sous le pretexte de l'esthetique, c'est un des plus beaux monuments de la science des rapports du physique et du moral." I always quote from the third edition, 1844, which was published after the death of Sir C. Bell, and contains his latest corrections. The first edition of 1806 is much inferior in merit, and does not include some of his more important views. `De la Physionomie et de la Parole,' par Albert Lemoine, 1865, p. 101. From reasons which will presently be assigned, Sir C. Bell did not attempt to follow out his views as far as they might have been carried. He does not try to explain why different muscles are brought into action under different emotions; why, for instance, the inner ends of the eyebrows are raised, and the corners of the mouth depressed, by a person suffering from grief or anxiety. In 1807 M. Moreau edited an edition of Lavater on Physiognomy, in which he incorporated several of his own essays, containing excellent descriptions of the movements of the facial muscles, together with many valuable remarks. He throws, however, very little light on the philosophy of the subject. For instance, M. Moreau, in speaking of the act of frowning, that is, of the contraction of the muscle called by French writers the _soucilier_ (_corrigator supercilii_), remarks with truth:--"Cette action des sourciliers est un des symptomes les plus tranches de l'expression des affections penibles ou concentrees." He then adds that these muscles, from their attachment and position, are fitted "a resserrer, a concentrer les principaux traits de la _face_, comme il convient dans toutes ces passions vraiment oppressives ou profondes, dans ces affections dont le sentiment semble porter l'organisation a revenir sur elle-meme, a se contracter et a _s'amoindrir_, comme pour offrir moins de prise et de surface a des impressions redoutables ou importunes." He who thinks that remarks of this kind throw any light on the meaning or origin of the different expressions, takes a very different view of the subject to what I do. `L'Art de connaitre les Hommes,' &c., par G. Lavater. The earliest edition of this work, referred to in the preface to the edition of 1820 in ten volumes, as containing the observations of M. Moreau, is said to have been published in 1807; and I have no doubt that this is correct, because the `Notice sur Lavater' at the commencement of volume i. is dated April 13, 1806. In some bibliographical works, however, the date of 1805--1809 is given, but it seems impossible that 1805 can be correct. Dr. Duchenne remarks (`Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,'-8vo edit. 1862, p. 5, and `Archives Generales de Medecine,' Jan. et Fev. 1862) that M. Moreau "_a compose pour son ouvrage un article important_," &c., in the year 1805; and I find in volume i. of the edition of 1820 passages bearing the dates of December 12, 1805, and another January 5, 1806, besides that of April 13, 1806, above referred to. In consequence of some of these passages having thus been COMPOSED in 1805, Dr. Duchenne assigns to M. Moreau the priority over Sir C. Bell, whose work, as we have seen, was published in 1806. This is a very unusual manner of determining the priority of scientific works; but such questions are of extremely little importance in comparison with their relative merits. The passages above quoted from M. Moreau and from Le Brun are taken in this and all other cases from the edition of 1820 of Lavater, tom. iv. p. 228, and tom. ix. p. 279. " In the above passage there is but a slight, if any, advance in the philosophy of the subject, beyond that reached by the painter Le Brun, who, in 1667, in describing the expression of fright, says:--"Le sourcil qui est abaisse d'un cote et eleve de l'autre, fait voir que la partie elevee semble le vouloir joindre au cerveau pour le garantir du mal que l'ame apercoit, et le cote qui est abaisse et qui parait enfle, -nous fait trouver dans cet etat par les esprits qui viennent du cerveau en abondance, comme polir couvrir l'aine et la defendre du mal qu'elle craint; la bouche fort ouverte fait voir le saisissement du coeur, par le sang qui se retire vers lui, ce qui l'oblige, voulant respirer, a faire un effort qui est cause que la bouche s'ouvre extremement, et qui, lorsqu'il passe par les organes de la voix, forme un son qui n'est point articule; que si les muscles et les veines paraissent enfles, ce n'est que par les esprits que le cerveau envoie en ces parties-la." I have thought the foregoing sentences worth quoting, as specimens of the surprising nonsense which has been written on the subject. `The Physiology or Mechanism of Blushing,' by Dr. Burgess, appeared in 1839, and to this work I shall frequently refer in my thirteenth Chapter. In 1862 Dr. Duchenne published two editions, in folio and octavo, of his `Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' in which he analyses by means of electricity, and illustrates by magnificent photographs, the movements of the facial muscles. He has generously permitted me to copy as many of his photographs as I desired. His works have been spoken lightly of, or quite passed over, by some of his countrymen. It is possible that Dr. Duchenne may have exaggerated the importance of the contraction of single muscles in giving expression; for, owing to the intimate manner in which the muscles are connected, as may be seen in Henle's anatomical drawings--the best I believe ever published it is difficult to believe in their separate action. Nevertheless, it is manifest that Dr. Duchenne clearly apprehended this and other sources of error, and as it is known that he was eminently successful in elucidating the physiology of the muscles of the hand by the aid of electricity, it is probable that he is generally in the right about the muscles of the face. In my opinion, Dr. Duchenne has greatly advanced the subject by his treatment of it. No one has more carefully studied the contraction of each separate muscle, and the consequent furrows produced on the skin. He has also, and this is a very important service, shown which muscles are least under the separate control of the will. He enters very little into theoretical considerations, and seldom attempts to explain why certain muscles and not others contract under the influence of certain emotions. A distinguished French anatomist, Pierre Gratiolet, gave a course of lectures on Expression at the Sorbonne, and his notes were published (1865) after his death, under the title of `De la Physionomie et des Mouvements d'Expression.' This is a very interesting work, full of valuable observations. His theory is rather complex, and, as far as it can be given in a single sentence (p. 65), is as follows:--"Il resulte, de tous les faits que j'ai rappeles, que les sens, l'imagination et la pensee ellememe, si elevee, si abstraite qu'on la suppose, ne peuvent s'exercer sans eveiller un sentiment correlatif, et que ce sentiment se traduit directement, sympathiquement, symboliquement ou metaphoriquement, dans toutes les spheres des organs exterieurs, qui la racontent tous, suivant leur mode d'action propre, comme si chacun d'eux avait ete directement affecte." `Handbuch der Systematischen Anatomie des Menschen.' Band I. Dritte Abtheilung, 1858. Gratiolet appears to overlook inherited habit, and even to some extent habit in the individual; and therefore he fails, as it seems to me, to give the right explanation, or any explanation at all, of many gestures and expressions. As an illustration of what he calls symbolic movements, I will quote his remarks (p. 37), taken from M. Chevreul, on a man playing at billiards. "Si une bille devie legerement de la direction que le joueur pretend zlui imprimer, ne l'avez-vous pas vu cent fois la pousser du regard, de la tete et meme des epaules, comme si ces mouvements, purement symboliques, pouvaient rectifier son trajet? Des mouvements non moins significatifs se produisent quand la bille manque d'une impulsion suffisante. Et cliez les joueurs novices, ils sont quelquefois accuses au point d'eveiller le sourire sur les levres des spectateurs." Such movements, as it appeirs to me, may be attributed simply to habit. As often as a man has wished to move an object to one side, he has always pushed it to that side when forwards, he has pushed it forwards; and if he has wished to arrest it, he has pulled backwards. Therefore, when a man sees his ball travelling in a wrong direction, and he intensely wishes it to go in another direction, he cannot avoid, from long habit, unconsciously performing movements which in other cases he has found effectual. As an instance of sympathetic movements Gratiolet gives (p. 212) the following case:--"un jeune chien A oreilles droites, auquel son maitre presente de loin quelque viande appetissante, fixe avec ardeur ses yeux sur cet objet dont il suit tous les mouvements, et pendant que les yeux regardent, les deux oreilles se portent en avant comme si cet objet pouvait etre entendu." Here, instead of speaking of sympathy between the ears and eyes, it appears to me more simple to believe, that as dogs during many generations have, whilst intently looking at any object, pricked their ears in order to perceive any sound; and conversely have looked intently in the direction of a sound to which they may have listened, the movements of these organs have become firmly associated together through long-continued habit. Dr. Piderit published in 1859 an essay on Expression, which I have not seen, but in which, as he states, he forestalled Gratiolet in many of his views. In 1867 he published his `Wissenschaftliches System der Mimik und Physiognomik.' It is hardly possible to give in a few sentences a fair notion of his views; perhaps the two following sentences will tell as much as can be briefly told: "the muscular movements of expression are in part related to imaginary objects, and in part to imaginary sensorial impressions. In this proposition lies the key to the comprehension of all expressive muscular movements." (s. 25) Again, "Expressive movements manifest themselves chiefly in the numerous and mobile muscles of the face, partly because the nerves by which they are set into motion originate in the most immediate vicinity of the mind-organ, but partly also because these muscles serve to support the organs of sense." (s. 26.) If Dr. Piderit had studied Sir C. Bell's work, he would probably not have said (s. 101) that violent laughter causes a frown from partaking of the nature of pain; or that with infants (s. 103) the tears irritate the eyes, and thus excite the contraction of the surrounding in muscles. Many good remarks are scattered throughout this volume, to which I shall hereafter refer. Short discussions on Expression may be found in various works, which need not here be particularised. Mr. Bain, however, in two of his works has treated the subject at some length. He says, "I look upon the expression so-called as part and parcel of the feeling. I believe it to be a general law of the mind that along with the fact of inward feeling or consciousness, there is a diffusive action or excitement over the bodily members." In another place he adds, "A very considerable number of the facts may be brought under the following principle: namely, that states of pleasure are connected with an increase, and states of pain with an abatement, of some, or all, of the vital functions." But the above law of the diffusive action of feelings seems too general to throw much light on special expressions. Mr. Herbert Spencer, in treating of the Feelings in his `Principles of Psychology' (1855), makes the following remarks:--"Fear, when strong, expresses itself in cries, in efforts to hide or escape, in palpitations and tremblings; and these are just the manifestations that would accompany an actual experience of the evil feared. The destructive passions are shown in a general tension of the muscular system, in gnashing of the teeth and protrusion of the claws, in dilated eyes and nostrils in growls; and these are weaker forms of the actions that accompany the killing of prey." Here we have, as I believe, the true theory of a large number of expressions; but the chief interest and difficulty of the subject lies in following out the wonderfully complex results. I infer that some one (but who he is I have not been able to ascertain) formerly advanced a nearly similar view, for Sir C. Bell says, "It has been maintained that what are called the external signs of passion, are only the concomitants of those voluntary movements which the structure renders necessary." Mr. Spencer has also published a valuable essay on the physiology of Laughter, in which he insists on "the general law that feeling passing a certain pitch, habitually vents itself in bodily action," and that "an overflow of nerve-force undirected by any motive, will manifestly take first the most habitual routes; and if these do not suffice, will next overflow into the less habitual ones." This law I believe to be of the highest importance in throwing light on our subject.` `The Senses and the Intellect,' 2nd edit. 1864, pp. 96 and 288. The preface to the first edition of this work is dated June, 1855. See also the 2nd edition of Mr. Bain's work on the `Emotions and Will.' `The Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. p. 121. `Essays, Scientific, Political, and Speculative,' Second Series, 1863, p. 111. There is a discussion on Laughter in the First Series of Essays, which discussion seems to me of very inferior value. Since the publication of the essay just referred to, Mr. Spencer has written another, on "Morals and Moral Sentiments," in the `Fortnightly Review,' April 1, 1871, p. 426. He has, also, now published his final conclusions in vol. ii. of the second edit. of the `Principles of Psychology,' 1872, p. 539. I may state, in order that I may not be accused of trespassing on Mr. Spencer's domain, that I announced in my `Descent of Man,' that I had then written a part of the present volume: my first MS. notes on the subject of expression bear the date of the year 1838. All the authors who have written on Expression, with the exception of Mr. Spencer--the great expounder of the principle of Evolution-- appear to have been firmly convinced that species, man of course included, came into existence in their present condition. Sir C. Bell, being thus convinced, maintains that many of our facial muscles are "purely instrumental in expression;" or are "a special provision" for this sole object. But the simple fact that the anthropoid apes possess the same facial muscles as we do, renders it very improbable that these muscles in our case serve exclusively for expression; for no one, I presume, would be inclined to admit that monkeys have been endowed with special muscles solely for exhibiting their hideous grimaces. Distinct uses, independently of expression, can indeed be assigned with much probability for almost all the facial muscles. Sir C. Bell evidently wished to draw as broad a distinction as possible between man and the lower animals; and he consequently asserts that with "the lower creatures there is no expression but what may be referred, more or less plainly, to their acts of volition or necessary instincts." He further maintains that their faces "seem chiefly capable of expressing rage and fear." But man himself cannot express love and humility by external signs, so plainly as does a dog, when with drooping ears, hanging lips, flexuous body, and wagging tail, he meets his beloved master. Nor can these movements in the dog be explained by acts of volition or necessary instincts, any more than the beaming eyes and smiling cheeks of a man when he meets an old friend. If Sir C. Bell had been questioned about the expression of affection in the dog, he would no doubt have answered that this animal had been created with special instincts, adapting him for association with man, and that all further enquiry on the subject was superfluous. `Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. pp. 98, 121, 131. Professor Owen expressly states (Proc. Zoolog. Soc. 1830, p. 28) that this is the case with respect to the Orang, and specifies all the more important muscles which are well known to serve with man for the expression of his feelings. See, also, a description of several of the facial muscles in the Chimpanzee, by Prof. Macalister, in `Annals and Magazine of Natural History,' vol. vii. May, 1871, p. 342. `Anatomy of Expression,' pp. 121, 138. Although Gratiolet emphatically denies that any muscle has been developed solely for the sake of expression, he seems never to have reflected on the principle of evolution. He apparently looks at each species as a separate creation. So it is with the other writers on Expression. For instance, Dr. Duchenne, after speaking of the movements of the limbs, refers to those which give expression to the face, and remarks: "Le createur n'a donc pas eu a se preoccuper ici des besoins de la mecanique; il a pu, selon sa sagesse, ou--que l'on me pardonne cette maniere de parler--par une divine fantaisie, mettre en action tel ou tel muscle, un seul ou plusieurs muscles a la fois, lorsqu'il a voulu que les signes caracteristiques des passions, meme les plus fugaces, lussent ecrits passagerement sur la face de l'homme. Ce langage de la physionomie une fois cree, il lui a suffi, pour le rendre universel et immuable, de donner a tout etre humain la faculte instinctive d'exprimer toujours ses sendments par la contraction des memes muscles." Many writers consider the whole subject of Expression as inexplicable. Thus the illustrious physiologist Muller, says, "The completely different expression of the features in different passions shows that, according to the kind of feeling excited, entirely different groups of the fibres of the facial nerve are acted on. Of the cause of this we are quite ignorant." `De la Physionomie,' pp. 12, 73. `Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' 8vo edit. p. 31. `Elements of Physiology,' English translation, vol. ii. p. 934. No doubt as long as man and all other animals are viewed as independent creations, an effectual stop is put to our natural desire to investigate as far as possible the causes of Expression. By this doctrine, anything and everything can be equally well explained; and it has proved as pernicious with respect to Expression as to every other branch of natural history. With mankind some expressions, such as the bristling of the hair under the influence of extreme terror, or the uncovering of the teeth under that of furious rage, can hardly be understood, except on the belief that man once existed in a much lower and animal-like condition. The community of certain expressions in distinct though allied species, as in the movements of the same facial muscles during laughter by man and by various monkeys, is rendered somewhat more intelligible, if we believe in their descent from a common progenitor. He who admits on general grounds that the structure and habits of all animals have been gradually evolved, will look at the whole subject of Expression in a new and interesting light. The study of Expression is difficult, owing to the movements being often extremely slight, and of a fleeting nature. A difference may be clearly perceived, and yet it may be impossible, at least I have found it so, to state in what the difference consists. When we witness any deep emotion, our sympathy is so strongly excited, that close observation is forgotten or rendered almost impossible; of which fact I have had many curious proofs. Our imagination is another and still more serious source of error; for if from the nature of the circumstances we expect to see any expression, we readily imagine its presence. Notwithstanding Dr. Duchenne's great experience, he for a long time fancied, as he states, that several muscles contracted under certain emotions, whereas he ultimately convinced himself that the movement was confined to a single muscle. In order to acquire as good a foundation as possible, and to ascertain, independently of common opinion, how far particular movements of the features and gestures are really expressive of certain states of the mind, I have found the following means the most serviceable. In the first place, to observe infants; for they exhibit many emotions, as Sir C. Bell remarks, "with extraordinary force;" whereas, in after life, some of our expressions "cease to have the pure and simple source from which they spring in infancy." In the second place, it occurred to me that the insane ought to be studied, as they are liable to the strongest passions, and give uncontrolled vent to them. I had, myself, no opportunity of doing this, so I applied to Dr. Maudsley and received from him an introduction to Dr. J. Crichton Browne, who has charge of an immense asylum near Wakefield, and who, as I found, had already attended to the subject. This excellent observer has with unwearied kindness sent me copious notes and descriptions, with valuable suggestions on many points; and I can hardly over-estimate the value of his assistance. I owe also, to the kindness of Mr. Patrick Nicol, of the Sussex Lunatic Asylum, interesting statements on two or three points. Thirdly Dr. Duchenne galvanized, as we have already seen, certain muscles in the face of an old man, whose skin was little sensitive, and thus produced various expressions which were photographed on a large scale. It fortunately occurred to me to show several of the best plates, without a word of explanation, to above twenty educated persons of various ages and both sexes, asking them, in each case, by what emotion or feeling the old man was supposed to be agitated; and I recorded their answers in the words which they used. Several of the expressions were instantly recognised by almost everyone, though described in not exactly the same terms; and these may, I think, be relied on as truthful, and will hereafter be specified. On the other hand, the most widely different judgments were pronounced in regard to some of them. This exhibition was of use in another way, by convincing me how easily we may be misguided by our imagination; for when I first looked through Dr. Duchenne's photographs, reading at the same time the text, and thus learning what was intended, I was struck with admiration at the truthfulness of all, with only a few exceptions. Nevertheless, if I had examined them without any explanation, no doubt I should have been as much perplexed, in some cases, as other persons have been. "Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. p. 198. Fourthly, I had hoped to derive much aid from the great masters in painting and sculpture, who are such close observers. Accordingly, I have looked at photographs and engravings of many well-known works; but, with a few exceptions, have not thus profited. The reason no doubt is, that in works of art, beauty is the chief object; and strongly contracted facial muscles destroy beauty. The story of the composition is generally told with wonderful force and truth by skilfully given accessories. See remarks to this effect in Lessing's `Lacooon,' translated by W. Ross, 1836, p. 19. Fifthly, it seemed to me highly important to ascertain whether the same expressions and gestures prevail, as has often been asserted without much evidence, with all the races of mankind, especially with those who have associated but little with Europeans. Whenever the same movements of the features or body express the same emotions in several distinct races of man, we may infer with much probability, that such expressions are true ones,--that is, are innate or instinctive. Conventional expressions or gestures, acquired by the individual during early life, would probably have differed in the different races, in the same manner as do their languages. Accordingly I circulated, early in the year 1867, the following printed queries with a request, which has been fully responded to, that actual observations, and not memory, might be trusted. These queries were written after a considerable interval of time, during which my attention had been otherwise directed, and I can now see that they might have been greatly improved. To some of the later copies, I appended, in manuscript, a few additional remarks:-- (1.) Is astonishment expressed by the eyes and mouth being opened wide, and by the eyebrows being raised? (2.) Does shame excite a blush when the colour of the skin allows it to be visible? and especially how low down the body does the blush extend? (3.) When a man is indignant or defiant does he frown, hold his body and head erect, square his shoulders and clench his fists? (4) When considering deeply on any subject, or trying to understand any puzzle, does he frown, or wrinkle the skin beneath the lower eyelids? (5.) When in low spirits, are the corners of the mouth depressed, and the inner corner of the eyebrows raised by that muscle which the French call the "Grief muscle"? The eyebrow in this state becomes slightly oblique, with a little swelling at the Inner end; and the forehead is transversely wrinkled in the middle part, but not across the whole breadth, as when the eyebrows are raised in surprise. (6.) When in good spirits do the eyes sparkle, with the skin a little wrinkled round and under them, and with the mouth a little drawn back at the corners? (7.) When a man sneers or snarls at another, is the corner of the upper lip over the canine or eye tooth raised on the side facing the man whom he addresses? (8) Can a dogged or obstinate expression be recognized, which is chiefly shown by the mouth being firmly closed, a lowering brow and a slight frown? (9.) Is contempt expressed by a slight protrusion of the lips and by turning up the nose, and with a slight expiration? (10) Is disgust shown by the lower lip being turned down, the upper lip slightly raised, with a sudden expiration, something like incipient vomiting, or like something spit out of the mouth? (11.) Is extreme fear expressed in the same general manner as with Europeans? (12.) Is laughter ever carried to such an extreme as to bring tears into the eyes? (13.) When a man wishes to show that he cannot prevent something being done, or cannot himself do something, does he shrug his shoulders, turn inwards his elbows, extend outwards his hands and open the palms; with the eyebrows raised? (14) Do the children when sulky, pout or greatly protrude the lips? (15.) Can guilty, or sly, or jealous expressions be recognized? though I know not how these can be defined. (16.) Is the head nodded vertically in affirmation, and shaken laterally in negation? Observations on natives who have had little communication with Europeans would be of course the most valuable, though those made on any natives would be of much interest to me. General remarks on expression are of comparatively little value; and memory is so deceptive that I earnestly beg it may not be trusted. A definite description of the countenance under any emotion or frame of mind, with a statement of the circumstances under which it occurred, would possess much value. To these queries I have received thirty-six answers from different observers, several of them missionaries or protectors of the aborigines, to all of whom I am deeply indebted for the great trouble which they have taken, and for the valuable aid thus received. I will specify their names, &c., towards the close of this chapter, so as not to interrupt my present remarks. The answers relate to several of the most distinct and savage races of man. In many instances, the circumstances have been recorded under which each expression was observed, and the expression itself described. In such cases, much confidence may be placed in the answers. When the answers have been simply yes or no, I have always received them with caution. It follows, from the information thus acquired, that the same state of mind is expressed throughout the world with remarkable uniformity; and this fact is in itself interesting as evidence of the close similarity in bodily structure and mental disposition of all the races, of mankind. Sixthly, and lastly, I have attended. as closely as I could, to the expression of the several passions in some of the commoner animals; and this I believe to be of paramount importance, not of course for deciding how far in man certain expressions are characteristic of certain states of mind, but as affording the safest basis for generalisation on the causes, or origin, of the various movements of Expression. In observing animals, we are not so likely to be biassed by our imagination; and we may feel safe that their expressions are not conventional. From the reasons above assigned, namely, the fleeting nature of some expressions (the changes in the features being often extremely slight); our sympathy being easily aroused when we behold any strong emotion, and our attention thus distracted; our imagination deceiving us, from knowing in a vague manner what to expect, though certainly few of us know what the exact changes in the countenance are; and lastly, even our long familiarity with the subject,--from all these causes combined, the observation of Expression is by no means easy, as many persons, whom I have asked to observe certain points, have soon discovered. Hence it is difficult to determine, with certainty, what are the movements of the features and of the body, which commonly characterize certain states of the mind. Nevertheless, some of the doubts and difficulties have, as I hope, been cleared away by the observation of infants,-- of the insane,--of the different races of man,--of works of art,-- and lastly, of the facial muscles under the action of galvanism, as effected by Dr. Duchenne. But there remains the much greater difficulty of understanding the cause or origin of the several expressions, and of judging whether any theoretical explanation is trustworthy. Besides, judging as well as we can by our reason, without the aid of any rules, which of two or more explanations is the most satisfactory, or are quite unsatisfactory, I see only one way of testing our conclusions. This is to observe whether the same principle by which one expression can, as it appears, be explained, is applicable in other allied cases; and especially, whether the same general principles can be applied with satisfactory results, both to man and the lower animals. This latter method, I am inclined to think, is the most serviceable of all. The difficulty of judging of the truth of any theoretical explanation, and of testing it by some distinct line of investigation, is the great drawback to that interest which the study seems well fitted to excite. Finally, with respect to my own observations, I may state that they were commenced in the year 1838; and from that time to the present day, I have occasionally attended to the subject. At the above date, I was already inclined to believe in the principle of evolution, or of the derivation of species from other and lower forms. Consequently, when I read Sir C. Bell's great work, his view, that man had been created with certain muscles specially adapted for the expression of his feelings, struck me as unsatisfactory. It seemed probable that the habit of expressing our feelings by certain movements, though now rendered innate, had been in some manner gradually acquired. But to discover how such habits had been acquired was perplexing in no small degree. The whole subject had to be viewed under a new aspect, and each expression demanded a rational explanation. This belief led me to attempt the present work, however imperfectly it may have been executed.-------- I will now give the names of the gentlemen to whom, as I have said, I am deeply indebted for information in regard to the expressions exhibited by various races of man, and I will specify some of the circumstances under which the observations were in each case made. Owing to the great kindness and powerful influence of Mr. Wilson, of Hayes Place, Kent, I have received from Australia no less than thirteen sets of answers to my queries. This has been particularly fortunate, as the Australian aborigines rank amongst the most distinct of all the races of man. It will be seen that the observations have been chiefly made in the south, in the outlying parts of the colony of Victoria; but some excellent answers have been received from the north. Mr. Dyson Lacy has given me in detail some valuable observations, made several hundred miles in the interior of Queensland. To Mr. R. Brough Smyth, of Melbourne, I am much indebted for observations made by himself, and for sending me several of the following letters, namely:--From the Rev. Mr. Hagenauer, of Lake Wellington, a missionary in Gippsland, Victoria, who has had much experience with the natives. From Mr. Samuel Wilson, a landowner, residing at Langerenong, Wimmera, Victoria. From the Rev. George Taplin, superintendent of the native Industrial Settlement at Port Macleay. From Mr. Archibald G. Lang, of Coranderik, Victoria, a teacher at a school where aborigines, old and young, are collected from all parts of the colony. From Mr. H. B. Lane, of Belfast, Victoria, a police magistrate and warden, whose observations, as I am assured, are highly trustworthy. From Mr. Templeton Bunnett, of Echuca, whose station is on the borders of the colony of Victoria, and who has thus been able to observe many aborigines who have had little intercourse with white men. He compared his observations with those made by two other gentlemen long resident in the neighbourhood. Also from Mr. J. Bulmer, a missionary in a remote part of Gippsland, Victoria. I am also indebted to the distinguished botanist, Dr. Ferdinand Muller, of Victoria, for some observations made by himself, and for sending me others made by Mrs. Green, as well as for some of the foregoing letters. In regard to the Maoris of New Zealand, the Rev. J. W. Stack has answered only a few of my queries; but the answers have been remarkably full, clear, and distinct, with the circumstances recorded under which the observations were made. The Rajah Brooke has given me some information with respect to the Dyaks of Borneo. Respecting the Malays, I have been highly successful; for Mr. F. Geach (to whom I was introduced by Mr. Wallace), during his residence as a mining engineer in the interior of Malacca, observed many natives, who had never before associated with white men. He wrote me two long letters with admirable and detailed observations on their expression. He likewise observed the Chinese immigrants in the Malay archipelago. The well-known naturalist, H. M. Consul, Mr. Swinhoe, also observed for me the Chinese in their native country; and he made inquiries from others whom he could trust. In India Mr. H. Erskine, whilst residing in his official capacity in the Admednugur District in the Bombay Presidency, attended to the expression of the inhabitants, but found much difficulty in arriving at any safe conclusions, owing to their habitual concealment of all emotions in the presence of Europeans. He also obtained information for me from Mr. West, the Judge in Canara, and he consulted some intelligent native gentlemen on certain points. In Calcutta Mr. J. Scott, curator of the Botanic Gardens, carefully observed the various tribes of men therein employed during a considerable period, and no one has sent me such full and valuable details. The habit of accurate observation, gained by his botanical studies, has been brought to bear on our present subject. For Ceylon I am much indebted to the Rev. S. O. Glenie for answers to some of my queries. Turning to Africa, I have been unfortunate with respect to the negroes, though Mr. Winwood Reade aided me as far as lay in his power. It would have been comparatively easy to have obtained information in regard to the negro slaves in America; but as they have long associated with white men, such observations would have possessed little value. In the southern parts of the continent Mrs. Barber observed the Kafirs and Fingoes, and sent me many distinct answers. Mr. J. P. Mansel Weale also made some observations on the natives, and procured for me a curious document, namely, the opinion, written in English, of Christian Gaika, brother of the Chief Sandilli, on the expressions of his fellow-countrymen. In the northern regions of Africa Captain Speedy, who long resided with the Abyssinians, answered my queries partly from memory and partly from observations made on the son of King Theodore, who was then under his charge. Professor and Mrs. Asa Gray attended to some points in the expressions of the natives, as observed by them whilst ascending the Nile. On the great American continent Mr. Bridges, a catechist residing with the Fuegians, answered some few questions about their expression, addressed to him many years ago. In the northern half of the continent Dr. Rothrock attended to the expressions of the wild Atnah and Espyox tribes on the Nasse River, in North-Western America. Mr. Washington Matthews Assistant-Surgeon in the United States Army, also observed with special care (after having seen my queries, as printed in the `Smithsonian Report') some of the wildest tribes in the Western parts of the United States, namely, the Tetons, Grosventres, Mandans, and Assinaboines; and his answers have proved of the highest value. Lastly, besides these special sources of information, I have collected some few facts incidentally given in books of travels.-------- As I shall often have to refer, more especially in the latter part of this volume, to the muscles of the human face, I have had a diagram (fig. 1) copied and reduced from Sir C. Bell's work, and two others, with more accurate details (figs. 2 and 3), from Herde's well-known `Handbuch der Systematischen Anatomie des Menschen.' The same letters refer to the same muscles in all three figures, but the names are given of only the more important ones to which I shall have to allude. The facial muscles blend much together, and, as I am informed, hardly appear on a dissected face so distinct as they are here represented. Some writers consider that these muscles consist of nineteen pairs, with one unpaired; but others make the number much larger, amounting even to fifty-five, according to Moreau. They are, as is admitted by everyone who has written on the subject, very variable in structure; and Moreau remarks that they are hardly alike in half-a-dozen subjects. They are also variable in function. Thus the power of uncovering the canine tooth on one side differs much in different persons. The power of raising the wings of the nostrils is also, according to Dr. Piderit, variable in a remarkable degree; and other such cases could be given. Mr. Partridge in Todd's `Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology,' vol. ii. p. 227. `La Physionomie,' par G. Lavater, tom. iv. 1820, p. 274. On the number of the facial muscles, see vol. iv. pp. 209-211. " `Mimik und Physiognomik,' 1867, s. 91. Finally, I must have the pleasure of expressing my obligations to Mr. Rejlander for the trouble which he has taken in photographing for me various expressions and gestures. I am also indebted to Herr Kindermann, of Hamburg, for the loan of some excellent negatives of crying infants; and to Dr. Wallich for a charming one of a smiling girl. I have already expressed my obligations to Dr. Duchenne for generously permitting me to have some of his large photographs copied and reduced. All these photographs have been printed by the Heliotype process, and the accuracy of the copy is thus guaranteed. These plates are referred to by Roman numerals. I am also greatly indebted to Mr. T. W. Wood for the extreme pains which he has taken in drawing from life the expressions of various animals. A distinguished artist, Mr. Riviere, has had the kindness to give me two drawings of dogs--one in a hostile and the other in a humble and caressing frame of mind. Mr. A. May has also given me two similar sketches of dogs. Mr. Cooper has taken much care in cutting the blocks. Some of the photographs and drawings, namely, those by Mr. May, and those by Mr. Wolf of the Cynopithecus, were first reproduced by Mr. Cooper on wood by means of photography, and then engraved: by this means almost complete fidelity is ensured.

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http://www.malaspina.com/etext/emotioniii.htm

2013-05-24T16:10:26Z

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|Cedar Bog Nature Preserve| Boardwalk crossing Cedar Bog |Location||Champaign County, Ohio| |Area||450 acres (180 ha)| Cedar Bog State Nature Preserve is a fen left behind by the retreating glaciers of the Wisconsin glaciation about 12,000-18,000 years ago. A protected area of about 450 acres (180 ha) of fen remain from the original area of approximately 7,000 acres (28 km²). Cedar Bog is located in Champaign County, Ohio, United States, near the city of Urbana. Ground water from the Mad River Valley and the Urbana Outwash percolate through hundreds of feet of gravel left behind by the glacier in the Teays River. The Teays River is an underground river that existed before the Wisconsin glacier which, before the glacier, rivaled the Ohio River in size. In addition to the water that feeds the bog, the glacier also left behind plants that are unique to Cedar Bog. Many of these plants are rare or endangered. The sedges and other plants that grow here left behind by the last glacier were the food for mastodons and giant sloths that once roamed the earth. Also, trees found here like Bog Birch and Northern White Cedar are more commonly found in the more northern Boreal Forest. Cedar Bog is also the home of the endangered Spotted Turtle, Massasauga Rattlesnake, and Milbert's tortoise-shell butterfly. Here you can share your comments or contribute with more information, content, resources or links about this topic.

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http://www.mashpedia.com/Cedar_Bog

2013-05-24T16:18:57Z

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Friday, November 16, 2012 2:29:48 PM As technology advances, cybercriminals have developed more sophisticated ways to compromise devices. Unless consumers are educated about new forms of threats, they may be tricked into allowing a hacker access to personal files. According to a study conducted by the Georgia Tech Information Security Center (GTISC) and the Georgia Tech Research Institute (GTRI), hackers have improved their methods for capturing and exploiting confidential data, Dark Reading reported. The 2013 Georgia Tech Emerging Cyber Threats Report features threat predictions and advice from industry and academic leaders in the field of cybersecurity. Experts said that users should be aware of a few advances in cybercrime, including a rise in cloud-based botnets and search history poisoning. Network World reported that more hackers will employ the cloud for malicious reasons. By creating a powerful network, cybercriminals can control machines via cloud computing services and exploit information. Search history poisoning refers to when attackers can modify Internet users' search history by adding algorithms that lead them to malicious websites, which can give hackers access to a person's online profiles, according to Threatpost. If people continue to store personal and business files on their computers, mobile devices and in the cloud, cybercriminals will attack networks and take advantage of uses' lack of knowledge, said Wenke Lee, the director of GTISC. To ensure data protection and prevent computer assaults, consumers must take a proactive approach to cybersecurity. Professionals should learn about ways to protect information by reading up on new threats. They should also install firewalls and web security software to monitor and block malicious activities. The use of strong passwords is another form of data loss prevention. It will be harder for a hacker to crack long passwords that contain numbers, letters and symbols. -McAfee Cloud Security

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http://www.mcafee.com/ca/solutions/cloud-security/news/2012-11-16-01.aspx

2013-05-24T16:38:15Z

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en

US Teens Tops (in Weight) The US is No. 1 in many areas. Unfortunately, we are also No. 1 in having the greatest number of overweight teenagers. This is the conclusion of a collaborative study of almost 30,000 teenagers living in 15 countries. The data was collected and analyzed by researchers in Denmark and the US. The US turned out to have the highest prevalence of overweight teens. Comments: This is one place where the US shouldn't be No. 1. The 15 countries in this study were Austria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Flemish Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Lithuania, Ireland, Israel, Portugal, Slovakia, Sweden, and the US. Aside from the US, the other 14 countries have predominantly Caucasian populations. It would have been valuable to include countries from Latin America and Africa. U.S. TEENS MORE OVERWEIGHT THAN YOUTH IN 14 OTHER COUNTRIES U.S. teens are more likely to be overweight than are teens from 14 other industrialized nations, according to survey information collected in 1997 and 1998 by two agencies of the Department of Health and Human Services as well as institutions in 13 European countries and in Israel. The study appears in the January issue of "The Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine". HHS authors of the study were Mary Overpeck, Dr.P.H., of the Health Resources and Services Administration and Mary Hediger, Ph.D., of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, one of the National Institutes of Health. "Overweight adolescents have an increased likelihood of being overweight during adulthood, and adult overweight increases the risk for such health problems as heart disease and diabetes," said Duane Alexander, M.D., Director of the NICHD. The researchers relied on a measure known as body mass index (BMI) to gauge obesity. In the study, the researchers calculated BMI by dividing the children's weight in kilograms by the square of his or her height in meters. For children and adolescents, a BMI at or above the 95th percentile for their age is considered to be overweight. A BMI from the 85th to the 94th percentile for their age is considered to be at risk for being overweight. In the study, headed by Inge Lissau, Ph.D. from Denmark, the researchers tabulated the BMIs of 29,242 children 13 and 15 years of age. The children were from Austria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Flemish Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Lithuania, Ireland, Israel, Portugal, Slovakia, Sweden, and the United States. The children's BMIs were based on self-reported heights and weights collected from surveys the children answered in school. Children from the United States were the most likely to be overweight. Among 13-year-old boys in the U.S., 12.6 percent were overweight. Among 13-year-old girls, 10.8 percent were overweight. For U.S. 15 year olds, 13.9 percent of boys were overweight, and 15.1 percent of girls were overweight. Among the other countries taking part in the study, Greece had the next highest proportion of overweight 13-year-old boys, at 8.9 percent, followed by Ireland, at 7 percent. Portugal had the next highest proportion of overweight 13- year-old girls, at 8.3 percent, followed by Ireland, at 6.6 percent. After the U.S., Greece had the next highest proportion of overweight 15-year-old boys, at 10.8 percent, followed by Israel, at 6.8 percent. For 15-year-old girls, Portugal had the next highest proportion of overweight, at 6.7 percent, followed by Denmark, at 6.5 percent. Of all the countries that took part in the study, Lithuania had the lowest proportion of overweight, at 1.8 percent in 13-year-old boys, 2.6 percent in 13-year-old girls, .08 percent in 15-year-old boys, and 2.1 percent in 15-year-old girls. "Since most obese adolescents remain obese as adults, this age group is a very important group to reach through preventive programs addressing issues of diet and sedentary lifestyles," the study authors wrote. Source: NIH News from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) at http://www.nichd.nih.gov/. Last Editorial Review: 1/6/2004 Get the latest health and medical information delivered direct to your inbox FREE!

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http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=26005

2013-05-24T16:39:34Z

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What Tests Does Your Newborn Baby Need? You may think your child's first test will come in school, but it will actually happen before leaving the hospital's newborn unit. Early screening tests for babies can find problems before symptoms arise, prompting early treatment. Most screenings involve a blood test. The sample often goes to a state laboratory; your baby's health care provider gets the results. Newborn screening requirements vary by state. The March of Dimes, which wants to expand screenings in many states, recommends checking for: Biotinidase deficiency: an enzyme deficiency that can result in physical and mental problems. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia: CAH is characterized by an imbalance in hormones; some are higher than normal, some are lower. Congenital hypothyroidism: a hormone disorder that can slow brain development and growth. Cystic fibrosis: a genetic disorder that affects the lungs and digestive system. Galactosemia: an inability to change galactose, a sugar in milk, into glucose (blood sugar), sometimes causing physical or mental problems. Homocystinuria: an amino acid disorder that can result in mental or physical problems. Maple syrup urine disease: an amino acid disorder that can result in physical problems. Medium chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency: a disorder in which babies can't burn fat when they run out of glucose. It can cause physical problems. Phenylketonuria: a disorder in which the amino acid phenylalanine builds up in the blood, causing mental problems. Sickle cell anemia: a hereditary blood disease more common in African Americans. Hearing loss: a microphone or earphone is placed in the baby's ear to test for hearing loss. If it's found, use of a hearing aid during the baby's first six months can help head off language problems. To learn which tests your state performs, ask your health care provider or go to the National Newborn Screening and Genetics Resource Center. Talk with your health care provider about the need for screenings that your state doesn't require. Your health care provider might suggest other tests, too, based on your family history.

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2013-05-24T16:24:36Z

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en

: something that is folded together or that enfolds a: a bend or flexure produced in rock by forces operative after the depositing or consolidation of the rock bchiefly British: an undulation in the landscape : a margin apparently formed by the doubling upon itself of a flat anatomical structure (as a membrane) : a crease made by folding something (as a newspaper) Illustration of FOLD First Known Use of FOLD In geology, an undulation or wave in the stratified rocks of the Earth's crust. Stratified rocks were originally formed from sediments that were deposited in flat, horizontal sheets, although in some places the strata are no longer horizontal but have warped. The warping may be so gentle that the inclination of the strata is barely perceptible, or it may be so pronounced that the strata of the two flanks are essentially parallel or nearly flat. Folds vary widely in size; the tops of large folds are commonly eroded away on the Earth's surface.

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2013-05-24T16:19:39Z

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Using batch files With batch files, which are also called batch programs or scripts, you can simplify routine or repetitive tasks. A batch file is an unformatted text file that contains one or more commands and has a .bat or .cmd file name extension. When you type the file name at the command prompt, Cmd.exe runs the commands sequentially as they appear in the file. You can include any command in a batch file. Certain commands, such as for, goto, and if, enable you to do conditional processing of the commands in the batch file. For example, the if command carries out a command based on the results of a condition. Other commands allow you to control input and output and call other batch files. The standard error codes that most applications return are 0 if no error occurred and 1 (or higher value) if an error occurred. Please refer to your application help documentation to determine the meaning of specific error codes. For more information about batch file operations, see the following topics: For more information about commands that you can use in batch files, click a command:

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http://www.microsoft.com/resources/documentation/windows/xp/all/proddocs/en-us/batch.mspx

2013-05-24T16:32:09Z

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Native Americans of San Jose The language family which anthropologists call the Costanoan occupied the region from Monterey up to the Bay area. Costanoan is derived from the Spanish word meaning "coast people." Another general term that is used to designate speakers of the Coastanoan language is Ohlone. This is the most common term used for the San Jose and San Francisco de Asis Indians. San Jose also recruited Indians from other groups. Neophytes at the mission included some Lake Miwok (who lived near the creeks and streams south of Clear Lake), Eastern Miwok (occupying land north of the mission), Coast Miwok (whose villages extended from Sausalito up to Bodega Bay), Patwin (who lived in the region from the San Francisco Bay to the western parts of the Sacramento valley) and Northern Valley Yokuts (whose land was east of San Jose and extended up to Stockton). Sadly the number of natives in the Bay area declined steadily after the mission era ended. Most of the neophytes became laborers on area ranches. In the 1840s there were a number of multiethnic Indian communities in the area, composed of the people who had lived at the missions. However, these shrank in size as the young people moved away. The Indian Scholar Richard Levy reports that "the Costanoan languages were probably all extinct by 1935." No official Federal government recognition has ever been given to the Costanoans. 1 - 1. "Costanoan" by Richard Levy pp 485-495; "Eastern Miwok" by Richard Levy pp 398413-425; "Northern Valley Yokuts " by William J. Wallace pp 462-470 in Volume 8 CALIFORNIA of Handbook of North American Indians, Smithsonian Institute: Washington D.C., 1978

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http://www.missionscalifornia.com/content/native-americans-san-jose.html

2013-05-24T16:31:16Z

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Fundamentals of the Reggio Approach* Children are rich, strong, and capable. The child as protagonist Children are rich, strong, and capable. All children have preparedness, potential, curiosity, and interest in constructing their learning, negotiating with everything their environment brings to them. Children, teachers, and parents are considered the three central protagonists in the educational process (Gandini, 1993). The child as collaborator Education has to focus on each child in relationship to other children, the family, the teachers, and the community rather than on each child in isolation (Gandini, 1993). There is an emphasis on work in small groups. This practice is based on the social constructivist model that supports the idea that we form ourselves through our interaction with peers, adults, things in the world, and symbols (Lewin, 1995). The child as communicator This approach fosters children’s intellectual development through a systematic focus on symbolic representations including words, movement, drawing, painting, building, sculpture, shadow play, collage, dramatic play, and music, which leads children to surprising levels of communication, symbolic skills, and creativity (Edwards, et al., 1993). Children have the right to use many materials in order to discover and communicate what they know, understand, wonder about, question, feel and imagine. In this way, they make their thinking visible through their many natural “languages.” A studio teacher, trained in the visual arts, works closely with children and teachers in each school to enable children to explore many materials and to use a great number of languages to make their learning visible. The environment as third teacher The design and use of space encourage encounters, communication, and relationships (Gandini, 1993). There is an underlying order and beauty in the design and organization of all the space in a school and the equipment and materials within it (Lewin, 1995). Every corner of every space has an identity and purpose, is rich in potential to engage and to communicate, and is valued and cared for by children and adults. The teacher as partner, nurturer, and guide (Edwards, 1993) Teachers facilitate children’s exploration of themes, work on short- and long-term projects, and guide experiences of joint, open-ended discovery and problem solving (Edwards et al., 1993). To know how to plan and proceed with their work, teachers listen and observe children closely. Teachers ask questions; discover children’s ideas, hypotheses, and theories; and provide occasions for discovery and learning (Gandini, 1993). The teacher as researcher Teachers work in pairs and maintain strong, collegial relationships with all other teachers and staff; they engage in continuous discussion and interpretation of their work and the work of the children. These exchanges provide ongoing training and theoretical enrichment. Teachers see themselves as researchers preparing documentation of their work with children, whom they also consider researchers. The teacher is further supported by a pedagogista (pedagogical coordinator) who serves a group of schools (Gandini, 1993). The documentation as communication Careful consideration and attention are given to the presentation of the thinking of the children and the adults who work with them. Teachers’ commentary on the purposes of the study and the children’s learning process, transcription of children’s verbal language (i.e., words and dialogue), photographs of their activity, and representations of their thinking in many media are composed in carefully designed panels or books to present the process of learning in the schools. The documentation serves many purposes. It makes parents aware of their children’s experience. It allows teachers to better understand children, to evaluate their own work, and to exchange ideas with other educators. Documentation also shows the children that their work is valued. Finally, it creates an archive that traces the history of the school and the pleasure in the process of learning by many children and their teachers (Gandini, 1993). The parent as partner Parent participation is considered essential and takes many forms. Parents play an active part in their children’s learning experiences and help ensure the welfare of all the children in the school. The ideas and skills that families bring to the school and, even more important, the exchange of ideas between parents and teachers, favor the development of a new way of educating, which helps the teachers to view the participation of families not as a threat but as an intrinsic element of collegiality and as the integration of different wisdoms (Spaggiari, 1993). *This is an excerpt from Bringing Reggio Emilia Home. Bibliographic information is below. Cadwell, Louise Boyd. Bringing Reggio Emilia Home: An Innovative Approach to Early Childhood. New York: Teachers College Press, 1997.

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2013-05-24T16:25:33Z

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A new image released today reveals how Gemini Observatory's most advanced adaptive optics (AO) system will help astronomers study the universe with an unprecedented level of clarity and detail by removing distortions due to the Earth's atmosphere. The photo, featuring an area on the outskirts of the famous Orion Nebula, illustrates the instrument's significant advancements over previous-generation AO systems. Newly released Hubble Space Telescope images of a vast debris disk encircling the nearby star Fomalhaut, and of a mysterious planet circling it, may provide forensic evidence of a titanic planetary disruption in the system. UA physicist Andrei Lebed has stirred the physics community with an intriguing idea yet to be tested experimentally: The world's most iconic equation, Albert Einstein's E=mc2, may be correct or not depending on where you are in space. Two University of Texas at Arlington researchers want to bridge the gap between what is known about exploding stars and the remnants left behind thousands of years later. So they're trying something new - using SNSPH, a complex computer code developed at Los Alamos National Laboratory. The sun ejects a continuous flow of electrically charged particles and magnetic fields in the form of the solar wind -- and this wind is hotter than it should be. A new study of data obtained by European Space Agency's Cluster spacecraft may help explain the mystery. Where do we come from? What is the universe made of? Will the universe exist only for a finite time or will it last forever? These are just some of the questions that University of California, San Diego physicists are working to answer in the high desert of northern Chile. Researchers report that - in contrast to the prevailing dogma - sodium levels fluctuate rhythmically with 7-day and monthly cycles. The findings, which demonstrate that sodium is stored in the body, have implications for blood pressure control, hypertension and salt-associated cardiovascular risk. In 2011, a months-long blast of energy launched by an enormous black hole almost 11 billion years ago swept past Earth. Using a combination of data from NASA's Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope and the National Science Foundation's Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA), the world's largest radio telescope, astronomers have zeroed in on the source of this ancient outburst. A new analysis of Kepler data shows that about 17 percent of stars have an Earth-sized planet in an orbit closer than Mercury. Since the Milky Way has about 100 billion stars, there are at least 17 billion Earth-sized worlds out there.

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2013-05-24T16:39:00Z

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Hawaiian Islands 'dissolving from within' Oahu's Koolau and Waianae mountains will be reduced to nothing more than a flat, low-lying island like Midway someday, but the biggest culprit behind this is not erosion as the mountains of Oahu are actually dissolving from within, researchers say. "We tried to figure out how fast the island is going away and what the influence of climate is on that rate," Brigham Young University geologist Steve Nelson said. "More material is dissolving from those islands than what is being carried off through erosion," he said. The research pitted groundwater against stream water to see which removed more mineral material. Nelson and his BYU colleagues spent two months sampling both types of sources. In addition, ground and surface water estimates from the U.S. Geological Survey helped them calculate the total quantity of mass that disappeared from the island each year. "All of the Hawaiian Islands are made of just one kind of rock," Nelson said. "The weathering rates are variable, too, because rainfall is so variable, so it's a great natural laboratory," he said. Forecasting the island's future also needs to account for plate tectonics. As Oahu is pushed northwest, the island actually rises in elevation at a slow but steady rate. You've heard of mountain climbing; this is a mountain that climbs. According to the researchers' estimates, the net effect is that Oahu will continue to grow for as long as 1.5 million years. Beyond that, the force of groundwater will eventually triumph and the island will begin its descent to a low-lying topography. Undergraduate student Brian Selck co-authored the study, but unfortunately for him, he joined the project only after the field work in Hawaii took place. Instead, Selck performed the mineralogical analysis of soil samples in the lab back in Provo. The island's volcanic soil contained at least one surprise in weathered rock called saprolites. "The main thing that surprised me on the way was the appearance of a large amount of quartz in a saprolite taken from a 1-meter depth," Selck said. The study has been published in the journal Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta.

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2013-05-24T16:25:57Z

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THE world's honeybees appear to be dying off in horrifying numbers, and now consensus is starting to emerge on the reason why: it seems there is no one cause. Infections, lack of food, pesticides and breeding - none catastrophic on their own - are having a synergistic effect, pushing bee survival to a lethal tipping point. A somewhat anti-climactic conclusion it may be, but appreciating this complexity - and realising there will be no magic bullet - may be the key to saving the insects. A third of our food relies on bees for pollination. Both the US and UK report losing a third of their bees last year. Other European countries have seen major die-offs too: Italy, for example, said it lost nearly half its bees last year. The deaths are now spreading to Asia, with reports in India and suspected cases in China. But while individual ... To continue reading this article, subscribe to receive access to all of newscientist.com, including 20 years of archive content.

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http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20126954.600-honeybees-under-attack-on-all-fronts.html?DCMP=OTC-rss&nsref=online-news

2013-05-24T16:33:35Z

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Brandon Alms/Desert Space Foundation A winning design from the Desert Space Foundation's contest to design a universal warning sign for the Yucca Mountain site (more designs below.) In Walter M. Miller's post-nuke sci-fi classic A Canticle for Leibowitz, there are no books. Literate people are killed. And underground monks work to preserve what little pre-war knowledge they can salvage, without knowing what the knowledge actually means. The monks' illuminated manuscripts, we learn, are actually blueprints for materials used to make nuclear bombs. There's no way for the monks to know that their saved traces of civilization will, most likely, destroy civilization again. The idea that the dangers of nuclear material might be lost on future descendants is not just limited to apocalyptic science fiction stories. It also worries those who live in Nevada near Yucca Mountain, the site where Congress and President Bush tentatively approved plans to store power-plant nuclear waste for the next 1 million years. Josh Abbey, the director of the Desert Space Foundation in Nevada, says most people are not aware of the consequences of nuclear waste. "The decision to place the waste [in Yucca Mountain] will impact humans 1 million years in the future," he says. "To place that kind of responsibility forward, I can't think of anything more audacious." In 2002, Abbey created a design competition to find a permanent warning sign for the proposed nuclear waste site. The purpose of the competition, he says, is to find a universal warning sign which conveys that the deposit is highly dangerous. One caveat: the symbols have to work even if language or communication breaks down in the future. And the design has to last at least 10,000 years. "Imagine," Abbey says, "that in the future, whoever's here doesn't communicate the way we do." Language and symbols do change over time. A report by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) says that half of the world’s 6,800 languages are in danger of disappearing over the next century. Add the fact that humans are naturally curious creatures who like to explore unknown artifacts (Egyptian pyramids ring a bell?) and you have a potentially deadly situation unfolding eons away. Abbey worries that a universal warning sign could actually encourage exploration. Still, he says, the government needs to design an effective warning symbol that will last far beyond current generations. In the 2002 Universal Warning Sign competition, the submissions were broken down into two categories: practical, technical solutions and sociological or philosophical statements about the futility of the exercise. Below, just some of the designs submitted in the competition:

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2013-05-24T16:11:06Z

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The Southern Appalachians: The Perfect Place for Research The Appalachian Highlands Science Learning Center NEWS: Evidence shows that the felt-soled waders are too difficult to adequately sterilize and can serve as a transport vehicle for propagules of invasive diatoms and other organisms. To reduce the risks of accidentally introducing invasive aquatic species, the park encourages anglers and researchers to use the new rubber/vibram soled wading boots and to follow good cleaning procedures (cleaning, sterilizing, and drying) of equipment prior to using park streams. In 2000, the NPS initiated a program of Research Learning Centers, whose over-arching mission is to increase the effectiveness and communication of research and science results in the national parks through four common goals: The Appalachian Highlands Science Learning Center is hosted by Great Smoky Mountains National Park and serves the Smokies, the Blue Ridge Parkway, Obed Wild and Scenic River, and Big South Fork National River and Recreation Area. Parks can provide a variety of in-kind and logistical contributions to support research, including: Research in NPS sites requires a permit. Review and approval of applications is dependent on the project scope and complexity but normally takes 2-4 weeks. Other state and federal agencies in the region may also require permits for work under their jurisdiction. Please click here for information about securing permits that may be appropriate for your work. It is important that you follow best practices for keeping yourself and the park resources safe: The National Park units supported by this site have research questions that they are especially interested in having addressed. Other research is encouraged that will support park management objectives or further scientific knowledge in the park, as long as the research is not deemed harmful to the park resources or to the enjoyment of the park visitors. View a list of current research permits in Great Smoky Mountains National Park (last updated 16 April, 2013). Did You Know? What lives in Great Smoky Mountains National Park? Although the question sounds simple, it is actually extremely complex. Right now scientists think that we only know about 17 percent of the plants and animals that live in the park, or about 17,000 species of a probable 100,000 different organisms.

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2013-05-24T16:40:40Z

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The more informed you are about HIV, the easier it is to prevent its spread. Let’s separate fact from fiction. You can have HIV for 10 years and not display any symptoms. FACT. You can have HIV for many years before showing severe signs of illness. But remember, just because you don’t feel sick doesn’t mean you’re not sick. There is a vaccine to prevent HIV infection. FICTION. There is no vaccine to prevent HIV infection. HIV only affects gay men and drug users. FICTION. Anyone who practises at-risk behaviour such as unsafe sex can be infected with HIV. This includes men, women, seniors and teens, straight, gay or non-drug users. HIV and AIDS are the same thing. FICTION. HIV is a virus that causes AIDS. AIDS is the most severe form of HIV infection and is defined as the development of a very serious opportunistic infection or cancer – the ones that usually develop in people with a CD4 count of less than 200. If people infected with HIV are not treated, most will eventually develop AIDS. HIV infection can be cured. FICTION. Sadly, there is no cure for HIV infection at this time, which is why it is important to stay proactive in preventing infection. Treatment programs and medications, as well as a better understanding of how HIV acts in the body, are helping people to live normal, productive lives. People with HIV can look and feel well. FACT. A person with HIV can stay feeling healthy for a long time, especially if diagnosed early and treated promptly as the need arises. I have been with the same partner for over a year and we no longer use condoms because we’re monogamous. So I don’t need to get tested, we’re both healthy. FICTION. Even if you are in a monogamous relationship, it is important to get tested for HIV infection and other sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) before engaging in unprotected sexual intercourse, since the virus can be in your body for up to 10 years before you show symptoms. So unless you get tested you won’t know for sure.

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2013-05-24T16:25:35Z

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- Visitors & Friends - About the University Fat is a genetic issue Whether people are fat or thin is down to a complex mix of environmental factors, such as diet and exercise, and their inherited genetic make-up. In 2007 a team of Oxford scientists, working with colleagues at the Peninsula Medical School in Exeter, discovered the strongest genetic link yet to overweight and obesity, and hence to consequences of obesity such as type 2 diabetes. As part of the national Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium, Professor Mark McCarthy and his colleagues scanned the genomes of 2,000 people with diabetes and a further 3,000 without. They found a variant of a gene called FTO that increased the risk of diabetes by 25 per cent in those with one copy of the variant, and 50 per cent in those with two. Searching for this variant in another 37,000 people, they found that those with two copies of it were on average 3kg heavier than those with no copies, and had a 70 per cent greater chance of being obese. At the time this study was published no one knew what FTO’s normal role was in the body. By the end of the year another Oxford team, led by Professor Chris Schofield, had discovered that FTO belongs to a family of enzymes that act directly to repair damaged DNA in the cell nucleus. ‘Even though we have yet fully to understand the role played by the FTO gene in obesity, our findings are a source of great excitement’, says Professor McCarthy. ‘By identifying this genetic link, it should be possible to improve our understanding of why some people are more obese, with all the associated implications such as increased risk of diabetes and heart disease.’ The Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium, which is chaired by Peter Donnelly, Professor of Statistical Science at Oxford, and of which Professor McCarthy’s group is an important part, was named Research Leader of the Year for 2007 in the Scientific American’sSciAm 50 awards. More recently, working with colleagues across the globe in the so-called GIANT consortium, Prof McCarthy, Dr Cecilia Lindgren and other members of their teams in Oxford have extended the list of genes known to influence individual variation in body mass index and risk of obesity. The total number of such genes is now around 15, each of them having a modest effect on differences in adult weight. These findings have reinforced the view that obesity results from subtle abnormalities of food intake and energy expenditure due to alterations of controlling mechanisms active in a part of the brain called the hypothalamus.

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http://www.ox.ac.uk/research/medical_sciences/projects/fat_is_a_genetic.html

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This chapter reviews the methodological and conceptual issues associated with some common behavioral procedures used to assess taste function. It focuses on laboratory rodents, but many of the principles can be generalized to other species. Topics discussed include stimulus preparation, intake tests, oromotor and somatic taste reactivity, brief-access taste test, and taste stimuli as conditioned cues. Oxford Scholarship Online requires a subscription or purchase to access the full text of books within the service. Public users can however freely search the site and view the abstracts and keywords for each book and chapter. If you think you should have access to this title, please contact your librarian.

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http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/oso/viewoxchap/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195162851.001.0001/acprof-9780195162851-chapter-10

2013-05-24T16:32:15Z

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Murder & Intrigue March 1944 to December 1944 Germans tanks roll into Hungary In March 1944 German troops marched into Budapest. Although Hungary was allied to the Nazis, Hitler considered the country an unreliable partner, especially when they refused to deport some 760,000 Hungarian Jews. While Jewish activist Joel Brandt was in Turkey trying to arrange a deal with the Allies, Hungarian Jews were being transported to Auschwitz. As a general rule photography was prohibited at Auschwitz, but a cameraman from the SS took these photographs of an arriving Hungarian transport On April 25, 1944, SS officer Adolf Eichmann, famous for organizing the mass murder of Jews, held a meeting in Budapest with a Hungarian Jew named Joel Brandt. Brandt was a well-known, politically active member of the Jewish community. During the meeting, Eichmann made the surprising offer to sell him one million Hungarian Jews. Nazi Germany, Eichmann explained, was more interested in goods (trucks, in particular) than in money, and he wanted Brandt to travel abroad and connect with international authorities to broker a deal. Shortly thereafter, on May 17, 1944, Eichmann allowed Brandt to leave Hungary. His mission was to see if the Allies would exchange ten thousand trucks for one million Jews. Brandt’s mission was urgent. The deportation of Hungarian Jews to Auschwitz had already begun. A couple of Germans were separating us. When he was looking at the old people he put to the right and the young people to the left. The right lane they took them right away to the gas chamber. Morris Venezia, Hungarian Jewish prisoner, Auschwitz Joel Brandt arrived in Istanbul, Turkey, and met representatives with ties to the Jewish leadership in Palestine. Brandt told them things were getting difficult for the Germans and they wanted to negotiate. He insisted Jerusalem be cabled immediately. The reaction from the room was noncommittal. Brandt was finally told to travel to Aleppo, Syria, where on June 11, 1944, he met with Moshe Shertok of the Jewish Agency. What he heard was bad news for the Jews of Hungary. The British believed that the trucks the Nazis wanted to exchange for Jews was an attempt by Heinrich Himmler to split the Allies. According to the Nazi proposal, the trucks were to be used only on the Eastern Front, against the advancing Red Army. Foreign Office, London At the Foreign Office in London, the Brandt proposal was considered on May 31. The proposal was rejected because the idea of exchanging trucks for Jews was thought to be blackmail. Soon after this decision, the Americans and Soviets also agreed not to negotiate with the Nazis.

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2013-05-24T16:26:55Z

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Overview - BM - PRINT N LEARN THEMATIC UNITS Promote literacy and fine-motor skills with these printable activities. Boardmaker's easy-to-use programs offer a way to extend students' learning experiences. The graphics-based collection features Picture Communication Symbols (PCS). Most can be viewed and printed in several languages. Use these resources to create symbol-based computer activities, printable worksheets, schedules, and more. This Boardmaker collection features the most commonly used software among special educators and speech-language pathologists. Each of 25 thematic units contains a progress log, an I Spy scene, a puzzle, match-ups, and other student-driven activities. Students will love these varied - Vocabulary Pages provide practice in literacy, language and handwriting. - "My Name" Pages document a student's handwriting ability over - Match-ups challenge students to match words and manipulable symbols for assessment and practice. - Puzzles engage students in independent play and practice. - I Spy games provide practice with words in context with colorful, symbol-filled Support for teachers is also included. Progress logs make it easy to keep records for targeted skills for each student. Chalkboard Cards are large individual vocabulary symbols for classroom display. Templates provide blank forms and grids so you can easily make your own materials. It's easy to customize materials to meet your needs. Add, delete, or substitute symbols and labels. Create your own materials using the templates. You can even translate materials into other Themes include Back to School, Baseball, Beach, Body Parts, Breakfast, Community Helpers, Creepy Crawly, December Holidays, Easter, Fall, Farm, Fast Food, February Holidays, Four Seasons, Fruit, Going Places, Halloween, Kitchen, Lunch, Pets, Picnic, Spring, Thanksgiving, Winter, and Zoo. Requires Boardmaker, Boardmaker Plus, or Boardmaker with Speaking Dynamically Pro v.5 or higher. System Requirements: Windows 2000 or later; Mac OS 10.2.8 or later

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http://www.pcieducation.com/store/item.aspx?CategoryId=5&TypeId=23&ItemId=47365

2013-05-24T16:11:46Z

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Iraq Land Tenure and Agrarian Reform Sources: The Library of Congress Country Studies; CIA World Factbook Iraq's system of land tenure and inefficient government implementation of land reform contributed to the low productivity of farmers and the slow growth of the agricultural sector. Land rights had evolved over many centuries, incorporating laws of many cultures and countries. The Ottoman Land Code of 1858 attempted to impose order by establishing categories of land and by requiring surveys and the registration of land holdings. By World War I, only limited registration had been accomplished and land titles were insecure, particularly under the system of tribal tenure through which the state retained ownership of the land although tribes used it. By the early 1930s, large landowners became more interested in secure titles because a period of agricultural expansion was underway. In the north, urban merchants were investing in land development, and in the south tribes were installing pumps and were otherwise improving land (see Rural Society , ch. 2). In response, the government promulgated a law in 1932 empowering it to settle title to land and to speed up the registration of titles. Under the law, a number of tribal leaders and village headmen were granted title to the land that had been worked by their communities. The effect, perhaps unintended, was to replace the semicommunal system with a system of ownership that increased the number of sharecroppers and tenants dramatically. A 1933 law provided that a sharecropper could not leave if he were indebted to the landowner. Because landowners were usually the sole source of credit and almost no sharecropper was free of debt, the law effectively bound many tenants to the land. The land tenure system under the Ottomans, and as modified by subsequent Iraqi governments, provided little incentive to improve productivity. Most farming was conducted by sharecroppers and tenants who received only a portion--often only a small proportion--of the crop. Any increase in production favored owners disproportionately, which served as a disincentive to farmers to produce at more than subsistence level. For their part, absentee owners preferred to spend their money in acquiring more land, rather than to invest in improving the land they had already accumulated. On the eve of the 1958 revolution, more than two-thirds of Iraq's cultivated land was concentrated in 2 percent of the holdings, while at the other extreme, 86 percent of the holdings covered less than 10 percent of the cultivated land. The prerevolutionary government was aware of the inequalities in the countryside and of the poor condition of most tenant farmers, but landlords constituted a strong political force during the monarchical era, and they were able to frustrate remedial legislation. Because the promise of land reform kindled part of the popular enthusiasm for the 1958 revolution and because the powerful landlords posed a potential threat to the new regime, agrarian reform was high on the agenda of the new government, which started the process of land reform within three months of taking power. The 1958 law, modeled after Egypt's law, limited the maximum amount of land an individual owner could retain to 1,000 dunums (100 hectares) of irrigated land or twice that amount of rain-fed land. Holdings above the maximum were expropriated by the government. Compensation was to be paid in state bonds, but in 1969 the government absolved itself of all responsibility to recompense owners. The law provided for the expropriation of 75 percent of all privately owned arable land. The expropriated land, in parcels of between seven and fifteen hectares of irrigated land or double that amount of rainfed land, was to be distributed to individuals. The recipient was to repay the government over a twenty-year period, and he was required to join a cooperative. The law also had temporary provisions maintaining the sharecropping system in the interim between expropriation and redistribution of the land. Landlords were required to continue the management of the land and to supply customary inputs to maintain production, but their share of the crop was reduced considerably. This provision grew in importance as land became expropriated much more rapidly than it was being distributed. By 1968, 10 years after agrarian reform was instituted, 1.7 million hectares had been expropriated, but fewer than 440,000 hectares of sequestered land had been distributed. A total of 645,000 hectares had been allocated to nearly 55,000 families, however, because several hundred thousand hectares of government land were included in the distribution. The situation in the countryside became chaotic because the government lacked the personnel, funds, and expertise to supply credit, seed, pumps, and marketing services--functions that had previously been performed by landlords. Landlords tended to cut their production, and even the best-intentioned landlords found it difficult to act as they had before the land reform because of hostility on all sides. Moreover, the farmers had little interest in cooperatives and joined them slowly and unwillingly. Rural-to- urban migration increased as agricultural production stagnated, and a prolonged drought coincided with these upheavals. Agricultural production fell steeply in the 1960s and never recovered fully. In the 1970s, agrarian reform was carried further. Legislation in 1970 reduced the maximum size of holdings to between 10 and 150 hectares of irrigated land (depending on the type of land and crop) and to between 250 and 500 hectares of nonirrigated land. Holdings above the maximum were expropriated with compensation only for actual improvements such as buildings, pumps, and trees. The government also reserved the right of eminent domain in regard to lowering the holding ceiling and to dispossessing new or old landholders for a variety of reasons. In 1975 an additional reform law was enacted to break up the large estates of Kurdish tribal landowners. Additional expropriations such as these exacerbated the government's land management problems. Although Iraq claimed to have distributed nearly 2 million hectares by the late 1970s, independent observers regarded this figure as greatly exaggerated. The government continued to hold a large proportion of arable land, which, because it was not distributed, often lay fallow. Rural flight increased, and by the late 1970s, farm labor shortages had become so acute that Egyptian farmers were being invited into the country. The original purpose of the land reform had been to break up the large estates and to establish many small owner-operated farms, but fragmentation of the farms made extensive mechanization and economies of scale difficult to achieve, despite the expansion of the cooperative system. Therefore, in the 1970s, the government turned to collectivization as a solution. By 1981 Iraq had established twenty-eight collective state farms that employed 1,346 people and cultivated about 180,000 hectares. In the 1980s, however, the government expressed disappointment at the slow pace of agricultural development, conceding that collectivized state farms were not profitable. In 1983 the government enacted a new law encouraging both local and foreign Arab companies or individuals to lease larger plots of land from the government. By 1984, more than 1,000 leases had been granted. As a further incentive to productivity, the government instituted a profit-sharing plan at state collective farms. By 1987, the wheel appeared to have turned full circle when the government announced plans to reprivatize agriculture by leasing or selling state farms to the private sector. Data as of May 1988 NOTE: The information regarding Iraq on this page is re-published from The Library of Congress Country Studies and the CIA World Factbook. No claims are made regarding the accuracy of Iraq Land Tenure and Agrarian Reform information contained here. All suggestions for corrections of any errors about Iraq Land Tenure and Agrarian Reform should be addressed to the Library of Congress and the CIA.

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2013-05-24T16:44:33Z

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Operators perform operations. They are symbols, or combinations of symbols, that assign value, combine values or compare values, to name just a few of their uses. Without operators, PHP is pretty much useless. In fact, you have already been introduced to several operators without even realizing it! PHP operators can be broken down into several categories, which we will now review, beginning with the operators that we have already learned. Very simply, assignment operators assign value. We have already used the assignment operator to assign values to variables. |=||Assigns A Value| $variable = "abcde"; echo $variable; // Result: abcde String operators, as we have learned, can either link two strings together, or add one string to the end of another string. |.||Concatenates (Links) Two Strings Together| |.=||Adds A String Onto the End of An Existing String| $variable = "abcde" . "fghij"; $variable .= "klmno"; echo $variable; // Result: abcdefghijklmno Math! Some people like it and some people don't. Why not have fun writing a PHP script that does your math for you? |+||Addition Operator (Adds Two Values Together)| |-||Subtraction Operator (Subtracts One Value From Another)| |*||Multiplication Operator (Multiplies Two Values)| |/||Division Operator (Divides One Values From Another)| |%||Modulus Operator (Determines The Remainder of a Division)| Arithmetic operations can be performed on variables, within variables, echoed directly, etc. $addition = 5 + 5; echo $addition; // Result: 10 $subtraction = 5 - 5; echo $subtraction; // Result: 0 $multiplication = 5 * 5; echo $multiplication; // Result: 25 $division = 5 / 5; echo $division; // Result: 1 $modulus = 7 % 5; echo $modulus; // Result: 2 echo 3 + 5 / 2; // Result: 5.5 What?! It made sense until the last example, right? If you were expecting the results of the last example to be "4", then you might not have known about operator precedence, which states that multiplication and division come before addition and subtraction. To solve this problem you can use parenthesis to group the numbers that you want to be calculated first. This rule is also known as PEMDAS (Parentheses, Exponents, Multiplication, Division, Addition, Subtraction), BEDMAS (Brackets, Exponents, Division, Multiplication, Addition, Subtraction), BIDMAS (Brackets, Indices, Division, Multiplication, Addition, Subtraction) or BODMAS (Brackets, Orders, Division, Multiplication, Addition, Subtraction). echo (3 + 5) / 2; // Result: 4 Problem solved; happy calculating! Combined assignment operators are shortcuts useful when performing arithmetic operations on an existing variable's numerical value. They are similar to the concatenation assignment operator. |+=||Adds Value to An Existing Variable Value| |-=||Subtracts Value From Existing Variable Value| |*=||Multiplies An Existing Variable Value| |/=||Divides An Existing Variable Value| |%=||Modulo of An Existing Variable Value And New Value| Example before combined assignment operator is used: $variable = 8; $variable = $variable + 3; echo $variable; // Result: 11 Example of combined assignment operator in use: $variable = 8; $variable += 3; echo $variable; // Result: 11 There are shortcuts for adding (incrementing) and subtracting (decrementing) a numerical value by one. |++||Incrementation Operator (Increases A Value By 1)| |--||Decrementation Operator (Decreases A Value By 1)| $variable = 15; echo $variable; // Result: 16 echo $variable; // Result: 15 Comparison operators compare two values and return either true or false, depending on the results of the comparison. They are used in conditions, which we will study in the next chapter. |==||Is Equal To||3==2 (Will Return "False")| |!=||Is Not Equal To||3!=2 (Will Return "True")| |<>||Is Not Equal To||3<>2 (Will Return "True")| |>||Is Greater Than||3>2 (Will Return "True")| |<||Is Less Than||3<2 (Will Return "False")| |>=||Is Greater Than or Equal To||3>=2 (Will Return "True")| |<=||Is Less Than or Equal To||3<=2 (Will Return "False")| Logical operators usually work with comparison operators to determine if more than one condition is true or false at the same time. |&&||And||True If Two Statements Are True, Otherwise False| |||||Or||True If One Statement or Another Is True, Otherwise False| |!||Not||True If Statement Is False, False If Statement Is True| Logical operators make more sense when they are applied to practical examples, so let's keep moving. Next up we'll learn about conditions!

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2013-05-24T16:18:22Z

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Planners who have ever taken part of a public meeting know that the lack of planning knowledge out there is astounding – but we should not be surprised. The fact is, when are students in K – 12 education ever taught planning concepts? Most of social studies, civics, and government is spent on history, federal government institutions, and world geography. Excuse my bias, but local government and planning are critical to the everyday lives of students. Moreover, neighborhoods are a particularly relatable concept that students in K – 12 can understand and use to engage in many subjects. This is why I argue that the vocabulary of planning and the concepts necessary to participate in local government and planning issues need to be taught to students in K-12. If we assume students will achieve this in college we do a disservice to those who are not college-bound. Programs such as the Center for Understanding the Built Environment's (CUBE) "Box Cities" program are a great opportunity to get K-12 students learning these concepts. Teaching students about the built environment and its institutions enhances students' ability to be an effective citizen and participate in an aspect that significantly influences their everyday life. The problem is a lack of capacity among the citizenry to engage in planning issues on equal footing with other stakeholders. How can residents of a community truly understand a long-range plan if they cannot grasp the maps presented? We might take map-reading for granted, but in an era of standardized tests focus and heavy emphasis on math and reading, students lose the time to learn skills like identifying a location on a map and orienting cardinal directions. My good friend who is a high-school history teacher tells me horror stories of how her students (in 11th grade) had no idea how to read a map of Europe – in a World History class! Simply, they could not differentiate ocean from land, or one country from another. So imagine these students attempting to engage in planning in a few years. Not all students everywhere are in this situation (she is a teacher in the South Bronx). But even so, there is more than map reading necessary for planning engagement. Design vocabulary ('scale', 'rhythm,' 'walkability,' 'density') and social vocabulary ('mobility,' 'sense of place,' 'community values,' 'housing equity' ) are necessary for planning participation. The concepts of a neighborhood, land uses, home consumption, commercial enterprise, and transportation networks need to be taught. These are not concepts we grasp inuitively; our schools have an obligation teach them and prepare an effective citizenry. One way that I've become active in this field is in taking part of the Box Cities program. While I was a planning graduate student in Madison, Wisconsin, I took part in 'Terrace Town,' a program where grade school children build a city out of boxes and art supplies and present them in a fun day at Monona Terrace, Madison's convention center. I mentored a first-grade class, and was astounded and humbled by their ability to learn and apply planning concepts. They built homes, civic, industrial and commercial structures out of milk cartons and shoe boxes. They placed the structures along transportation networks, and built a rail system in their city. They separated uses when they felt it made sense (like keeping the airport away from houses). Students were also taught 'green' concepts, and built alternative energy infrastructure like windmills. And these were first graders! There were middle-school students whose 'box city' blew me away, and should be a model for progressive urban development. To the nay-sayers who do not think schools have time to teach planning concepts, or worry more about 'core' curricula in math, science, and reading, I say that teaching planning concepts is fun and complimentary to teaching other subjects. They are not mutually exclusive. Teaching the concept of scale obviously includes math. Learning about one's city and neighborhood, and keeping a journal about the community, requires reading and writing exercises. CUBE has built an entire curriculum around this, and I urge you to look at it and contact them because there are lessons that incorporate planning concepts into almost any subject. I am doing my part by engaging grade school students and trying to bring Box Cities to the Washington, D.C. area where I now live. Another way to be engaged is to be active in your children's school and try to convince teachers and administrators to teach these concepts, or incorporate curricula like Box Cities. Finally, books like Where Things Are, From Near to Far, The Works: Anatomy of a City, and City Works: Exploring Your Community: A Workbook are great for exposing children to the ideas of the built environment. Let's teach children planning, and lets create a solid generation of planning participants. Michael A. Rodriguez is a Transportation Analyst with Cambridge Systematics in Bethesda, MD. He is also actively engaged with the Center for Understanding the Built Environment (CUBE) and teaching planning concepts to children.

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The historical basis for much of Hayden's poetry stemmed from his extensive study of American and black history. Beginning in the 1930s, when he researched black history for the Federal Writers' Project in his native Detroit, Hayden studied the story of his people from their roots in Africa to their present condition in the United States. "History," Charles T. Davis wrote in Black is the Color of the Cosmos: Essays on Afro-American Literature and Culture, 1942-1981, "has haunted Robert Hayden from the beginning of his career as a poet." As he once explained to Glenford E. Mitchell of World Order, Hayden saw history "as a long, tortuous, and often bloody process of becoming, of psychic evolution." Other early influences on Hayden's development as a poet were W. H. Auden, under whom Hayden studied at the University of Michigan, and Stephen Vincent Benet, particularly Benet's poem "John Brown's Body." That poem describes the black reaction to General Sherman's march through Georgia during the Civil War and inspired Hayden to also write of that period of history, creating a series of poems on black slavery and the Civil War that won him a Hopwood Award in 1942. After graduating from college in 1944, Hayden embarked on an academic career. He spent some twenty-three years at Fisk University, where he rose to become a professor of English, and ended his career with an eleven-year stint at the University of Michigan. Hayden told Mitchell that he considered himself to be "a poet who teaches in order to earn a living so that he can write a poem or two now and then." Although history played a large role in Hayden's poetry, many of his works were also inspired by the poet's adherence to the Baha'i faith, an Eastern religion that believes in a coming world civilization. Hayden served for many years as the poetry editor of the group's World Order magazine. The universal outlook of the Baha'is also moved Hayden to reject any narrow racial classification for his work. James Mann of the Dictionary of Literary Biography claimed that Hayden "stands out among poets of his race for his staunch avowal that the work of black writers must be judged wholly in the context of the literary tradition in English, rather than within the confines of the ethnocentrism that is common in contemporary literature written by blacks." As Lewis Turco explained in the Michigan Quarterly Review, "Hayden has always wished to be judged as a poet among poets, not one to whom special rules of criticism ought to be applied in order to make his work acceptable in more than a sociological sense." This stance earned Hayden harsh criticism from other blacks during the polarized 1960s. He was accused of abandoning his racial heritage to conform to the standards of a white, European literary establishment. "In the 1960s," William Meredith wrote in his foreword to Collected Prose, "Hayden declared himself, at considerable cost in popularity, an American poet rather than a black poet, when for a time there was posited an unreconcilable difference between the two roles. . . . He would not relinquish the title of American writer for any narrower identity." Ironically, much of Hayden's best poetry is concerned with black history and the black experience. "The gift of Robert Hayden's poetry," Vilma Raskin Potter remarked in MELUS, "is his coherent vision of the black experience in this country as a continuing journey both communal and private." Hayden wrote of such black historical figures as Nat Turner, Frederick Douglass, Malcolm X, Harriet Tubman, and Cinquez. He also wrote of the Underground Railroad, the Civil War, and the American slave trade. Edward Hirsch, writing in the Nation, called Hayden "an American poet, deeply engaged by the topography of American myth in his efforts to illuminate the American black experience." Though Hayden wrote in formal poetic forms, his range of voices and techniques gave his work a rich variety. "Hayden," Robert G. O'Meally wrote in the Washington Post Book World, "is a poet of many voices, using varieties of ironic black folk speech, and a spare, ebullient poetic diction, to grip and chill his readers. He draws characters of stark vividness as he transmutes cardinal points and commonplaces of history into dramatic action and symbol." "His work," Turco wrote, "is unfettered in many ways, not the least of which is in the range of techniques available to him. It gives his imagination wings, allows him to travel throughout human nature." Speaking of Hayden's use of formal verse forms, Mann explained that Hayden's poems were "formal in a nontraditional, original way, strict but not straight-jacketed" and found that they also possessed "a hard-edged precision of line that molds what the imagination wants to release in visually fine-chiseled fragmental stanzas that fit flush together with the rightness of a picture puzzle." It wasn't until 1966, with the publication of Selected Poems, that Hayden first enjoyed widespread attention from the nation's literary critics. As the Choice critic remarked at the time, Selected Poems showed Hayden to be "the surest poetic talent of any Negro poet in America; more importantly, it demonstrated a major talent and poetic coming-of-age without regard to race or creed." With each succeeding volume of poems his reputation was further enhanced until, in 1976 and his appointment as Consultant in Poetry to the Library of Congress, Hayden was generally recognized as one of the country's leading black poets. Critics often point to Hayden's unique ability to combine the historical and the personal when speaking of his own life and the lives of his people. Writing in Obsidian: Black Literature in Review, Gary Zebrun argued that "the voice of the speaker in Hayden's best work twists and squirms its way out of anguish in order to tell, or sing, stories of American history—in particular the courageous and plaintive record of Afro-American history—and to chart the thoughts and feelings of the poet's own private space. . . . Hayden is ceaselessly trying to achieve . . . transcendence, which must not be an escape from the horror of history or from the loneliness of individual mortality, but an ascent that somehow transforms the horror and creates a blessed permanence." - Heart-Shape in the Dust, Falcon Press (Detroit), 1940. - (With Myron O'Higgins) The Lion and the Archer, Hemphill Press (Nashville), 1948. - Figure of Time: Poems, Hemphill Press, 1955. - A Ballad of Remembrance, Paul Breman (London), 1962. - Selected Poems, October House, 1966. - Words in the Mourning Time, October House, 1970. - The Night-Blooming Cereus, Paul Breman, 1972. - Angle of Ascent: New and Selected Poems, Liveright, 1975. - American Journal, limited edition, Effendi Press, 1978, enlarged edition, Liveright, 1982. - Robert Hayden: Collected Poems, edited by Frederick Glaysher, Liveright, 1985, with an introduction by Arnold Rampersad, Liveright, 1996. - (Editor and author of introduction) Kaleidoscope: Poems by American Negro Poets (juvenile), Harcourt, 1967. - (With others) Today's Poets (recording), Folkways, 1967. - (Author of preface) Alain LeRoy Locke, editor, The New Negro, Atheneum, 1968. - (Editor with David J. Burrows and Frederick R. Lapides) Afro-American Literature: An Introduction, Harcourt, 1971. - (Editor with James Edwin Miller and Robert O'Neal) The United States in Literature, Scott, Foresman, 1973, abridged edition published as The American Literary Tradition, 1607-1899, 1973. - (Contributor) The Legend of John Brown, Detroit Institute of Arts, 1978. - Collected Prose, edited by Glaysher, University of Michigan Press, 1984. - Concise Dictionary of Literary Biography, Volume 1: The New Consciousness, 1941-1968, Gale, 1987. - Contemporary Authors Bibliographical Series, Volume 2, Gale, 1986. - Contemporary Literary Criticism, Gale, Volume 5, 1976, Volume 9, 1978, Volume 14, 1980, Volume 37, 1986. - Conversations with Writers, Volume 1, Gale, 1977. - Dictionary of Literary Biography, Gale, Volume 5: American Poets since World War II, 1980, Volume 76: Afro-American Writers, 1940-1955, 1988. - Fetrow, Fred M., Robert Hayden, Twayne, 1984. - Gibson, Donald B., editor, Modern Black Poets: A Collection of Critical Essays, Prentice-Hall, 1973. - Hatcher, John, From the Auroral Darkness: The Life and Poetry of Robert Hayden, George Ronald, 1984. - Hayden, Robert E., Collected Prose, edited by Frederick Glaysher, University of Michigan Press, 1984. - O'Brien, John, Interviews with Black Writers, Liveright, 1973. - AB Bookman's Weekly, April 21, 1980. - Black Scholar, March/April, 1980. - Chicago Tribune, February 27, 1980. - Choice, May, 1967, December, 1984. - Encore, April, 1980. - Los Angeles Times, March 3, 1980. - MELUS, spring, 1980, spring, 1982. - Michigan Quarterly Review, spring, 1977; winter, 1982; fall, 1983. - Nation, December 21, 1985. - New York Times, February 27, 1980. - New York Times Book Review, January 17, 1971; February 22, 1976; October 21, 1979. - Obsidian: Black Literature in Review, spring, 1981. - Time, March 10, 1980. - Virginia Quarterly Review, autumn, 1982. - Washington Post, February 27, 1980. - Washington Post Book World, June 25, 1978. - World Order, spring, 1971; summer, 1975; winter, 1976, fall, 1981. Poems By ROBERT HAYDEN Audio & PodcastsPoem of the Day Poem of the Day Poetry Off the Shelf Honor Thy Father's Day Robert Hayden and Terrance Hayes take the Hallmark out of the holiday. Robert Hayden: Essential American Poets Archival recordings of the poet Robert Hayden, with an introduction to his life and work. Recorded 1968 and 1977, Library of Congress, Washington DC. LIFE SPAN 1913–1980

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Subliminal learning is the concept of indirect learning by subliminal messages. James Vicary pioneered subliminal learning in 1957 when he planted messages in a movie shown in New Jersey. The messages flashed for a split second and told the audience to drink Coca-Cola and eat popcorn. A recent study published in the journal Neuron used sophisticated perceptual masking, computational modeling, and neuroimaging to show that instrumental learning can occur in the human brain without conscious processing of contextual cues. Dr. Mathias Pessiglione from the Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging at the University College London reported: "We conclude that, even without conscious processing of contextual cues, our brain can learn their reward value and use them to provide a bias on decision making." ("Subliminal Learning Demonstrated In Human Brain," ScienceDaily, Aug. 28, 2008) “By restricting the amount of time that the clues were displayed to study participants, they ensured that the brain’s conscious vision system could not process the information. Indeed, when shown the cues after the study, participants did not recall having seen any of them before. Brain scans of participants showed that the cues did not activate the brain’s main processing centers, but rather the striatum, which is presumed to employ machine-learning algorithms to solve problems.” "When you become aware of the associations between the cues and the outcomes, you amplify the phenomenon," What better place for daydream learning than the Cloud? Cloud computing refers to resources and applications that are available from any Internet connected device. The Cloud is also collectively associated with the “technological singularity” “Could the Internet 'wake up'? And if so, what sorts of thoughts would it think? And would it be friend or foe? "Neuroscientist Christof Koch believes we may soon find out — indeed, the complexity of the Web may have already surpassed that of the human brain. In his book 'Consciousness: In an interview, Koch, who taught at Caltech and is now chief scientific officer at the Allen Institute for Brain Science in Seattle, noted that the kinds of connections that wire together the Internet — its “architecture” There has been some speculation about what it would take to bring down the Internet. According to most authorities, there is no Internet kill switch, regardless of what some organizations may claim. Parts of the net do go down from time-to-time, making it inaccessible for some — albeit temporarily. "Eventually the information will route around the dead spots and bring you back in," said IT expert Dewayne Hendricks. "The Internet works like the Borg Collective of Star Trek — it's basically a kind of hive mind," he adds. Essentially, because it's in everybody's best interest to keep the Internet up and running, there's a constant effort to patch and repair any problems. "It's like trying to defeat the Borg — a system that's massively distributed, decentralized, and redundant." “Pausing for a moment to reflect, Hendricks closed our conversation by saying, ‘The only way to bring down the Internet is to get rid of all the people.’” (George Dvorsky, "Could someone really destroy the whole Internet?" io9.com, Sep 19, 2012) The Cloud has outwardly surpassed the human mind and is unstoppable. But can it boost human responsiveness? (The Autosurfing try-out is at http://www.verticalbrowser.com) Participants pre-select the subject matter they wish to be exposed to and can be working or resting during the non-stop experience. Never before has information been available in such large capacity and at such high speeds. What once took weeks of library research can today be accomplished in a matter of minutes. But how much captured data is actually being used? “While companies are gathering all manner and volume of data — structured and unstructured, terabytes and petabytes — when it comes to getting insights from that data to the frontlines, where insights really matter, many organizations are losing their way. “Having insights flow to the front-line is more about having a data-aligned culture than overcoming some sort of technology barrier — it requires an organizational mindset that can nurture data’s metamorphosis from insight to value.” (Renee Boucher Ferguson, "Data Analytics and the Information Transfer Gap," MIT Sloan Management Review, Sept 21, 2012) Autosurfing is an innovative way of bringing information to the front line. By using "daydream learning" to disseminate information and make better choices, the Cloud may in fact boost a participant’

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Knowledge of the Enemy "No war can be conducted successfully without early and good intelligence,” wrote the great Duke of Marlborough. George Washington agreed: “The necessity of procuring good intelligence is apparent and need not be further argued.” No sensible soldier or sailor or airman does argue. From the earliest times, military leaders have always sought information of the enemy, his strengths, his weaknesses, his intentions, his dispositions. Alexander the Great, presiding at the Macedonian court as a boy while his father, Philip, was absent on campaign, was remembered by visitors from the lands he would later conquer for his persistence in questioning them about the size of the population of their territory, the productiveness of the soil, the course of the routes and rivers that crossed it, the location of its towns, harbours and strong places, the identity of the important men. The young Alexander was assembling what today would be called economic, regional or strategic intelligence, and the knowledge he accumulated served him well when he began his invasion of the Persian empire, enormous in extent and widely diverse in composition. Alexander triumphed because he brought to his battlefields a ferocious fighting force of tribal warriors personally devoted to the Macedonian monarchy; but he also picked the Persian empire to pieces, attacking at its weak points and exploiting its internal divisions. The strategy of divide and conquer, usually based on regional intelligence, underlay many of the greatest exploits of empire building. Not all; the Mongols preferred terror, counting on the word of their approach to dissolve resistance. If duplicity enhanced their terrible reputation, so much the better. In 1258, appearing out of the desert, Hulagu promised the Caliph, spiritual leader of Islam, ruler of the Muslim empire, his life if he would surrender Baghdad. As soon as he submitted, he was strangled and the horde moved on. The Mongols, however, as a wide-ranging nomad people, also knew a great deal and, like all nomads, when not on campaign, were always ready to trade. Markets are principal centres for the exchange of information as well as goods, and it was often a demand of marauders—by the Huns of the Romans, frequently by the Vikings—that they should be allowed to set up markets on the borders of settled lands. Commerce was commonly the prelude to predation. Trade may follow the flag, as the Victorians comfortably affirmed, but it was quite as often the other way about. Empires in the ascendant, to whom nomads were an irritation rather than a threat, adopted a different attitude. They gave and withheld permission to trade and hold markets on their borders as a deliberate means of local control.1 They also pursued active “forward” policies. The pharaohs of the Twelfth Dynasty not only constructed a deep belt of forts on the border between settled Egypt and Nubia but also created a frontier force and issued it with standing orders. Its duty was to prevent Nubian incursions into the Nile Valley but also to patrol into the desert and report. One report, preserved on papyrus at Thebes, reads, “We have found the track of 32 men and 3 donkeys”; nearly 4,000 years old, it might have been written yesterday. Ancient Egypt’s border problem was perfectly manageable. The narrowness of the Nile Valley, amid the surrounding desert, necessitated the minimum of protective measures. The Roman empire, by contrast, was encircled on all sides by enemies, who might come by sea as well as land, and needed to be defended by elaborate fixed fortifications as well as mobile armies. At the height of their power, Rome’s rulers preferred active to passive defence and maintained strong striking forces at strategic points generally behind rather than on the frontiers. It was only as their power declined and that of the outsiders grew that the border defences were thickened. Whether on the decline or in the ascendant, Rome devoted great care to the gathering of intelligence. Caesar’s conquest of Gaul was as much the result of his superior use of intelligence as the legions’ superior fighting power. He took great trouble to assemble economic and regional intelligence, just as Alexander had done, and he was a coldly cynical assessor of the Gauls’ ethnic defects, their boastfulness, volatility, unreliability, lack of resilience; he was equally cold in exploiting the advantage his knowledge of their weaknesses afforded. He accumulated a detailed ethnographic knowledge of their tribal characteristics and divisions, which he used ruthlessly to defeat them. Quite apart from this strategic intelligence, however, he also had a highly developed system of tactical intelligence, using short- and medium-range units of scouts to reconnoitre in advance of his main body, to spy out the land and the enemy’s dispositions when he proceeded on campaign. It was an important principle that the leaders of these units had immediate and direct access to his person. Caesar did not invent the Roman system of intelligence. It was the product of several hundred years of military experience. Evidence for that is already given, by the time of the Gallic wars (first century b.c.), by the existence of established terms for the different categories of reconnaissance troops: procursatores, who performed close reconnaissance immediately ahead of the army; exploratores, longer-range scouts; and speculatores, who spied deeper within enemy territory. The Roman army also made use of local informers (indices), prisoners of war, deserters and kidnapped civilians.2 If not the inventor of the system, Caesar may, nevertheless, be credited with professionalising it and institutionalising some of its most important features, notably the right of direct access by scouts to the commander in person. He also, when necessary, went to see for himself, a dangerous but sometimes essential intervention. Ultimately, the crisis of the empire in the fourth century required the almost continuous presence of one of the emperors (there were latterly two, sometimes more) with the army, a contingency that, at Adrianople in 378, led to his death on the field, progressive disaster and the empire’s collapse. The emperor Valens had been in close touch with his exploratores on the morning of the catastrophe, and they had correctly reported the enemy’s strength and dispositions. What ensued substantiates a profound and enduring truth, that “military and political survival does not depend solely on good intelligence.”3 Systems do not, however, much change, unless circumstances change, and there was little circumstantial change throughout the five centuries of the Roman Empire’s greatness (first century b.c.–fourth century a.d.). Reconnaissance throughout the period was by hearing and sight, communication by word of mouth or written despatch, speed of transmission at fastest by that of a fleet-footed horse. What was true of Rome remained true of the world for another 1,500 years. The collapse of imperial government in the West in the fifth cen-tury a.d. entailed also the collapse of organised intelligence services and such ancillary services as the publication of guidebooks and cartography (though Roman maps are strange to us, since they usually took the form of route-charts rather than two-dimensional displays of territorial features, their disappearance was a serious loss to campaigning commanders). Worse by far were the progressive degradation and eventual and complete decay of the road system. The Roman roads were built primarily for the purpose of rapid all-weather military movement and were maintained by the legions, which were as much engineering as fighting units. The dissolution of the Roman army led rapidly to the cessation of engineering work on such key elements of the Roman transport system as bridges and fords. The road network, of course, had not existed during the period of Roman conquest; Caesar had made his way through Gaul by interrogating merchants and locals and impressing guides. It was the roads, however, that had allowed Rome to defend its empire for five centuries and the break-up of their solid surfaces made long-range campaigning at speed impossible. That was not important to the barbarian rulers who succeeded the Romans, since they sought no more than to maintain local authority. When, however, the attempt began again, under the Carolingian emperors, to reestablish wide imperial domains in the eighth and ninth centuries, the absence of roads was a serious impediment to reconquest. Things got even worse with the attempt to penetrate the Germanic regions which lay beyond the old Roman borders. In those wildernesses there were neither roads nor easily obtainable intelligence. Some picture of the difficulties confronting medieval campaigners is conveyed by the experience of the Teutonic Knights in their effort to conquer and Christianise the Baltic shore in the fourteenth century. The Teutonic Knights, a crusading order dedicated to the conversion of the Prussians and Lithuanians, were wealthy and highly organised. They operated from a chain of strong castles built on the Baltic coast, in which they were secure from attack and could organise crusading expeditions into the hinterland. One of their principal campaigning grounds was a belt of unsettled land a hundred miles wide between East Prussia and Lithuania proper, a maze of marsh, lakes, small rivers, thickets and forest through which it was almost impossible to find a way. Local scouts were recruited by the Knights to blaze trails and report. Their intelligence was collected in a military guidebook, Die Lithauischen Wegeberichte (The Lithuanian Route Guide), compiled between 1384 and 1402. It explains, for example, that Knights wishing to get to Vandziogala from Samogitia, both near modern Kaunas in Lithuania, a distance of about thirty-five miles by today’s roads, had first to cross a patch of scrub, by a track, then a large wood through which they would have to clear their way, then a heath, then another heath, then a second wood, “the length of a crossbow shot and there you have to clear your way too,” then a third heath and a third wood. Beyond lay the true Wiltnisse (wilderness). A Prussian scout’s letter describing it was copied into the Wegeberichte. It reads: “Take notice in your wisdom that by God’s grace Gedutte and his company have got back in safety and have completed everything you sent us to carry out and have marked the way so far as 4H miles this side of the Niemen, along a route that crosses the Niemen and leads straight into the country.” The tone of the report recalls that of the Egyptian border patrol from Nubia 3,000 years earlier; the terrain described is that over which the German Army Group North advanced to Leningrad in 1941, encountering obstacles the Teutonic Knights would have found familiar.4 Curiously, the Holy Land Crusaders faced much less difficulty in getting to Jerusalem in the eleventh century. In 1394, the Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights had answered Duke Philip of Burgundy’s enquiry as to whether there would be a Baltic crusade the following year: “It is impossible to provide a forecast of future contingencies, especially because on our expeditions we are obliged to go across great waters and vast solitudes by dangerous ways . . . on account of which they frequently depend on God’s will and disposition, and also on the weather.” In different words, a modern intelligence officer might respond almost exactly similarly. The Holy Land Crusaders, by contrast, had found a much easier way forward, travelling either by sea or along the surviving Roman roads in Italy or inside the dominions of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) emperor in southern Europe, where the imperial administration kept communications in repair and furnished supplies. Once arrived at Constantinople, they were provided with guides and escorts and were able to travel on the great Roman military roads that led towards the Taurus Mountains. In what is today eastern Turkey, however, already invaded by Seljuk Turkish migrants from central Asia, they found the roads in disrepair and likewise the other conveniences of travel—cisterns destroyed, wells dry, bridges fallen, villages abandoned. It was a foretaste of how a nomadic, horse-riding people ruined a civilised countryside by rapine and neglect. The final stages of the march to Jerusalem were far harder than the departure from Europe.5 Campaigning inside Western Europe itself throughout the Middle Ages, the leaders of armies found conditions consistently inimical to conducting effective operations. The main problem was a chronic shortage of money in an effectively cashless society, which made the recruitment of armies difficult and their provision with food and supplies often almost impossible. Movement was laborious, because of the absence of an all-weather road system, but the lack of intelligence also impeded the efforts of rulers to deploy such forces as they could raise to the places where they were needed. That difficulty became particularly acute during the crisis of the Viking invasions in the ninth century. The Vikings, who had achieved a revolution in mobility by the development of their superbly fast and seaworthy longships, appeared without warning, overwhelmed local defenders by the ferocity of their assaults and, in the second stage of their terrorisation of the Christian lands, carried violence and pillage deep inland by learning to capture horses in large numbers at their points of debarkation. The antidote to Viking raiding would have been to create navies, but that was beyond medieval kings; another recourse would have been to maintain an intelligence system, to provide early warning, inside Scandinavia. Such sophistication lay even further outside the capabilities of ninth-century kingdoms; moreover, the Viking lands were no place for inquisitive strangers, even with money to loosen tongues. There was much more money to be made by raiding than by selling information, and the Vikings took pleasure in cutting throats.6 By the fourteenth century, the conditions of warfare in post-Roman Europe had altered greatly to the local rulers’ advantage. The overriding need to suppress the aggression of nomadic despoilers—Vikings in the west, Saracens in the south, horse peoples in the east—had stimulated the building of fixed defences, including continuous barriers and chains of castles, which had solidified frontiers, pacified borderlands and restored the possibilities of trade, with beneficial effects on the general prosperity. Kings had money to pay soldiers; they also found the money to buy intelligence and pay agents, who moved with reasonable ease among travelling merchants and, or so at least was suspected by royal governments, under the cloak of international religious orders. It is a mark of how commonplace spying had become during the Hundred Years War between France and England that heralds, the non-partisan arbiters of propriety on the battlefield, went to great lengths to defend their reputation for impartiality; so too did ambassadors, though they were less often believed.From the Hardcover edition. Excerpted from Intelligence in War by John Keegan. Copyright © 2003 by John Keegan. Excerpted by permission of Vintage, a division of Random House, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this excerpt may be reproduced or reprinted without permission in writing from the publisher.

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Student-centered classrooms at each grade level are the focus at Stanton Elementary School. Teachers build unit and lesson plans incorporating a variety of assessments with student-centered learning as a foundational framework. Thinking skills and strategies are at the center of student learning. Curriculum provides students, teachers and parents with clear goals and targets for achievement. Out of this grows the work of teachers: instructional planning and delivery, and assessment practices that will support students in their development and learning. The foundation is developed by Rockwood’s Department of Curriculum and School Leadership. This Department is dedicated to providing all schools with a continuous, systematic process to enhance student learning. The goal is to improve the education opportunities and increase the effectiveness of the educational programs and services provided to students throughout the district.

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This week we’re traveling to Campulung Muscel, the first capital of Romanian historic region Wallachia, that was first mentioned in our previous piece on Curtea de Arges church. It is important not confuse the name of this city, whose entire name is Campulung Muscel but which is called Campulung for short, with the other Romanian city of Campulung Moldovenesc, which is located in the North East of Romania, in Moldavia- Bucovina. Campulung (which would literally be translated as the long field) lies 168 kilometers from Bucharest, 52 kilometers from the city of Pitesti (the capital of the Arges County), 47 kilometers from Curtea de Arges and 84 kilometers from the city of Brasov. The city has a long and rich history. According to archaeologists, the first human traces in the area date back to the Bronze Age (1700 – 1600 BC). Proofs of Geto- Dacians having inhabited the area in the 2nd century BC have also been discovered. The first documented reference is from 1212 when the Hungarian King sent a letter to the Teutonic Knights asking them to stop the Cumans advancing in Tara Barsei (Barsa Country – Brasov County in present). One documentary source from 1292 mentioned Campulung as being the oldest city in Wallachia. From the beginning of the 13th century, an important community of Transylvanian Saxons settled in Campulung, who contributed to the development of the urban culture, handicrafts and trade. The community was led by a so called “grave (comes)” the last of them being Laurencius de Longo Campo. His epitaph dated 1300 is appreciated as the oldest middle age epigraphical document from Wallachia. In 1330 the King Basarab I set the capital of Wallachia at Campulung and gave it city status. There is a historic document containing 38 records written between 1559 – 1774, which cast a a little more light on Romania’s history. According to these historical sources, there were several important moments for the city: In 1330 after the Posada battle when the Hungarian King Carol Robert de Anjou was defeated by the Wallachian Prince Basabarb I (1310 -1352), the city of Campulung was set as capital of the country. In 1368 King Vladislav I Vlaicu (1364-1377) set at Campulung a toll for crossing between Wallachia and Transylvania and required the merchants from Brasov region to pay customs duty when they passed through the Bran pass, which is located only 15 kilometers from Campulung. In 1369 the king Vladislav I Vlaicu moved the capital to Curtea de Arges. In 1521 an aristocrat named Neacsu wrote a letter addressed to Hans Bruckner, the mayor of Brasov, informing him about movements of Ottoman troupes in the Danube area, this document being the first letter written in Romanian language. In 1552, Campulung was home to the first school in Wallachia, set up by Chiajna, the king Mircea Ciobanu’s wife. Afterwards, the king Antonie (1669-1672) built the first public school in Romania here. In 1544, Sebastian Munster’s Cosmographia which is the earliest German description of the world, mentioned the important role of the city of Campulung in the internal and external trade of Wallachia. The most ancient document which mentions the privileges of the city was given by King Matei Basarab (1580 – 1654). The modern history of Campulung was marked by three important events : the accommodation of the leader of the revolution from 1821 Tudor Vladimirescu on the night between May 22 – 23, 1821. The activity of several Romanian intellectuals in the 1848 revolution and the tough fights which took place around the city in the World War I. All these events left important trances in the city of Campulung and its surroundings and for any tourist interested in history, there are a lot of monuments to visit: the city museum, the ethnography and folk art museum, the history and arts museum, the Prince Negru Voda monument and the monastery and the cathedral built by the legendary first prince of Wallachia, Negru Voda in 13th century, the Flamanda church (named the bride’s church). The city can be visited on the way to the Bran pass and Bran area. Campulung’s surroundings offer travelers wonderful landscapes and fresh air. From Campulung passing by Dragoslavele and Rucar, the tourist can reach the statues reservation in Dealu Sasului, Oratia citadel – very beautiful and less known – and the Dambovicioara cave. Further on is the Piatra Craiului National Park. An attraction point – and time – for any traveler can be the fair for Saint Ilie , on July 20 July, a tradition which started in the 15th century. So for a holiday full of history, fresh air and amazing landscapes, the Campulung Muscel area is well worth a look. By Mariana Ganea, Guest Writer, [email protected] (photo source: Alpinet)

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2013-05-24T16:11:18Z

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en

Heart Disease Slideshow Pictures: Coronary Artery Disease Your heart is an amazing powerhouse that pumps and circulates 5 or 6 gallons of blood each minute through your entire body. Heart disease begins when cholesterol, fatty material, and calcium build up in the arteries, a process known as atherosclerosis. Blockage of the coronary arteries by plaque may cause a heart attack (myocardial infarction) or a fatal rhythm disturbance (sudden cardiac arrest). Some of the risk factors for heart disease include smoking, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, diabetes, and obesity. Additional heart disease risk factors include lack of exercise, an unhealthy diet, stress, and a "type A" personality Besides chest pain (angina) and shortness of breath, some other common symptoms of heart disease include jaw pain, back pain, and heart palpitations. Other symptoms of heart disease may include dizziness, weakness, irregular heartbeat, nausea, and abdominal pain. Doctors use a variety of tests to detect heart disease. One common test is the electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG). Sometimes, if an electrocardiogram comes back normal, doctors will use stress tests to detect heart disease. Computerized tomography (CT) scans are used to show that heart disease is not present and that the coronary arteries are normal. Coronary angiography via cardiac catheterization is considered the "gold standard" of heart disease tests. Heart disease is a highly preventable and reversible disease. A healthy diet is a major factor in controlling heart disease. Other lifestyle changes that can be made to help prevent heart disease include drinking alcohol in moderation and quitting smoking. Exercise, controlling high blood pressure and diabetes, and taking daily aspirin are more ways to reduce your chances of developing heart disease. More Slideshows from RxList Watch and learn from these additional pictures slideshows. Skin and Beauty See All Slideshows This tool does not provide medical advice. See additional information:

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en

The 102nd Beith Scouts have visited Spier's to learn how to build shelters and how to identify wild plants that are safe to eat. The Scout leaders led the shelter building teams and the NAC Countryside Ranger led two groups through the parklands sampling or discussing edible wild plants en route. The young people were shown how to avoid plants that may have been contaminated and were shown how easy it is to confuse edible with harmful plants. Edible parts varied, sometimes leaves, other times flowers, fruits, sap, stems, roots and even wood. Some of the better known plants were dandelion leaves, wild garlic, and lime leaves. A final warning was to eat nothing unless an expert was present to confirm identification and cleanliness! The shelters have been left for others to enjoy and at some point the Scouts hope to return and camp in the grounds.

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2013-05-24T16:25:58Z

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en

July 9, 2004 CHAPEL HILL -- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill researchers have developed a new technique for rapidly identifying the functions of genes. The "high throughput" technique can be used in both cell culture and in animal models to screen thousands of genes for a particular biological function. It provides a method for the rapid development of a cDNA library, which would contain protein-encoding sequences of DNA. Researchers then can use the library to analyze a specific gene function. The report appears in the July issue of Molecular Therapy, the American Society of Gene Therapy's journal. "All the genes in the human genome have now been sequenced, but the problem is that we don't know their function," said Dr. Tal Kafri, principal investigator of the study and an assistant professor of microbiology and immunology at UNC's School of Medicine. He also is a member of the UNC Gene Therapy Center. The study helps to resolve two bottlenecks in determining gene functions, he said. "It offers a quick and efficient way to transfer cDNA into a viral vector library, and it also helps isolate altered cells, ensuring that the changes in them are due to the introduced gene. The closed system we have developed allows us to take candidate genes from virus to bacteria to cell to animal, quickly and efficiently." The technique system may have clinical applications, including drug design, Kafri added. "We could easily modify the library to find peptides or small molecules with potential to act as inhibitors for a particular cellular state or pathway. Doing so would drastically accelerate the process of high-throughput drug design and testing, taking gene candidates from cell culture to the animal model." The technique uses a genetically engineered HIV-1 virus, in which genes can be shuttled among bacteria, cell culture or animal models, in the same vehicle, or vector. This avoids time-consuming methods involved in gene isolation and amplification, such as the polymerase chain reaction, or PCR, procedure. The method, designed by Kafri and gene therapy center researcher Hong Ma, enables scientists to rapidly screen cells for changes in a particular phenotype. They can easily isolate and identify the gene causing the changes and place it into an animal model or bacteria for further study. The National Institutes of Health and the National Hemophilia Foundation supported this study. Other social bookmarking and sharing tools: Note: Materials may be edited for content and length. For further information, please contact the source cited above. Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.

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2013-05-24T16:32:36Z

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Nov. 15, 2011 Galaxy -- an open-source, web-based platform for data-intensive biomedical and genetic research -- is now available as a "cloud computing" resource. A team of researchers including Anton Nekrutenko, an associate professor of biochemistry and molecular biology at Penn State University; Kateryna Makova, an associate professor of biology at Penn State; and James Taylor from Emory University, developed the new technology, which will help scientists and biomedical researchers to harness such tools as DNA-sequencing and analysis software, as well as storage capacity for large quantities of scientific data. Details of the development will be published as a letter in the journal Nature Biotechnology. Earlier papers by Nekrutenko and co-authors describing the technology and its uses are published in the journals Genome Research and Genome Biology. Nekrutenko said that he and his team first developed the Galaxy computing system (http://galaxyproject.org) in 2005 because "biology is in a state of shock. Biochemistry and biology labs generate mountains of data, and then scientists wonder, 'What do we do now? How do we analyze all these data?'" Galaxy, which was developed at Penn State and continues to use the University's servers for its computing power, solves many of the problems that researchers encounter by pulling together a variety of tools that allow for easy retrieval and analysis of large amounts of data, simplifying the process of genomic analysis. As described in one of the team's early papers in the journal Genome Research, Galaxy "combines the power of existing genome-annotation databases with a simple Web portal to enable users to search remote resources, combine data from independent queries, and visualize the results." Galaxy also allows other researchers to be able to review the steps that have been taken, for example, in the analysis of a string of genetic code. "Galaxy offers scientific transparency -- the option of creating a public report of analyses. So, after a paper has been published, scientists in other labs can do studies in order to reproduce the results described," Nekrutenko said. Now, Nekrutenko's team has taken Galaxy to the next level by developing an "in the cloud" option using, for example, the popular Amazon Web Services cloud. "A cloud is basically a network of powerful computers that can be accessed remotely without the need to worry about heating, cooling, and system administration. Such a system allows users, no matter where they are in the world, to shift the workload of software storage, data storage, and hardware infrastructure to this remote location of networked computers," Nekrutenko explained. "Rather than run Galaxy on one's own computer or use Penn State's servers to access Galaxy, now a researcher can harness the power of the cloud, which allows almost unlimited computing power." As a case study, the authors report on recent research published in Genome Biology in which scientists, with the help of Ian Paul, a professor of pediatrics at Penn State's Hershey Medical Center, analyzed DNA from nine individuals across three families using Galaxy Cloud. Thanks to the enormous computing power of the platform, the researchers were able to identify four heteroplasmic sites -- variations in mitochondria, the part of the genome passed exclusively from mother to child. "Galaxy Cloud offers many advantages other than the obvious ones, such as computing power for large amounts of data and the ability for a scientist without much computer training to use DNA-analysis tools that might not otherwise be accessible," Nekrutenko said. "For example, researchers need not invest in expensive computer infrastructure to be able to perform data-intensive, sophisticated scientific analyses." Yet another advantage of Galaxy Cloud is its data-storage capacity. Using the Amazon Web Services cloud, researchers have the option of storing vast amounts of data in a secure location. "There are emerging technologies that will produce 100 times more data than existing 'next-generation' DNA sequencing, which already has reached the point where even more storage becomes an issue, not to mention analysis," Nekrutenko said. In addition to Nekrutenko, Makova, and Taylor, other authors of the research report include Nate Coraor and Hiroki Goto of the Center for Comparative Genomics and Bioinformatics at Penn State and Enis Afgan and Dannon Baker of the Department of Biology and the Department of Mathematics and Computer Science at Emory University. Galaxy Cloud development was supported, primarily, by the U.S. National Institutes of Health and the U.S. National Science Foundation. Additional funding was provided by the Pennsylvania Department of Health. Other social bookmarking and sharing tools: Note: Materials may be edited for content and length. For further information, please contact the source cited above. Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.

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2013-05-24T16:18:51Z

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The future impact of global warming lies in the Arctic. There temperatures have risen almost twice as fast in recent decades as in the rest of the world. The Arctic Council, an intergovernmental organization comprising eight nations--the U.S., Canada, Iceland, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia--plus several indigenous peoples' organizations, issued a sobering report last November. It estimates that by late in this century, average Arctic winter temperatures will rise roughly four to seven degrees Celsius over land and seven to 10 degrees C over oceans, leading to profound changes by the end of the century. Although most of the sun's energy reaches the tropics, the atmosphere and oceans redistribute the equatorial energy toward the poles. Unlike the tropics, where a large proportion of the energy received at the surface goes into evaporation, more of the energy received at the Arctic surface goes into warming the atmosphere. For several complicated reasons, including greater absorption of solar radiation, the Arctic is likely to heat up more than the Antarctic. This article was originally published with the title Melting at the Top.

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http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=melting-at-the-top

2013-05-24T16:19:56Z

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en

Also known as: Spinal tap, Ventricular puncture, Lumbar puncture, Cisternal puncture or Cerebral spinal fluid culture - The patient lies on his or her side, with knees pulled up toward the chest, and chin tucked downward. Sometimes the test is done with the person sitting up, but bent forward. - After the back is cleaned, the health care provider will inject a local numbing medicine (anesthetic) into the lower spine. - A spinal needle is inserted, usually into the lower back area. - Once the needle is properly positioned, CSF pressure is measured and a sample is collected. - The needle is removed, the area is cleaned, and a bandage is placed over the needle site. The person is often asked to lie down for a short time after the test. - Pressure: 70 - 180 mm H20 - Appearance: clear, colorless - CSF total protein: 15 - 60 mg/100 mL - Gamma globulin: 3 - 12% of the total protein - CSF glucose: 50 - 80 mg/100 mL (or greater than 2/3 of blood sugar level) - CSF cell count: 0 - 5 white blood cells (all mononuclear), and no red blood cells - Chloride: 110 - 125 mEq/L - Bleeding into the spinal canal - Discomfort during the test - Headache after the test - Hypersensitivity (allergic) reaction to the anesthetic - Infection introduced by the needle going through the skin - A tumor in the back of the brain that is pressing down on the brain stem - Blood clotting problems Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) collection is a test to look at the fluid that surrounds the brain and spinal cord. Cerebrospinal fluid acts as a cushion, protecting the brain and spine from injury. The fluid is normally clear. The test is also used to measure pressure in the spinal fluid. See also: CSF culture How the test is performed There are different ways to get a sample of CSF. Lumbar puncture, commonly called a spinal tap, is the most common method. The test is usually done like this: Occasionally, special x-rays are used to help guide the needle into the proper position. This is called fluoroscopy. Lumbar puncture with fluid collection may also be part of other procedures, particularly a myelogram (x-ray or CT scan after dye has been inserted into the CSF). Alternative methods of CSF collection are rarely used, but may be necessary if the person has a back deformity or an infection. Cisternal puncture uses a needle placed below the occipital bone (back of the skull). It can be dangerous because it is so close to the brain stem. It is always done with fluoroscopy. Ventricular puncture is even more rare, but may be recommended in people with possible brain herniation. This test is usually done in the operating room. A hole is drilled in the skull, and a needle is inserted directly into one of brain's ventricles. CSF may also be collected from a tube that's already placed in the fluid, such as a shunt or a venitricular drain. These sorts of tubes are usually placed in the intensive care unit. How to prepare for the test The patient (or guardian) must give the health care team permission to do the test. Afterward, you should plan to rest for several hours, even if you feel fine. You won't be required to lie flat on your back the entire time, but rest is advised to prevent additional leakage of CSF around the site of the puncture. How the test will feel The test is usually done with you curled up on your side with knees pulled up and chin to chest. Sometimes, CSF is collected with the person seated and bent forward over a table or chair. Holding the position may be uncomfortable, but it is extremely important to stay in this bent position to avoid moving the needle and possibly injuring the spinal cord. The person doing the test may ask you to straighten out slightly after the needle is in place, in order to accurately measure the CSF pressure, called the "opening pressure." The anesthetic will sting or burn when first injected. There will be a hard pressure sensation when the needle is inserted, and there is usually some brief pain when the needle goes through the tissue surrounding the spinal cord. This pain should stop in a few seconds. Overall, discomfort is minimal to moderate. The entire procedure usually takes about 30 minutes, but it may take longer. The actual pressure measurements and CSF collection only take a few minutes. Why the test is performed This test is done to measure pressures within the cerebrospinal fluid and to collect a sample of the fluid for further testing. CSF analysis can be used to diagnose certain neurologic disorders, particularly infections (such as meningitis) and brain or spinal cord damage. Normal values typically range as follows: Note: mg/mL = milligrams per milliliter; mEq/L = milliequivalents per liter Note: Normal value ranges may vary slightly among different laboratories. Talk to your doctor about the meaning of your specific test results. What abnormal results mean If the CSF looks cloudy, it could mean there is an infection or a build up of white blood cells or protein. If the CSF looks bloody or red, it may be a sign of bleeding or spinal cord obstruction. If it is brown, orange, or yellow, it may be a sign of increased CSF protein or previous bleeding (more than 3 days ago). Occasionally, there may be blood in the sample that came from the spinal tap intself. This makes it harder to interpret the test results. Increased CSF protein may be due to blood in the CSF, diabetes, polyneuritis, tumor, injury, or any inflammatory or infectious condition. Decreased protein is a sign of rapid CSF production. Increased CSF glucose is a sign of high blood sugar. Decreased CSF glucose may be due to hypoglycemia (low blood sugar), bacterial or fungal infection (such as meningitis), tuberculosis, or certain other types of meningitis. Red blood cells in the CSF sample may be a sign of bleeding into the spinal fluid or the result of a traumatic lumbar puncture. Additional conditions under which the test may be performed: What the risks are Risks of lumbar puncture include: There is an increased risk of bleeding in people who take blood thinners. Brain herniation may occur if this test is done on a person with a mass in the brain (such as a tumor or abscess). This can result in brain damage or death. This test is not done if an exam or test reveals signs of a brain mass. Damage to the nerves in the spinal cord may occur, particularly if the person moves during the test. Cisternal puncture or ventricular puncture carry additional risks of brain or spinal cord damage and bleeding within the brain. This test is particularly dangerous for people with: Griggs RC, Jozefowicz RF, Aminoff MJ. Approach to the patient with neurologic disease. In: Goldman L, Ausiello D, eds. Cecil Medicine. 23rd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier. 2007: chap 418. - Review date: - June 24, 2009 - Reviewed by: - David C. Dugdale, III, MD, Professor of Medicine, Division of General Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine; Daniel B. Hoch, PhD, MD, Assistant Professor of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, A.D.A.M., Inc. The information provided herein should not be used during any medical emergency or for the diagnosis or treatment of any medical condition. A licensed medical professional should be consulted for diagnosis and treatment of any and all medical conditions. Call 911 for all medical emergencies. Links to other sites are provided for information only -- they do not constitute endorsements of those other sites. © 1997- 2008 A.D.A.M., Inc. Any duplication or distribution of the information contained herein is strictly prohibited.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

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2013-05-24T16:37:16Z

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en

Great White Shark The hammerhead shark is rare in the waters off San Diego and northern Baja California. It can come into local waters during the summer months, and has been seen around San Clemente Island. The hammerhead shark is easily identified by its thick, broad head, which looks very much like the profile of mallet. It reaches a maximum length of 11 feet. The shape of the shark's head -- wide and flattened -- serves important biological functions. First, it provides lift, which improves the shark's swimming abilities. It also extends the shark's sensory systems: the eyes are placed far apart, improving its field of vision; the ampullae of Lorenzini and lateral line have a larger surface area, increasing their sensitivity. Hammerheads are efficient predators and feed on bony fishes, other sharks, crustaceans, and especially stingrays that they can find buried in the sand. They are able to find the stingrays by using the ampullae of Lorenzini.

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2013-05-24T16:45:04Z

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Have you pulled your car up to the gas pump lately and been shocked by the high price of gasoline? As the pump clicked past $20 or $30, maybe you thought about trading in that SUV for something that gets better mileage. Or maybe you are worried that your car is contributing to the greenhouse effect. Or maybe you just want to have the coolest car on the block. there is a solution for all this problems; it's the hybrid electric vehicle. The vehicle is lighter and roomier than a purely electric vehicle, because there is less need to carry as many heavy batteries. The internal combustion engine in hybrid-electric is much smaller and lighter and more efficient than the engine in a conventional vehicle. In fact, most automobile manufacturers have announced plans to manufacture their own hybrid versions. does a hybrid car work? What goes on under the hood to give you 20 or 30 more miles per gallon than the standard automobile? And does it pollute less just because it gets better gas mileage. In this seminar we will study how this amazing technology works and also discuss about TOYOTA & HONDA hybrid cars. Any vehicle is hybrid when it combines two or more sources of power. In fact, many people have probably owned a hybrid vehicle at some point. For example, a mo-ped (a motorized pedal bike) is a type of hybrid because it combines the power of a gasoline engine with the pedal power of its rider. electric vehicles are all around us. Most of the locomotives we see pulling trains are diesel-electric hybrids. Cities like Seattle have diesel-electric buses -- these can draw electric power from overhead wires or run on diesel when they are away from the wires. Giant mining trucks are often diesel-electric hybrids. Submarines are also hybrid vehicles -- some are nuclear-electric and some are diesel-electric. Any vehicle that combines two or more sources of power that can directly or indirectly provide propulsion power is a hybrid. most commonly used hybrid is gasoline-electric hybrid car which is just a cross between a gasoline-powered car and an electric car. A 'gasoline-electric hybrid car' or 'hybrid electric vehicle' is a vehicle which relies not only on batteries but also on an internal combustion engine which drives a generator to provide the electricity and may also drive a wheel. In hybrid electric vehicle the engine is the final source of the energy used to power the car. All electric cars use batteries charged by an external source, leading to the problem of range which is being solved in hybrid electric vehicle. You can combine the two power sources found in a hybrid car in different ways. One way, known as a parallel hybrid, has a fuel tank, which supplies gasoline to the engine. But it also has a set of batteries that supplies power to an electric motor. Both the engine and the electric motor can turn the transmission at the same time, and the transmission then turns the wheels. An electric motor is all about magnets and magnetism: A motor uses magnets to create motion. We know the fundamental law of all magnets: Opposites attract and likes repel. So if you have two bar magnets with their ends marked "north" and "south," then the north end of one magnet will attract the south end of the other. On the other hand, the north end of one magnet will repel the north end of the other (and similarly, south will repel south). Inside an electric motor, these attracting and repelling forces create rotational motion . DC series motor used in hybrid electric vehicle is a versatile and flexible machine. It can satisfy the demands of load recurring high starting, accelerating and retarding torques. A DC machine is also easily adaptable for drives with a wide range of speed control and fast reversals. In the diagram shown below we can see two magnets in the motor: The armature (or rotor) is an electromagnet, while the field magnet is a permanent magnet Using the concept of Hybridization of cars results in better efficiency and also saves a lot of fuel in today's fuel deficit world. Though at present the concept has been put in to maximum utilization by Honda & Toyota, it is indeed an important research avenue for other car manufacturing units as well. A hybrid gives a solution to all the problems to some extent. If proper research and development is done in this field, hybrid vehicle promises a practical, efficient, low pollution vehicle for the coming era. One can surely conclude that this concept and the similar ones to follow with even better efficiency & conservation rate are very much on the anvil in today's energy deficit world.

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2013-05-24T16:39:42Z

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GREEN ISSUE: Synthetic biology is creating jobs and promising innovations, but critics say it's dangerous and lacks proper safeguards THE GREEN ISSUE When Richmond was selected as the site for Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory's huge second campus in January, city officials and community leaders celebrated the "green" jobs it would create, hundreds of them, diversifying an economy dependent on Chevron and its massive oil refinery. But a new coalition called Synbiowatch (www.synbiowatch.org) is questioning how green those jobs really are and raising fears about the new scientific realm on which they rely. It's called synthetic biology, which combines engineering and computer science with the biological sciences to design new microbes that don't exist in nature — living, self-replicating organisms — taking the field of genetic engineering to another level by allowing scientists to actually write new DNA codes and incubate new life forms. Proponents tout myriad potential benefits from the approach, from medical treatments (such as developing new anti-malarial drugs or creating new viruses that would attack cancer cells in humans) to the creation of renewable energy sources that might eventually replace fossil fuels, a major focus of the new lab and its main partner, the U.S. Department of Energy's Joint BioEnergy Institute (JBEI). "JBEI researchers are engineering new types of microbes using the latest tools in biotechnology," notes a cartoonish video on its website (www.jbei.org) explaining how these engineered organisms will turn grasses and other abundant biomass matter into powerful fuels — a task that is not yet possible — which can run cleaner burning internal combustion engines. But the environmentalists, labor organizers, scientists, and community activists who make up Synbiowatch say this technology not only doesn't live up to its speculative hype, but that it is being developed too rapidly and without adequate oversight given its potential to alter natural ecosystems in unpredictable ways. "We need a precautionary approach to health and safety," Jim Thomas — program manager for ETC Group (which stands for Erosion, Technology, and Concentration) and lead author of the 2007 report "Extreme Genetic Engineering: An Introduction to Synthetic Biology" — told journalists during a March 28 briefing at Center for Genetics and Society in Berkeley. He was joined by UC Berkeley microbial ecologist Ignacio Chapela, a researcher who has publicized environmental impacts of the biotechnology industry; Nnimmo Bassey, executive director of Environmental Rights Action in Nigeria and chair of Friends of the Earth International; molecular biologist Becky McClain, who won a $1.4 million civil lawsuit against her old employer, Pfizer, after blowing the whistle on safety violations in its biotech research; Henry Clark of the West County Toxics Coalition; and Richmond activist Gopal Dayaneni of Movement Generation Justice and Ecology Project. All took part in a conference the next day entitled "Unmasking the Bay Area Bio Lab and Synthetic Biology: Health, Justice, and Communities at Risk." Thomas said this coalition formed in recent years to counter the rapid development of what he says is now a $1.6 billion industry that has successfully resisted meaningful government regulation and oversight, despite the fact that the microbes it produces "have no analog in nature, and they will grow and reproduce." With no natural predators, the new microbes could reproduce unchecked. "We cannot allow these corporations to play God. They are not God," said Bassey, who has spent a career combating the false claims and environmental degradation of some of the same big energy corporations (such as Chevron, Shell, and BP) sponsoring this new research. "It's reckless, it's out of control, it's all about money." Most Commented On - Wouldn't this map look very similar to a map showing - May 24, 2013 - Yes, why oh why don't thse folks just move to Oakland? - May 24, 2013 - Yeah, and in both cases it is the same people who do not trust. - May 24, 2013 - My view is the exact opposite. - May 24, 2013 - Eddie, have you returned here after saying you're quitting? - May 24, 2013 - One more question. - May 24, 2013 - Two questions. - May 24, 2013 - Personal attacks, hah! - May 24, 2013 - David Chiu is basically on - May 24, 2013 - They've driven out Marcos and Eddie from here. - May 24, 2013

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http://www.sfbg.com/2012/04/03/playing-god

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In western medicine, the body's organs are explained in terms of their anatomical structure and physiological functions. However, in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), the approach is quite different. Organs are considered functional units of the body. Therefore, what is typically thought of as an organ (i.e. heart, liver, stomach etc.) has a much broader meaning and application in TCM. An organ's anatomical structure is not as important as its yin yang properties or relationships with other organs. Chinese medicine recognizes five yin organs and six yang organs, also known as "zang" and "fu" organs respectively. What are the yin yang organs? The yin organs include the liver, heart, spleen, lungs and kidneys. The pericardium is sometimes considered a sixth yin organ. The function of the yin organs is to produce, transform, regulate and store fundamental substances such as qi, blood, and body fluids. In general, yin organs do not have empty cavities. The six yang organs are made up of the gall bladder, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, bladder and triple burner. The triple burner does not have a physical structure and is considered a functional unit. The yang organs are mainly responsible for digesting food and transmitting nutrients to the body. Usually, yang organs are organs with empty cavities. In TCM, the physiological functions of the body are based on harmonious relationships between yin and yang organs. Central to these relationships is the interior and exterior relationship theory, which states the interior belongs to yin and the exterior belongs to yang. Hence, yin organs are thought to have more internal functions and are called interior organs. They tend to play a more important role in TCM medical theory and practice. The yang organs, on the other hand, are believed to have more external functions and are considered exterior organs. (See table.)

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2013-05-24T16:30:43Z

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en

Could climate shifts be causing global warming? Posted on 7 February 2010 by John Cook The work of Tsonis and Swanson are often cited as evidence against man-made global warming. Their research suggests our climate is subject to dramatic regime shifts. At key moments, the climate shifts from a warm regime to a cool regime, or vica versa. They claim climate shifts occured around 1910, 1940, 1976 and 2001. Some have interpreted this work to say climate shifts can explain the last few decades of global warming. Richard Lindzen's take is that 'this variability is enough to account for all climate change since the 19th Century'. Is this what Tsonis and Swanson's research shows? The best people to answer this question are the authors themselves as they address this very question in their peer-reviewed work. The initial paper by Tsonis, Swanson and Kravtsov proposed that climate is subject to a phenomenon called synchronised chaos (Tsonis et al 2007). When examining a number of ocean cycles such as the El Nino Southern Oscillation and North Atlantic Oscillation, it was observed that the various ocean cycles synchronised at certain moments after which climate seemed to shift to a new regime. In 1910, the synchronisation was followed by a warmer regime and several decades of warming. Another synchronisation occured in 1940, switching to a cooler regime. This coincided with mid-century cooling from 1940 to 1970. In the 1970s, the planet began warming again. Figure 1: HadCRUT3 global mean temperature over the 20th century, with approximate breaks in temperature indicated. The cross-hatched areas indicated time periods when synchronization is accompanied by increasing coupling (Swanson & Tsonis 2009). Conventional understanding for the switch to warming in the 1970s is that warming from CO2 overcame cooling from forcings such as sulfate aerosols. Tsonis and Swanson suggest an 'alternative hypothesis, namely that the climate shifted after the 1970s event to a different state of a warmer climate, which may be superimposed on an anthropogenic warming trend'. It's this final phrase, 'superimposed on an anthropogenic warming trend', that Swanson and Tsonis explore further in a subsequent research. In 2009, they continue to examine the coupling of ocean cycles, stressing 'caution that the shifts described here are presumably superimposed upon a long term warming trend due to anthropogenic forcing' (Swanson & Tsonis 2009). They extend their analysis further in a paper that uses climate modelling to separate man-made and natural variability (Swanson et al 2009). When internal variability is filtered from the smoothed observed temperature (solid black line), the cleaned signal (dashed line) shows nearly monotonic warming throughout the 20th Century. In fact, the cleaned signal fits a quadratic shape which indicates the warming is accelerating. Figure 2: Observed GISS 21-year running mean global mean surface temperature (heavy solid) along with that temperature cleaned of the internal signal (dashed). The cleaned global mean temperature warms monotonically, and closely resembles a quadratic fit to the observed 20th century global mean temperature (thin solid) (Swanson 2009). If climate shifts do actually occur, Tsonis and Swanson's research finds they are not responsible for the warming found over the 20th Century. Instead, they superimpose variability over the long-term trend which is that of steadily accelerating warming. This is consistent with observations which find the planet has been accumulating heat since 1950 (Murphy 2009). Climate shifts do not stop the planet's energy imbalance. They merely cause temporary slow downs or speeding up of surface temperature warming. Nevertheless, the theory of climate shifts has some unresolved issues. A key result of Tsonis and Swanson's work is that a shift to a cooler regime occured around 2001/2002. This shift is more marked in the HadCRUT record which is not a global temperature record. When Arctic regions are included, the global warming trend is greater in recent years and hence the 2001/2002 shift is not so pronounced. Hence the theory is dependent somewhat on an incomplete global record. Another issue discussed in Swanson 2009 is that if climate is more sensitive to internal variability than currently thought, this would also mean climate is more sensitive to imposed forcings. This includes radiative forcings such as a warming sun, cooling from sulfate aerosols or warming from CO2. This leads to a crucial question that the authors themselves raise but don't answer. Conventional thought is that the warming sun and reduced volcanic activity caused much of the early 20th Century warming. Similarly, cooling from increased sulfate aerosols was a major contributor to mid-century cooling. In suggesting climate shifts as the cause, the authors offer no physical explanation as to why the warming sun and cooling aerosols didn't have their expected effect? Nevertheless, if these issues are resolved and Tsonis and Swanson's theory is found to be valid, it's clear that climate shifts do not invalidate the human influence on climate. On the contrary, they show that underneath internal variability is a long-term trend. Tsonis and Swanson's analysis finds that imposed forcings have exerted a monotonic and accelerating warming trend throughout the 20th Century.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.skepticalscience.com/news.php?p=2&t=52&n=134

2013-05-24T16:30:59Z

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en

Northern Bobwhite Quail |Geographical Range||North America, Central America, West Indies, Cuba| |Habitat||Brushy fields, farmlands, thickets, woodland edges| |Scientific Name||Colinus virginianus| |Conservation Status||Near threatened| This small, plump quail is named for the male's familiar two-note call, which sounds to some like he is calling "bob-white." Like other quails, bobwhites require a mixed habitat: open areas where they can forage for food, as well as brush, tall grass or other cover where they can hide. Bobwhites are ground birds. Though they can fly, they only take to the air to flee danger. They even nest on the ground, by scratching a depression among tall grasses and lining it with dead plant matter. They are primarily seed-eaters, but also feed on fruits, other plant matter, insects and snails. Quail are social birds that live in groups called "coveys." A covey usually includes from 10 to 30 birds, which forage for food together and roost together overnight. Bobwhites have the widest range of any quail species -- from Canada to southern Mexico -- and have been introduced to Hawaii and New Zealand as a game species. Game farms raise thousands of these birds each year for release in the United States and Canada.

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http://www.stlzoo.org/animals/abouttheanimals/birds/pheasantscurassowsguans/northernbobwhitequail/

2013-05-24T16:30:25Z

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en

Intensity-Modulated Radiation Therapy (IMRT) For years, Swedish physicians have been at the forefront of researching Intensity-Modulated Radiation Therapy (IMRT) applications. IMRT is an advanced form of 3-D conformal radiation therapy that allows doctors to customize the radiation dose by modulating, or varying, the amount of radiation given to different parts of the area being treated. The radiation beams are broken up into numerous pencil-sized beams. These smaller beams, or beamlets, can be conformed to the shape of the tumor in three dimensions. The radiation intensity is adjusted with the use of computer-controlled, moveable “leaves” which either block or allow the passage of radiation from the many beams that are aimed at the treatment area. The leaves are carefully adjusted according to the shape, size, and location of the tumor. As a result, more radiation can be delivered to the cancer while reducing damage to nearby tissue.while less is directed at the normal cells that are nearby. An analogy for IMRT is a shower nozzle that shoots many different streams of water from different directions, except that each stream can be turned on or off, or set to deliver different intensities. This is unlike standard radiation techniques that allow only a constant flow of radiation from each beam.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.swedish.org/Services/Cancer-Institute/Services/Radiation-Therapy/Types-of-Radiation-Therapy/Intensity-Modulated-Radiation-Therapy-(IMRT)

2013-05-24T16:23:55Z

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"Language is fossil poetry," said Emerson. Can we use metaphor to de-fossilize thought? For many people, language is too often habitual thought. We can speak and write intelligently and coherently without necessarily seeing vivid pictures in our mind's eye, or feeling the strong feelings words are meant to convey. Yet, TEDster James Geary has persuasively argued that language, and in particular, metaphor, plays a strong role in shaping the way we think, and by extension the way we feel and behave. Geary elaborates upon this idea in his book, I is an Other, which I recommend highly: In his book, Geary suggests that the formula for metaphor, X = Y, is an effective method of communication, because "neurons that fire together wire together," so our brains make new connections as we compare/contrast two ideas in our minds, which "shakes up" unconscious fossil poetry. My question is, can you apply the formula X = Y to connect two ideas/disciplines or "shake up" the way you and other people see/experience the world? What makes the metaphor interesting and effective? "All men are brothers." If you think of how you see family members and how you see strangers, it's an interesting dichotomy, given that people everywhere are far more similar than we are different. Various religious traditions (and the UDHR, and Martin Luther King, Jr.) use the language of "brothers and sisters" or "brotherhood" in order to expand an in-group (those we easily empathize with and care about) beyond immediate family. You can use the word "brother" or "sister" unthinkingly, unconscious of the meaning, or you can think of the relationship you have with a sibling and juxtapose that with the way you see a stranger, a member of a different race, or a person with whom you disagree vehemently. Maybe that's a bad example. But can you use X = Y to come up with a creative metaphor and/or analogy to improve how we see/experience the world?

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.ted.com/conversations/1825/language_is_fossil_poetry_s.html

2013-05-24T16:40:34Z

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en

Today, November 28th … Half a century before the chestnut blight wiped out the chestnut forests of America, Henry Thoreau went into the woods on this day in 1856, to look for a lost comb. He “Unexpectedly [did] find many chestnuts in the burs which have fallen some time ago. Many are spoiled, but the rest, being thus moistened, are softer and sweeter than a month ago, very agreeable to my palate.” This is the nut that John Evelyn (1664) said was “amongst the delicaces of Princes in other Countries … [and] is a lusty, and masculine food for Rustics at all times”. He bemoaned the fact that in England they were fed to swine, but then went on to suggest that “we might propagate their use, amongst our common people ...". The chestnut must surely lay claim to being one of the most versatile of foods – eaten fresh or preserved (dried, canned or frozen), raw or cooked, as a staple or a delicacy, in all dishes from soup to nuts (Ouch! Sorry!) and for all consumers – the pigs, the poor, and the posh. The French attempted to destroy the chestnut economy of Corsica in 1789. They called the chestnut “the food of laziness”, because by providing the Corsican Rustic with his staple “wooden bread” and his stock with fallen fodder, it allowed him to neglect the fields. It was however very acceptable for the rich and Princely French to enjoy the pick of the crop in a variety of luxurious ways - as soup, stuffing for turkey, sweetened purée, and especially as “marrons glacées”. Nowadays we associate chestnuts with family celebrations such as Thanksgiving and Christmas, which might be a good time to remember that they also had a medicinal use in the past. As well as being “a first-rate remedy for cough and spitting of blood", please remember that “melancholy and Old Persons, also those who abound with gross and tartarous Humours ought to abstain from them.” Those of your Christmas guests who are not gross and tartarous by nature might enjoy these easy Christmas recipes from “The Boston Cooking-School Cookbook” by Fannie Merritt Farmer (1896) Shell one cup chestnuts, cut in thin slices, and fry until well browned, using enough butter to prevent chestnuts from burning. Season with Tabasco Sauce or few grains paprika. To two cups thin Turkey Gravy add three-fourths cup cooked and mashed chestnuts. Tomorrow … Inside entertaining.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.theoldfoodie.com/2005/11/lusty-and-masculine-food-for-rustics.html

2013-05-24T16:11:05Z

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en

As we get older, our body and mind are reflective of how we've treated them throughout our lives. If we don't care for our body, we may be overweight, if we don't challenge our mind we may find it difficult to calculate problems, and if we don't maintain our oral health we may end up with unsightly yellow teeth. Getting to the root of things early, or preventing issues from arising in the first place, can help immensely in the long run. You know how these seemingly simple procedures get difficult? When you're a kid - you don't understand the consequences of skipping out on brushing or eating potato chips instead of carrot sticks! Making sure that your child maintains a regular oral health regimen will help them out now and in the long run. Despite what many people believe, children can have bad breath just as older individuals do. The bacteria that accumulate in our mouths turns into a wicked smell over time, and children who don't have a healthy diet and don't keep up with brushing and flossing can see this problem start when they are little. Experts believe that issues with oral health can begin in preschool. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, more than 25 percent of children between the ages of two and five have tooth decay. Did you know that tooth decay causes bad breath? Brush and floss Making sure that your children brush and floss twice a day is incredibly important to the health of their teeth and gums over time. Encourage the use of natural toothpaste that is safe for children to use and won't cause dry mouth. When they are old enough, parents should promote the use of alcohol free mouthwash, which will clean the mouth of unwanted bacteria. Alcohol free mouthwash may not cause the "fresh and clean" feeling of traditional mouthwash, but it is much better for your mouth! A recent article reported that the state of Florida was rated by the Pew Children's Dental Campaign with a "D" for failing to provide children with the access to a critical, yet painless and cost-efficient procedure that protects teeth from decay. Sealants, which are typically applied to molars that are prone to getting cavities, can protect against bacteria that cause tooth decay and cost a fraction of the cost of a filling. Florida and 14 other states received a "D," the District of Columbia and five others received an "F" and only five states received an "A." These grades were based on the availability of school-based sealant programs, hygienist supervision regulations, data collection participation and if the states met federal health objectives. "If we just did the basic things, it would dramatically reduce oral health disease and improve quality of life, and sealants are one of the easiest things we can do - that and tooth brushing," Roderick K. King, executive director for the Florida Public Health Institute, told the Sun Sentinel. Prevent, not remedy It's always better to combat something before it arises - although that's not always possible. However, there are many ways that you can encourage your child to keep a healthy mouth. Eating healthy will have a great impact on the health of your child's mouth and teeth. Having your child eat fruits and vegetables can help combat the bacteria that accumulate in the mouth and cause bad breath, as well as clean the teeth of plaque. Hearty produce like apples, celery and carrots are abrasive enough to scrape off the sticky, white residue that sits on the teeth.

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http://www.therabreath.com/articles/blog/oral-care-tips-and-advice/keep-your-childs-mouth-fresh-and-clean-7510.asp

2013-05-24T16:10:12Z

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en

Gun laws have been some of the most debated issues in the history of the United States. The debate has been the balance between an individual’s right to bear arms and the government’s responsibility to prevent crime. With the increased national debate on gun laws in recent history, we’ve had a lot of questions about the future of gun laws and how they might affect our customers and their emergency preparedness plans. That’s why we decided that it would be interesting to see where we’ve been – which might help us understand what the future might hold with gun laws. While some hold that guns promote danger, others say they are necessary for protection and preparedness. Some key laws and acts have shaped the nation’s existing landscape of gun laws. Understanding our history helps us know where we currently stand with gun laws and what the future might hold. So, what are the gun laws? Take a look at some of the significant events below: Many people trace America’s Second Amendment to the English Bill of Rights of 1689. The bill stated that it was a given right of Englishmen to protect themselves and to have arms “in their defence, suitable to their condition, and degree, and such as are allowed by law.” Leading up to the Revolutionary War, the British responded to American’s increasing hostility by enacting a ban on the import of firearms and gunpowder. They even confiscated firearms in an effort to prevent an eventual uprising. This crystallized into the ideas of self-defense that eventually formed the Second Amendment. The Second Amendment to the U.S. Constitution is ratified. The amendment reads: “A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed. (You can read this article to see what points were debated and changed during the ratification process.) While the idea of the Second Amendment was still fresh in our country. A trial in Kentucky would shed further light on the subject. In Bliss v. Commonwealth, the courts struck down a Kentucky law which made it illegal for someone to carry a concealed weapon (a sword cane in this case). The ruling was unique in that it gave a broader reach to the definition of “arms.” In Arkansas, the circuit court upheld a state ban on concealed weapons (State v. Buzzard). A Tennessee district court also hands down a decision upholding the state’s law prohibiting concealed weapons. (Aymette v. State) One of the early battles with gun laws was whether or not slaves could possess guns. In Dred Scott v. Sandford, the Supreme Court ruled that “It would give to persons of the negro race, who were recognized as citizens in any one State of the Union … the full liberty … to keep and carry arms wherever they went.” In United States v Cruikshank, the Supreme Court clarified a section of the Second Amendment stating that the amendment “was not intended to limit the powers of the State governments in respect to their own citizens” and “has no other effect than to restrict the powers of the national government.” In Miller v Texas, Franklin Miller was convicted for shooting a police officer with an unlicensed handgun. He sought for the conviction to be overturned based on the fact that he believed the Texas law banning unlicensed handguns was against his Second Amendment right. The Supreme Court disagreed and ruled that the Second Amendment did not apply to state laws such as the one in question. In a case that challenged the legality of state’s requiring permits for concealed weapons, the Supreme Court ruled that the Second Amendment doesn’t limit the freedom to bear arms. “The freedom of speech and of the press does not permit the publication of libel, blasphemous or indecent articles … the right of the people to bear arms is not infringed by laws prohibiting the carrying of concealed weapons.” (You can read the full text of Robertson v. Baldwin here.) New York passes a law making it illegal to carry a handgun without a permit. The Sullivan Law prompts the National Rifle Association (NRA), which up to this point had just been a hobbyist and sportsmen’s club, to enter the political arena. Gun laws were placed on the backburner with the beginning of the First World War. The National Firearms Act passed in response to gangster culture during Prohibition. The law implemented a $200 tax on the making and transfer of automatic-fire guns, shotguns and rifles. The Act required a lot of paperwork to be filled out and be submitted to the Treasury Department. The Federal Firearms Act is passed by Congress. Congress aimed to limit the selling and shipping of firearms through interstate or foreign channels. Anyone involved in those type of sales was required to obtain a license from the Secretary of Commerce. They were also required to record the names and addresses of anyone they sold guns or pistols to. A ban on sawed-off shotguns is brought before The Supreme Court. The Court upholds the ban. In their decision, the Court implied that the Founding Fathers adopted the amendment to ensure the then-new federal government could not disarm state militias. (Read the United States. v Miller ruling here.) While gun laws had taken a backseat during WWII and the Cold War, the assassination of President John F. Kennedy brought it back to the forefront. Within a week of his death, nearly a dozen firearm bills are introduced. After the assassination of President Kennedy, Robert Kennedy and Martin Luther King Jr., Congress passed the Gun Control Act. The law calls for better control of interstate traffic of firearms. Lee Harvey Oswald, who shot the president, used a mail-order gun. The Bureau of Alcohol Tobacco and Tax is changed to the Bureau of Alcohol Tobacco and Firearms. The bureau is put in charge of the enforcement of the Gun Control Act and nearly doubles in size. The Firearm Owner’s Protection Act is approved by Congress. The law prohibits felons from owning or possessing guns or ammunition. The Law Enforcement Officers Protection Act is also passed. It prohibits the manufacturing, importing and selling of ammunition that can penetrate a bulletproof vest. The Crime Control Act directed the Attorney General to establish drug-free and gun-free zones around schools. The changes made it a crime to possess or discharge a firearm in a school zone. It also outlawed the illegal assemble of semiautomatic rifles or shotguns from legally imported parts. Many states, including California, bag the sale of firearms that have been defined as “assault weapons.” Congress passed the the Brady Handgun Violence Act, establishing the National Instant Criminal Background Check System gun dealers are to use before selling guns or pistols. The law is named after former White House Press Secretary James Brady, who was shot during the 1981 assassination attempt on President Ronald Reagan. The Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act becomes law. The law banned the manufacture, use, possession and import of 19 types of new semiautomatic weapons, including AK-47s and Uzis. The law expired in 2004. In District of Columbia v. Heller, The Supreme Court upholds a lower court ruling, striking down D.C. handgun ban as unconstitutional. The District had passed a law in 1976 which outlawed the ownership of a handgun. Current Debate & Future Currently, many points are being debated including whether semi-automatic weapons or high-capacity clips should be banned. Some are arguing whether more legislation is needed to moderate the buying and tracking process – concealed carry weapons (CCW), mental health records in background checks, etc. The current debate funnels down to how to reduce gun-related violence. While one side debates that a culture with prevalent guns promotes increased violence, others argue that violence will be stifled when more of the population owns a gun. What do you think the future of gun laws hold? Comment below and let us know.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

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2013-05-24T16:45:34Z

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For such a foul-tempered, ferocious and smelly creature, the Tasmanian devil is beloved in its native Australia, where it is considered a symbol of the country's frontier toughness. (The dog-sized marsupial's second life as a Looney Tunes character hasn't hurt its popularity either.) But as fierce as it is, the devil which is found only in the Australian island-state of Tasmania is in danger of going extinct. It's not an issue of predators or hunters the devil can handle them but of a peculiar, transmissible disease. Devil facial tumor disease (DFTD) causes tumors to form in and around the mouth of infected devils; the tumors eventually grow so large that they prevent the animal from feeding and lead to starvation. First discovered in 1996, the cancer has spread swiftly through the Tasmanian devil population, killing more than 70% of the island's animals. If nothing is done to stop the disease, the devils could go extinct within 35 years. But new research on the origins of the fatal cancer suggest that methods for rapid diagnosis and even a vaccine against the disease may be possible. Reporting in a paper published in the Jan. 1 issue of Science, an international team of researchers based in Australia and New York State performed a genetic analysis of DFTD and found that it likely began in the devil's Schwann cells, a type of tissue that protects nerve fibers. Researchers have also identified genetic markers for the disease, which should allow doctors to distinguish facial tumor disease easily from other cancers that afflict the Tasmanian devil, and could eventually help determine a genetic pathway to attack the tumor itself. "This is the first application of genetics to estimate the basic biology of the tumor," says Tony Papenfuss, a bioinformatics researcher at the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research in Melbourne and a co-author of the Science paper. "And we've produced a set of tools that can push that information further." DFTD is a virtually unique cancer in that it is spread from animal to animal via biting or other physical contact one of only three cancers that are thought to spread this way. While some human cancers can be linked to transmissible pathogens such as cervical cancer, which is caused by the human papillomavirus in DFTD, infected devils actually transmit the tumor itself to other devils when they bite. Through genetic analysis, the Science team was able to confirm that the tumors being spread from devil to devil were the same genetically identical, exact clonal copies. Using genetic sequencing technology, the team also uncovered the tumors' transcriptome, which means the set of genes that are activated in tumors. Those activated genes best matched those of Schwann cells, which gave the team a clue as to where the disease originated that's important because devils are unusually susceptible to a number of different cancers, and a quick diagnosis before the facial tumors get out of control would be helpful. "The real importance of this is that we can differentiate between the facial tumor disease and any other cancer," says Papenfuss. "That allows for much more specific diagnoses." Better diagnoses may lead to more targeted prevention efforts. Right now the only way to slow the spread of the disease is simply to separate healthy devils from infected ones. Naturalists are creating "devil's islands," cancer-free areas in Tasmania where healthy devils can live and breed. But that alone may not be enough to save the animal the Tasmanian Conservation Trust recently warned that there were not enough healthy devils in captivity to ensure a viable population. "It's critical that we find something to help save them," Elizabeth Murchison, the lead author on the paper, told Science in an interview. The devils will eventually need a vaccine, and there is hope that this research may help scientists develop one. The team compiled a catalog of devil genes that affect the tumor and may contribute to its growth; these could be useful targets for designing a future vaccine. The difficulty will be creating a treatment that attacks the tumor, but spares healthy cells. "The key in a vaccine is not to create immune action that would hurt the devils by attacking their Schwann cells," says Papenfuss. "Now we can look for specific markers on the tumor cells to attack." Tough as they are, Tasmanian devils still need a lot of help.

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SQL - Databases What's a Database? A SQL database is nothing more than an empty shell, like a vacant warehouse. It offers no real functionality whatsoever, but does provide a virtual space to store data. Data is stored inside of database objects called tables, and tables are the containers that actually hold specific types of data, such as numbers, files, strings, and dates. A single database can house hundreds of tables containing more than 1,000 table columns each and they may be jam packed with relational data ready to be retrieved by SQL. Perhaps the greatest feature SQL offers is that it doesn't take much effort to rearrange your warehouse to meet your ever-growing business needs. SQL - Creating a Database Creating a database inside of SQL Express has its advantages. After launching Microsoft's SQL Server Management Studio Express application, simply right-clicking on the Databases folder of the Object Explorer gives you the option to create a New Database. After selecting the New Database... option, name your database "MyDatabase" and press "OK". Now is the time to press the New Query button located toward the top of the screen, just above the Object Explorer pane. Pressing this button offers an empty tab. All SQL query statements (code) that we will be exploring will be entered here and executed against the SQL Express database. If you haven't yet created a new database, you may also create a database by typing the following SQL query statement into your new empty query tab, and then pressing the Execute button or striking the (F5) key. SQL Create Database Query: CREATE DATABASE MyDatabase; After executing this query, SQL will notify you that your query has run successfully and that the database was created successfully. If you receive an error message instead, Google the error message for troubleshooting advice. (Vista users must verify that they are running SQL Server Management Studio Express with administrator privileges.) Congratulations! You have executed your first SQL command and written what is perhaps your first bit of SQL code. Found Something Wrong in this Lesson? Report a Bug or Comment on This Lesson - Your input is what keeps Tizag improving with time!

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Section 3. Social and Economic Context It is one thing to have a general idea of the aims of education. It is quite another to see how they translate into practice in context which are so diverse socially and economically. Such diversity and its significance were extensively described by the Reviews. - By 2050, 25 million UK citizens will be over age 50 – with implications for life long learning. - People from ethnic minorities number 5 million – with implications for education. - 25% of young people grow up in households with one parent; 16% in workless homes. - The more disadvantaged a child, the lower the level of educational attainment. - Percentage of 17 year olds in employment has reduced from 60% to 30% in 15 years. - 10% of young people suffer from psychiatric disorders; 60,000 are in care, 40,000 are teenage mothers, and 3000 are in penal custody. - Half the prison population do not have the skills required by 96% of jobs. - Educational failure can often be related to home contexts and to the need for greater support for parents and the development of parenting skills. Education and training do not occur in a vacuum. They are influenced by social and economic contexts in which policies are developed. In this, all the Reviews agreed – an agreement not always shared by policy makers who often hold schools and colleges responsible for the effects of wider social problems. Particular references in the Reviews were made to the following features of the present context which affect educational success and failure. Demographic changes: (IFLL p.83-6; NR p.28/29)) Educational provision is bedevilled by changing demography. Birth rates vary historically and such fluctuations move slowly through the system, causing shortages of teachers and resources in some years and excess in others. The 14-19 cohort declines about 10%, over the next 15 years, with likely competition between schools and colleges for the declining numbers and between providers and employers in the latter’s demand for skilled labour. At the same time, despite the fluctuating birth rate, there is a constant increase in those who live longer. 16% of the UK population is over 65; by 2020, 25 million will be over age 50. - The learning needs of those in ‘the third age’ need to be addressed – and, indeed, of ‘the fourth age’, viz. the growing number over 75; - 14-19 provision should be so organised that there is greater local and regional organisation of resources and collaboration between providers. Multi-ethnic society (NR ch.3; MCWB p.8; CCPR p.113/5; IFLL p.70/1)) Given changing demography and global trends, the ethnic mix is changing. The number from minority groups in Britain is nearly 5 million, and growing. Moreover, they are often heavily concentrated in disadvantaged areas. Significant differences are noted between ethnic groups in participation and achievement. Reports have warned of an ethnically segregated Britain and a growing minority feeling isolated from mainstream society(v). - A special task of education is to address issues arising from ethnic diversity (e.g. racism or alienation) through the curriculum and through links with the respective communities. Relative poverty: (NCDS; NR p.30-32; CCPR p.58/9, 75/87, 110/15; IFLL p.35) Increased economic prosperity is counterbalanced by increased poverty for many and growing segregation of the well-off from the disadvantaged. This further embeds inequality in society, reflected in the differences in attainment between children at an early age – differences which accumulate throughout formal education and affect individuals in later life.(vi) - Policies such as ‘Sure Start’ and those set out in Every Child Matters(vii), integrating education, social and health services in a holistic approach to young people, are based on strong underlying evidence. Social mobility (IFLL p.38-42; NR 32/33; MCWB p.26; NCDS p30.; TLRP 4) The more disadvantaged a child’s background, the lower the level of educational attainment likely to be achieved and the less likelihood the take-up of available job opportunities. The historic data shows that those with O Levels, A Levels and degrees, have had average wage returns of 18%, 24% and 48% respectively compared with those without qualifications. Positive returns are noted with Level 4 craft based qualifications. Social and economic class still affect attainment despite the many educational reforms, though there is mobility where higher level qualifications obtain. - Educational reform is a key to improving fairness and must go hand in hand with wider social programmes. - Since economic contexts make upward social mobility impossible for everyone, such social mobility cannot be the major aim of ‘education for all’. - Further education, widening participation in HE and adult education are crucial in compensating for earlier failure and creating new opportunities. Family structure (NR 29/30; CCPR p.73/89; MCWB p.8; IFLL p.27; NCDS p.19) Changing family patterns affect educational prospects. 25% grow up in households with one parent (there is a link between one parent families and poverty). Over 16% grow up in ‘workless families’. Achievement is heavily influenced by family background as measured by social and economic status. Parenting skills are a significant factor.(viii) - Central importance should be given to (i) creating close relations between schools and social services, (ii) support for parents and (iii) resources for schools serving areas of social and economic disadvantage, especially during the early years. Economic needs (TLRP 5, 8 and 10, NR p.35/37, IFLL p.29; MCWB p.13) Changes in the need for skills and high technical knowledge put pressure on the education system to prepare a more highly skilled workforce, especially with regard to functional literacy and numeracy, but also including, ‘a national transformation of higher education in response to the growth of the global economy’ (TLRP 10). However, arguments for the ‘skills shortage’, stemming from the Leitch Review(ix), have been questioned by the NR (ch.9). - Apprenticeships need to be increased, but with greater emphasis on work based training, on employer support and on Level 3 attainment (see TLRP 5) - The significant role of higher education in producing the high level technical knowledge and skills (TLRP 8) must be acknowledged(x). Extended dependence of young people (NR p.26/28; MCWB p.14) The period of financial dependence has been extended. The number of 17 year olds in employment has reduced from 60% to less than 30% in 15 years, making often difficult demands on young people in their adjustment from childhood to adult status. They are bottom of the international league table of the wealthiest nations in terms of physical and social wellbeing – and drank more alcohol, took more drugs and had more under-age sex(xi). Teenage pregnancy is a major issue. - Young people, in their interaction with teachers, trainers and others, need more opportunities to develop personal responsibility and independence, and a greater sense of relevance of their studies than often prevails. Hard to Reach students (NR ch.3; CPR p.87, 119/21) Many are unable to access mainstream education due to caring responsibilities, exclusion, medical problems, school phobia, etc. For example, 10% of young people suffer from psychological disorders, 60,000 are in care, 40,000 are teenage mothers, 3000 are in penal custody. They need to be reached - Alternative educational provision is essential if these young people are to be reached – through home tutoring, communication technology (see pages 24 and 41) and liaison with social and health services. Those in Custody (IFLL p. 37) In a prison population of over 80,000, half do not have the skills required by 96% of jobs; 43% have a reading level at or below that expected of an 11 year old; 82% a writing level at or below that expected of an 11 year old; only 1/5 can complete a job application form. The social and economic costs of such educational failure are enormous. Evidence suggests that if commitment to fairness is pursued through sustained, practical policies, then some social disadvantages can be mitigated. In difficult financial circumstances, with education budgets adjusting to new norms, there are significant dangers of deepening inequalities. - Effective learning opportunities, within prison and extending to cover the transition from prison, are an important route for integration (IFLL, p.37). (v) See in particular Swann Report, 1995, Education for All, London: HMSO (vi) See the report on child poverty, Equality and Human Rights Commission, 2010, How Fair is Britain? (vii) DfES, 2003, Every Child Matters, London: Stationery Office. (viii) See Field, F., 3.12.2010, Commissioned Report to the Prime Minister on Poverty (ix) Leitch Review, 2003, Prosperity for All in the Global Economy: World Class Skills, London: H.M. Treasury. (x) Roberts Report, 2002, SET for Success: the Supply of People with Science, Technology, Engineering and Maths Skills (xi) UNICEF Report, 2007, Child Poverty in Perspective: an Overview of Child Well-being in Rich Countries, Florence: UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre.

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Before Toilet Paper What did people use before toilet paper was invented? Before the advent of modern toilet paper many different materials were used for the same purposes. Different materials were used depending upon the country, weather conditions, social customs and status. People used leaves, grass, ferns, corn cobs, maize, fruit skins, seashells, stone, sand, moss, snow and water. The simplest way was physical use of one's hand. Wealthy people usually used wool, lace or hemp. Romans were the cleanest. Wealthy used wool and rosewater and others used sponge attached to a wooden stick, soaked in a bucket of salt water. The Greeks would use clay. In Coastal Regions, mussel shells were used (and sometimes coconut husk). Europeans used hand (but they also used fountains with luxury of warm water). People from Islamic cultures used they left hand with little water (they are still doing that today). This is why it is offensive to greet someone with your left hand. The Eskimos would use moss or snow. The Vikings used wool. The Colonial Americans used the core center cobs from shelled ears of corn. The Mayans used corn cobs. The French invented the first bidet (of course without of modern plumbing). The Chinese invented the first toilet paper as we know it in the 14th Century. Later people used pages from a books, newspapers, catalogs, etc.

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We're not exactly sure how often a true and dangerous fire develops within a computer case. However, just in case (Ed. note: hah), IBM has invented a fire-suppression system that will conveniently and automatically extinguish flames inside your computer. A patent filed in May 2010 describes a system that includes a cartridge of extinguishing agents comprised of carbon dioxide and halon, which will be released on the processor and certain portions on the mainboard while the power supply is disabled at the same time. The system also includes an infrared light-based flame detector. IBM said that computers, which we are told are much more complex than the EDVAC from 1948, often short circuit, causing small fires in the computer--especially blade servers. Since a power supply will continue to supply electricity until it is taken out, IBM says that "depending on the location of the short on the system board, a fire can result until either the high impedance short opens completely or shorts completely, at which point the power supply over-current detection circuit shuts the power supply down." The company's application goes on to note that "such small fires in a server or other computer often do not produce enough smoke to set off a smoke detector until the fire has spread to the point of endangering other servers and computers." IBM's idea to extinguish a possibly dangerous fire is pretty simple: A fire detector would detect flames, shut the power supply off and puncture a hole into the "stored pressure unit containing the extinguishing agent."

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Amenemhet II, 3rd King of the 12th Dynasty by Jimmy Dunn Amenemhet II was the son of Senusret I and one of his chief queens, Nefru. He was the third ruler of Egypt's 12th Dynasty. Like his father, he served the first part of his reign as co-regent (perhaps for only two years) with Senusret I. His co-regency may have been short, but we are told that during this co-regency, Amenemhet II led a Nubian expedition. Apparently, Amenemhet II also took his son, Senusret II as a co-regent, but also for only a brief time before his own death. Amenemhet II apparently ruled Egypt for a period of some 30 years after his co-regency. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt gives his reign as lasting from 1911 through 1877 BC, while Clayton gives it as 1926 through 1895 BC. His birth name, Amenemhet, means "Amun is at the Head". He is also sometimes referred to as Amenemhat II, or Ammenemes II (Greek). His throne name was Nub-kau-re, which means "Golden are the Souls of Re". We are not sure of who exactly Amenemhet II was married to but at least one source lists Mereret I. However, this source also lists Kem-a'nub, who is now considered to have been a 13th Dynasty queen. There was also apparently a prince named Amenemhetankh and princesses Ita, Khnemet, Itiueret and Sithathormeret. Of course, another son was Senusret II, who succeeded his father on the throne. The Sphinx of red granite is from Tanis and is probably the face of Amenemhet II. We have considerable knowledge of Amenemhet II's reigns because of a number of important documents. Some historical information about the 12th Dynasty comes from a set of official records know as the genut, or "day-books". There were found in the temple at Tod. Some of Amenemhet II's buildings also contain parts of these annals. They describe the day to day process of running the royal palace. One very important set of annuals were discovered at Mit Rahina (a part of ancient Memphis) that record detailed descriptions of donations made to temples, lists of statues and buildings, reports of both military and trading expeditions and even royal activities such as hunting. These documents not only provide information on Amenemhet II, but other kings of the period as well. Amenemhet II is probably best known for consolidating the work of his predecessors in foreign affairs. He exchanged gifts with other rulers in the Mediterranean (Levant) region. We find jewelry inscribed with his name in royal tombs at Byblos in Lebanon, as well as local copies of Egyptian jewelry. These items were particularly prevalent in the tomb of a local prince named Ipshemuabi. In addition, native rulers at Byblos even wrote short inscriptions in hieroglyphs, held the Egyptian title of count, and made references to Egyptian gods. They even acquired royal and private statuary. Trove from the Montu Temple at Tod On the other hand, four bronze boxes found at the temple of Montu at Tod and inscribed on their lids with the name of Amenemhet II bore a large number of silver cups of Lavantine and Aegean origin. There were also cylinder seals and lapis Lazuli amulets from Mesopotamia. These items were probably either a gift, or tribute, and it is noteworthy that at the time, silver was more rare then gold in Egypt, so also more valuable. Cylinder seal from of Mesopotamia origin In addition, Egyptian evidence from this period has been found in Crete at Knossos, and common Minoa pottery, called Kamares ware, has been found from this period at Lahun and in a tomb at Abydos in Egypt. There is also an increase in the mention of Levantine names, many of whom were possibly domestic servants, within Egypt. The annals found at Mit Rahina also identify the Syrian northern city of Tunip as an Egyptian trading partner. However, the annals mentioned above provide some evidence that the sweeping peace with the Levant was probably more selective then formerly believed, because apparently Egypt had treaties with only certain countries in the region. Herodotus even speaks of Asiatic wars about this time (or only slightly later). In fact, these same annals also refer to a small group of Egyptians who enter Bedouin territory (probably referring to the Sinai) in order to "hack up the land", and two more campaigns were directed against unknown walled cities. These towns were referred to as "Aamu" (Asiatic), and 1,554 prisoners were reported to have been taken by the Egyptian forces. This may very well be the reason we find the increase in Levantine names working as domestic servants. There were also expeditions to the south and the biography in the tomb of a Amenemhet at Beni Hassan mentions an expedition to Kush (Upper, or southern Nubia) and also a visit to the East African kingdom of Punt by the king's official, Khentykhetaywer. This trip was made in the 28th year of Amenemhat II's reign. One story during the time of Amenemhet II tells of the travels of a ship captain who had been to a magic island in the sea far south beyond Nubia. The sailor told the vizier (prime minister) about a tempest which arose suddenly and drove the ship towards a mysterious land. He suddenly heard a noise like thunder, and saw a huge serpent with a beard. Upon hearing that the sailor was sent by the pharaoh, the serpent let him go back, with gifts to "Amenemhet". It told him that it was Amon-Ras blessing that has made this island rich and lacking nothing. Upon hearing this amusing story, "Amenemhet II" ordered it to be documented on a papyrus. The story is known to historians as "The Shipwrecked Sailor". Domestically, Amenemhet II failed in one important respect. Under the rule of his predecessors, nomarchs, who were basically the governors of the various nomes (provinces), had been personally appointed by the king. This was a measure taken to assure the centralization of government. The First Intermediate Period was at least partially caused the chaos resulting from strong regional rulers who destabilized this central control. However, Amenemhat II apparently allowed this important office to revert back to a hereditary position. The nomarchs soon took advantage of this change by adapting pretentious titles sometimes imitating those of the royal court. However, Amenemhat did keep a firm hand on these matters and appears to not let these local rulers forget their allegiance to the crown. In return for royal favors, they were expected to help protect the Egyptian borders, to undertake expeditions for the king and to generally act as his deputies. Siltsone fragment with Amenemhet's Horus name, Hekenmaat In fact, the nomarchs began to disappear during the time of Senusret III because of a practice that was probably initiated by Amenemhet II. The children of nomarchs were sent to the king for their training, afterwards being sent to diverse posts. This ended up dissipating the power of the local nomarchs. Amenemhet II does not appear to have done much building, unlike many of his predecessors. Little is known of any building works with the exception of his Pyramid, though some projects may have been usurped by future rulers. Amenemhet II built his pyramid in Dahshure, for reasons we do not know. His two immediate predecessors, Amenemhet I (pyramid) and Senusret I (pyramid) had built their pyramids at Lisht near the Fayoum. Arnold refers to Amenemhet II's pyramid as a new phase in pyramid development, that incorporates both ancient design with experimental components. His is also attested to by a stele with his name found in the Wadi Um Balad, a gateway at Hermopolis, a large sphinx with his inscription now in the Louvre museum, and he is mentioned in several inscriptions near Aswan, together with his son.References: |Chronicle of the Pharaohs (The Reign-By-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt)||Clayton, Peter A.||1994||Thames and Hudson Ltd||ISBN 0-500-05074-0| |Complete Valley of the Kings, The (Tombs and Treasures of Egypt's Greatest Pharaohs)||Reeves, Nicholas; Wilkinson, Richard H.||1966||Thames and Hudson Ltd||IBSN 0-500-05080-5| |History of Ancient Egypt, A||Grimal, Nicolas||1988||Blackwell||None Stated| |Monarchs of the Nile||Dodson, Aidan||1995||Rubicon Press||ISBN 0-948695-20-x| |Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, The||Shaw, Ian||2000||Oxford University Press||ISBN 0-19-815034-2| Who are we? Tour Egypt aims to offer the ultimate Egyptian adventure and intimate knowledge about the country. We offer this unique experience in two ways, the first one is by organizing a tour and coming to Egypt for a visit, whether alone or in a group, and living it firsthand. The second way to experience Egypt is from the comfort of your own home: online.

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Filmmaker Katrina Browne is descended from the DeWolf family (also spelled D’Wolf or DeWolfe) of Bristol, Rhode Island. The most prominent member of this family, James DeWolf (1764-1837), was a U.S. senator and a wealthy merchant who was reportedly the second-richest person in the country when he died. In the 1790s and early 1800s, DeWolf and his brothers virtually built the economy of Bristol: many of the buildings they funded still stand, and the stained glass windows at St. Michael’s Episcopal Church bear DeWolf names to this day. Across the generations, their family has included state legislators, philanthropists, writers, scholars, and Episcopal bishops and priests. The DeWolf family fortune was built in part on buying and selling human beings. Over fifty years and three generations, from 1769 to 1820, the DeWolfs were the nation’s leading slave traders. They brought approximately 10,000 Africans from the west coast of Africa to auction blocks in Charleston, South Carolina and other southern U.S. ports; to Havana, Cuba and to other ports in the Caribbean; to their own sugar plantations in Cuba; and into their own homes. The family continued in the trade despite state and federal laws prohibiting many of their activities in the late 1700s. Their efforts to circumvent those laws eventually lead them to arrange a political favor with President Thomas Jefferson, who agreed to split the federal customs district based in Newport, R.I. This maneuver permitted the appointment of a customs inspector just for Bristol, and the choice was Charles Collins, the brother-in-law of James DeWolf, who conveniently ignored the slave ships moving in and out of harbor. One member of the family, George DeWolf, even continued in the trade after 1808, when Congress banned the importation of slaves into the U.S., until 1820, when Congress made slave trading a hanging offense. Their complicity in slavery continued even afterwards, however, as the family maintained slave plantations in Cuba and James DeWolf invested his slave trade profits in textile mills which used slave-produced cotton. Today, there are as many as half a million living descendants of the people traded as chattel by the DeWolfs. Sources: Jay Coughtry, The Notorious Triangle: Rhode Island and the African Slave Trade, 1700-1807 (Philadelphia: Temple Press, 1981); David Eltis, Stephen D. Behrendt, David Richardson, and Herbert S. Klein, eds., The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade: A Database on CD-ROM (Cambridge, 1999); George Howe, Mount Hope: A New England Chronicle (New York: Viking Press, 1959); M.A. DeWolfe Howe, Bristol, Rhode Island: A Town Biography (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1930).

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Managing Biodiversity through local and indigenous systems of knowledge Indigenous and local communities conserve and manage biodiversity – from plant varieties and animal races to entire landscapes - through dynamic sets of knowledge, practice and representations that are constantly renewed, refined and developed. They are part of a complex that also encompasses language, attachment to place, spirituality and worldview. These unique ways of knowing are now widely recognised as essential building blocks for sustainable development and the joint conservation of biological and cultural diversity. Emerging on the international scene at the Earth Summit (Rio 1992), the domain has rapidly gained prominence and momentum notably through the Convention on Biodiversity, whose Article 8(j) incites State Parties to 'respect, preserve and maintain knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities'. The Local and Indigenous Knowledge Systems (LINKS) programme is a UNESCO interdisciplinary initiative that works to secure an active and equitable role for local communities in resource management, strengthens knowledge transmission across and within generations, and explores pathways to balance community-based knowledge with global knowledge in formal and non formal education. All of these activities contribute to the equitable and sustainable use and management of biodiversity.

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Adapted from "Heal the Bay" urban: of or relating to a city "green:" green in this sense means something, a product or a behavior that is not harmful to the environment There are many common products that we use that get into the ecosystem and can cause harm. Products such as paint thinners, oil, and phosphate detergents may harm the environment by directly poisoning it. Plastic products are also harmful to our environment, they hurt and even kill marine and other wildlife. Our behavior which includes how much water we use, how much electricity, and how much gas we use also make a difference. For example, to produce the electricity to light your home requires burning barrels of oil. The resulting waste products pollute both our air and the water.

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HISTORY OF THE MILITARY IN PUERTO RICO Alert to the importance of military preparedness, from the earliest days of the colony the Spaniards organized and trained the Puerto Ricans for defense. At first the militia existed only in small groups ; later a somewhat permanent regiment was formed, called the "Regmiento de Fijos", Which distinguished itself several times during attacks upon the island. In 1818 the Spanish Government, apparently without good reason, mustered out this regiment, and in 1870 extended similar treatment to the remaining Puerto Rican militia ; instead the Civil Guard, a body of troops consisting of Spaniards came into existence. FORCE SELDOM NEEDED TO PRESERVE ORDER IN PUERTO RICO Glancing backward for a moment, we see that troops have very seldom been needed to preserve order in Puerto Rico ; the few instances in which such need did arise were during the early days of the colony. In 1511 Juan Ponce de Leon, the Military Governor, in command of a handful of soldiers took the field with his men to subdue an Indian uprising. At intervals after 1520 there were pirate raids upon the coast which demanded military measures of resistance and led to the first fortification of San Juan. Although Puerto Rico never engaged in any wars of its own, the island from time to time became involved in the great contest which Spain was waging, and most recently it devoted itself unreservedly to the cause of the Allies in the World War. The record may briefly be summarized : On November 12, 1595 the English under Admiral Sir John Hawkins and Admiral Drake were repulsed in their effort to enter San Juan Harbor ; the defenders employed 40 pieces of artillery on El Morro and 100 more on shipboard. Sir George Clifford , Earl of Cumberland, on June 6, 1598, landed an English force of 1000 men at Santurce and actually captured all the defenses of San Juan. excepting El Morro. An epidemic of Yellow Fever, however, broke out among the mosquito bitten invaders and, within forty days, compelled their withdrawal. The Dutch, under Boudoyno Henrico, in 1625, occupied the city and for 28 days besieged El Morro and La Forteleza. the issue was romantically decided by single combat with swords in which a Puerto Rican Captain, Amezquito defeated and mortally wounded the Dutch Commander. Sir Ralph Abereremby with a large English fleet attacked San Juan in 1797, the city then being the second most powerful stronghold in all America ; the defense by the Spanish Captain General Don Ramon de Castro and his army, consisting mostly of Puerto Ricans, was so brilliant that the attack failed. In 1898 the Spanish garrison of Puerto Rico consisted of 8233 regular soldiers of all arms and some 9100 volunteers, of whom about 800 were Puerto Ricans. On July 25 an American Force of 3,415 men of the Infantry and Field Artillery, with two companies of Engineers and a detachment of Signal Troops, under the command of General Nelson A Miles, affected a landing at Guanica and Ponce with little opposition ; the total of American invaders was presently increased to 15,199 and rapid progress was made in occupying the Island. The war then being in its later stages, the American encountered only slight resistance; armistice put an end to active military operations on August 12. In accordance with the Treaty of Paris, the Spanish troops evacuated Puerto Rico in October 1898. MILITARY GOVERNMENT CREATED. In October 1898 , the American Military Government was created, and the Military Department of Puerto Rico assumed control of Insular Military Affairs. Posts were established at San Juan, Ponce, Mayaguez, Arecibo, Aguadillo, Cayey, San German, Bayamon, Manati, Lares, Aibonito and Vieques, and were maintained during two years; all the troops in these Posts were, however, relieved before February 23, 1901. by detachments of the new Puerto Rican Regiment. Authority for the organization of the first body of native troops in Puerto Rico is found in Section 12 of an Act of Congress approved March 2, 1899, (The Army Appropriation Bill). Major General Guy V. Henry, US Volunteers, then Commanding the "Department of Porto Rico". published Circular 6, Headquarters Department of Porto Rico" , dated March 24, 1899, ordering the recruiting of a Battalion of volunteers from the natives of Puerto Rico. The recruiting progressed fairly and in May 1899 the Battalion was nearly filled. On May 20,1899, Brigadier General George W. Davis, US Volunteers, who had succeeded General Henry in command of the Department, published General Order, No. 65, "Headquarters Department of Porto Rico", series of 1899, for the formation of the Battalion and designation of the companies as A,B,C, and D, fixing the enlisted strength to 100 men each. The first record of the assignment of an officer to duty with this unit is that of Captain Csmun Latrobe jr. , who was appointed "Captain Porto Rico Battalion" on May 17, 1899, but there is reason to believe that the first officer to actually serve with the organization under a commission in it was Captain Thomas F. Maginnis (1st Lt 11th Infantry), who accepted his volunteer commission May 29,1899. This officer was one of those who were designated to enlist and instruct the native soldiers, and his actual service with them antedated his volunte commission. The records show that Company A was organized at Mayaguez, Company B at Ponce, and Companies C and D at San Juan. All the First Sergeants were Americans. The first Adjutant of the Battalion was 1st Lt Christian Briend. General Orders No. 172 , "Headquarters Department of Porto Rico", dated October 27,1899 , authorized the strength of the companies to 112 men each, setting the Puerto Rican organization to the war strength authorized to same organizations in the United States. On December 1,1899 , Major Lorenqo P. Davidson was relieved from Command of the Battalion and Major Eben Swift succeeded him in command. During the summer of 1899 it was found that a number of musicians had been enlisted in different companies. Those men were gathered together at San Juan, carried on special duties away from their companies and were organized into a Band of 17 or 18 pieces. There is no authentic record of the exact date when this organization was first formed, but from the best information obtainable it is believed to have been in presentable condition around September or October 1899. It is evident that the actual band in this Department, which was part of the 65th Infantry until 1943, is the continuation of the little band that was formed in 1899. On February 12, 1900, General Davis issued General Order No 34, "Headquarters Department of Porto Rico", series of 1900, directing that under instructions from the President of the United States, through the Secretary of War, a Mounted Battalion of Porto Ricans, be organized. The order prescribed that the battalion should consist of four companies designated E , F, G, and H, to be the Mounted Battalion of the "Porto Rican Regiment". This was the first official allusion of a Regiment of native troops. On February 20, 1900, "Headquarters Department of Porto Rico" issued General Order No. 38, prescribing that the two Battalions of native troops should be known as the "Porto Rican Regiment US Volunteers". The mounted Battalion was to be stationed at Camp Henry, Post of Cayey. PORTO RICO US VOLUNTEER INFANTRY On March 8, 1900, "Headquarters Department of Porto Rico" issued General Order No. 50 changing the name of the Regiment to the "Porto Rico Regiment US Volunteer Infantry " being the 1st Commanding Officer of the outfit Lt. Colonel James Buchanan. Of the two authorized assistant Surgeons of the Regiment one was a native, Dr. Jose Lugo Vina, who held the rank of Captain. This was the first native Doctor to hold a commission in the Army. The band and the 1st Battalion of the "Porto Rico US Volunteer Infantry" participated in the inauguration, March 4, 1901 of President William McKinley, under the command of Major William E. Almy. This command left San Juan on the transport "Rowlins" February the 25th , and arrived at Newport News, March the 1st. It remained on board the transport until noon of March the 2nd when it entrained and reached Washington over the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad at 10:00 PM , and camped down on the top floor of the War Department building. It took part in the parade of March 4, and left Washington on the Pennsylvania Railroad at 7:00 AM, March 5, for New York, arriving at 5:00 PM and going on board the Transport "Sedwick", which sailed at 4:00 PM , March 6, and reached San Juan at 1:00 PM , March 11th. The only Puerto Rican officer in this parade was 1st Lt. Blas Nadal. According to the records, the first Porto Rican officer in the organized native troops was 1st Lt. Blas Nadal, who was appointed an officer from the ranks on 14 August 1899. THE PORTO RICO PROVISIONAL REGIMENT OF INFANTRY On May 20, 1901, General Order No. 72, provided for the mustering out of the "Porto Rico Regiment of Volunteer Infantry" on June 30, 1901. The same Order authorized the organization of a new Regiment to be known as the "Porto Rico Provisional Regiment of Infantry", and to be composed of two battalions offour companies each and a band. Each company was to consist of 104 men. Companies E , F, G, and H would constitute the 2nd Battalion, which would be mounted. The Regiment as it was organized continued in existence until June 30, 1908, although a reorganization was made on June 30, 1904. Up to June 30, 1904, the officers were appointed by the President of the United States, without the consent of the Senate of the United States. This gave the officers a peculiar status insofar as they were not considered in the regular service. Congressional Legislation of April 23, 1904 , provided for the reorganization of the Regiment extending its life for a provisional term of four years from June 30, 1904. The changes in the status of the officers and men were radical The field officers were required to be detailed from the line of the Army, in the same grade. All officers below the field grade were to be mustered out of the Regiment, June 30, 1904. The President was then authorized by and with the advice and consent of the Senate of the United States, to reap point all those that would successfully pass a mental, moral and physical examination, for a provisional term of four years to begin July 1, 1904 . The legislation also authorized the examination of native civilians to be appointed in the grade of second lieutenants for a term of four years, if they passed the examination. Enlistment's were restricted exclusively for native citizens of Puerto Rico. Examinations for officers were started around May 19, 1904, and the results were kept secret until July 1, 1904, when reappointments wore made. Four Captains and a list Lieutenant (Surgeon) failed to pass the examination. Of the native civilians who were examined only one was successful. His name was Jaime Nadal, who was appointed a Second Lieutenant on July 1st, 1904. Lt. Jaime Nadal was a brother of the first native officer of the Regiment, Lt. Blas Nadal, who died December 1st 1901. Again in 1905, a battalion of Puerto Rican Troops, part of the Regiment, participated in the inauguration of President Theodore Roosevelt. The command sailed from San Juan on February 23, 1905, on the Steamship "Arcadia" for Washington. The steamer had orders to proceed up the Potomac River direct to Washington. It tied up at the Quartermaster deck at Washington Barracks on March 3, at 11:00 PM. The battalion paraded dressed with the Blue Dress Uniform, as a part of the 2nd Brigade of the 1st Division, commanded bo Major General J. F. Wade. The following Puerto Rican Officers were present at the parade having made the trip with the Battalion ; Captain Jose Lugo Vina , Asst. Surgeon, and 2nd Lt. Jaime Nadal. On January 1905 new examinations were held for the appointment of native officers. The results were known late in March and appointments of seven civilians were made as second lieutenants to rank from march 3, 1905. These appointees, all from civil life and ignorant of military matters were: Henry C. Rexach, Pedro J. Parra, Eduardo Iriarte, Teofilo Marxuach, Eugenio C de Hostos, Louis S. Emmanuelly, and Pascual Lopez. No staff officers had ever been authorized for the Regiment. On March 25, 1905, one additional captain was authorized to be detailed as Regimental Staff Officer. During the month of December 1905 another examination of native civilians was held for appointments as Second Lieutenants. As the result of examinations two vacancies were filled. Appointments were made to Mr. Felix Emanuelli and Mr. Daniel Rodriquez, being commissioned on February 9, 1906. to rank from January 17, 1906. In June 1908 all officers of the Regiment were subjected to a physical examination to determine their fitness for commissions in the Regular Army under an Act of Congress approved May 27, 1908. All were found physically qualified. In June 30, 1908, the Porto Rico Provisional Regiment of Infantry passed out of existence. THE PORTO RICO REGIMENT OF INFANTRY, UNITED STATES ARMY "The Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry, United States Army" was created July 1, 1998, under authority of the act of Congress, approved May 27, 1908, as published by General Orders 100, War Department, dated June 16, 1908, which made the Regiment a part of the Regular Army. The act provided that the new Regiment should be composed of the two battalions of the "Porto Rican Provisional Regiment of Infantry", in service on June 30, 1908. By means of the new act the officers were placed on the same status with other officers of similar rank in the Army except with regard to promotion. The records show that this was the first year (1908) in which the Regiment trained a baseball team. It entered competition with the San Juan Base Ball Association, winning the championship by a margin of one game over the pennant winners of the year before. The Championship finished April 3,1909. On July 23, 1909, Mr. John Rivera was commissioned in the Army as a Chaplain. His commission was effective May 14, 1909. On November 8, 1909, four new appointments were made of natives to fill the ranks of the Regiment as Second Lieutenants. They were Leopoldo Mercader, Urbino Nadal, Adolfo J. de Hostos, and Enrique de Orbeta. On November 9, 1909, 1st Lt. Pedro J. Parra was detailed by the War Department as Military Aide to the Governor of Puerto Rico. This was the first record of a military aide to the Governor of Puerto Rico from the "Regiment of Porto Rico". On November 9, 1910, another Board of Officers was appointed to examine native candidates for appointment as Second Lieutenants in the Army. Eleven candidates appeared for examination, of which four were appointed on November 27, to rank from November 25, 1910. The four accepted their commissions. The selected candidates were Enrique Urrutia Jr., Arturo Moreno Calderon, Carlos Manuel Lopez and Rafael Bird. On January 12, 1911, Major General Frederick D. Grant, Commanding the Department of the East arrived at Puerto Rico for an inspection of the Regiment, with special reference to its efficiency for field exercises. The inspection was finished around January 20, 1911. Addressing the troops, General Grant said that "This was one of the best regiments he had ever seen, and that there were few as good, and none better in the Department under his command", On November 6, 1911 another Board of Officers was appointed with the purpose of recommending candidates for appointment as Second Lieutenants to fill existing vacancies. Mr. Serafin M. Montesinos and Mr. Pedro A. Hernandez were appointed as a result of the examination given on January 5. 1912, to rank from December 8, 1911. The records show that teams from each company participated in a rifle competition in August 1915, for the Harvey Trophy. Company F won the trophy. The National Match Course was fired as prescribed by Bulletin 10 , War Department 1915. The trophy was presented by Colonel William E. Harvey of the N. G. District of Columbia. This is the first record obtainable of Rifle Competitions in the Regiment. On July 1, 1916 , a reorganization of the Regiment in accordance with the provisions of Section 21 of the act of Congress approved June 3 , 1916 was begun. This law authorized the increase of infantry companies to 100 men as peace quota , and to 150 men for war , and created Machine Gun and Supply Companies , of strength of 53 and 74 for peace and war respectively , for the Machine Gun Company and a constant strength of 37 men for the Supply Company. The organization of the 3rd Battalion was ordered by the Regimental Commander in General Order No. 4 ," Headquarters Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry" , dated July 1, 1916. Lt. Jaime Nadal was ordered to duty as Instructor at the Army Service Schools. On January 30, 1917 a new group of Puerto Ricans were appointed to serve as Second Lieutenants of the Puerto Rico Regiment. The appointees were Manuel B. Navas , Enrique M. Benitez, Vicente N. Diaz , Andres Lopez , Ramon S Torres , Modesto E. Rodriuez and Ernesto F. Colon. Upon the entrance of America into the World War , the Legislature of Puerto Rico , in a spirit of patriotism , requested that the Selective draft law be extended to the island and this was accomplished by Presidential Proclamation in May. Pursuant thereto , 236,853 men were registered for selection , of which 17,855 were selected, and all of them, except 139 reported for service. Camp Las Casas was established near Santurce by Lt. Colonel Orval P. Townshend, then Commanding the "Porto Rican Regiment of Infantry", who was subsequently relieved of command of the camp by Brigadier General Edward Christman. Three training camps were conducted in which by July 20, a total of 706 officers were trained and commissioned. By the date of the Armistice, the Infantry Brigade at Camp Las Casas had attained a high degree of efficiency and was prepared for overseas service. Meanwhile, home guard units were organized in the various municipalities throughout the Island, consisting of men past the age for field service who volunteered for this duty. The force attained a strength of 1,500 men. On May 3, 1917, the Regiment was ordered to recruit to war strength of 1969 men in order to embark for the Canal Zone on the US Army Transport "Buford". By the 12th of May, everything was ready for the movement to the new station, but on this date orders were received directing that such troops could not be accommodated on the ship and they were to remain on the island to await a second voyage. According to instructions, the 1st Battalion , and Company M were ordered to remain. On the 14th of May 1917, the Regiment , less the units to wait on the island, sailed from San Juan, Puerto Rico to Colon , Republic of Panama. The first contingent of troops arrived at Colon on the 19th of May. On the 23rd of May the 1st Battalion and Company M , less small detachments, sailed for Panama arriving there the 27th of May. On July 16,1917 , four new civilians were appointed 2nd. Lieutenants of the Army. These were Luis F Cianchini , Victor E. Demenech , Antonio A. Vasquez , and Juan E. Guzman. During the War , the regiment served in Panama in defense of the Canal Zone. Officers and enlisted men were detailed for duties outside of their organization , specially for the training of civilians to be inducted into the Army. On March 1919 the Regiment returned to Puerto Rico from the War Garrison at Panama. By the reorganization Act of June 4 , 1920, the regiment was redesignated as "65th Infantry, US Army". There has been no other change in the name of the Regiment since that time. On November 15, 1922, a board was appointed to make a selection of a march to be known as the "65th Infantry March". The board was composed of Lt. Colonel H.W. Gregg, Captain Charles A Willoughby, and WO Luis R. Miranda. All selections suggested were played by the Band for the board to consider. WO Miranda composed and recommended an adaptation of the Puerto Rican composition "Borinquena". The board unanimously approved the recommendation, considering that the "Borinquena" was in fact, the National Anthem of Puerto Rico; closely linked with the history of the country, very popular among natives and of marked musical value. It is since that time that the "Borinquen", as adapted, is known as the "65th Infantry March". For the first time in its history the 65th Infantry was presented in the track and field meet at Jersey City on June 9, 1923, where al the regiments of the 2nd Corps Area took part. The regiment performers got second place, scoring 14 points. With disadvantages resulting from change in climate, the team made a splendid showing by having the second place while participating with other fifteen contestants. A Base Ball Team of the Regiment was sent to Governor's Island , New York , on July 31 ,1923. The team was to compete with other regimental teams of the 2nd Corps Area . This was the first Base Ball team to visit the United States from Puerto Rico. The records of the Regiment for the years following the first World War show that the Regiment performed all duties required for similar units. The Regiment served as a backbone for the preparedness of youngsters in Puerto Rico. Service was rendered at ROTC's , CMTC's and National Guard Camps. Almost every officer in Puerto Rico , either drafted from the Reserve or from the National Guard , had something in common with many men from the 65th Infantry, who in one way or another had been connected with the early stages of military life of those officers. In 1940 , with the outcome of hostilities in Europe, the Regiment, as well as all units of the Army, was reorganized and brought to war strength. New blood was brought into the lines of the organization. By this time the discipline of the Regiment was of a very high standard, due to the fact that their men had been built up for more than twenty years in a stage of responsibility. New men in the line learned that , and the Regiment acquired a high degree of discipline. When War broke against the United States, the Regiment underwent a extensive training. During the year 1942, together with the 295th and 296th Infantry Regiment, it was deployed along the coasts and vital installations of Puerto Rico , waiting for an expected invasion of the Island. On 7 January 1943 the Regiment sailed for Panama where it offered security to the Panama Canal, occupying positions in both the Atlantic and Pacific sides of the Isthmus. During the stay in the Canal Zone, intensive training was given, especially in Jungle Warfare. Specially trained men served as instructors for many officers and men of Latin American Armies who were sent to Panama for courses on American Army Tactics. On 30 December 1943 the Regiment was relieved from duty at Panama and sent to Fort Eustis , Va. , after a short stay of about one week at Jackson Barracks, New Orleans. At Fort Eustis, the Regiment went through a combat infiltration course for about two months. It was well known at this time that the regiment would be moving to Europe at any time. On 7 March 1944, Companies L, K, Hq & Hq Co 3rd Bn. and detachments from the Regimental Hq Co and Medical Detachment sailed for North Africa, arriving at Casablanca. About one month later the remainder of the Regiment sailed for North Africa. After passing the Straight of Gibraltar it joined the advance detachment at Staging area No 2 , in the Oran sector. The complete Regiment stayed in that staging area undergoing training. About two weeks later the Regiment was moved to camp port Aux Poules. On 29 April 1944, the 3rd Battalion embarked on board HMT Strathnaver and H.M.S. Orduna at Mers el Kebir, Oran. The Battalion sailed at 1315 on 30 April 1944 and arrived Naples, Italy , at 1915, 3 May 1944, where it moved bo foot to Piazza Garibaldi, Naples, entrained this station at 1145, and arrived Staging Area No.4, Cami Flegreis, at 1300 same day. On 9 November 1944, the Battalion moved to Staging Area No. 1, at Bagnoli, Italy, and was quartered at Colegio Constancio Ciano, where, while staging, it performed guard duty and conducted some training. Upon orders from the 12th Air Force the Battalion moved by different groups to Corsica. The first group Hq Co and Company L, embarked aboard US SLST 4, on 16 May 1944, and sailed the next day, arriving Ajaccio, Corsica, on 18 May 1944, from where the group was moved by trucks to Chisonaccia, (Corsica). Company I left Naples aboard H.M.S. Thuster on 19 May 1944, and arrived Porto Vecchio, Corsica, on 21 May 1944 , from where it was moved by motor transportation to Solenzara, (Corsica). Company K sailed from Naples on 25 May 1944, and arrived Porto Vecchio, Corsica, on 31 May 1944, from where it was moved by motor transportation to Alto, Alesan, and Poretta. During the time that the 3rd Battalion was with the 12th Air Force at Corsica, the rest of the Regiment was at Port Aux Poules, Oran Sector, under going amphibious training. At this time the Regiment was attached to the 7th Army for Administration and to the 91st Infantry Division for training. Effective 7 June 1944, the 3rd Battalion was reassigned to the 7th Army with orders to rejoin the Regiment. Movement from Corsica to North Africa started on 13 July 1944 . The Regiment was at this time getting ready to be shipped to France. Company C 65th Infantry was detached from the outfit and flown on 17 September 1944 to join the 7th Army Headquarters where it was attached to Special Troops for the security of the Command Post. Company C stayed on duty with the 7th Army Headquarters until 30 July 1945. On 22 September 1944 , the first elements of the Regiment started their way to France, The landing was made at the Ports of Marseilles and Toulon. All troops except Company C, were then united at a Staging Area at Marseilles, from where the regiment was split and assigned different security missions. On 13 December 1944 the 3rd Bn. 65th Infantry was committed to action on the Maritime Alps at Peira Cava. It was relieved from the Maritime Alps on 26 February 1945. There was a total of forty seven battle casualties from the Battalion in this sector. The first Puerto Rican to be killed at this place was Sgt. Angel Martinez. Sgt. Martinez was from Sabana Grande, Puerto Rico , and had been inducted into the service, On 15 October 1940. He came into the Army with Company E 296th Infantry, where he had served for some time. The movement of the 3rd Battalion from the Maritime Alps was direct to the Saarbrucken Area , where in conjunction with the 1st Battalion, training was given on attack to fortified positions and village fighting. On 18 March 1945 the CP of the Regiment moved to Kaiserlatorn. The Regiment as a whole, was then used on security missions in different towns and cities around that area. Later some organizations of the Regiment went to the District of Manheim, Germany, where different duties, to include Military Government activities, Anti- sabotage, and Security Missions were performed. In the European Theater of Operations units of the Regiment were awarded battle participation credits in the Naples-Fogis, Rome-Arno, Central Europe and the Rineland Campaings. On October 15, 1945 the Regiment moved to Calais, France, which was a Staging Area , and in accordance Letter, Subject : Movement Orders, Shipment R8242, Headquarters US Forces European Theater, dated 9 October 1945, the Regiment was ordered to Puerto Rico for the purpose ofrehabilitation and further service. On October 27, 1945, the Regiment sailed from France arriving at Puerto Rico on 9 November 1945. ARMS: Sable, a Maltese cross argent. CREST: On a wreath of the colors, a lion rampant rules crowned MOTTO -Honor Et Fidelitas This was originally the Porto Rican Regiment, name changed to 65th Infantry in 1920. Puerto Rico discovered in 1493 by Columbus, and named by him "San Juan" which name is still retained by the largest city, where the 65th Infantry has had its Headquarters most of its existence. The name "San Juan" was for the old military order of St. John of Jerusalem, later known as the Knights of Malta, whose habit was black with a white Maltese Cross, which has accordingly been adopted for the shield of this Regiment. The crest is from the arms of Juan Ponce de Leon, the first governor of Puerto Rico.

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Coastal morphodynamics and society It has long been obvious that our beaches have evolved with time in response to factors including the supply of sediment, the action of waves and currents, geological constraints, man made structures and sea level rise. The study of coastal morphodynamics involves investigating the changes to the physical features and environments in the coastal region, which occur over a broad range of time and length scales, as detailed below and illustrated in Figure 1. - Toe scour – the short term and relatively small scale removal of sediment from the toe (i.e. base) of coastal structures. This often occurs and recovers completely during the course of a single tide (if in the intertidal zone, at least). Occurs over a cross-shore lengthscale of a few metres but may extend considerably further in the longshore direction; - Storm response - lasting for a few tides and causing toe scour, beach lowering and recovery over cross-shore scales of up to a few hundred metres and rather longer distances in the longshore direction; - Recovery between storms - the beach will respond to the changing forcing conditions and variations in beach level can be observed. Recovery from a storm can take 10s of tides and will affect a similar area to the storm; - Seasonal variation – it is commonly observed that beach levels are draw-down (i.e. the beach level lowers at the top of the beach) in winter due to storm-induced erosion and build up during summer, leading to a seasonal variation in beach levels at the toe of a structure, for example; - Inter-annual variability in climate – this will have a net effect on the coastline by generating erosion or accretion and there are considerable variations in the wind and wave climate between years. Changes in the tidal regime are less dramatic, although the nodal tide, which is an 18.6 year variation in tidal range, causes a measurable effect. The annual wave climate affects the whole coastline so its effects are felt over the scale of the sediment cell, say 10s of km alongshore by of the order of 1 or 2 km cross-shore; and - Coastal evolution and sea level rise – changes are driven by sea level rise and dominated by longshore transport. Occurs over longer timescales and even larger spatial scales than beach changes due to variations in annual conditions. In general, the spatial scale increases with the timescale and longshore sediment transport processes increase in importance compared to cross-shore transport processes as the timescale increases. These changes are important as they affect society in a range of different ways, some of which are illustrated in Figure 2, where the time scale represents the duration between events, not the duration of an event. Changes to the morphology have effects, including: - Altering currents and waves, with consequences for the safety of recreational beach users. Included in this category is the effect of rip-currents. - The lowering of beaches leads to greater wave heights at coastal defences, which can cause greater overtopping rates (i.e. greater volumes of water being thrown onto and over the coastal structure) which in turn can cause damage to pedestrians, cars and even structures. People can be swept into the sea during such an event. - The erosion of a beach can cause its width to diminish, lessening the potential for tourism. - Sedimentation reduced the available water depth in channels, ports and harbours. In time this can become a risk to shipping, which is commonly alleviated by dredging. - Cliff falls are dramatic events that can move a cliff edge landwards by several metres in the space of a few seconds. This can be dangerous and leads to the erosion of land. If this land is used for agriculture, industry, business, housing, transport etc. it will have a value that is almost always permanently lost. If the land is unused it will still commonly have a value as scenery, as our coastlines include some of the most beautiful landscapes there are. - The failure of coastal defences fortunately happens rarely but can have dramatic consequences as large scale flooding or a high rate of coastal erosion can follow. - Shoreline retreat is one of the symptoms of an eroding coastline, which can eventually lead to the loss of settlements, such as villages and towns. As an example, the approximately 63km long Holderness coast of Lincolnshire on the east coast of England has lost over 30 settlements to the sea since Roman times [link]. Please note that others may also have edited the contents of this article.

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en

An HTML text area: The <textarea> tag is supported in all major browsers. The <textarea> tag defines a multi-line text input control. A text area can hold an unlimited number of characters, and the text renders in a fixed-width font (usually Courier). The size of a text area can be specified by the cols and rows attributes, or even better; through CSS' height and width properties. HTML5 has added several new attributes. New : New in HTML5. |autofocusNew||autofocus||Specifies that a text area should automatically get focus when the page loads| |cols||number||Specifies the visible width of a text area| |disabled||disabled||Specifies that a text area should be disabled| |formNew||form_id||Specifies one or more forms the text area belongs to| |maxlengthNew||number||Specifies the maximum number of characters allowed in the text area| |name||text||Specifies a name for a text area| |placeholderNew||text||Specifies a short hint that describes the expected value of a text area| |readonly||readonly||Specifies that a text area should be read-only| |requiredNew||required||Specifies that a text area is required/must be filled out| |rows||number||Specifies the visible number of lines in a text area| |Specifies how the text in a text area is to be wrapped when submitted in a form| The <textarea> tag also supports the Global Attributes in HTML. The <textarea> tag also supports the Event Attributes in HTML. HTML DOM reference: Textarea object Your message has been sent to W3Schools.

<urn:uuid:dbc09537-0736-4f34-a2f0-6d7e2e5f7dfa>

CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.w3schools.com/TAGS/tag_textarea.asp

2013-05-24T16:10:43Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704752145/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114552-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

When Raoul Wallenberg graduated from the University of Michigan in 1935, no one could have predicted the epic struggles that lay ahead of him. Wallenberg served as neutral Sweden’s special envoy in German-occupied Budapest, secretly tasked by the United States to try to save the gravely imperiled Hungarian Jews—the last remaining major Jewish population in Europe. Arriving in july 1944, Wallenberg enlisted 400 Jewish volunteers and placed them under Swedish diplomatic protection. They produced thousands of “schutzpasses,” special Swedish passports, which granted the bearer immunity from deportation. Wallenberg also declared dozens of buildings in Budapest to be under the diplomatic protection of Sweden, and their thousands of occupants immune from arrest and seizure. Shortly before the Soviets arrived in Budapest, the Nazis surrounded the city’s Jewish ghetto, determined to massacre the remaining Jews in Budapest. Wallenberg bluffed the Germans into canceling their plans by threatening that they would hang for war crimes once the war was over. Wallenberg’s actions saved tens of thousands of lives from the jaws of the Nazi death machine. When the Soviet army entered Budapest in early 1945, Russian authorities placed Wallenberg in detention and took him from Budapest. He disappeared into the Soviet Gulag and was never seen again. In order to honor and perpetuate the extraordinary accomplishments, sacrifice and humanitarian values of Raoul Wallenberg, the University of Michigan annually presents the Wallenberg medal and lecture. This medal is bestowed on individuals whose uncommon and unrelenting commitment to human dignity, human rights and justice embodies the dedication of Raoul Wallenberg. The Wallenberg medal expresses the conviction that one person can make a difference. Integrity of the human spirit, hope that the arc of history bends toward justice, and the ability to endure and triumph in the darkest of situations, are common traits among awardees. Some past recipients include: Dr. Denis Mukwege, journalist Lydia Cacho, and Nobel laureates Elie Wiesel, the Dalai Lama, and Archbishop Desmond Tutu. This year’s honoree is Nobel peace laureate Aung San Suu Kyi. Abiding by the principles of non-violence, Suu Kyi has committed her life to the struggle for democracy and human rights in her native Burma. The daughter of revered Burmese independence leader Aung San, she became the leader of the democratic opposition in 1988 amidst severe repression and human rights abuses by the military regime. She has continually called for multi-party elections and for the government to stop its repression. Suu Kyi has faced down military guns, gone on hunger strike on behalf of jailed colleagues, and was under house arrest for 15 of the last 22 years. Her insistence on speaking out despite government threats, incarceration and intimidation has made her a great defender of her people and brought hope to her oppressed homeland.

<urn:uuid:66137937-e6e8-4fc6-8774-1f119998403f>

CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.wallenberg.umich.edu/one-person-can-make-a-difference-transcript.html

2013-05-24T16:24:02Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704752145/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114552-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

How can data tables be made accessible? Data tables are tables that are used to represent actual tabular data, with rows and columns of related information. The technique for creating an accessible data table depends on the complexity of the table. Data tables can be described as either simple or complex. A simple data table is one in which each cell corresponds with only one column header and/or one row header. In contrast, a complex data table is one in which there are nested columns or nested rows, and consequently cells within the table correspond with multiple column and/or row headers. Without accessible markup complex tables can be challenging if not impossible for screen reader users to understand. For all data tables regardless of complexity, table headers should be explicitly identified as table headers using the <th> element. It is also desirable for all tables to have a "summary" attribute and <caption> element. For simple tables, the scope of each heading should be identified using the "scope" attribute, as in scope="row" or scope="col". For complex tables, each table header must be marked up with a unique "id" attribute (e.g., <th id="column1a">. Then, each cell in the table must use the "headers" attribute to identify which headers are associated with that cell (e.g., <td headers="column1a">). The "headers" attribute can include multiple headers, separated by a space (e.g., <td headers="column1a column1b">). Last update or review: January 23, 2013

<urn:uuid:35c6b422-4de5-4e5c-ba68-a71b849c84b6>

CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.washington.edu/accessit/articles?1022

2013-05-24T16:25:44Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704752145/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114552-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

Reports on the ground in Bangladesh estimate that more than 10,000 people have lost their lives in one of the most powerful cyclones to hit that area in the last 20 years. That's more than 10 times the amount of deaths caused by Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans just two years ago. The cyclone -- or what we would call a hurricane -- made landfall at category 4 intensity last Thursday in the Bay of Bengal. It's the large curved bay located in the Indian Ocean, with India along its western border and Burma to the east. The geographically small country of Bangladesh lies at the Bay's apex, an area that is susceptible to massive storm surges. On the other side of the world is another coastline that is shaped similar to the Bay of Bengal and is considered the second most vulnerable place in the world for surge. That's Apalachee Bay and it's located in our own backyard. Even though our coast is extraordinarily vulnerable to surges, the infrastructure and warning system is far better here than the third-world country that is suffering so much. Cyclone Sidr's death toll should end up far lower than the 143,000 from a cyclone in 1991, and nearly a half million fatalities in Bangladesh's 1970 cyclone.

<urn:uuid:fd43a606-60ed-4f28-b20c-96a212fb8c3a>

CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.wctv.tv/weather/headlines/11607031.html

2013-05-24T16:32:43Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704752145/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114552-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

Tourette's syndrome (TS), also known as Tourette syndrome or Tourette's disorder, is a neurological disorder characterized by repetitive, involuntary movements and vocalizations called tics. The symptoms are involuntary and cannot be controlled by the individual. The disorder was first described in 1885 in an 86 year-old French noble woman by Dr. Georges Gilles de la Tourette, a pioneering French neurologist. The early symptoms of TS are almost always noticed first in childhood, with the average onset between the ages of seven and ten years. TS occurs in people from all ethnic groups, and males are affected about three to four times more often than females. Overall, about one in every 2,500 persons has TS. Three times as many may exhibit some features of TS, usually chronic motor tics or obsessive thoughts. Individuals with TS have trouble controlling their impulses (they may act out verbally or have involuntary muscle movements), are prone to dyslexia (or other learning problems), and tend to talk during sleep or wake frequently. The nature and complexity of the tics usually change over time with natural variations in frequency (how many times they happen) and severity (the intensity of the symptoms). Obsessive compulsive behavior is common in TS, occurring in 30-90% of all patients. Individuals with obsessions are bothered by thoughts or images that continue to repeat themselves and are almost impossible to ignore. These thoughts, which are annoying, distracting, and inappropriate, tend to cause the person to have moderate to severe anxiety and other emotional discomfort. Common obsessive thoughts include themes of violence, fear of germs and/or infection, and doubts about one's character and/or behavior. Compulsions are behaviors in direct response to the individual's troublesome, obsessive thinking. Therefore, individuals engage in the compulsive behaviors in order to reduce their obsessive thoughts. Some of the most prevalent compulsions are repeated checking of doors, locks, electrical appliances, or light switches; frequent cleaning of hands or clothes; strict attempts to keep various personal items in careful order; and mental activities that are repetitious, such as counting or praying. TS occurs in people from all ethnic groups. It is estimated that 200,000 Americans have the most severe form of TS, and as many as one in 100 exhibit milder and less complex symptoms such as chronic motor or vocal tics or transient tics of childhood. Although there is no cure for TS, symptoms that start in childhood may improve in the late teens and early 20s. As a result, some may actually become symptom-free or no longer need medication for tic suppression. Although the disorder is sometimes lifelong and chronic, it is not a degenerative (worsens over time) condition. Individuals with TS have a normal life expectancy. TS does not impair intelligence. Although tic symptoms may improve with age, disorders such as depression, panic attacks, mood swings, and antisocial behaviors may develop and can persist causing impairment in adult life. ADHD, akasthisia, alpha 2-adrenergic agonists, amphetamine, antipsychotic, anxiety, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, autosomal dominant, botulinum toxin, bradykinesia, compulsive, computerized tomography, coprolalia, CT, DBS, deep brain stimulation, depression, dopamine, DSM-IV-TR, dyslexia, echolalia, EEG, Electroencephalography, Huntington's disease, hypertension, involuntary, magnetic resonance imaging, MRI, neuroimaging, neuroleptics, neurological disorders, neurotransmitter, norepinephrine, obsessive-compulsive disorder, OCD, palilalia, Parkinson's disease, PET, phonic, positron emission tomography, postviral encephalitis, psychiatry, serotonin, stimulant, tardive dyskinesia, TD, tics, Tourette's disorder, waning, waxing. types of tic disorders Tics associated with Tourette's syndrome may come and go over time, varying in type, frequency, location, and severity. The first symptoms usually occur in the head and neck area and may progress to include muscles of the trunk and extremities. Motor tics generally precede the development of vocal tics and simple tics often precede complex tics. Most patients experience peak tic severity before the mid-teen years with improvement for the majority of patients in the late teen years and early adulthood. Approximately 10% of those affected have a progressive or disabling course that lasts into adulthood. Transient tic disorders: Transient tic disorders often begin during the early school years and can occur in up to 15% of all children. Common tics include eye blinking, nose puckering, grimacing, and squinting. Transient vocalizations are less common and include various throat sounds, humming, or other noises. Childhood tics may be bizarre, such as licking the palm or poking and pinching the genitals. Transient tics last only weeks or a few months and usually are not associated with specific behavioral or school problems. They are especially noticeable with heightened excitement or fatigue. As with all tic syndromes, boys are three to four times more often afflicted than girls. While transient tics by definition do not persist for more than a year, it is not uncommon for a child to have series of transient tics over the course of several years. Chronic tic disorders: Chronic tic disorders are differentiated from those that are transient not only by their duration over many years, but by their relatively unchanging character. While transient tics may come and go (such as sniffing replaced by forehead furrowing or finger snapping), chronic tics (such as contorting one side of the face or blinking) may persist unchanged for years. Chronic multiple tics: Chronic multiple tics suggest that an individual has several chronic motor tics. It is often not an easy task to differentiate between transient tics, chronic tics, and chronic multiple tics.

<urn:uuid:8f2e5075-102e-48d2-97e4-89b8989e4cdc>

CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.wellness.com/reference/conditions/tourette-s-syndrome

2013-05-24T16:46:47Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704752145/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114552-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

RESIDENTS URGED TO AVOID ENCOUNTERS WITH MOUNTAIN LIONS SANTA FE -- The appearance of a mountain lion in an Eldorado residential area on Monday is a reminder that cougar sightings are not uncommon in developments bordering habitat that supports the wild predators. Although human-cougar encounters are relatively rare, the Department of Game and Fish advises residents -- especially those in outlying areas -- to be aware of their surroundings and to take precautions to avoid encounters with large predators. Lions generally are attracted to communities for food. They are most active from dusk to dawn, although they sometimes travel and hunt in daylight. Lions prefer to eat deer; however, they also kill elk, small mammals, livestock and a variety of domestic animals such as dogs and cats. The cougar captured Monday was a mature female that appeared to have lost its instinctive fear of humans. The initial plan was to release the cougar in the Jemez Mountains, but it was euthanized after the Department determined that it was too dangerous to be released. Here are some ways to protect yourself, your family and wildlife from unwanted encounters with mountain lions and other large predators: - Do not feed wildlife. Use native plants, not non-natives, so as to not attract deer, which are the primary prey of lions. Remember, predators follow prey. - Do not let your pets roam around outside. Bring them in at night. If you keep pets outside, provide a kennel with a secure top. Do not feed pets outside where the food can attract lions or other smaller animals which lions prey upon. Store and dispose of all garbage securely. - Closely supervise children. Make sure they are home before dusk and not outside before dawn. Make lots of noise if you come or go during times when mountain lions are most active -- dusk to dawn. Teach your children about lions and what they should do if they encounter one. - Landscape or remove vegetation to eliminate hiding cover for lions, especially around areas where children play. Make it difficult for a lion to approach unseen. - Install outdoor lighting, especially in areas where you walk, so you can see a lion if one were present. - Close off open spaces below porches or decks. - Place all livestock in enclosed sheds or barns at night. Close the doors to all outbuildings so that an inquisitive lion is prevented from going inside to look around. Mountain lion encounters and attacks are extremely rare, but if you do encounter a lion in the wild or in town: - Stop or back away slowly if you can do so safely. - Stay calm when you come upon a lion talk calmly yet firmly to it and move slowly. - Immediately pick up all children off the ground and tell them to stay calm. - Do not run from a lion as fleeing behavior may trigger the instinct of the lion to attack. - Face the lion -- do not turn your back -- remain in an upright position and look as large as possible (raise your arms, open up your coat, if your wearing one). - Carry a walking stick and use it to defend yourself by keeping it between you and the lion. If the lion approaches closer or behaves aggressively, arm yourself with the stick, throw rocks or sticks at the lion, and speak louder and more firmly to the lion. Convince the lion you are dominant and a danger to it. - Fight back if a lion attacks you. Use any possible object within reach as a weapon, such as rocks, sticks, jackets, a backpack or your bare hands. Lions have been driven away by prey that fights back. Stay standing and if you fall down try to get back up on your feet. The New Mexico Department of Game and Fish is responsible for managing, conserving and protecting wildlife. If you have an encounter with a lion or an attack occurs, please contact the Department at (505) 476-8000 during regular business hours, or your local sheriff's or police department if you feel you are in danger. For more information about mountain lions and living around large predators, please visit the Department Web site and check out the publication, Living with Large Predators in New Mexico.

<urn:uuid:b918a45c-6629-4ab5-9221-07525e5bf073>

CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.wildlife.state.nm.us/publications/press_releases/documents/2009/042309eldoradolion.html

2013-05-24T16:44:20Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704752145/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114552-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

Success in today's global society demands knowledge, skills, and perspective that go beyond textbook-based education. Fact and figures, while important, are part of an information database that is evolving at breakneck speed. In this ever-changing environment, students must learn how to learn—to adapt, collaborate, and gain perspective in a world that is increasingly connected. To prepare students for success, Wildwood emphasizes project-based learning, which allows students to delve deeply into course material and merge it with their own interests. Through projects, students acquire additional insights, connecting new knowledge to what they already know. They develop higher-order thinking skills—the ability to analyze, evaluate, and synthesize—that are crucial for college achievement. Wildwood recognizes that each student possesses his or her own unique methods of learning and varying levels of skill and degrees of interest. Teachers and students appreciate that there are different types of literacy—informational, intellectual, emotional, social, and ethical - that make up a well-rounded student. At the same time, students are challenged to structure their learning through the discipline of the Life Skills in elementary school, and the rigors of the Habits of Mind and Heart in middle and upper school.

<urn:uuid:d6200419-ab84-4e36-93b1-5392d73a4792>

CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.wildwood.org/page.cfm?p=3

2013-05-24T16:18:15Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704752145/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114552-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

June 18, 1983: Sally Ride, the First American Woman Into Space 1983: Sally Ride becomes the first American woman to travel into space. Ride, who hoped to become a professional tennis player before deciding she wasn’t good enough, became a physicist instead and joined NASA in 1978 as part of the first astronaut class to accept women. After the usual training, Ride joined ground control for the second and third space shuttle missions, serving as communications liaison between the shuttle crews and mission control. She was also involved in developing the robot arm used aboard the shuttle craft to deploy and retrieve satellites. Ride’s turn to go into space came at the shuttle program’s seventh mission, as a crew member aboard Challenger. She was aboard Challenger for her second flight as well, an eight-day mission in 1984. In all, Ride logged around 345 hours in space. While it was a milestone for the U.S. space program, the Soviet Union’s Valentina Tereshkova preceded Ride into space by almost exactly 20 years. On June 16, 1963, the former textile worker went aloft aboard Vostok VI. Ride was training for her third mission when Challenger blew up in January 1986, killing everyone on board. With all training suspended in the wake of the accident, Ride was appointed to the presidential commission charged with investigating the causes of Challenger’s demise. She retired from NASA in 1987 to return to Stanford University, her alma mater. She later joined the faculty at UC San Diego as a physics professor. Since leaving NASA, Ride has remained active in the academic side of space exploration, taking a special interest in attracting more women to the sciences in general, and the space program in particular. (Sources: NASA, Lucidcafe.com) This article first appeared on Wired.com June 18, 2007.

<urn:uuid:fa5cc358-dc33-4821-b3e2-7c65d5ca9627>

CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.wired.com/thisdayintech/2012/06/june-18-1983-sally-ride-the-first-american-woman-into-space/?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+wired%2Findex+%28Wired%3A+Top+Stories%29

2013-05-24T16:45:13Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704752145/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114552-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

Learn something new every day More Info... by email Nonfiction is any work that conveys information that is presumed by the author or creator to present factual information. The media for nonfiction can be of any type, including video and still photography, but the term usually refers to written material. The information presented need not necessarily be accurate but must be regarded as such by the creator. In other words, facts presented in nonfiction works may be in error but not deliberately fabricated and presented as facts. The genre of a work presented as nonfiction can fall into a number of categories. Reference works and textbooks are one of the primary types of nonfiction works. Historically, many works of this type have later been proven to have certain elements that are in error as advances in knowledge improve our understanding of the subject in question. This does not mean that the works are fiction but rather that the knowledge in them has simply become obsolete. This can occur in almost any field of study from history to mathematics and even reference works about literature. Biographies and narrative accounts of actual events, either related from direct experience by the author or derived from documented information, both contemporary or historical, comprise another major field of nonfiction works. These works often contain portions that offer opinions or conclusions about the events being related. This type of inclusion does not disqualify a work as nonfiction as long as the main focus of the work is presenting fact rather than opinion. In fact, it is rather common in nonfiction works. Certain newspaper and news magazine articles are another type of nonfiction. The primary types of nonfiction media, aside from written works, are visual representations. Video and photographic nonfiction works are common parts of everyday life for much of the world. News programs, documentaries and photographs are all nonfiction. Video and photographic records are good examples of nonfiction works, but these types of media are easily altered, the act of which, depending on the degree of alteration and the intent behind it, can cause them to no longer qualify as nonfiction. An entertainment phenomenon arising in the late 20th century, popularly called reality television, is a good example of how intent and presentation can blur the line between fiction and non-fiction. Reality television programs are presented as depicting real life events but are sometimes staged and edited so as to show those events in a calculated, orchestrated way deliberately intended to influence the way they are perceived by the audience. While presented as nonfiction, some of these types of programs fit the definition loosely at best.

<urn:uuid:004bb727-741c-4405-b3d5-af3a44e696e4>

CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-nonfiction.htm

2013-05-24T16:46:03Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704752145/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114552-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

Reading to your baby is a treasured experience, and it's one that helps your baby discover the world around him. Be sure you take time everyday to pick up a book and help your baby expand his world and engage his imagination. Reading to a baby doesn't come naturally to everyone. But practice will help you become comfortable reading aloud, and before you know it, you'll enjoy it as much as your baby does. Other tips to consider when reading aloud to a baby: Children learn to listen by practicing. Be patient with your child and remember that his attention span is short. Set aside time every day to read, and try to make it a habit. Read before bed or before a nap, or read every evening after dinner. Use plenty of expression, and change your voice with the characters. Children sometime respond to whispers more than anything. Whisper certain parts of the story and see if that catches your child's attention. Encourage your baby to help you turn the pages of the book. Let your baby point to pictures and you help him identify what they are. Don't force baby to read with you when he's had enough. You'll know when it's time to put the book down and move on. Board books are ideal for a baby and they stand up to wear and tear. Stock your child's library with plenty of board books that he can access easily. Have fun. Reading to your child is something you should look forward to, and before you know it, your child will be reading to you.

<urn:uuid:d4e94269-5481-43c4-8baf-36b347f7be64>

CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.wowbaby.com.au/blog/ReadingFun/

2013-05-24T16:38:27Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704752145/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114552-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

Smart phones of the future may be able to identify human emotions Remember the mood ring? Well the smart phone of the future may be able to identify your mood based on the sound of your voice. Researchers at the University of Rochester are developing a program that can gauge human feelings through speech analysis. Instead of analyzing the words spoken, the program works by examining a dozen features of the voice -- things like pitch and volume -- to place the voice within an emotional range. Electrical and computer engineering professor Wendi Heinzelman says the research is focused on helping psychologists interpret spoken interactions between different groups of people; and that could have all sorts of other applications. For example, Heinzelman says the program could assist people with behavioral disorders to understand important social cues and interpret other people's emotions. "If your cell phone, for example, could know what your emotions were, it could do things like play you a certain song if you're sad, or change colors, or display a picture of your mom, or do something like that to try and help you when you're not feeling so good," said Heinzelman. "Or if you're feeling really great, to kind of keep you motivated, you can imagine some applications like that." At the moment the program can only identify emotions in people it has been trained on using voice samples, and researchers need to make it robust enough to function with the background noise of the real world.

<urn:uuid:8a205a8d-e078-4411-a45f-ebed0c494a23>

CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.wrvo.org/post/smart-phones-future-may-be-able-identify-human-emotions

2013-05-24T16:31:36Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704752145/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114552-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

Village Utility XPRIZE Nearly one billion people lack access to safe drinking water and 2.6 billion lack access to basic sanitation. As a result, half of the world’s hospitalizations are due to drinking water contaminated with infectious agents, toxic chemicals, and radiological hazards. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), just one of those infectious agents - the bacteria that causes diarrhea - accounts for 4.1 percent of the global disease burden, killing 1.8 million children a year. There is a radical high tech solution to solve all this. There is more than one mega-joule per day of energy in human feces, which is enough energy to purify drinking water out of urine and organic waste, convert the remaining waste to ash, and even power a few lights and recharge your cell phone. The upside of this “Village Utility” is almost incalculable. For starters, removing human feces from the equation solves an enormous portion of the global disease burden (which also slows population growth). Doing so in a way that is distributed and net-positive for water and power makes this technology radically disruptive.

<urn:uuid:af978a17-b9d2-4c15-a3dc-6dfd4d9f73fa>

CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.xprize.org/prize/village-utility-xprize

2013-05-24T16:18:25Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704752145/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114552-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

We often give internet addresses or URLs (Uniform Resource Locators) in County Council communications so that the reader can find out more information about a subject. In the web environment an internet address usually provides a direct link (hyperlink) to a specific web location. You simply click on the hyperlink to go to that location. In this web environment, the internet address is always underlined and usually appears in a colour different to that of the main text. This is the industry standard. When giving an internet or email address in a printed document the address should not be underlined. Use bold instead, eg: If you're looking for something interesting to read, try logging on to the Road Safety website at www.hants.gov.uk/roadsafety. And don't forget to include the full stop after the web address if it appears at the end of your sentence, to indicate to the reader that the sentence has finished - as shown in the example above.

<urn:uuid:7c2c0f1e-6ad6-4c7b-a47d-b951f559c6ce>

CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www3.hants.gov.uk/logos/cx-logos-corporatestandards/cx-logos-styleguide/cx-logos-generallayout/cx-logos-internet.htm

2013-05-24T16:25:59Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704752145/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114552-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

Battle of Britain prelude: the birth of the Luftwaffe In 1922, Herman Göring joined the Nazi party In 1924 - as part of the Treaty of Rapallo - Germany established a secret military flight school in Lipetsk, Soviet Union. By 1933, hundreds of fighter pilots and navigators had been trained, and twenty different aircraft types tested. By 1930, Deutsche Luft Hansa (in terms of passenger miles) was bigger than the airlines of Britain and France combined. It’s Chief Executive, Erhard Milch, became a secret member of the Nazi Party and falsified company accounts so that the Party never paid for any of their chartered aircraft. In 1933, Adolf Hitler rose to power as German Chancellor, appointing Göring as Reichskommissar für die Luftfahrt (Reich Commissioner for Air). In the same year, Milch transferred from Lufthansa to become Staatssekretär der Luftfahrt (Secretary of State for Air). Milch was tasked with creating an air force. In January 1933, the German aircraft industry employed less than 4,000 people. The following year, this figure would quadruple.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

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2013-05-24T16:39:09Z

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Parkinson's disease causes problems in the nerve cells in the brain that control muscle movement. Nerve cells that make a chemical called dopamine normally send signals that help coordinate your movements. In people who have Parkinson's disease, these cells die or do not work properly. The disease's effects get worse over time. People who have Parkinson's disease experience tremors or shaking as a result of the damage to their nerve cells. Tremors caused by Parkinson's get worse when the person is at rest and better when the person moves. The tremor may affect one side of the body more than the other, and can affect the lower jaw, arms and legs. Handwriting may also look "shaky" and smaller than usual. Other symptoms of Parkinson's disease include nightmares, depression, extra saliva, difficulty walking or buttoning clothes, or cutting food. A doctor may diagnose a person with Parkinson's disease based on the patient's symptoms and medical history. No blood tests or X-rays can show whether a person has Parkinson's disease. However, some kinds of X-rays can help your doctor make sure nothing else is causing your symptoms. If symptoms go away or get better when the person takes a medicine called levodopa, it's fairly certain that he or she has Parkinson's disease. Doctors don't know exactly what causes Parkinson's disease. They do know some medicines can cause or worsen symptoms of Parkinson's disease. However, symptoms often disappear when the patient stops taking the medicines. There is no cure for Parkinson's disease. But medicines can help control the symptoms of the disease. Some of the medicines used to treat Parkinson's disease include carbidopa-levodopa, bromocriptine, selegiline, pramipexole, ropinirole and tolcapone. Your doctor can recommend the best treatment for you.

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2013-06-19T06:49:09Z

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While most 15-year-old boys are on their way to school in the morning, Julio Cesar Gutierrez is on his way to work. He toils inside the Cerro Rico, or "rich mountain" of Potosí, for the fabled Bolivian silver that looms at the peak at the Andes mountains, dominating every view of the highest city in the world. It is the oldest mine in the Americas and one of the oldest working mines in the world. It is also one of the most dangerous. The entrance to the mine is muddy, with a sloping ceiling. At 15,000 feet above sea level you have to work to take in each breath. Gutierrez took ABC News into the mine with his older brother Luis Alberto and some other boys. It was a daunting tour inside what truly is a hell on Earth. An estimated 20,000 people work each day, including 1,000 children. Inside there are no lights except for the workers' head lamps, and there is no ventilation, or safety equipment. Often there is just one exit; if a shaft collapses there is no way out. Gutierrez began working outside the mine when he was just 6 years old; he's been working inside since he was 12. "I hate it," he said in Spanish. "It's very dangerous for children." Potosí may be the most important place in the history of the modern world that most people have never heard of. The Spanish discovered silver in Potosí in 1545. The mine was so rich that historians say its wealth single-handedly fueled the Spanish conquest of the Americas. They call it "The Mountain That Eats Men." It is estimated that 8 million American Indian and African slaves died in forced labor at the mine. Amid the colonial remnants of what was once a magnificent city sits the massive Spanish royal mint, now a museum that shows just a fraction of the mother lode that made this remote mountainous place the largest city in the world by the year 1650. And the richest. And yet all that is left behind is poverty, a poverty of such extreme desperation that it sends men and boys into the 400 mines burrowed into the mountain's belly to scratch out the most meager of livings. While technically the mines are owned by private companies, in reality there are no owners. They are run as cooperatives. Fernando Vasquez, director of social management for Bolivia's Cooperative Mining Sector, told ABC News the coops need a lot of investment to improve safety conditions. In this, the poorest country in South America, there are no safety inspections of mines. The government does, however, provide guidelines and seminars to promote safety. In the end, Vasquez says safety is solely the responsibility of each mining company or cooperative, which is why what we saw inside looked almost medieval: no safety gear, no power, no ventilation. The boys told us to run through one section with broken beams overhead, knowing it could collapse at any moment. We heard the distant sound of drills as we wound our way through the snaking tunnels and narrow shafts. John Trew, senior technical adviser on child labor at the charity CARE USA, traveled to Potosí to talk to us about CARE's work there. He has traveled the world studying child labor and trying to improve conditions for children, and he is horrified by what he sees here.

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2013-06-19T06:44:13Z

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Science Fair Project Encyclopedia In general, pop music features simple, memorable melodies with catchy, sing-along choruses. Pop songs often have a hook, one or more musical ideas repeated to "hook" a listener's interest. A hook can be any part of the song, musical, rhythmic, vocal, or as is most often the case, a mixture of all of them. Pop music is usually instantly accessible to anyone who is culturally inclined to take part, even the musical novice. Successful pop music, which is often measured in terms of its commercial success, is usually performed by charismatic performers who look attractive, are fashionable, and usually are able to dance well. Songwriting and arranging may be done by professional songwriters rather than the performers and the record producer often chooses the songs and shapes the sound of the music. Producer Frank Farian briefly experimented with the notion of having one party sing a song, and another, more photogenic group, lip-sync to it. The result was called Milli Vanilli and was hugely successful, until people discovered that they had no role in the production of their album. Though this was scandalous in the late 1980s, today many of the most popular pop singers employ lip-synching to pre-recorded tracks during their live performances. The performers often argue that it is not an issue of them lacking singing talent. Rather, they claim, it is difficult to dance, peform, and get all the words out at the same time, so they play recorded music in the background in order to ensure that the performance sounds good. However, critics maintain that in a live musical performance, the live music creation (be it sung, instrumental, or both) should be the issue that receives precedence over other less important things, such as dancing or theatrics. Due to its increasing commercialization and the lip-synching issue, pop music is often criticized for being entertaining while lacking serious musical value and artistic significance. This is believed to be primarily due to record companies' financial considerations being placed above any artistic considerations, whereby the record companies hand-pick the artists and songs that they think will make them the most money. In a sense, young and fashionable teens who might have no prior knowledge of the music industry are marketed into something that can sell fun and danceable music to a preteen audience. Companies often figure that their profits will be maximized by selling music that has the broadest possible appeal. This is often the case, as some works of popular music have sold tens of millions of copies. This is also at least partially why genres that manage to attain a certain level of credibility as styles in their own right are often no longer considered "pop"; as several of the more serious musicians, as well as their fans, strive to separate themselves from the commercialism-over-creativity aspect of current pop music. The image of pop performers is often regarded as being as important as their actual music. Consequently, pop performers and their managers make elaborate efforts to project the desired image through their clothing, music video clips, manipulation of the popular press, and similar tactics. Indeed, many pop acts are formulated around achieving the desired image. Boy bands and girl groups are particularly carefully organised in this manner, with members often chosen and groomed to fulfill certain roles and to appeal to different fan personalities. The single most popular subject for pop music is love. Most common themes are, apparently, "I love him/her" and "I don't love him/her". In some cases, sex is substituted for love and the theme of the song becomes "I want to have sex with him/her". Other variations, such as "I love him/her, he/she doesn't love me", "they don't want us to love each other" or "I used to love him/her" exist. Sometimes the lyrics do not make enough sense to decipher a specific meaning, but the general theme remains. There is even a particular style of song particularly associated with the pop genre — the love ballad, a slow song in which the performers sing highly sentimental lyrics about romantic love. These love songs are accused of being generally content-free. Well-known pop musicians include Janet Jackson, Madonna and Michael Jackson (the self-styled "King of Pop") and from earlier days Barry Manilow, Barbra Streisand, Paul Whiteman, and Rudy Vallee. Many of today's pop stars have been shaped to fit the image and style of these more famous and successful stars. Because of their commercial appeal, modern pop stars are often crafted after them, which is why many consider them to be "pop" singers in the subgenre of popular music. The production techniques of pop music follow closely the prevailing musical fashions. Generally, underground, non-mainstream music sub-genres have the biggest influence on mainstream pop production. The most sought-after producers of today are quite often those at the forefront of very leftfield "scenes". Britney Spears, Christina Aguilera, and other pop artists from the last few years have strong hip hop and R & B influences. The slightly more underground influence at the present time is the re-emergence of synthesisers. Though much of this article has described "pop" as used in its more recent sense, as a subgenre of popular music, what follows is a list of all popular music performers. Pop music, in its more general and older, but also now rarer, sense is a very broad umbrella term. It was created as a synonym of "rock-n-roll", during the birth of the rock era in the 1950's, in order to separate the then-new, then-controversial form of music from the jazz, gospel, big band, and classical music that had come before it. Eventually "pop" or "rock-n-roll" music would branch out into many subgenres, subcultures, and submovements, including progressive rock, punk, disco, hip-hop, funk, metal, alternative, new wave, techno, new age, and soul, to name a few. Most recently, popular music has even merged with older, pre-pop forms of music such as jazz (for example Norah Jones), swing (Brian Setzer Orchestra, Cherry Poppin' Daddies), gospel (Whitney Houston, CeCe Winans), and has even incorporate elements of classical music, for example in rap samples, heavy metal, and progressive rock. - Launch.com - a variety of pop videos especially those popular in the United States. - Popjustice.com - coverage of Pop music in the United Kingdom The contents of this article is licensed from www.wikipedia.org under the GNU Free Documentation License. Click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details

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2013-06-19T06:23:31Z

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Today in the West, the swastika is identified almost exclusively with Nazi anti-Semitism. This makes it difficult for other groups to use the symbol to represent more benevolent concepts, which the symbol has frequently embodied for thousands of years. HinduismThe swastika remains a major symbol of Hinduism, representing eternity, particularly the eternal and ever-present force of the Brahman. It is also a symbol of the present of goodness, as well as representing strength and protection. The message of eternity in the swastika is also widely used by Buddhists. Some of the oldest examples of swastikas in the world can be found in India. The Nazis saw themselves as the purest example of the ancient Aryan race, which corresponded to speakers of Indo-European languages. Because those languages are understood to come originally from India, the culture of India held some importance to the Nazis (even though present day Indians did not, since they have too dark of skin and other "inferior" traits.) The symbol commonly shows up in religious texts, as well as the thresholds of buildings. JainismThe swastika is a symbol of rebirth and the four types of beings that one can be born into: heavenly, human, animal or hellish. Three dots are displayed over the swastika, which represents right knowledge, right faith, and right conduct. It is these concepts that help a soul eventually escape the cycle of reincarnation altogether, which is the goal of Jainism. Not only does the swastika show up in holy books and doorways, like that of the Hindus, but it is commonly used within ritual as well. Native AmericansThe swastika shows up in the artwork of multiple Native American tribes, and it has a variety of meanings between tribes. Europe Swastikas are more rare in Europe, but they are widespread throughout the continent. Often they appear entirely decorative, while in other uses they probably had meaning, although the meaning is not always clear to us now. In some uses, it appears to be a sun wheel and relating to the sun cross. Other uses have association with thunder and storms. Some Christians used it as a form of the cross, the central symbol of salvation through Jesus Christ. It can even be found in some Jewish sources, long before the symbol took on any anti-Semitic meaning. Left-facing and Right-facing SwastikasThere are two forms of swastikas, which are mirror-images of each other. They are commonly defined by the direction the upward arm is facing: left or right. A left-facing swastika is made of overlapping Z's, while a right-facing swastika is made of overlapping S's. Most Nazi swastikas are right-facing. In some cultures, the facing changes the meaning, while in others it is irrelevant. In attempting to deal with the negativity now associated with the Nazi version of the swastika, some people have attempted to emphasize the difference between the facings of different swastikas. However, such attempts produce, at best, generalizations. It also presumes that all swastika uses come from the same original source of meaning. Sometimes the terms "clockwise" and "counter-clockwise" are used instead of "left-facing" and "right-facing." However, these terms are more confusing as it is not immediately obvious which way a swastika is supposedly spinning.

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2013-06-19T06:48:16Z

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MIAMI ANCIENT CIRCLE STILL BURIED Nine years ago, an array of people rose up to save the Miami Circle, a 2,000-year-old artifact. But today, the Circle — a series of loaf-shaped holes chiseled into the limestone bedrock at the mouth of the Miami River (Florida, USA) — is interred beneath bags of sand and gravel, laid over the formation in 2003 to protect it from the elements. And though taxpayers shelled out $27.6 million to purchase the 38-foot Circle and its surrounding two acres, visitors to the site's planned archaeological park likely will never see the actual work of some of Miami's earliest inhabitants. The reburial was supposed to be temporary, while officials settled on a plan to manage and display the Circle, which has inspired as many theories about its origin and function as it has claims about its spiritual energy and mystical powers. Ryan Wheeler, Florida's state archaeologist, and other experts who have studied the Circle think the holes were dug by the Tequesta Indians to support wooden posts for a tribal center, or other important structure. Authenticated as prehistoric, it is on the National Register of Historic Places for the clues it could yield about the complex society developed by the Tequestas, a small tribe who were foraging in the Everglades and Biscayne Bay. Yet visitors to the park, that won't open for at least a year, will see only an 8-foot replica. Through the years, officials considered putting a thatched-roof hut or a clear-plastic shell over the Circle. But as Wheeler watched its holes fill with water from the rising water table, he said he knew, that, for now, the cost of any display solution was out of reach. Still, he and other archaeologists insist that, even out of sight, the Circle will retain much of the allure that captivated the world and forced Miami to do something the city has rarely done: save its past from the bulldozers. The Circle certainly isn't much to look at. It consists of 24 loaf-shaped basins, each about the size of a sink, and dozens of 4- inch round holes cut into the basins and throughout the Circle interior. Still embedded on one edge is a septic tank from a 1950s apartment complex that stood on the property for five decades. It was the demolition of those apartments that brought John Ricisak, Miami- Dade County's archaeologist at the time of the discovery, and his boss, Bob Carr, to the site on the day the Circle was unearthed in October of 1998.

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2013-06-19T06:47:45Z

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On Aug. 2, 1776, members of the Continental Congress began signing the Declaration of Independence. In 1858 a new city ordinance provided for Chicago's first paid fire department. In 1876 "Wild Bill" Hickok was fatally shot while playing poker in a saloon in Deadwood, Dakota Territory. (He was holding two aces and two eights, a combination that became known as "dead man's hand.") In 1923 Warren Harding, the 29th president, died in San Francisco at 58 while still serving as president. In 1937 aviator Amelia Earhart, 40, and navigator Fred Noonan took off from New Guinea in hopes of crossing the Pacific on a round-the-world flight that had begun in the U.S. (Three days later, they disappeared and were never seen again.) In 1943, in World War II, Navy Lt. John F. Kennedy became a war hero by rescuing members of his crew after their PT boat was sheared in two by a Japanese destroyer in the South Pacific. In 1969 President Richard Nixon, the first U.S. president in nearly 25 years to visit a communist nation, received a warm welcome in Romania. In 1976 health officials revealed the existence of a baffling disease that had struck the American Legion convention in Philadelphia in late July and which, by this time, had claimed nearly 20 lives. (It was to be labeled Legionnaire's disease.) In 1981 Kieran Doherty, one of two IRA members serving prison terms in Northern Ireland who won seats in the Irish Republic's parliament in the June 1981 election, died after a 73-day hunger strike. In 1983 the House of Representatives voted 338-90 to designate the third Monday in January a federal holiday in honor of Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. In 1985 a Delta Airlines L-1011 TriStar flight from Ft. Lauderdale, Fla., crashed as it tried to land in a storm at Dallas-Ft. Worth International Airport, killing 133 people. In 1990 Iraq invaded Kuwait, seizing control of the oil-rich emirate and setting the stage for the Persian Gulf war involving American forces.

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2013-06-19T06:29:24Z

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When you need to explain in writing how to do something, a set of step-by-step instructions is your best choice. By enumerating the steps, you make it easy for readers to perform the process in the correct sequence. Your goal is to provide a clear, self-sufficient explanation so that readers can perform the task independently. - Writing materials (pen and paper, typewriter, computer) - Background materials (previous memos, policy manuals, manufacturer’s booklets, etc.) - When necessary, the apparatus being explained (machine, software package, or other equipment) - Perform the task yourself, or ask experts to demonstrate it or describe it to you in detail. - Analyze prospective readers’ familiarity with the process so that you can write instructions at their level of understanding. Make your Instructions Clear - Include four elements: an introduction, a list of equipment and materials, a description of the steps involved in the process, and a conclusion. - Explain in the opening why the process is important and how it is related to a larger purpose. - Divide the process into short, simple steps presented in order of occurrence. - Present the steps in a numbered list, or if presenting them in paragraph format, use words indicating time or sequence, such as first and then. - If the process involves more than ten steps, divide them into groups or stages identified with headings. - Phrase each step as a command (“Do this” instead of “You should do this”); use active verbs; use precise, specific terms (“three weeks” instead of “several weeks”). - When appropriate, describe how to tell whether a step has been performed correctly and how one step may influence another. Warn readers of possible damage or injury from a mistake in a step, but limit the number of warnings so that readers do not underestimate their importance. - Include diagrams of complicated devices, and refer to them in appropriate steps. - Summarize the importance of the process and the expected results. Test your Instructions - Review the instructions to be sure they are clear and complete. Also judge whether you have provided too much detail. - Ask someone else to read the instructions and tell you whether they make sense and are easy to follow. My Consultancy–Asif J. Mir - Management Consultant–transforms organizations where people have the freedom to be creative, a place that brings out the best in everybody–an open, fair place where people have a sense that what they do matters. For details please visit www.asifjmir.com, and my Lectures.

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Gummatous syphilide, with ulceration and necrosis of frontal bone If you’ve ever wondered how someone could live with a skull like this one. Tertiary syphilis would arise between three to 15 years after infection, and emerged as “gummatous” (forming gummas, soft tumor-like nodules, like what caused this lady’s ulcer) about 15% of the time. If the inflammatory nodules didn’t form on an important organ or blood vessel (as they could, and did, form anywhere in the body), gummatous syphilis wasn’t in and of itself fatal. Death from infected ulcers was not uncommon, however. Interestingly, you could have gone to town with this lady and not gotten syphilis from her, despite her having been infected for probably more than half her life - tertiary syphilis is no longer transmissible. A Practical Treatise on Diseases of the Skin. John V. Shoemaker, 1892.

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2013-06-19T06:48:00Z

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June 29, 2007 Evolution-5: How probability intuition can lead us astray One of life's ironies is that the difficulty in understanding the mathematics of Darwin's theory of natural selection may actually be caused by natural selection itself. As we saw earlier, natural selection does not try for maximum benefit but instead works on a 'just good enough for now' principle. Steven Pinker in his book How the Mind Works (1997) is a cognitive scientist who believes that natural selection has been the driver for most aspects of our bodies and our behavior, and that the brain, being just another organ, has evolved to do what it does to effectively meet the challenges it faced at various times in our somewhat distant past. Pinker points out that humans, when compared with other animals, have unusually large brains compared to body size but that this rapid expansion in brain size occurred more than 100,000 years (or about 5,000 generations) ago (Pinker, p. 198) and then leveled off after that. This means that the structure of our present brains has been largely determined by a time when humans were hunter-gatherers and foragers. This means that although modern life is undoubtedly very complex and require us to meet a vast array of challenges, our brains are best suited to meet the challenges of our ancient forebears, not those of driving on a highway or learning to operate a computer or solving sudoku puzzles. Thus we are very good at identifying faces and shapes, seeing things in depth, reacting to predatory dangers, and acting on instincts such as ducking when an object is thrown at our heads, etc, because our brains have probably evolved modules that handle such things efficiently. But we are not so good at solving quadratic equations. The kind of mathematics that helped our hunter-gatherer ancestors survive did not require much beyond an elementary sense of number. As for probability, simple concepts largely based on induction and extrapolating from past experiences, are sufficient. But as culture developed in the last 10,000 years with the advent of more settled agrarian societies and written language, we now find ourselves having to struggle a bit to master the concepts needed to face today's challenges. They do not come 'naturally' to us, by which I mean that there are no brain modules that have evolved to enable us to quickly grasp and understand and respond to them. This is especially true of probability and statistics. There was no need for our ancestors to develop modules to make Bayes' Theorem or the Central Limit Theorem easily understandable, which explains why our intuitions are so often led astray. For example, many people fall prey and lose money because of the 'gambler's fallacy' because they put their faith in a spurious 'law of averages', believing that the more repeated occurrences you have of the same thing (say getting heads on a coin toss or coming up black in a roulette wheel), the more likely a different outcome becomes on the next play. Similarly people who play the lottery numbers tend to avoid numbers that have won recently. While mathematical sophisticates may look down on such naïvete , Pinker points out that such expectations are perfectly consistent with the kinds of probability experiences our hunter-gatherer ancestors experienced and which we still experience in most everyday life. After several days of rain, a dry day is more likely. After seeing several elephants appear in a line, it was more likely not to see one. In fact, event repetitions that are finite and terminate and change are the norm in nature, not the exception. Hence believing such things and acting upon such beliefs has some survival value that makes it plausible that our brains evolved modules that encoded those expectations, making us instinctively sympathetic towards believing things like the gambler's fallacy. The reason that so many are fooled by the gambler's fallacy is that the creators of the gambling devices go to great lengths to make each event independent of the previous ones, thus violating our natural expectations. We thus have to consciously learn to sometimes go against our 'natural' instincts and this takes effort and is not easy. Even though I consider myself fairly adept at mathematical manipulations, I am often humbled by how easily my intuition is led astray when confronted with a novel statistics problem. Take for example this case, which may be familiar to people who have taken an elementary statistics course, but fooled me when I first encountered it. Suppose the incidence of some disease is fairly rare in a population, say about one in a thousand. You are told that there is a test for this disease that is pretty good in that it that has a 'false positive' rate of only 5%, meaning that if a randomly selected group is tested, only 5% of the people who do not have the disease will have test results that come out positive. Also you are told that the false negative rate is zero, meaning that if someone does have the disease, the test will definitely come out positive. Suppose you are among those who are part of this random testing. To your dismay, the result is positive. What do you think are your chances of actually having the disease? Most people would think that it is very high. They may put it as high as 95%, thinking that if there is a 5% false positive rate and 0% false negative rate, that means that the likelihood of someone testing positive having the disease is 95%. This sounds eminently reasonable. But the actual chance of you having the disease despite testing positive is just 1 in 51 or less than 2%! How come? This becomes easier to understand if we shift from talking in terms of probabilities (which I have pointed out are not so intuitive) to talking about numbers. Suppose you are one of 1000 people being randomly tested. (Any size will do. I have chosen 1000 because it is a nice round number.) Then an incidence of 1 in 1000 means that we expect only one person to actually have the disease (and who will test positive), and 999 to be free of the disease. But a 5% false positive rate will result in about 50 of the 999 people who do not have the disease also testing positive. So your chance of actually having the disease is the chance that you happen to be that one person with the disease out of the 51 testing positive. What the positive test result has done is provide a twenty-fold increase in the odds of your having the disease from 1 in 1000 (or 0.1%) to 1 in 51 (or slightly less than 2%), but your chances are still extremely good (over 98%) of not having the disease. I suspect a lot of people get unduly terrified by test results of this kind because doctors may not know how to present the data in ways that give them a better sense of estimating the probability. (Of course, I am assuming that you were selected randomly for this test. If the doctor recommended that you get the test because you had other symptoms that caused her to suspect you had the disease, then that would further increase the odds of you having the disease.) The lesson here is to be wary of our 'gut' feelings when dealing with certain mathematics concepts, especially involving probability and statistics. This may partially explain why Darwin's theory of natural selection, dealing as it does with small probabilities and long time scales, is so hard for many to digest because they are outside the range of things we experience on a daily basis. In future postings, I will look at some of the issues that come up. POST SCRIPT: Sicko opening nationwide on Friday Michael Moore's new documentary on the health care system Sicko will be at the Cedar-Lee (2163 Lee Rd) in Cleveland Heights starting on Friday, June 29, 2007. The show times are noon, 2:30, 5:00, 7:30, and 10:00 but you should check before you go. Moore also appeared on The Daily Show to point out once again what a scandal the health care system in the US is, where it is actually in the interests of the profit-driven health insurance companies to deny health care to patients.

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By Katherine Ayers Thursday, March 21, 2013 A three-day series of events commemorating a battle that is considered a turning point in North Carolina history begins at East Carolina University today. The Nooherooka 300 event marks the 300th anniversary of the Battle of Fort Nooherooka, where English settlers, with the help of Indian allies, eliminated most of the Tuscarora Indians who lived in eastern North Carolina at the time. The site of Fort Nooherooka, about 30 miles from the ECU campus near Snow Hill in Greene County, was the subject of an archeological excavation by the university’s anthropology department between 1990 and 2001. Nooherooka, which means forked field, was built in late 1712 to protect the Tuscaroras’ nearby communities along the Contentnea Creek — including Catechna near Grifton, where North Carolina explorer and author John Lawson was executed by the Tuscarora in 1711. “When North Carolina started, it was owned by individuals and grants from the (British) king,” ECU history professor Larry Tise said. “These individuals wanted to make money. There was no gold or silver, but there was land. “And the land was occupied by Indians,” he said. This battle was the culminating battle of the Tuscarora War which lasted from 1711-13. Native American leaders, whose civilizations along the creek banks of eastern North Carolina went back thousands of years, felt war was the only option after suffering the gradual encroachment of settlers upon their lands, Tise said. The battle at Fort Nooherooka has been called their “last stand.” “Of the 900 (Indians) who were in the fort, a good number of them were killed, survivors were taken to Charleston (S.C.) as slaves,” Tise said. “Somewhere between a quarter and a half of the survivors moved out of North Carolina, first to Pennsylvania then to New York.” Many of those in New York now live on a reservation close to Niagara Falls, according to Tise. The other half did not leave are still living in North Carolina. According to Tise, about 140 Tuscarora Indians are expected to visit ECU from New York as part of the event. Members of the Tuscarora delegation will begin their walk back to New York on Saturday morning after the dedication, as a tribute to their ancestors’ migration. The delegation plans to walk to Snow Hill to join in a community picnic and a lacrosse match between the Tuscarora men’s and ECU club teams. On Sunday, they plan to begin walking more than 600 miles to the Tuscarora Reservation. A full schedule of events can be found at www.Neyuheruke.org. Contact Katherine Ayers at [email protected] and 252-329-9567. Follow her on Twitter @KatieAyersGDR. via The Daily Reflector.

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2013-06-19T06:17:31Z

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The advent of Global Positioning Satelite Systems – GPS has given rise to a new sort of treasure hunting adventure called geocaching. Geocachers worldwide hide caches, small boxes with a few trinkets and a visitor’s log, in unique locations. A handheld GPS device or cell phone app is then used to record the longitude and latitude coordinates. The locations along with clues are posted on the Internet for other geocachers to find. You can get started with geocaching by visiting the Geocaching.com website. In the upper right-hand corner, click: Create a Membership and sign up for a FREE account. Explore this site thoroughly. Be sure to visit Getting Started and Hide and Seek a Cache. The Resources page has a lot of useful information including a PDF Guide to Geocaching . Visit different types of caches- earth cache, virtual cache, multi-cache, and mystery cache. Consider how each of these holds unique opportunities for your classroom. For an introduction to geocaching in the classroom try the following article: Can You Dig It? Geocaching in the Classroom by Anna Adam and Helen Mowers, School Library Journal, 2007. . The Geocaching for Kids site features the experiences of one teacher geocaching with his classroom. Although locating caches can teach students map skills, geography and mathematics, you might move the geocaching experience in your classroom to a higher-level by having students create their own caches. Students could create caches that answer questions such as: What is it in your community that would be most interesting or important to a visitor? What are the most historically significant areas in our community? What geographic or biological features are exhibited in or even unique to our community? Student caches can provide background information addressing a variety of questions such as these. Michelle Kendrick is a program coordinator for the eMINTS National Center.

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2013-06-19T06:16:09Z

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In July 2009, I had a rare opportunity to travel with an HMNS sponsored tour group to the path of a solar eclipse. That eclipse occurred the morning of July 22, 2009, and was visible in Asia and the Pacific. Unfortunately, clouds marred the event as seen from our location just outside Shanghai. But since the clouds did not completely hide the eclipse, we were able to witness some of its effects. |photo credit: James Jordan| Solar eclipses occur when the Moon passes between the Sun and the Earth and casts its shadow on the Earth. The shadow itself, called the umbra, is the region in which the Moon completely blocks the Sun. Anyone in the Moon’s umbra experiences a total eclipse of the Sun. As the Moon passes in front of the Earth, its shadow traces a path across the Earth’s surface; this is the ‘path of totality’. To see a total solar eclipse, one must travel to a place on the path of totality. As it happens, last month’s path covered parts of India, the Himalayas, China, and the open Pacific. In an interesting coincidence, the Moon is about 400 times smaller than the Sun and about 400 times closer. Thus, the Moon and Sun appear to be about the same size (just over 1/2 degree across) in our sky. However, the Moon had been at perigee (closest approach to Earth) on July 21, making it slight larger than usual in our sky. Further, every year in early July (July 3 in 2009) the Earth is as far as possible from the Sun (called aphelion). These factors combined to make the New Moon of July 22 8% larger than the Sun in our sky. Thus, this is the longest eclipse of the 21st century, lasting 6 minutes and 39 seconds when seen on the centerline at local noon. This was the latest eclipse in Saros cycle 136. Astronomers in ancient Babylon noticed that similar solar and lunar eclipses recurred every 18 years, 10, 11, or 12 days, and 8 hours. This corresponds to 223 lunations. (One lunation is the period from one New Moon to the next–about 29.5 days). The 10, 11, or 12 days depend on how many leap years are in the 18 year period. In 1691, Edmund Halley applied the name ‘saros’ to this cycle, based the ‘SAR,’ a Babylonian unit of measure. It turns out that the unit for keeping track of eclipses in Babylon was not the SAR, but Halley’s term stuck. Cycle 136, then includes the eclipses of July 11, 1991, June 30, 1073, and June 20, 1955. Future eclipses in this cycle will occur on August 2, 2027, August 12, 2045, and so on. As eclipses of cycle 136 occur further and further from aphelion, they won’t be quite as long as this year’s. There won’t be a longer total solar eclipse until June 13, 2132. That’s when a different saros cycle, #139, begins to occur near aphelion. The Shanghai Tourism Administration estimates that over 13,000 overseas visitors traveled to Shanghai to watch the eclipse. Along with hundreds of other eclipse chasers, our group left Shanghai proper to observe the eclipse from the Yangshan Deep Water Port, a small island southeast of the city itself. To understand why, refer again to the July 2009 path of totality. Drawn on the eclipse path on that map is a black Sun with small rays, indicating a point on the open water southeast of Japan. This is the point of maximum eclipse, where the eclipse occurred at local noon and lasted the full 6 minutes and 39 seconds. At other places on the path, totality was slightly shorter. A few folks actually sailed the Pacific in order to be near that point. We, however, opted for the convenience of observing on land. Shanghai was the place in the path of totality closest to the point of maximum eclipse while still on the Asian mainland. Also, note the blue line drawn down the middle of the path of totality. Observing on that line, as opposed to the northern or southern edges of the path, gives you a longer eclipse. Shanghai, although well within the path, is somewhat north of the blue centerline. Moving from Shanghai itself to Yangshan island to the southeast put us closer to the centerline. This gave us 5 minutes, 57 seconds of totality as opposed to about 5 minutes even in Shanghai. |Photo from Shanghai, 2009 solar eclipse| As it turns out, there was another benefit from observing from Yangshan. July 22, 2009 was rainy in Shanghai. At Yangshan, however, it was simply overcast. And just when we were beginning to think we’d miss the entire event, the clouds began to thin out in spots, allowing us occasional glimpses of the partially eclipsed Sun. Unfortunately, those thinner clouds were not with us during totality. We missed seeing the beautiful corona around the totally eclipsed Sun. We could not see the planets and the brighter stars against the mid-day twilight sky. And we could not watch the Moon’s shadow approach and then leave us making shadow bands on the ground as it did so. However, we did notice how much darker and cooler it got during totality. After all, an overcast sky at night or in twilight is much darker than an overcast sky in broad daylight. Cheers and whistles rose from Yangshan as darkness fell at 9:37 am and lasted until 9:43 am local time. |Photo from Shanghai, 2009 solar eclipse| Literally seconds after totality was over, the clouds once again became thin enough for us to see the Sun through them. As we watched the Sun come out of eclipse, we gave thanks for having avoided the rain and for being able to see as much as we saw, although we wished the clouds had thinned a little earlier to give us a glimpse of totality. Would you like to have a similar experience? Well, the path of the next total solar eclipse, on July 11, 2010, scarcely touches land at all, although it does pass over exotic Easter Island. On November 13, 2012, totality is visible from northern Australia. Can’t afford to leave the country to see an eclipse? The Moon’s shadow crosses the United States on Monday, August 21, 2017. The path of totality for that eclipse passes roughly from Salem, Oregon to Charleston, South Carolina. How about a total eclipse right here in Texas? Mark April 8, 2024, on your calendars. On that date the Moon shadow first touches land near Mazatlan, Mexico, then sweeps right across the center of Texas before heading off to the northeast. Folks in Dallas, Austin, and the western part of the San Antonio area see a total eclipse on that date; Houston experiences a deep partial eclipse. The really young can look forward to May 11, 2078. On that date, the Moon’s shadow passes just south of the upper Texas coast on its way to New Orleans and Atlanta. Houstonians again experience a very deep partial eclipse. The Moon’s shadow, then, will visit North America several times in the 21st century. Maybe you can go observe the rare and beautiful spectacle of a solar eclipse, with better luck than I had in Shanghai.

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In the second part of the study the children were asked how self-interest might lead someone to make an incorrect statement. Children were provided with three choices: intentional deception, unintentional bias, or pure mistake. They rarely endorsed bias as the best possible explanation for being incorrect. The youngest children were more likely to think the characters were lying. ... "It is not until sixth grade that children begin to endorse lies and biases as equally plausible explanations for self-interested incorrect statements," Mills said. "Adults are clearly sensitive to all three sources of inaccuracy. How children begin to understand what it means to be biased is an open question." Sunday, September 04, 2005 Children develop cynicism at an early age How sad: Children develop cynicism at an early age.

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Following World War I, Thomas Cleland wrote a practical manual of color, funded and published by the Strathmore Paper Company. He outlines the almost endless options, good and bad, of printing various colored inks onto colored papers. Readers are encouraged to experiment with using various samples included at the back of the volume. Cleland went on to practice his own lessons, as art director of Fortune Magazine. In his introduction, color theorist A.H. Munsell writes, “With white at the North pole and black at the South pole; and its axis between these points a measured scale of grays, we have a decimal neutral scale which painters call Value. The middle point of this axis must be a middle gray, and a plane passing through to the equator must contain colors of middle value. If, therefore, the equator be spread with a color circle … we have the equator as a decimal scale of hues merging gradually from one to the next and returning upon itself….” “Each of these hues is supposed to grow lighter until it merges into the North pole at white, and darker similarly to black, and these are called the values (light) of color. They may also be imagined as passing inward until they disappear in the gray axis. Should there be still stronger colors, they will continue upon the same radii outside the sphere. These we call the chromas (strength) of color.”

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2013-06-19T06:36:08Z

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For five years the Golden State's capital floated from city to city before it landed permanently in Sacramento in 1854. Work on the Capitol began in 1860 and Sacramento's iconic domed building was finally completed in 1873. At the time it was the largest structure west of the Mississippi River. The State Capitol's history is documented in a new illustrated volume containing some 200 black-and-white images borrowed from the California State Library, State Legislature, State Archives, State Capitol Museum, Center for Sacramento History and other local sources including author John Allen's own collection. Professor Allen teaches history at American River College. He has guest curated exhibits at the Crocker Art Museum, California State Capitol Museum and the Folsom History Museum. Sacramento's Capitol Park (Images of America series) by John E. Allen Arcadia Publishing is known for producing small, richly illustrated books on local and regional history. It typically partners with local historians and organizations in developing its publications, which now number nearly 7,500 titles that celebrate communities all across the country.

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2013-06-19T06:28:45Z

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Fox and Geese can represent the standoff for control of that occupied political discussions in early April 150 years ago. While spring bloomed, an uneasiness settled North and South as Fort Sumter took over the federal government. Sarah Rousseau Espey in Lincoln sought solace in her needlework. Alabama March 25, 1861Pretty day, C. started to Georgia this morning, our folks [slaves] commenced planting corn; I still feel that strange depression of spirit, and dread of coming evil for which I cannot account; it seems that something dreadful is before us. Commenced fringing a counterpane. troops fire on the U.S. Navy and be viewed as the aggressors? Attacking the U.S. Navy would surely be an act of war. It was a game of Fox and Geese, and Fox was out maneuvered. The Confederates assaulted the Union-held Fort before the Baltic and the other ships arrived. Who was the aggressor then? Wasn't the Southern state just defending her borders? South Carolina The Confederates assaulted the Fort from the batteries in Charleston harbor. After observing the two-day battle, Fox and the Baltic rescued the federal soldiers who abandoned to the Confederacy. Fort Sumter The Confederate flag flies over a battered Fort Sumter On April 16, Sarah Espey wrote: The Fox and Geese pattern is a 19th-century design that was given that name in Carrie Hall's 1935 index to patterns. There are many variations of these four patches made of large and small triangles, but no record of what mid-19th-century quilters might have called them. It's #1313 in my Encyclopedia and BlockBase.A stormy day and getting cold….Thomas went to Hale's and learned that the Carolinians have taken Fort Sumter and that our other volunteer company is ordered to Fort-Pickens, so I suppose the war is now opened…. Cutting an 8" Finished Block A - Cut 2 light and 2 dark squares 2-7/8" Cut each in half diagonally to make two triangles. You need 4 of each shade. B - Cut 4 dark squares 2-1/2" C - Cut 1 light and 1 dark square 4-7/8". Cut each in half diagonally to make two triangles. You need 2 of each shade. Finish by making a larger 4-patch. Read Sarah Espey's diary for the year 1862 online here: Gustavus Fox was a Navy man who'd graduated from the The Bay State Mills were the largest woolen mills in Massachusetts in the late 19th century

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Diabetes Nutritional Gains from Healthy Whole Grains This is breakthrough research for anyone with diabetes symptoms. Understanding diabetes nutritional needs has been confusing, especially in relation to carbohydrates. But, now it's clear that bad carbs are bad for diabetes and healthy whole grains are good diabetes nutritional food. What is Type 2 Diabetes? Once upon a time, type 2 diabetes was known far and wide as adult onset diabetes. Do you know why they changed the name to type 2 diabetes? It's a sad story. This deadly disease has increased to the point that it's now showing up in children all around the world, so it can no longer be called "adult" diabetes. Today 24 million adults and children in the U.S. – 8% of the population – have type 2 diabetes. And it's expected to double in the next 20 years. Diabetes affects your blood sugar (glucose) levels and having the wrong amount of glucose in your blood causes health problems. While people don’t generally die from diabetes (they just go blind or lose their organs or limbs), it often leads to heart disease, our number one killer. What Causes Type 2 Diabetes? Native Americans, who at one time had no diabetes at all, now have the highest incidence in the world. What happened to cause this? Traditionally, native Americans ate all-natural, unrefined diets. But once they were moved to reservations, their only choice was a "modern" refined foods diet. Since then, they've had a huge leap in type 2 diabetes. Among Pima Indians in Southwest Arizona, 50% have diabetes. Although they’re eating many of the same foods they ate on their traditional all-natural diet, today Pima Indians are using refined versions of those foods – refined corn products, refined sugar and refined grains. And Native Americans aren't the only indigenous people suffering from "modernization" of their diets. Aboriginal Canadians, Torres Straight Islanders and a long and growing list of people, who switched from whole foods to refined foods, are seeing a surge of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Research and Whole Grains Although we’ve known about the benefits of healthy whole grains for years, a breakthrough peer review study published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition proves that whole grains, such as whole wheat, brown rice, oatmeal and whole rye help protect people from diabetes. The research team from Harvard Medical School followed the eating habits of 43,000 men for 12 years. Although they all started out healthy, 3% developed diabetes in just over ten years. What were they eating? Those who ate the least amount of whole grains had 60% higher incidence of type 2 diabetes than those who ate the most whole grains. But here's the real shocker. Physically active obese men who ate the most whole grains developed 52% less diabetes, even though they were extremely overweight. And two other research studies of women and whole grains confirmed these Harvard Medical School findings – healthy whole grains provide protection against diabetes and other degenerative diseases! Diabetes Nutritional Whole Grains Benefits Healthy whole grains are high fiber low glycemic foods that help keep blood sugar balanced and insulin working properly. Refined grains are high glycemic carbohydrates that cause blood sugar and insulin spikes. Your body just can't handle these constant blood sugar ups and downs. And once diabetes develops, it greatly increases the risk of: - Kidney failure, - Limb amputation, - Erection problems, - Heart attack or stroke, - And also nerve damage. They recommend a low glycemic diet that includes healthy whole grains. Whole grains are in their natural form, just the way they were designed to be. You know "It’s not nice to try and fool Mother Nature." And, in her not-so-humble way, she doesn’t mind reminding us; “I told you so!” Articles you may also enjoy: List of Sugar Names and Sugar Facts How to Avoid Diabetes and Reverse Diabetes Carbohydrate Foods List with Healthy Carbohydrates List of Whole Grain Foods and Whole Grains Benefits You'll also want to sign up to receive our free Common Sense Health Newsletter sent out weekly. This only makes good common sense! Just enter your email address below: Posted in: Health Conditions, Diet & Nutrition By Moss Greene Google+ Digg this article! Email this article

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BSA Supply No. 35954 Millions of people participate in sports every year. For some the appeal is the close friendships that come with being part of a team. Some revel in the joy of victory and lessons of defeat. For some, the personal fitness is so important that exercise becomes a daily need. And still others desire the feeling of achievement, that feeling of measurable improvement that comes with dedication to a sport. Note: The activities used to fulfill the requirements for the Sports merit badge may not be used to help fulfill requirements for other merit badges. - Show that you know first aid for and how to prevent injuries or illnesses that could occur while playing sports, including sprains, strains, contusions, abrasions, fractures, blisters, muscle cramps, dehydration, heat and cold reactions, injured teeth, nausea, and suspected injuries to the head, neck, and back. - Explain the importance of the following: - The physical exam - Maintaining good health habits, especially during training - Maintaining a healthy diet - Discuss the following: - The importance of warming up and cooling down - The importance of weight training - What an amateur athlete is and the differences between an amateur and a professional - The attributes (qualities) of a good sport, the importance of sportsmanship, and the traits of a good team leader and player who exhibits Scout spirit on and off the playing field - Take part for one season (or four months) as a competitive individual or as a member of an organized team in TWO of the following sports: baseball, basketball, bowling, cross-country, field hockey, football, ice hockey, lacrosse, soccer, softball, table tennis, tennis, volleyball, water polo. Your counselor may approve in advance other recognized sports, but not any sport that is restricted and not authorized by the Boy Scouts of America. Then with your chosen sports do the following: - Give the rules and etiquette for the two sports you picked. - List the equipment needed for the two sports you chose. Describe the protective equipment and appropriate clothing (if any) and explain why it is needed. - Draw diagrams of the playing areas for your two sports. - With guidance from your counselor, establish a personal training program suited to the activities you chose for requirement 4. Then do the following: - Organize a chart to track your training, practice, and development in these sports for one season (or four months). - Demonstrate proper technique for your two chosen sports. - At the end of the season, share your completed chart with your counselor and discuss how your participation in the sports you chose has affected you mentally and physically. Boy Scout Handbook, Archery, Athletics, Canoeing, Climbing, Cycling, First Aid, Golf, Horsemanship, Personal Fitness, Rowing, Safety, Skating, Small-Boat Sailing, Snow Sports, Swimming, and Waterskiing merit badge pamphlets - Bauer, Gerhard. New Soccer Techniques, Tactics & Teamwork. Sterling Publishing, 2002. - Briand, Kevin. The Baseball Book: A Young Player's Guide to Baseball. Firefly Books, 2003. - Brown, Newell and Van Stenlund. Hockey Drills for Scoring. Human Kinetics, 1997. - Buckley, James Jr. Football. D. K. Publishing, 1999. - Chamness, Danford. Coaching Kids Flag Football. Writers Club Press, 2002. - Dearing, Joel. Volleyball Fundamentals. Human Kinetics, 2003. - Dintiman, George Blough. Speed Improvement for Young Athletes: How to Sprint Faster in Your Sport in 30 Workouts. National Association of Speed and Explosion, 2002. - Faigenbaum, Avery D., and Wayne L. Westcott. Strength & Power for Young Athletes. Human Kinetics, 2000. - --------. Youth Fitness. American Council on Exercise, 2001. - Fischer, David. The 50 Coolest Jobs in Sports. Macmillan Reference, 1997. - Fortin, Francois. Sports: The Complete Visual Reference. Firefly Books, 2000. - Hammond, Tim. Sports. Dorling Kindersley Eyewitness Books, 2000. - Micheli, Lyle, and Mark Jenkins. The Sports Medicine Bible for Young Athletes. Source Books Inc., 2001. - Parselle, Matt. Basketball. Two-Can Publishing, 2000. - Werner, Doug. Bowler's Start-up: A Beginner's Guide to Bowling. Tracks Publishing, 1995. Organizations and Web Sites American Council on Exercise P.O. Box 910449 San Diego, CA 92191-0449 Toll-free telephone: 800-825-3636 Web site: http://www.acefitness.org American Sport Education Program Web site: http://www.asep.com Institute for International Sport Web site: http://www.internationalsport.com/nsd/nsd.cfm National Youth Sports Safety Foundation One Beacon St., Suite 3333 Boston, MA 02108 Web site: http://www.nyssf.org Web site: http://www.teenink.com/Past/9899/October/Sports/Sportsmanship.html

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