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Duke Blue Light Controls Gene Expression by Richard Merritt DURHAM, N.C. – Duke University bioengineers have developed a system for ordering genes to produce proteins using blue light. This new approach could greatly improve the ability of researchers and physicians to control gene expression, which is the process by which genes give instructions for the production of proteins key to all living cells. The advance, they said, could prove invaluable in clinical settings as well as in basic science laboratories. “We can now, with our method, make gene expression reversible, repeatable, tunable, and specific to different regions of a gene,” said Lauren Polstein, graduated student working in the laboratory of Charles Gersbach, assistant professor of biomedical engineering at Duke’s Pratt School of Engineering. “Current methods of getting genes to express can achieve some of those characteristics, but not all at once.” The new system can also control where the genes are expressed in space, which becomes especially important for researchers attempting to bioengineer living tissues. “The light-based strategy allows us to regulate gene expression for biotechnology and medical applications, as well as for gaining a better understanding of gene function, interactions between cells, and how tissues develop into particular shapes,” Polstein said. The results of the Duke experiments, supported by a Faculty Early Career Development Award from the National Science Foundation and a Director’s New Innovator Award from the National Institutes of Health, were published online in the Journal of the American Chemical Society. The Duke system, which has been dubbed LITEZ (Light Induced Transcription using Engineered Zinc finger proteins), combines proteins from two diverse sources. The light-sensitive proteins are derived from a common flowering plant (Arabidopsis thaliana). “We hijacked the specific proteins in plants that allows them to sense the length of the day,” Gersbach said. The second protein is in a class of so-called zinc finger proteins, which can be readily engineered to attach to specific regions of a gene. They are ubiquitous in biomedical research. These new fusions of plant and zinc finger proteins are introduced into a colony of human cells growing in a Petri dish. The dish is placed atop a blue LED light display designed and built by Polstein. When the light is turned on, the part of the protein that turns genes on is recruited to whatever gene the researchers have targeted with the zinc finger protein and this gene “lights up.” “By placing a mask, or stencil over the cells, we can control which cells turn on the gene and which cells do not,” Polstein said. “We can control the expression by turning the light on or off, changing the light’s intensity, or varying the location of light.” As a whimsical example, the researchers created the iconic blue Duke “D” by covering the cells with a “D” mask. “All biological systems depend on gene expression,” Gersbach said. “The challenge facing bioengineering researchers is trying to synthetically recreate processes that occur in nature. “LITEZ is a powerful tool that gives us precise control of gene expression with high resolution in both space and time,” Gersbach said. “It also has the potential to be incorporated into different applications in medicine or industry, including gene therapy, metabolic engineering, synthetic biology, and biopharmaceutical production.” The researchers are now refining their approach to create complex tissues by controlling cell differentiation, as well as the morphology, or shape, of the tissues that these cells make.

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Survival in extreme situations usually depends directly on a person’s degree of preparation. Typically we tend to think of preparation for disasters as involving mostly food and water storage. However, perhaps even more than physical preparation, survival in extreme situations can often be determined by how mentally prepared we are to handle stressful experiences. As you gather stores of emergency food, water, and survival supplies, don’t neglect to prepare yourself mentally as well. Today we’re going to examine four traits you can foster that are extremely useful—some might even say crucial—for getting through tough things. We’ve been taught the significance of a positive attitude since we were in Kindergarten, so it’s easy to quit listening when someone tells us we need to think positively. However, according to plenty of recent research, optimists are better off than pessimists when it comes to many aspects of life: Optimists have been shown to have better survival rates when diagnosed with life-threatening diseases or conditions, optimists have been shown to survive poverty better, and studies suggest that optimists tend to have better overall health. All of this evidence would suggest that optimism can be a very useful trait when it comes to surviving difficult situations. TIME Magazine ran a story last year about a program under implementation by the U.S. military that is designed to turn its personnel into undeterred optimists. According to expert research behind the training, one of the most important factors in resilience is a person’s degree of optimism. Thus, training soldiers to practice positive thinking can help them to endure and thrive in challenging situations. If you’re not naturally an optimist, training yourself to think like one can put you in a good place if you ever find yourself in a survival situation. Become aware of your thoughts about yourself, others, and life in general. If your thoughts are mostly negative, try to change them and notice more of the positive in every situation. Monitor the tone of your conversations with others. Make an effort to express more positive thoughts than negative ones. 2. Mental Toughness Mental toughness, i.e. resilience, is the pull that gets early risers up at 5:00 in the morning to run laps around the track, the thing that helps military men and women endure tense experiences, and the trait that helps children who experience traumatic events grow up to be healthy, happy adults. Some people are naturally tough mentally, but there are also some practices that can help you develop mental toughness if you aren’t naturally that way. One of these is to regularly get out of your comfort zone. This doesn’t necessarily mean forcing yourself to talk to strangers on the elevator (although this is probably a healthy thing to do as well). In a great article on mental toughness, Erich at tacticalintelligence.net recommends randomly doing things like fasting for 24 hours, taking ice-cold showers, going sky-diving, or making yourself wake up at 3:00 in the morning every now and then. When we regularly do things that are not just uncomfortable but hard for us—things we really, really, really don’t want to do—we toughen ourselves up. The idea is that if you practice hard things on a daily basis, you end up a much stronger and more resilient human being. Another good way to develop mental toughness is to challenge yourself physically. Demanding workouts strengthen your mental ability to endure discomfort and pain, and they also give you more confidence in your physical and mental strength. Get in the best shape of your life. Push beyond your former limits. Set a fitness goal for yourself that you previously considered out of your league. It is nearly impossible to become physically strong without also strengthening your mental toughness. The more you believe in your ability to handle tough things, the more you will be able to handle them. So how can you develop confidence in your own survival abilities? The simple answer is to first get all your affairs in order. First and foremost, make sure you have adequate food storage, drinking water, and emergency supplies stored away. If you have all the supplies you need to keep your family alive during an emergency situation, you will not have the added mental burden of worrying about where your next meal is going to come from, and you will also not carry the weight of guilt that can come from relying on others who have prepared and generously shared with you. Being prepared gives you the confidence you need to trust yourself and your own abilities in an emergency. Another source of self-confidence in emergencies is having some survival skill know-how, which will help you trust your ability to take care of yourself and your own. Survival skills are not just for boy scouts and mountain men. Anyone can learn basic survival skills like first aid, fire-starting, edible plant identification, and anything else that would be vital knowledge in a survival situation. Anything you learn now will give you more self-confidence later. Finally, remember that you are probably much stronger and more resilient than you think you are. If you are prepared both physically and mentally when a disaster situation occurs, chances are that you will be able to do what you need to do.

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Data theft is a defined subset of identity theft—in particular, the large-scale theft of customer records from businesses and other organizations. These stolen records are then used to perpetrate identity fraud upon the unsuspecting customers whose data was stolen. We touched upon data theft in previous chapters because stolen corporate data contributes to a significant portion of today’s identity theft problem. What makes it different from simple identity theft is the magnitude; when a corporate database goes missing, it can affect hundreds of thousands, if not millions, of individuals. What Is Data Theft? Data theft is, quite simply, the unauthorized copying or removal of confidential information from a business or other large enterprise. It can take the form of ID-related theft (the theft of customer records) or the theft of a company’s proprietary information or intellectual property. ID Data Theft ID-related data theft occurs when customer records are stolen or illegally copied. The information stolen typically includes customers’ names, addresses, phone numbers, usernames, passwords and PINs, account and credit card numbers, and, in some instances, Social Security numbers. When transmitted or sold to lower-level criminals, this information can be used to commit all manner of identity fraud. A single data theft can affect large numbers of individual victims. There are many examples to cite. Let’s start across the Atlantic, in England. In January, 2008, two laptop PCs were stolen from Brent’s Central Middlesex Hospital. Each laptop contained hundreds of confidential patient records. Not a large theft (389 records in all), but one particularly disconcerting to the patients whose personal data were compromised. Then there was the case of the Wilkes-Barre driver’s license center in Hanover, PA, which was broken into in late November, 2006. In addition to assorted office supplies and materials, the thief got away with a computer containing driver’s license information for more than 11,000 citizens. Not even those companies charged with keeping our data safe are immune from data theft. For example, ChoicePoint, Inc., is a company that collects personal and financial information on millions of computers. In February, 2005, ChoicePoint reported that it had suffered a security breach and inadvertently sold personal information on 145,000 people to a criminal enterprise. Oops! A much larger theft occurred in October, 2007, when the financial institution GE Money discovered that a computer tape containing information on 650,000 J.C. Penney customers had gone missing. Although not yet officially confirmed as a theft (it was just “missing”), the tape in question included more than 150,000 Social Security numbers. Retailers store a lot of valuable data about their customers, which makes them a prime target of data thieves. Thus the story of shoe retailer DSW, which in June, 2005, had 1.4 million customer records stolen. Among those customers affected was then-FTC chairwoman Deborah Platt Majoras—a nice little irony for those that care. Of course, data theft isn’t limited to the retail sector. Witness the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, which had the home of one of its employees burglarized in May of 2006. Stolen in the burglary was a laptop computer and external disk drive that contained the Social Security numbers of about 26.5 million veterans. That was a big breach—but the story has a happy ending. Thanks to some excellent police work, the hard drive was eventually recovered; it was later determined that the sensitive data had not been accessed. An even bigger breach was the June, 2005, “security incident” reported by Atlanta-based payment processor CardSystems Solutions. The company handles payments for all the major credit cards, including MasterCard, Visa, American Express, and Discover. Intruders used malicious software code to breach the company’s systems, exposing more than 40 million credit card accounts to potential fraud. Fortunately, only about 200,000 of these accounts were found to be actually stolen, but the FBI was still called in to investigate. But all these incidents pale compared to the largest reported case of data theft on record. In December, 2006, the TJX Companies (parent to T.J. Maxx, Marshalls, and other retailers) reported a massive computer breach on that part of its network that handles credit card, debit card, check, and merchandise transactions. It appears that hackers made off with more than 94 million records from customers in the U.S. and abroad. Take a look at that last case again. A single data theft compromised the identities of an estimated 94 million individuals. That’s just an incredible number—and indicative of the impact of this type of computer crime. Non-ID Data Theft Customers’ records aren’t the only kind of data that can be stolen from a large organization. Companies of all sorts are hosts to various types of confidential information; this information, if accessed by a competitor, could often lead to a diminishment of the company’s position in the marketplace. Non-ID data theft occurs when an employee makes one or more copies of a company’s confidential information, and then uses that information either for his own personal use or transmits that information to a competitor for the competitor’s use. However it’s done, this is a theft of the business’ intellectual property, every bit as harmful as a theft of money or equipment. What kind of information are we talking about? A company’s confidential information includes its employee records, contracts with other firms, financial reports, marketing plans, new product specifications, and so on. Imagine you’re a competitor who gets hold of a company’s plans for an upcoming product launch; with knowledge beforehand, you can create your own counter-launch to blunt the impact of the other company’s new product. A little inside information can be extremely valuable—and damaging for the company from which it was stolen.

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Guest Commentary from Andy Baker, U. of Birmingham It doesn’t seem obvious really. Going underground into caves, removing stalagmites and analysing their isotopic composition isn’t the first thing you would do to look for past climate information. But for nearly 40 years, there has been an active, and growing research community that investigates the climate records preserved in these archives. Stalagmites have recently received high profile use in climate reconstructions, for example records from China and Norway have featured in Moberg’s last millennium temperature reconstruction; in a northern hemisphere temperature reconstruction of the last 500 years and even been debated here on RealClimate. So it seems timely to review why on (or even under) earth should research go underground to look at surface climate. To do that, we need briefly to explain how stalagmites are formed. Most simplistically, to grow a stalagmite you need water, and that water has to be saturated with carbon dioxide. Then this water drips from a cave roof, the carbon dioxide in the water will ‘degas’ into the atmosphere, and as part of that process calcium carbonate will form, which will form a stalagmite. Both the presence of water, and the fact that the water is saturated with carbon dioxide, can provide information about the surface climate. The water was, at one time in the past, surface rain or snow, and should contain information about that rain or snow through the composition of its isotopes. And the carbon dioxide saturation comes, not from the atmosphere, but the soil above the cave. Soil carbon dioxide concentrations are orders of magnitude greater than atmospheric, and there is a complex relationship between the concentration of soil carbon dioxide in cave drip waters, temperature and soil moisture. Thus there could be some climate signal preserved within stalagmites, the question is how to decode it. The surface rain will interact with the surface soil and vegetation, which may alter any climate signal containing in the rainwater, or create new soil derived signals, or probably a mixture of the two. After a period of time that will depend on climate, seasonality, vegetation, etc. the water will reach the ground water. In the ground water, it will probably mix with waters of differing ages, smoothing any climate signal it contains. The nature of ground water flow may also introduce non-linearities into the signal. The simplest example is the overflowing bath scenario – imagine that filling your bath up at an increasing rate represents increasing rainfall, and that the bath is your groundwater store, and the plughole and the overflow are the outlets feeding stalagmites. The plughole stalagmite will respond first to the rainfall, the overflow stalagmite will be delayed untill the bath is full. As the bath fills and the storage time increases, the plughole stalagmite will preserve an increasingly smoothed water signal. Therefore, it is a complex system. Over the last 40 years of stalagmite palaeoclimatology, the bulk of the research community was interested in the timescales of ice ages, as one of the big advantages of working with stalagmites is that they can be dated by the natural decay of uranium and thorium isotopes back to around 500,000 years. Over those timescales and temperature changes of 10°C or more, stalagmites are pretty convincing at recording the 1st order climate changes (e.g. glacial-interglacial changes, Dansgaard-Oeschger events, etc..) as the climate signal is much greater than the noise induced in the soil/vegetation-groundwater-cave system, and several papers a year can be read in journals such as Science and Nature (in particular, the Hulu cave record was truly exceptional). Over the last 10 years or so, with increased interest in climate change and climate variability over the last millennium, researchers have started to use stalagmites to look at the more recent past and at higher time resolution. This is despite the climate signal being much smaller (e.g. changes in temperature of less than 1 °C over the last 1000 years) yet the same level of noise in the soil/vegetation-groundwater-cave system. So this is a much harder task, requiring careful sample and site selection. Given the complexity of the signal transfer from the surface to the cave, the only approach is to: (1) work with stalagmites that were actively growing when sampled (so we know the precise age of the top of the archive, and that they were deposited over the period of instrumental rainfall and temperature data), (2) that we use stalagmites which have annual growth rings (in the same manner as tree rings, many stalagmites have annual rings too) so that a precise chronology can be obtained, and then (3) to analyse whichever proxy we are interested in at highest resolution possible to be able to calibrate that proxy against instrumental climate records over the period they exist. If that methodology sounds familiar, then it is because it is very similar to that used with other proxy climate records such as tree rings. The figure (from Proctor et al, 2000) shows an example of that kind of calibration – in that case against regional sea surface temperature records. Some caveats are now needed. Firstly, all three points listed above have to be fulfilled – any two of the three just won’t give the precision in terms of chronology or climate calibration necessary to inform the past climate variability debate (a problem with the Norwegian record that featured in Moberg et al is that it failed all three tests). Secondly, depending on the local site, some stalagmites just won’t record high frequency (e.g. annual) climate variability – that signal could be lost if waters are mixed in with a large reservoir of ground water. But they may be excellent at recording the low frequency (decadal to centennial) climate signal, something that proxies such as tree rings have more of a struggle to do. Thirdly, it is quite possible that stalagmites will have a seasonally biased climate signal. For example, if the cave climate varies seasonally such that stalagmite deposition only occurs for part of the year, or if the rainfall only comes during the wet season, then it can only record that season’s conditions. Stalagmites are sure to feature in forthcoming reconstructions of climate over the last millennium, as the best samples can form continuously for thousands of years, sometimes with continuous annual growth rings, and with little or no growth related trends, all of which are good conditions for preserving low frequency climate variability. But the complexity of the climate transfer function means that the three tests of chronology and calibration need to be fulfilled for any stalagmite record to be demonstrated to be both accurate and precise enough to be used in a proxy climate reconstruction of the last 1000 years. Fairchild, I.J.; Smith, C.L.; Baker, A.; Fuller, L.; Spotl, C.; Mattey, D.; McDermott, F.; E.I.M.F., 2006. Modification and preservation of environmental signals in speleothems Earth Science Reviews, Volume 75, Issue 1-4, 1 March 2006, Pages 105-153 Smith, C.L., Baker, A., Fairchild, I.J., Frisia, S. and Borsato, A., 2006. Reconstructing hemispheric scale climates from multiple stalagmite records. Int J. Climatology, 26 (10), 1417-1424 Tan, M., Baker, A., Genty, D., Smith, C., Esper, J and Cai, B., 2006. Applications of stalagmite laminae to paleoclimate reconstructions: Comparison with dendrochronology/climatology. Quaternary Science Reviews, 25, 2103-2117 NCDC paleo archives

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Optic atrophy: Introduction Optic atrophy: Dysfunction of the optic nerve which results in impaired vision. The disorder may be congenital or acquired. The rate and degree of atrophy is greatly variable depending on the cause. More detailed information about the symptoms, causes, and treatments of Optic atrophy is available below. Symptoms of Optic atrophy Read more about symptoms of Optic atrophy Home Diagnostic Testing Home medical testing related to Optic atrophy: - Vision & Eye Health: Home Testing: - Nerve Neuropathy: Related Home Testing: Wrongly Diagnosed with Optic atrophy? Causes of Optic atrophy See full list of 38 causes of Optic atrophy Read more about causes of Optic atrophy. More information about causes of Optic atrophy: Optic atrophy: Undiagnosed Conditions Commonly undiagnosed diseases in related medical categories: Misdiagnosis and Optic atrophy Vitamin B12 deficiency under-diagnosed: The condition of Vitamin B12 deficiency is a possible misdiagnosis of various conditions, such as multiple...read more » Read more about Misdiagnosis and Optic atrophy Optic atrophy: Research Doctors & Specialists Research related physicians and medical specialists: Other doctor, physician and specialist research services: Evidence Based Medicine Research for Optic atrophy Medical research articles related to Optic atrophy include: Click here to find more evidence-based articles on the TRIP Database Optic atrophy: Animations More Optic atrophy animations & videos Research about Optic atrophy Visit our research pages for current research about Optic atrophy treatments. Statistics for Optic atrophy Optic atrophy: Broader Related Topics Types of Optic atrophy User Interactive Forums Read about other experiences, ask a question about Optic atrophy, or answer someone else's question, on our message boards: Definitions of Optic atrophy: Atrophy of the optic disk which may be congenital or acquired. This condition indicates a deficiency in the number of nerve fibers which arise in the RETINA and converge to form the OPTIC DISK, OPTIC NERVE, OPTIC CHIASM, and optic tracts. GLAUCOMA, ISCHEMIA, inflammation, a chronic elevation of intracranial pressure, toxins, optic nerve compression, and inherited conditions (see OPTIC ATROPHIES, HEREDITARY) are relatively common causes of this condition. - (Source - Diseases Database) Ophanet, a consortium of European partners, currently defines a condition rare when it affects 1 person per 2,000. They list Optic atrophy as a "rare disease". Source - Orphanet Contents for Optic atrophy: » Next page: What is Optic atrophy? Medical Tools & Articles: Tools & Services: Forums & Message Boards - Ask or answer a question at the Boards:

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|Philippe de Mornay, Seigneur du Plessis-Marly Philippe de Mornay was born in Buhy, Normandy, on November 5, 1549. His mother had Protestant leanings, but his father tried to counteract her influence by sending him to the College de Lisieux in Paris. After the death of his father in 1559, however, his family formally adopted Protestantism and he was allowed to return home. He studied law and jurisprudence at Heidelberg in 1565, and Hebrew and German at Padua in 1566. Mornay joined the army of Conde upon outbreak of the second French War of Religion in 1567, but a fall from his horse prevented him from taking an active part in the campaign. In 1572, he offered his services to the Protestant Reformers in France, and collaborated with Gaspard de Coligny in plans for war against Spain. He managed to escape the Massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day of 1572 and took refuge in England. Returning to France in 1573, Mornay joined the army of Henry of Navarre and soon became one of Henry's most respected councillors, serving as Henry's diplomatic agent in England (1577-1578 and again in 1580) and in the Low Countries (1581-1582). About 1588, Mornay became leader of the Protestant movement in France, and soon became known as "the Huguenot Pope." He sought to unite all Frenchmen under a religious system that would give free reign to the Reformed Churches or establish a national church on the Anglican model, and sought to turn royal policy against the Catholic League and against Spain. Following the assassination of King Henry III in 1589, Mornay again joined Henry of Navarre's army and participated in all the major campaigns that ultimately led to Henry being crowned King Henry IV. For his service Mornay was made Governor of the Huguenot stronghold of Saumur, where he built the greatest of the Huguenot academies. He remained a part of King Henry's circle of advisors until 1593, when the king renounced Protestantism and converted to Catholicism. In 1598, Mornay was a key contributor in the negotiations which led to the Edict of Nantes. Signed by King Henry on April 13, 1598, the Edict gave French Protestants (Huguenots) complete freedom of worship in about 75 towns, as well as equal rights with Catholics as citizens. Also in 1598, Mornay published De l'institution, usage et doctrine du sainct sacrement de Veucharistie en l'église ancienne, which contained about 5,000 citations from Scripture. In 1600, Jacques Davy Duperron, bishop of Evreux, accused him of misquotation in this work. A public disputation was conducted at Fontainebleau, which resulted in his discomfiture, with Henry IV putting finals touches to it. Mornay opposed Louis XIII's policy of rapprochement with the papacy and with Spain, a position which put him at definite odds with the king. In 1618, he was chosen a deputy to represent the French Protestants at the Synod of Dort, but was prohibited from attending by Louis XIII. He was removed from his position at Saumur in 1621. Philippe de Mornay died at his estate of La Foret-sur-Sevre on November 11, 1623. Some of His Writings Discours au roi Charles (1572) ROBINSON LIBRARY --> General and Old World History. --> France. Andorra. Monaco. --> France. --> 1515-1589. 16th Century. This page was last updated on 04/11/2013.

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Dec. 6, 2004 WEST LAFAYETTE, Ind. – A successful method for healing spinal injuries in dogs has been developed by Purdue University researchers, offering hope for preventing human paralysis. Lab tests have shown that an injection of a liquid polymer known as polyethylene glycol (PEG), if administered within 72 hours of serious spinal injury, can prevent most dogs from suffering permanent spinal damage. Even when the spine is initially damaged to the point of paralysis, the PEG solution prevents the nerve cells from rupturing irrevocably, enabling them to heal themselves. "Nearly 75 percent of the dogs we treated with PEG were able to resume a normal life," said Richard Borgens, Mari Hulman George Professor of Applied Neuroscience and director of the Center for Paralysis Research in Purdue's School of Veterinary Medicine. "Some healed so well that they could go on as though nothing had happened." The research, performed at Purdue, Indiana University—Purdue University Indianapolis, and Texas A&M University, appears in the December issue of the Journal of Neurotrauma. In the study, 19 paraplegic dogs between 2 and 8 years of age were treated with a PEG injection within 72 hours of their injury as an addition to the standard veterinary therapy for spinal injury. This standard treatment includes injection of steroids, physical rehabilitation with swimming, and surgical removal of any offending chips of bone remaining in the spinal area after injury. This group of 19 was compared with a second group of 24 dogs that received only the standard treatment. "The control group was taken from historical cases of dog injury that were similar to those in the 19 dogs we treated," Borgens said. "We didn't want to tell any owners who walked in with injured dogs that their pets were not going to receive something that might help. So we looked at the results that the standard treatment had on dogs that had suffered similar injuries in the past." After treatment, the dogs' improvement was measured based on criteria including desire to move, deep and superficial pain perception, and transmission of electrical impulses through the nerve tissue. "More than half of the dogs in this study were standing or walking within two weeks of treatment," Borgens said. "In most cases, you could usually notice positive signs within three to five days." Another 16 dogs were injected with a different substance called P-188, a mixture of 80 percent PEG along with other chemicals, which also was thought to have potential as a treatment. "However, dogs treated with the P-188 mixture did not perform as well as those treated with PEG," Borgens said. Trauma to nerve cells causes their membranes to weaken and even rupture. Though the cells may survive, this membrane damage causes them to lose the ability to produce and carry nerve impulses along their membranes from one cell to the next. "Worse yet, chemicals seeping out of the dying spinal cord cells send a 'suicide signal' to other nearby cells, causing a chain reaction that kills off more cells than the initial injury did," Borgens said. "Until now, the end result has been irreparable damage to the spinal cord, causing partial or complete paralysis to the victim." PEG is able to intervene in this process by repairing the initial membrane damage. It has been known for decades that two cells that touch each other can become one big cell if PEG is added to the fluid they live in. Because of this surprising ability, PEG is sometimes called a "fusogen." About five years ago, Borgens and his partner, Riyi Shi, found that they could actually fuse hundreds to thousands of severed nerve fibers of the guinea pig spinal cord with only a two-minute PEG treatment. This observation led to developing the polymer as a repair agent that would mend the broken membranes of nerve cells after traumatic injury. Though PEG's action as a fusogen has been known prior to their work, the exact mechanism that occurs at the membrane to fuse or mend it is still poorly understood. Borgens said that many membrane specialists believe it has much to do with the ability of PEG to quickly and dramatically remove water from the cell membrane that floods into the cell after suffering damage. This makes it difficult for the cellular membrane to heal on its own. "Imagine children blowing bubbles with wands, the kind with a small round hole at the end," Borgens said. "The polymer acts like a soap film that covers the hole and draws the water away. In the PEG-sealed membrane, the fatty oils that form the center of the membrane can mix again, free of the water that had likely repelled them. Once PEG dissolves away from the area, water molecules once again help to induce and preserve the restructured membrane." In spite of the fact that the exact mechanism is yet to be completely understood, Borgens said it is known that PEG has been both injected and ingested by humans as a component of other medicines and is completely safe. Curiously, PEG only covers damaged cells and tissues when injected into the blood stream and is not found in healthy or undamaged tissues nearby. These facts paved the way for clinical testing on paraplegic dogs at Purdue's School of Veterinary Medicine by Dr. Peter Laverty and his colleagues, and on paralyzed dogs at a partner institution, the Texas A&M College of Veterinary Medicine, by neurologists Joan Coates and Robert Bergman. These efforts could mean relief for many dogs that are prone to spinal injury. "Certain dog breeds can easily injure their backs simply by jumping off a couch," Borgens said. "Up to this point, little could be done for dogs or humans with such injuries – even with immediate attention and the highest standard of care. Decompression surgery and injections of steroids, like methyl prednisone, have done little." However, with Borgens' and Shi's discovery of PEG's effects on crushed spinal cord tissue, a new and safe therapy may be even closer to human trials since naturally injured dogs responded so well to it. "In most dogs, we found a PEG injection within 36 hours can restore sensitivity and even mobility within three weeks," Borgens said. "These results are unprecedented in paralysis research." While such news should be inspiring for pet owners, Borgens strongly cautions those who think a cure for human paralysis is right around the corner. "There are significant differences between canine and human spinal cords that must be addressed before this treatment can be applied to people," Borgens said. "In dogs, for example, some of the control of walking actually takes place in the spine, while in humans all of this control resides in our brains. Additionally, PEG cannot just be used off the shelf – it must have a high level of purity for it to be effective. This is very promising research, but it won't be available in your hospital for some time." On the other hand, once these issues are ironed out, Borgens said the next step would be human trials. "We do not anticipate this treatment to have any significant effect on people who have suffered from spinal injuries in the past," he said. "But once it is refined, we hope it will prevent future spinal injuries from paralyzing victims permanently. I would like a supply of PEG to become standard on every ambulance." Funding for this research has been provided by grants from the National Institutes of Health, the state of Indiana and the Mari Hulman-George Endowment. Purdue's Center for Paralysis Research was established in 1987 to both develop and test promising methods of treatment for spinal cord injuries. In addition to work with PEG, the center has a number of other ongoing research projects. Borgens also oversees work with oscillating field stimulators, devices that stimulate growth of spinal cord tissue by means of electrical fields. The center also is working with another druglike ingested substance called 4-aminopyridine, which has shown potential in reversing the injury-induced loss of nerve potentials in damaged nerve fibers. Other social bookmarking and sharing tools: Note: Materials may be edited for content and length. For further information, please contact the source cited above. Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.

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http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/12/041203081629.htm

2013-05-22T08:20:26Z

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en

Feb. 24, 2008 Over the last few years scientists have discovered hundreds of microRNAs--tiny RNAs that regulate the expression of protein-coding genes. However, the functions of these novel molecules in mammals are largely unknown. Now, scientists in the lab of Whitehead Fellow Fernando Camargo have discovered the first microRNA shown to play a key role in the immune system's early warning system--the innate immune response. The research reveals that microRNA-223 controls the production and activation of granulocytes, white blood cells essential for host defense against invading pathogens. The findings may have implications for the treatment of inflammatory conditions as well as leukemia. "MicroRNA-223 is unique because its expression is entirely restricted to a specific branch of the immune system," says Camargo. "We found that microRNA-223 is crucial for the development and function of the innate branch of the immune system. Our work suggests that microRNA-223 physiologically fine-tunes both the generation and function of granulocytic cells, delimiting their production and dampening their activation." The study indicated that microRNA-223 targets Mefc2, a transcription factor that promotes the expansion of granulocyte cell progenitors. (Transcription factors are proteins that regulate gene expression.) By knocking out Mefc2, the authors found that some of the effects caused by microRNA-223 were eliminated. The researchers demonstrated that mice modified to lack microRNA-223 expression had up to three times as many granulocytes in their bone marrow and blood. Moreover, the granulocytes matured more rapidly and then reacted more aggressively to stimuli. This increased activity caused tissue inflammation and damage within the lungs with age or, in an acute inflammation model, within the liver, muscle and kidneys. "If you have an infection in the lungs, granulocytes will migrate to the site of the infection and attack," says Jonathan Johnnidis, first author of the paper and a former technician in the Camargo lab, and now a graduate student in molecular biology at the University of Pennsylvania. "Once the infection is cleared granulocytes usually migrate away and settle down. However, in this case they didn't stand down after they were done fighting. Instead they continued an inflammatory response that did more damage." "Like a hand grenade once you pop the trigger out, these granulocytes are going to explode, regardless of whether they are surrounded by healthy tissue or harmful bacteria," adds Camargo. "Lack of microRNA-223 makes it much easier to activate the grenade." Camargo plans to further investigate the effect of this microRNA on disease. "Our work suggests that microRNA-223 physiologically fine-tunes both the generation and function of granulocytic cells, delimiting their production and preventing excessive activation," he says. "Also, since many forms of leukemia express diminished levels of microRNA-223, we are investigating how silencing of this microRNA may contribute to the development of that disease." Fernando Camargo is a Fellow at Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, where his laboratory is located and all his research is conducted. Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research is a nonprofit, independent research and educational institution. Wholly independent in its governance, finances and research programs, Whitehead shares a close affiliation with Massachusetts Institute of Technology through its faculty, who hold joint MIT appointments. Journal reference: Jonathan B. Johnnidis, Marian H.Harris, Robert T. Wheeler, Sandra Stehling-Sun, Michael H. Lam, Oktay Kirak, Thijn Brummelkamp, Mark D. Fleming and Fernando D. Camargo. "Regulation of progenitor cell proliferation and granulocyte function by microRNA-223" Nature, Volume 451, Number 781 Other social bookmarking and sharing tools: Note: Materials may be edited for content and length. For further information, please contact the source cited above. Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.

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http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/02/080219113318.htm

2013-05-22T08:28:30Z

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More 60-Second Science Crickets make a big contribution to the sounds of a summer night. And they’ve been doing so for some 165 million years. Now paleontologists have reconstructed the song of a long-extinct bushcricket—based on its remains. The researchers got hold of a bushcricket fossil from the Jurassic period with well preserved wings. Even the stridulating organs, which insects rub together to make noise, were visible, which allowed researchers to compare the extinct cricket to 59 living species. The scientists concluded that the crickets produced single frequencies in short bursts. And based on physiology and the comparisons, they estimated the pitch and length of each note that the ancient species sang. Here’s the call: [Cricket sound] The study is in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. [Jun-Jie Gu et al., "Wing stridulation in a Jurassic katydid (Insecta, Orthoptera) produced low-pitched musical calls to attract females"] This work shows that the anatomy to make music had already evolved over a hundred million years ago. Like modern bushcricket species, the ancient male crickets probably sang to advertise their presence and reproductive quality to potential mates. As a bonus, they’ve helped us know a bit about the sound of their long-lost world. [The above text is a transcript of this podcast.]

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http://www.scientificamerican.com/podcast/episode.cfm?id=cricket-fossil-reveals-ancient-song-12-02-13

2013-05-22T08:37:04Z

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Looking at Artifacts, Thinking About History By Steven Lubar and Kathleen Kendrick | Artifacts Tell their Own Stories | Artifacts Connect People | Artifacts Mean Many Things Artifacts Capture a Moment | Artifacts Reflect Changes | Telling Many Stories Artifacts capture a moment. A fourth way of looking at an artifact is to think about its place in history. Artifacts are time capsules. They embody the tastes and values of an era. They mark a stage of technological evolution. They evoke memories of a specific time and place. Different objects, from different times, look different, and were used differently. Objects can tell us something of their times. This Kodak Brownie camera was used by Bernice Palmer to photograph survivors of the Titanic disaster in 1912. Think about the ways this Kodak camera captured a momentnot just by taking a photograph, but by preserving the history of an event, an era, an invention, a cultural phenomenon, and a woman's life. - A Tragic Event. The "Unsinkable" Titanic, a British steamshipthe largest and most luxurious passenger liner ever builtsank on April 15, 1912, during its maiden voyage from Southampton, England, to New York City. Over 1,500 lives were lost after the ship struck an iceberg in the north Atlantic Ocean, about 400 miles south of Newfoundland. The Carpathia, a passenger liner bound for the Mediterranean, received the Titanic's distress call and arrived within hours to rescue the 705 survivors. Using this camera, Carpathia passenger Bernice Palmer took photographs of the Titanic survivors and the iceberg that sank the great ship. After the Carpathia returned to New York, a reporter paid $10 to publish Palmer's pictures. - A Visual Age. The beginning of the twentieth century marked a new era in American history: the age of images. A 1911 editorial in Harpers Weekly proclaimed, "We can't see the ideas for the illustrations. Our world is simply flooded with them." Henry R. Luce, founder of Time and Life magazines, wrote in 1937 that "The photograph is…the most important instrument of journalism which has been developed since the printing press." This Kodak camera was just one of many instruments that helped people visualize moments like the Titanic disaster. Newspapers, magazines, newsreels, stereographs, and other media transformed current events into a series of images. Many of these images have become part of our nation's collective memory. - A Technological Moment. How was it that eighteen-year-old Bernice Palmer had a camera with her aboard a passenger ship in 1912? The Kodak Brownie camera, introduced in 1900, represented a series of technological innovations that made it possible for millions of people to own cameras by the early twentieth century. With its simple features and affordable price tag, this Kodak Brownie camera captured a moment when, for the first time, almost anybody could be a photographer. - A Moment in a Life. In April of 1912, Bernice Palmer, an eighteen-year-old from Ontario, Canada, had just graduated from finishing school. To celebrate, she and her mother boarded the Carpathia for a cruise to the sunny Mediterranean. Four days out from New York, their ship suddenly changed course to rescue survivors from the Titanic. This Kodak Brownie camera, which Palmer expected would capture memories of her Mediterranean adventure, became instead a poignant souvenir of her close encounter with tragedy. In 1986, Palmer donated her camera and photographs to the Smithsonian.

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http://www.smithsonianeducation.org/idealabs/ap/essays/looking5.htm

2013-05-22T08:33:11Z

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BAHX uses what is known as a “standard tripod gait” in order to move around. This means that the middle legs rotate on the verticle plane, and the front and back legs rotate on the horizontal. The middle legs provide “lift” and the other legs provide the forward or backward motion. This is a tried and true method of propulsion in hexapod robotics, and it enables the bot to turn either way when needed very easily when using three motors. This gait is defined as “simple” because it uses only three motors to accomplish its task of walking. More complex hexapods are out there that mimic lifelike walking in a much better way, but require 12 or more motors in order to do so. If you look at the image below closely, you can see that the middle legs actually move forward and backwards, AS WELL AS up and down. In other words, the legs are moving in two degrees of freedom. In order to accomplish this you would need two motors per leg, (or a complicated gear system) The standard tripod gait can be accomplished with two motors, in which one motor controls the outside legs, and one for the middle leg assembly, but the turning ability is limited on such bots. There are even some examples of one motor hexapods out there and these are really quite a neat engineering feat: I went with the three motor mechanical design because of its simplicity, but also because it seemed to have the ability to evolve in to a design that could navigate around obstacles effectively, and traverse over rough terrain. This design doesn’t stumble forward… it actually walks.

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http://www.societyofrobots.com/member_tutorials/book/export/html/297

2013-05-22T08:25:43Z

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Water Ice on Mercury: How It Stays Frozen (Infographic) In 1991, scientists probed the planet Mercury with radar beamed from Earth. They observed near the north pole areas of permanent darkness, perhaps harboring deposits of water ice. Now, observations from the Messenger probe orbiting Mercury show that the areas are definitely water ice, partially covered by dark organic deposits. Hundreds of billions of tons of ice could exist in these shadowed, frozen pits. The planet nearest the sun has a diameter about two-fifths that of Earth and gravity about 38 percent as strong as ours. Mercury has the most eccentric orbit of any planet, with a distance ranging from 29 million to 44 million miles (46 to 70 million kilometers) from the sun. [Ice on Mercury Explained (Video)] With a diameter of 3,032 miles (4,879 km), Mercury is slightly larger than Earth’s moon. As Mercury orbits the sun, some areas within deep craters never receive direct sunlight. The cold areas have been stable for up to billions of years, allowing ancient ice to be preserved despite Mercury’s proximity to the sun. The ice may have been carried to Mercury by comets falling from the outer reaches of the solar system. Scientists confirmed the ice by using an instrument on the Messenger spacecraft that detects neutrons. It is suspected that Mercury’s south pole also harbors ice deposits, but the Messenger probe’s orbit has not allowed for measurements of the southern region yet.

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http://www.space.com/18695-water-ice-mercury-explained-infographic.html

2013-05-22T08:13:12Z

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The US Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) plans to start recycling billions of dollars worth of non-working satellites. The aim of DARPA’s Phoenix program is to harvest and utilize valuable components from retired nonworking satellites in Geostationary Orbit and demonstrate the ability to develop new space systems from the parts at reduced cost. “Satellites in orbit are not designed to be disassembled or repaired, so it’s not a matter of simply removing some nuts and bolts,” says DARPA program manager David Bernhart.” This requires new remote imaging and robotics technology and special tools to grip, cut and modify complex systems,” he says. Without any doubt, recycling of space debris would require a much more elaborate technology than simple recycling plastic bottles or paper on Earth. Advanced robotics will be needed as well as further research into the exact methodologies for returning space junk to Earth to be broken down. Part of the agency’s plan is to use a ground-based robotics system and eventually establish a satellite servicing station in orbit. Smaller debris particles can be destabilized by firing lasers so that they plunge out of orbit and burn in the atmosphere. Future spacecraft should be designed from the beginning with the recycling strategy in mind, using advanced materials technology that makes the process easy. But with the amount of orbital debris already reaching tipping point, complementary actions will be needed to manage the existing problem. These strategies include reduction in the number of satellite launches and global cooperation in their cleanup. The Phoenix program comes at a time when space debris concerns are on the rise. Recent uncontrolled satellite descents have increased awareness of the potential hazards posed by orbital debris. In the beginning of November, the US National Research Council issued a recommendation for NASA to improve its Orbital Debris Program. After fifty years of space exploration, Earth orbits, especially at Low Earth Orbit (LEO) altitudes, are crowded with defunct satellites and spent rocket stages that pose a threat to spacecraft. Currently 21, 000 such objects larger than 10 cm are under surveillance. In the video below, a potential robotic satellite servicing station recycles defunct satellite parts.

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http://www.spacesafetymagazine.com/2011/11/08/darpa-plans-recycle-space-debris/

2013-05-22T08:02:13Z

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Threshold SA-1 monoblock power amplifier In most amplifiers, the voltage amplification stages are used to drive the output transistors, which in turn drive the loudspeaker. In a Stasis design, the voltage amplifiers connect directly to the loudspeakers. Obviously, this cannot work. If you recall Ohm's law, or even if you never knew it, you may take my word that current equals voltage divided by resistance, and power equals current squared times resistance. That means that any resistance across the output of a voltage amplifier will require that amplifier to deliver power as well as voltage—something it is better off not being asked to do. The ideal load for a voltage amp is an open circuit—infinity ohms. The Stasis circuit allows the loudspeaker to behave like just such an open-circuit load. Normally, any attempt on the part of the voltage amp to develop an output voltage would be stymied by the current drawn off immediately by the loudspeaker load. Virtually no voltage would develop. But backing up (as it were) the SA-1's voltage amp are two banks of current-amplifying devices—output transistors—and a proprietary current-sensing circuit between the voltage amps and the loudspeaker. Whenever the sensor detects current being drawn from the voltage amplifier, it gates open the output transistors, which dump in as much current from the amp's power supply as is necessary to bring the signal voltage across the speaker up to the same level that the VA is trying to deliver. For example, let's say the VA is trying to deliver 5 volts. Before the speaker's current drain has time to deplete this, the output transistors will dump enough current through the speaker to bring the voltage across it up to 5 volts. The voltage amp, seeing 5 volts at its output, will then deliver no current at all, just as though it were working into an open circuit. The current gating must only be able to respond faster than the delivered voltage changes, in order to keep "on top" of the ever-changing current demands. As long as it does, the voltage amp will "see" what is essentially an open-circuit load. Thus, since we define work in terms of power consumed, it can be fairly stated that the Stasis voltage amps do no work at all, which greatly simplifies front-end power supply design. Devilishly clever, wot? The SA-1's input stage consists of four matched junction-type FETs, with the first pair operating as a differential pair and the second pair in a cascode arrangement. Because JFETS have an inherently very high input impedance (unlike bipolars, which draw current from the input signal), it is unnecessary to play games with feedback or "bootstrapping" (footnote 2) to minimize the load across the preamp outputs. There is consequently less chance for adverse interactions between the preamp and the power amp. In addition, the front-end elements are so arranged as to behave complementarily in response to power-supply voltage variations, making the front end virtually immune to signal-induced supply fluctuations stemming from the high-current output stage. Not that such fluctuations should be that much of a problem here: The SA-1 has a humongous toroidal power transformer and an incredible 120,000µF of power-supply storage, suitably bypassed with film resistors. The output stages look like overkill, too. Threshold claims that each output device is rated by its manufacturer at 20 amps at 200 volts, which gives each one a power capability of 20 watts for every watt of rated power! That's called conservative design; it allows the designer to dispense with "protection" circuits, which nearly always befoul the sound when they're not, occasionally, saving the amplifier. The SA-1 has no overall feedback, no output fuses, and no inductor in series with the output (to protect it against very low impedances at very high frequencies). These things allow it to present an extremely low source impedance (high damping factor) to the speaker, which no doubt contributes—along with its very high current capability—to its remarkable bass performance, about which more later. Do I hear a question from my audience? Ah yes, a good point. Isn't the SA-1's price/power ratio rather poor? Well, at $6000 for two 160W channels, that calculates out to $18.75 per watt, which is lousy. (The 140Wpc Electron Kinetics Eagle A, at $960, costs $6.85 per watt; the Adcom GFA-555 costs $3 a watt. Only the Mark Levinson ML-2 offers substantially lower $/Watt value than the SA-1, at an unbelievable $176 a watt!) Lately, however, I find myself questioning conventional wisdom about requisite amplifier power. Most audio perfectionists feel that 200 watts per channel is the minimum needed for clean crescendos. But 160W will make only a 1dB difference in the maximum level the system can deliver cleanly, and a 1dB change in across-the-board output level is barely perceptible by most people, if it is perceptible at all. The subjective difference between 200W and 160W is not significant. (Half power yields a reduction of 3dB, which is definitely audible.) Consider also: Most home-type loudspeakers have a sensitivity of around 87dB (at 1 meter distance) for 1 watt of input signal. Assuming reasonable amplitude linearity in the speakers, this translates into 97 dB of output signal for 10W in, and 107dB for 100W. An input of watts would produce 109dB, which is quite loud enough to satisfy anyone but a heavy-metal junkie (footnote 3). Perhaps, in an amplifier rated honestly, current capability is a more important determinant of maximum output level than power output into 8 ohms. Whatever the reason, the "modestly rated" SA-1s cranked out higher levels more cleanly through my speakers (Infinity RS-1Bs and MartinLogan Monoliths) than most 200-watters have. In fact, the SA-1, like the S/500 (the last Threshold amplifier I tested), might best be characterized as unflappable. No matter what program material I threw at it, it just passed it along as though sizzling cymbals and floor-shaking bass-drum thwacks were routine fare. Sonically, this is one of the most gorgeous power amps I've heard! Highs are silky-sweet and open, with an ease and naturalness equalled only by the Jeff Rowland Model 7s (which just happen to cost about the same amount—for 200Wpc). Bass is impressively deep, tight, and orderly, maintaining firm control over even the floppiest woofers. The SA-1 is the only amp I've heard that controls the somewhat underdamped bass from the Monoliths better than the Eagle 2. Bass drum, kick drum, pipe organ, and synth bass are as well reproduced by these amps as I have heard them. The SA-1 is ideal for driving the Monoliths, as it elicits less hardness from the speakers than does the Eagle 2, without sacrificing any of the latter's positive attributes. The SA-1 is also very well suited for driving either the high end or the low end of the Infinity RS-1Bs, though I think you'd be crazy to use the amp on the low end and discard half of the SA-1's superb performance. I tried them on the low end of the RS-1Bs because they were there; I could not justify the expense unless your checking account is so bloated that the bank is charging you to manage it. The midrange of the SA-1 is almost perfectly neutral, being neither forward nor recessed. Yet its soundstage width and depth are excellent, with solid imaging (from good recordings) out to well beyond the placement limits of the loudspeakers. Only the Conrad Johnson Premier Fives have more apparent depth and perspective than the SA-1s, and the Fives aren't in the SA-1's league when it comes to low-end extension, control, and impact. There is little more to be said. The Threshold SA-1 is a superb amplifier in every respect, and unquestionably one of the best that money can buy. But then, considering that it is also one of the most expensive that money can buy, it damn well oughta be good! J. Gordon Holt wrote again about the SA-1 in April 1986 (Vol.9 No.3): This amplifier has been in constant use in my system for over a month now, and I swear its sound continued to improve, gradually, for the first three weeks of that time. Combining extraordinary sweetness with remarkable detail, depth, breadth, focus, and low-end impact and control, this is now, hands-down, the best-sounding power amplifier I have used.3 it has become my preferred amplifier for driving the MartinLogan Monolith speakers (displacing my now-obsolete Electron Kinetics Eagle 2), as well as just about every other speaker.—J.Gordon Holt Footnote 1: This refers to a circuit which adjust the output-transistor bias for optimum (minimum distortion) operating conditions at all signal levels.—J.Gordon Holt Footnote 2: A bootstrap is an emitter-follower circuit in which the base resistor is returned to a tap on the emitter resistor. This arrangement produces a "round-robin" condition in which the device hikes its own effective input impedance by using part of its through (collector-emitter) current as a signal-controlled current source feeding its own input.—J.Gordon Holt Footnote 3: Yes, but that's figuring an 8 ohm loudspeaker; very few loudspeakers are actually an 8 ohm loud, which is why the 4 and 2 ohm power measurements of an amplifier are so significant. I think the key measurement in an amplifier is how easily it delivers a lot of power over a short time into a low impedance; even using "dynamic headroom" measurements, this figure is not readily available.—Larry Archibald

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.stereophile.com/solidpoweramps/16threshold/index.html

2013-05-22T08:29:51Z

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Strong Learning often Gets Questions about Taking Tests Question: “My daughter does well on her homework, studies for hours, and then does poorly on her tests. She’d be an ‘A’ student if not for the tests. She’s just not a good test taker. Is there anything we can do to help her? My child is a poor test taker. What can we do to help her? Answer: There are many strategies children can learn to help them do well on tests. You have to find which strategies are most likely to help your child. A good place to begin is by going over the tests so that you and your child can find out what is causing her to do poorly. Here are the ten most common causes - Vocabulary: You may find that she didn’t understand the questions because she didn’t know the meaning of some of the key words. It is surprising how often kids get confused because they do not know commonly used words. For example, one of our ninth graders brought a failing test paper to us to show him what he did wrong. One question was about a hermit who lived on a secluded island. Because he didn’t know the meaning of two key words, hermit and secluded, he answered as if it were about a hermit crab! So in the future, while your daughter is learning a subject, it is a good idea to check that she is familiar with the necessary vocabulary. - Concepts: She may not have understood the concepts even though she memorized lists of facts. One way to reinforce the concepts children learn in school is to discuss them as a family during casual conversation, perhaps during dinner or while driving. - Language Processing: She may not get the intended meaning of the question. If this happens once in awhile, have her ask her teacher for help. If it happens often, she may have a language processing problem that needs to be dealt with. You may need to seek the advise of school personnel or a private learning specialist. - Learning Style: Your child may be studying in ways that are not compatible with her learning style. For example, her most efficient learning style may require visual techniques, but she may often study using verbal techniques. So although she is putting in ample time studying, she may be learning little. You need to identify your child’s learning style and help her learn how to study accordingly. You may need to seek the advise of school personnel or a private learning specialist. - Memory: Your child’s short-term memory may be far better than her long-term memory. If your child has an excellent short-term memory and an average or poor long-term memory, she may finish studying before the material gets into her long-term memory. She thinks she knows the material, and she does at the time (using short-term memory), but by the time she takes the test (requiring long-term memory) she has forgotten a good portion of the material. Your child may need to practice, practice, and practice some more. Also, consider purchasing a book on memory skills. (See our Improve Your Memory workbook). - Slow Worker: Your child may be a slow worker, or a slow processor so she doesn’t complete her exams, rushes through them without reading or processing the questions, or panics and shuts down. She may simply need more time. Talk to her teachers. Perhaps being permitted to continue for a few minutes after the bell rings, or being allowed to come back for a few minutes during lunch or study hall, will solve the problem. Sometimes, just knowing that she won’t run out of time, eliminates the problem. - Study Skills: Your child may have poor study skills and work habits. There are many ways to learn effective study skills from: reading study skills books, taking a study skills course, or by taking a few sessions on study skills with a learning specialist. (See our Study Skills Workbooks). However, once children learn how to study, they need to use the strategies. If they don’t, it’s the same as going to a weight-loss center and then going home and having a piece of chocolate cake. - Writing: Your child may have trouble with essay tests because she has difficulty writing clearly. If given the opportunity, she would be able to choose correct answers from a multiple choice list or be able to accurately answer the test questions verbally; but she cannot clearly articulate her thoughts in writing. If that is the case, the problem is not that your child is a “bad test taker,” but simply that she needs to work on her writing skills and/or be given the opportunity to take the test orally or using another assessment technique. (See our Improve Your Writing workbooks). - Learning Disability: Your child may have a mild learning disability. Sometimes these disabilities are not identified, and thus are not addressed. If you suspect such disabilities, seek the advise of school personnel or a private learning specialist. - Anxiety: Your child may be overly anxious. This may result from one or more of many causes, some of which are described above. She might also be putting too much pressure on herself. Or you might unintentionally be putting undue academic pressure on her. Or she may be afraid of the consequences of failing, for example, being grounded, or Dad going “ballistic”. Reducing anxiety is easier said than done. You may need to seek additional help to unravel the cause of the anxiety. You may be interested in knowing how anxiety affects the brain. Regardless of the cause of the anxiety, the effect is that the child’s mind goes blank. Neueroscience research shows that high anxiety causes the part of the brain that stores information to stop sending signals to the part of the brain that remembers information and can write it down. So, if your child says, “My mind went blank,” it’s because part of her brain stopped communicating other parts of her brain, and, her mind really did go blank Instead of shrugging your shoulders and saying, “I guess she’s just not a good test taker,” try to identify why. Once you identify the causes of the problem, your child will be able to learn effective strategies to overcome or to compensate for them. And her test grades will improve, often dramatically. Click here for more information About Strong Learning and the Silberts

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http://www.stronglearning.com/info/about-us/faq/

2013-05-22T07:54:25Z

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Massively Multiplayer Online Role Playing Games (MMORPGs) are vastly time consuming and are designed to immerse the player in a virtual world. The most popular game in this genre is World of Warcraft (also known as "WoW") and boasts a record breaking player base of nine million paid subscribers ("World of Warcraft Surpasses Nine Million Worldwide"). Given that it is only a single game amongst many that are similar, it is likely that many readers will know someone who plays. It is important for parents and loved ones to understand what the player may encounter and the effect playing may have upon them. Players may not realize the impact their hobby has on themselves or others, so monitoring is frequently necessary if there is any concern over the amount of time they spend in the game world. This is especially true for adolescent gamers. Social interaction is a primary feature in MMORPGs; in the adolescent years, players may by influenced from those they play with. Given the amount of people that play, the risk of exposure to negative influences is present; however, through monitoring and communication it is possible to prevent negative impact on the gamer. These games feature in-game sub-culture that influences how players interact and represent themselves; there are positive and negative effects of playing and the potential for of addiction. Since World of Warcraft has the largest player base, it will be the primary subject of examination. 1. In-Game Subculture Blizzard, the company owning and designing WoW, has worked hard to create a virtual world. There are two continents and many cities, races, and professions available to the player. Given this level of immersion, it is not surprising a sub-culture has arisen within the player base. The The American Heritage New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy defines a subculture as having a "shared set of customs, attitudes, and... [continues] Cite This Essay (2008, 02). The Impact of Participation in Massively Multiplayer Roleplaying Games. StudyMode.com. Retrieved 02, 2008, from http://www.studymode.com/essays/Impact-Participation-Massively-Multiplayer-Roleplaying-Games-132403.html "The Impact of Participation in Massively Multiplayer Roleplaying Games" StudyMode.com. 02 2008. 02 2008 <http://www.studymode.com/essays/Impact-Participation-Massively-Multiplayer-Roleplaying-Games-132403.html>. "The Impact of Participation in Massively Multiplayer Roleplaying Games." StudyMode.com. 02, 2008. Accessed 02, 2008. http://www.studymode.com/essays/Impact-Participation-Massively-Multiplayer-Roleplaying-Games-132403.html.

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Around 1860, the Pre-Raphaelites began to turn away from a realist engagement with nature, society and religion to explore the purely aesthetic possibilities of picture-making. Beauty came to be valued more highly than truth, as Pre-Raphaelitism slowly metamorphosed into the Aesthetic movement. In 1855 Millais started creating compositions full of beauty and without subject, such as Autumn Leaves. But Rossetti was the dominant force in the era of art for arts sake after 1860. After his return to oil painting in 1859 his work became more sensuous in both style and subject. Rejecting sharp outlines and pure colours, he adopted the rich impasto and saturated hues of Venetian art from after the time of Raphael. The female face and body became the most important subjects for Pre-Raphaelite art. As Rossettis principal model of the early 1860s, Fanny Cornforth may be considered a collaborator in producing some of his most ambitious works, a role Jane Morris later assumed. Photography came to be valued more for its creative potential than its accuracy of representation. Julia Margaret Cameron expanded the expressive range of the camera, creating a distinctive Aestheticist photography whose roots lay in Pre-Raphaelite painting

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http://www.tate.org.uk/whats-on/tate-britain/exhibition/pre-raphaelites-victorian-avant-garde/pre-raphaelites-victorian-0-4

2013-05-22T08:32:57Z

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I am in the process of conducting a study about enrichment at my school. We are due to write a school policy statement about how students are identified as being gifted and talented and how they are supported. We believe that all students have strengths that need to be identified and nourished. For this phase of the study I have been focusing on the students in Year 4 to determine what students' strengths are and whether they are accessing the programs we currently run to develop their skills. The Strengths Analysis has been a very lengthy process and to manage all the data I created a spreadsheet. The spreadsheet has helped me to see the information and sort it in different ways. I can now identify students' areas of strength and see which programs they have accessed in the past year. While I don't think that all teachers need to do such an in-depth analysis of their students, I DO think that teachers need to determine students' strengths early in the year. While we quickly notice the students who are performing below their peers and put actions in place to assist them, I don't know that we do as good a job on the top end. It is important to determine students' areas of strength in order to provide them with experiences to extend them throughout the year. This can be done with a simple spreadsheet using data from the previous year: - Put your class list in the first column (with surname first to allow an easy sort by name) - Put students previous grades in additional columns under subject headings - Copy and past the data into additional sheets - one per subject - Select the data on each page (including names) and sort by grades in the subject So then what? Firstly, keep this data in mind as you plan and teach - make sure that you are giving these students opportunities to develop their strengths and interests in class. Then, find out what enrichment/extension programs are available in your school to meet students' needs in these areas and recommend that your students join these programs. If there are no programs, bring it up in a staff meeting and see if anyone has any ideas.

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Ideas, tips, discussion on using games and activities in the ESL classroom Moderators: Alex Case, Susan I teach English conversation to adults. Among the various activities that I use to generate conversation are card games: in one, the group members question another member who has drawn the card of a well-known person to identify who he is; in another the group members question another group member who has drawn the card of a job/profession to identify what he is. Both are very successful but I would like to make up other sets like these two. Can anyone suggest other themes for a new set? There are usually about 24-30 students divided into sub-groups of 4-6 depending on their competency (beginner, intermediate, advanced). So I need a good number of cards for a set. Thanks for any help you give me. - Registered Member - Posts: 2 - Joined: Mon Oct 15, 2012 11:49 pm - Status: Teacher Animals, household objects,food... Unless you want to limit it to people - Posts: 72 - Joined: Fri Mar 12, 2004 9:17 pm - Location: UK - Status: Teacher Trainer Return to Games and Activities Who is online Users browsing this forum: No registered users and 5 guests

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2013-05-22T08:12:13Z

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This is a pre-1923 historical reproduction that was curated for quality. Quality assurance was conducted on each of these books in an attempt to remove books with imperfections introduced by the digitization process. Though we have made best efforts - the books may have occasional errors that do not impede the reading experience. We believe this work is culturally important and have elected to bring the book back into print as part of our continuing commitment to the preservation of printed works worldwide. show more show less Julius Wellhausen (1844-1918) was a German biblical scholar who was best known for his study of the Pentateuch. He argued that the Pentateuch was not written by Moses but was the result of oral history & tradition. He is less well-known for his New Testament research, in which he advocated the primacy of Mark over Q.

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2013-05-22T07:55:56Z

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Winter Weather Tough on Cattle, Cattle ProducersThe extreme cold and record snowfall in North Dakota has been hard on cattle and cattle producers this winter. The extreme cold and record snowfall in North Dakota has been hard on cattle and cattle producers this winter. Cold stress increases the energy requirements of cattle, according to Greg Lardy, North Dakota State University Extension Service beef cattle specialist. Producers can take these steps to mitigate the effects of the cold: * Provide protection from the wind. Cattle can acclimate to colder temperatures, but wind exposure increases their energy requirements. Providing some form of man-made or natural wind protection will help. * Provide bedding during extreme cold. Frostbite is a real danger when the mercury falls. Providing bedding will reduce the possibility of frostbite. newborn animals are at the greatest risk of frostbite, adult animals also can be affected in extremely cold conditions. Extremities such as ears, tails and feet can be susceptible to frostbite. In addition, teats and scrotums also can be frozen. * Provide additional energy. Cold and wind increase the animals' energy requirements. A rule of thumb to consider is that a cow's energy requirement can increase by 1 percent for every degree below 32 degrees Fahrenheit (including wind chill). One way cattle compensate for colder weather is to increase feed intake. However, cows have a physical limit on how much they can consume. that point is reached, they will need better-quality feeds and supplements to compensate for the increased energy requirement. When adding energy in the form of cereal grains, be sure to meet the cows' protein needs as well. * Thin cows are more susceptible to cold stress. If possible, sort off thin cows and feed them separately. Cattle aren't the only ones affected by extreme cold. "Remember to consider aspects of your own personal safety when caring for your livestock," Lardy advises. "Cold conditions and wind can create dangerous combinations for humans as well. Don't take unnecessary risks when extreme weather hits. Be prepared with plenty of cold-weather gear."

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2013-05-22T07:56:09Z

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Sunday, February 14th, 2010 The ship itself seems to have disintegrated over the past 3000 years, but its cargo of, among other things, 27 tin ingots, 259 copper ingots and 3 gold wrist torcs has stayed where it went down 300 feet from the Devon shore. Other Bronze Age wrecks have been found in the area, but they left just a few dozen artifacts. This one carried such a huge cargo from all over Europe that it suggests an extensive trade network between England and the continent a thousand years before Christ. Archaeologists believe the ship would have been large for the period, a bulk carrier of Bronze Age metal trade goods, about 40 feet long and 6 feet wide, manned by a crew of 15 and powered by paddles. Archaeologists believe it would have been able to cross the Channel directly between Devon and France to link into European trade networks, rather than having to travel along the coast to the narrower crossing between modern day Dover and Calais. Although the vessel’s cargo came from as far afield as southern Europe, it is unlikely it would have been carried all the way in the same craft, but in a series of boats, undertaking short coastal journeys. This amazing find was made last year by amateur divers with a love of history from the South West Maritime Archaeological Group. They brought the recovered ingots to Dr. Peter Northover of the University of Oxford who analyzed several of the ingots. Based on the composition of two of the copper ingots (low level of impurities and high sulfur content) he determined they were typical of Late Bronze Age copper ingots, most likely from the Ewart Park period, ca 10th-9th century B.C. The flat tin ingots are also from Late Bronze Age, but the 9 kg (20 lb) one is far larger than any British ingot from the period. Though it is thought that Bronze Age Britons mined their own tin during this era, they did not melt that much metal at a time.

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LANGUAGE FOR AN AMERICAN LANDSCAPE Trinity University Press What does it mean to take a place seriously? We might begin by learning its particular vocabulary, by taking the time to acquire both the colloquial and formal language to describe a specific landscape. National Book Award winner Barry Lopez asked 45 poets and writers for definitions of words that describe our land and water. This book includes 850 entries (from writers like Barbara Kingslover, Gretel Ehrlich, and Bill McKibben) and 100 graceful line drawings by Molly O'Halloran. Home Ground is enormous fun because it puts the reader in touch with the dazzling inventiveness we use to describe our world.

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2013-05-22T07:56:23Z

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Moon Light World Map The map below shows where the Moon is visible from the Earth, depending on weather conditions and moon phases. The white dot symbolizes the position of the Moon, and the yellow sun symbolizes the position of the sun. View Day and Night Map - The bright part of the map shows where the moon is over the horizon on Wednesday, July 4, 2012 at 10:44:00 UTC. - The Sun's position is marked with this symbol: . At this location, the Sun will be at its zenith (directly overhead) in relation to an observer. - The Moon's position is marked with this symbol: . At this location, the Moon will be at its zenith in relation to an observer. Note that the symbol is not showing the current phase of the Moon. Fraction of moon illuminated: 99% Position of the Moon On Wednesday, July 4, 2012 at 10:44:00 UTC the Moon is at its zenith at these coordinates: |Latitude: ||17° 54' ||South| |Longitude: ||151° 11' ||West| The ground speed of the movement is currently 424.58 meters/second, 1528.5 km/hour, 949.8 miles/hour or 825.3 knots.The table below shows the Moon position compared to the time and date above: |Time||Longitude difference||Latitude difference||Total| |1 minute||0° 14' 25.4"||15.83 mi||west||0° 00' 07.7"||0.15 mi||north||15.83 mi| |1 hour||14° 25' 31.4"||949.60 mi||west||0° 07' 49.5"||8.97 mi||north||949.99 mi| |24 hours||13° 22' 25.8"||880.41 mi||east||3° 34' 28.8"||245.82 mi||north||922.03 mi| Locations with the moon near zenith The following table shows 10 locations with moon near zenith position in the sky. |Papeete||Wed 12:44 AM||176 km||110 miles||95 nm|| ENE| |Rarotonga||Wed 12:44 AM||974 km||605 miles||526 nm|| WSW| |Alofi||Tue 11:44 PM||1982 km||1231 miles||1070 nm|| W| |Apia||Wed 11:44 PM||2249 km||1398 miles||1214 nm|| W| |Kiritimati||Thu 12:44 AM||2289 km||1422 miles||1236 nm|| NNW| |Adamstown||Wed 2:44 AM||2321 km||1442 miles||1253 nm|| ESE| |Fakaofo||Wed 11:44 PM||2364 km||1469 miles||1276 nm|| WNW| |Nukualofa||Wed 11:44 PM||2543 km||1580 miles||1373 nm|| WSW| |Suva||Wed 10:44 PM||3215 km||1997 miles||1736 nm|| W| |Funafuti||Wed 10:44 PM||3367 km||2092 miles||1818 nm|| WNW| Related time zone tools

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http://www.timeanddate.com/astronomy/moon/light.html?iso=20120704T1044

2013-05-22T07:56:39Z

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Subscribers: LOG IN to access quizzes, worksheets, and more! Not a subscriber? SUBSCRIBE! Students look at objects found in Yup’ik villages to make inferences about the Yup’ik people and their environment. Students read a bar graph that shows how much waste a typical American family creates each day. Students answer questions about a map of Bangladesh. Students read a diagram of an eco-friendly boat school. Students learn what makes a green home. Students answer questions based on a visitor’s guide to the national monument Taos Pueblo. Teach students about a balanced diet with this chart-reading activity. Have students share TFK with a family member. Students read a map of Africa to learn more about the Millennium Villages project. Students read three scenarios having to do with food allergies and explain how they would handle each situation. © 2013 Time Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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2013-05-22T07:56:08Z

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On 13 May 2008, the federal government announced that it would remove the current exemption of condensate from the Crude Oil Excise. The amendments were bought in under the Excise Tariff Amendment (Condensate) Bill 2008 which was introduced to amend the Excise Tariff Act 1921 to apply the Crude Oil Excise to condensate produced in the North West Shelf project area and on-shore Australia. Condensate is a light Crude Oil extracted from so called “wet” gas, and is processed mainly to produce petrol. While some Crude Oil (technically called stabilised Crude Petroleum Oil) is subject to excise, condensate has, since 1977, been excise free. Natural gas comes from three types of wells: oil wells, gas wells and condensate wells. Natural Gas that comes from Oil Wells is typically termed “associated gas”. This gas can exist separate from oil in the formation (free gas), or dissolved in the crude oil (dissolved gas). Natural gas from gas and condensate wells, in which there is little or no crude oil, is termed “non-associated gas”. Gas wells typically produced raw natural gas by itself, while condensate wells produce free natural gas along with semi-liquid hydro-carbon condensate. The Bill was introduced into federal Parliament on the 15 May 2008, and was passed on 25 September 2008. It received royal assent on 18 October 2008 (after being referred to the Senate’s Economics Committee). The legislative amendments have the effect of removing the current exemption of condensate from the Crude Oil Excise regime, and will apply to all condensate produced after midnight (Canberra time) from the 13 May 2008. The excise is levied as a percentage of the value of Crude Oil produced from a petroleum field. The Excise Tariff Amendment (Condensate) Bill 2008 applies a Crude Oil Excise regime to condensate at the rates presently applied to Crude Oil produced from fields discovered after 18 September 1975. The highest rate of Crude Oil Excise, which will be applied to the value of condensate production, is 30%. That rate applies once annual production reaches just over 5 million barrels per year. The legislation introduces provisions to exempt from the excise the first 30 million barrels of condensate produced from the field. Production of condensate from a petroleum field prior to midnight on 13 May 2008 will contribute towards meeting the threshold before the Crude Oil Excise becomes payable. The rationale behind the original exemption (which was introduced in the late 1970’s) was to encourage the development of petroleum resources within the North West Shelf project. The government had formed the view that given that most of the petroleum fields in that region had matured and oil prices for non-renewable energy resources remained high, there was no need to retain a concession such as this. Accordingly, the government is of the view that given the similarity between condensate and crude oil, both commodities should be taxed in a similar manner. Western Australia will be one of the losers in the revamp to the legislation, as it will result in the reduction in the royalties payable to the Western Australian government (given the fact that Crude Oil Excise payments are a deductible expense for calculating the off-shore petroleum royalty). To counter this, the federal government has pledged an initial payment of $80 million to be paid to Western Australia in 2007/08, with payments in subsequent years adjusted to equal the impact of removing the condensate exemption on royalty payments. By Andrew Bruton. To see the contact details of the entire TressCox Energy & Resouces Team please click here.

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The United Nations’ Food and Agriculture Organization has released a new report gauging global hunger in 2010, and the FAO surmised that worldwide undernourishment, although slightly improved from 2009, remains “unacceptably high.” This raises the question: Is there ever an “acceptable” level? —KA The FAO estimates there are 925 million undernourished people in 2010, compared with 1.02 billion in 2009. But it warned that the fight to reduce hunger would face additional obstacles if food prices continue to rise. A separate report from Action Aid estimates that hunger costs developing countries $450bn (£292bn) a year.

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http://www.truthdig.com/eartotheground/item/un_global_hunger_unacceptably_high_20100914/

2013-05-22T07:59:08Z

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en

The National Library of Medicine is the world's largest medical library. Through the Web at www.nlm.nih.gov some 750 million searches of MEDLINE are done each year by health professionals, scientists, librarians and the public. Materials of special note for the clinician include: - PubMed, a database of over 16 million citations from some 4,500 biomedical journals (see below) - PubMed Central, a digital archive of life sciences journal literature - ClinicalTrials.gov, which allows for easy access to information on clinical trials for a wide range of diseases and conditions - MEDLINEplus, a patient health resource providing authoritative and up-to-date medical information for the consumer. All National Library of Medicine databases are free. PubMed provides access to bibliographic information that includes MEDLINE, the National Library of Medicine's premier bibliographic database covering the fields of medicine, nursing, dentistry, veterinary medicine, the health care system and the preclinical sciences. MEDLINE contains bibliographic citations and author abstracts from more than 4,800 biomedical journals published in the U.S. and 70 other countries. The database includes over 14 million citations dating from the mid-1960s. The mission of the National Network of Libraries of Medicine (NN/LM) is to: - Advance the progress of medicine and improve public health by providing all U.S. health professionals with equal access to biomedical information, and - Improve the public's access to information to enable them to make informed decisions about their health. The program is coordinated by the National Library of Medicine and carried out through a nationwide network of health science libraries and information centers. The National Guidelines Clearinghouse is a service of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. This searchable database provides evidence-based clinical guidelines. Additionally, the site includes links to updates to guidelines, based on recommendations of relevant professional organizations, current information from the Healthy People 2010 project and updates from the 2005 National Healthcare Quality Report (NHQR, including the State Resources and the 2005 National Healthcare Disparities Report (NHDR). To access these resources, visit www.guidelines.gov. The mission of Community Health Association of Mountain/Plains States (CHAMPS) is to provide a coordinating structure of service to community health centers and primary care associations in Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah and Wyoming. CHAMPS has compiled several resources to support clinicians in accessing appropriate guidelines for treating their patients. In addition to evidence-based clinical guidelines, links offered on the CHAMPS site include preventive medicine procedures posters and patient education tools. You can access these links at: www.champsonline.org/tools/ClinicalResources/default.asp The Colorado Clinical Guidelines Collaborative (CCGC) is a coalition of health plans, physicians, hospitals, employers, government agencies, quality improvement organizations and other entities working together to implement systems and processes to improve healthcare in Colorado using evidence-based clinical guidelines. Guidelines for a variety of medical conditions can be found at www.coloradoguidelines.org/guidelines.html. Patient information handouts are also available at www.coloradoguidelines.org/patient.html. For more information on the development of clinical practice guidelines, visit the website of the University of California, San Francisco's Department of Medicine at http://medicine.ucsf.edu/resources/guidelines/users.html. Health Information Literacy According to the American Medical Association, health literacy is "the ability to obtain, process and understand basic health information and services needed to make appropriate health decisions and follow instructions for treatment." People from all walks of life may encounter challenges in this regard. Listed below are several resources designed to help health care providers assist their patients in accessing and understanding the information they need to support good health: For more information please contact AHEC Librarian, Clair Birkman.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.ucdenver.edu/life/services/AHEC/HealthProfessionals/ReferenceLibrarian/Pages/ResourcesforHealthCareProviders.aspx

2013-05-22T08:20:58Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701508530/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105148-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

Dam safety has long been the the area for UNECE activities. In March 1989, at their session, Senior Advisers to ECE governments on Environmental and Water Problems have endorsed Recommendations to ECE Governments on Dam Safety with Particular Emphasis on Small Dams (Eng, Fre, Rus). The Recommendations focused on measures to be taken at legislative, policy, financial and operational levels to increase the safety of dams, including small dams. In Central Asia, concern over the safety of more than 100 large dams and other water control facilities, located mostly on transboundary rivers, has grown significantly in recent years. Ageing dams and their inadequate maintenance, coupled with population growth in flood plains downstream from the dams, have resulted in increased risks to life, human health, property and the environment. Failure of a dam could have disastrous consequences in downstream regions and countries. Effective national regulatory frameworks for dam safety and subregional collaboration on dam safety are therefore critical for Central Asia. This was also highlighted in the UNECE-UNESCAP report "Strengthening cooperation for rational and efficient use of water and energy resources in Central Asia". Dam safety is one of the main directions in the 2008-2009 Work Programme of the UN Special Programme for the Economies of Central Asia (SPECA). Central Asian countries, with the exception of Uzbekistan, presently lack adequate institutional and legal frameworks for dam safety. There are also no established procedures for notification of co-basin countries in case of accidents or emergency situations with dams. The UNECE project therefore aims to - To prompt the countries concerned to set up or revise national dam safety regulatory frameworks in order to achieve their harmonization, and - To promote subregional cooperation for information exchange and notification in case of accidents or emergency situations with dams. The project is implemented by UNECE in collaboration with the Executive Committee of the International Fund for Saving the Aral Sea. For the full project outline, click here. The project is part of the Environment and Security Initiative. Central Asian Government agencies dealing with the safety of dams and other large hydraulic structures as well as Ministries of Foreign Affairs and Justice will participate in the project. The project is supported by the governments of Finland and the Russian Federation. A first phase of the project took place in 2006 with two meetings held 10-11 April (meeting documentation) and 15-16 November (meeting documentation). Both meetings took place in Almaty with the participation of experts from all five Central Asian countries. The UNECE publication "Dam Safety in Central Asia: Capacity-Building and Regional Cooperation" (see English and Russian versions) is a result of the first phase of the project. A second project phase started in the end of 2007 and was finalized at the end of 2011. This phase focuses on support to the introduction or revision of national legislation, the development of a regional cooperative framework and capacity development including training. For project and meeting reports of the second phase please click here.The final report of the second project phase can be found here. On the initiative of the donor (Finland) the project was evaluated in autumn 2010. The report evaluated the project positively and concluded that “… the project is integrally building confidence and trust in a region where the respective five countries rarely cooperate on concrete matters. In addition to providing a forum for dialogue, the project also establishes more permanent outputs (legislation, standards, identifies institutions responsible for damsafety) and builds capacity and expertise, which serve as concrete vectors for confidence building and practical cooperation.” Enquiries about the project “Dam safety in Central Asia: Capacity building for regional cooperation” (phase II: 2007- 2010)can be addressed to: Mr. Bo Libert Tel: +41 22 917 2396 Fax: +41 22 917 0107

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.unece.org/env/water/damsafety.html

2013-05-22T08:01:40Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701508530/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105148-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

More than 1 billion people are without access to improved drinking-water sources. The chart shows the regional breakdown. Those children and adults who depend on water from unprotected dug wells, rivers, lakes or streams for drinking are at risk of infection by waterborne diseases if sanitation is poor. Too few enjoy the safety and convenience of having water that has been treated under managed conditions piped into their homes or compounds. Between the two extremes are sources of drinking water that are more likely to be safe and are referred to as ‘improved’ . Among these are public standpipes, tube wells or boreholes, protected dug wells, protected springs and rainwater. The most recent estimates by the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP), a programme of the World Health Organization (WHO) and UNICEF, indicate that global coverage increased from 78 per cent in 1990 to 83 per cent in 2004, which means that more than 1.2 billion people gained access to improved drinking-water sources over that period. If the current trend continues, the world is on track to meet its MDG target (89 per cent) by 2015, though more than a billion people were without access to improved drinking-water sources in 2004 – and keeping pace with population growth remains a major challenge.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.unicef.org/progressforchildren/2006n5/index_35535.htm

2013-05-22T08:14:15Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701508530/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105148-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

Audio and Video Provide descriptions for video content Video presents the same access challenge as images: how to make visual information accessible to nonvisual users. As with images, the solution is to supply an alternate description. The difficulty in describing video is that there are many, many images to describe. If one picture is worth a thousand words, how many words are needed to describe a 3-minute video! Fortunately, video usually comes with an audio track that provides information about what is happening on screen. Indeed, for much video, listening alone is likely to provide more information than watching without audio. In addition, descriptions can be used to "fill in the blanks," providing pertinent information contained in the video for nonvisual users. Descriptions are supplied during the pauses in the audio portion of a video, either through recorded audio or text that can be read by software. Accessible video contains synchronized captions for nonhearing users and synchronized descriptions for nonvisual users (Figure 12.3). Figure 12.3: Along with captioned audio, video on the Dignubia site also contains audio describing important visual details to nonvisual users. The transcript contains a transcription of both the audio and the audio descriptions. www.dignubia.org As with text transcripts for audio, providing descriptions separate from the video is a good way to provide the information to users who cannot access the video. A single text file containing both the video descriptions and the audio transcript will provide users who cannot access the video much of the necessary information (Figure 12.3).

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.universalusability.com/access_by_design/audio_and_video/descriptions.html

2013-05-22T08:27:27Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701508530/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105148-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

Want to stay on top of all the space news? Follow @universetoday on Twitter Don’t listen to the Flat Earth Society, they’re wrong; the Earth is round. But did you ever wonder why the Earth is round? It all comes down to gravity. One of the effects of mass is that it attracts other mass. For small objects, like your computer, your car, and even a building, the force of gravity is tiny. But when you have millions, and even trillions of tonnes of mass, the effect of the gravity really builds up. All of the mass pulls on all the other mass, and it tries to create the most efficient shape… a sphere. For smaller objects, like asteroids, the force of gravity trying to pull the object into a sphere isn’t enough to overcome the strength of the rock keeping it in shape. But once you get above a certain mass and size, the strength of the object can’t stop the force of gravity from pulling it into a sphere. Objects larger than about 1,000 km in size are able to pull themselves into a sphere. In fact, the International Astronomical Union decided in 2006 that this ability was one of the requirements for an object to be considered a planet. They must orbit the Sun, they need to have cleared out all the smaller objects in their orbit, and they need to have enough gravity to pull themselves into a sphere. When an object has the gravity to pull itself into a sphere, astronomers say that it’s in hydrostatic equilibrium. And that’s why the Earth is round. Of course, the Earth isn’t perfectly round. Because it’s turning on its axis approximately once every 24 hours, the Earth’s equator bulges outwards. And there are mountains and valleys that make the Earth’s surface rough. We have written many articles about the Earth for Universe Today. Here’s an article about how round the Earth really is. We have also recorded an episode of Astronomy Cast about Earth, answering a few questions, like why is Earth round. This was part of our tour through the Solar System – Episode 51: Earth.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.universetoday.com/26782/why-is-the-earth-round/

2013-05-22T08:27:30Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701508530/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105148-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

- For Teachers What is beside the point, the last word of the sentence? We should use besides here, beside is an indication of a place. Beside the bus stop there's a lamp post, so what is beside the point? (so,thats wrong) Really, without the 's' its an indication of position. you can even use it in comparisons 'beside your earlier work this piece seems rather disappointing'. "Beside the point" is the right answer. It's a phrase... you can't analyze it. Just like if you try to analyze "raining cats and dogs". Of course it does have a syntactic analysis.As for me, it´s "besides",because it refers to something is beyond the topic of the conversation,besides meaning as well as,like, it´s not pertinent ,or ,it has nothing to do with this,it´s just besides the point...I understand it this way...thanks and regards to everyone. It's "beside the point", precisely because "beside" is an indication of place, as Trish says. Figuratively speaking, the subject in question is not the point itself, but beside it, and hence of lesser importance. Besides is more an adverb than a preposition, meaning "in addition to" or "other than". I can't see how it could possibly be used here, unless it's a fixed locution, which I strongly doubt it is. 3,190,000 for "beside the point" 478,000 for "besides the point" it is beside the point because we say it when someone is getting off the subject or point, so they are going beside the point instead of straight at it The observation that “beside” indicates place or position is an argument for, not against “beside the point”. “On” and “off” indicate place, but no one argues that “on point”, “not on point”, or “off point” are incorrect. “Besides” means except or in addition, as in “Three others besides myself are going” or “It will take something besides an apology to resolve the matter”. Do you mean in addition when saying “besides the point”? If not, then do not say it. It depends on what is "the point". if it is taken as a place "beside" is correct and if we take it as subject or topic "besides" is correct. i find it absurd that people are arguing over this ludicrous debate. Its all all personal preference, you choice is yours in your own free will. Somebody commented that 'besides' meant in addition to, and that is exactly what this phrase is trying to say. For those who argue for 'besides' because it means 'in addition to'...try putting it in the sentence: "Hey you're off the topic! That is in addition to the point." Does this sentence still make sense to you? Well, it shouldn't. It is not 'in addition to the point' but it is beside the point. Somewhere else, not on the topic of the conversation. Therefore I, of course, vote for "BESIDE THE POINT" "you choice is yours in your own free will" LOL. Thanks grammar master! The argument is not absurd. Some people still want to the use the language well, and to write effectively. beside = (1) alongside; or (2) in comparison with - e.g., when something is not on point it is beside (alongside) the point. besides = (1) other than, except; or (2) in addition - e.g., no one besides us proper usage snobs seems to use these words correctly. I think it depends on how strict you want to be with how you define 'the point'. Since the phrase is used when talking about a discussion, not a physical location, we shouldn't think in terms of 'The lamp is beside the bed.' Rather, 'the point' is a fixed subject matter, and anything that deviates from it is superfluous or extraneous, or simply not specific to the topic at hand. I voted for 'besides' because it means 'in addition to', which can be a synonym for that idea- something extra. However- I can appreciate the argument for 'beside the point' because it means not directly ON something, but rather off to the side. No sense in arguing about logic of any expression. "Beside the point.". I actually voted for "besides," but upon seeing such close results, I researched it. It seems I was wrong. The proper way is "beside the point." The reason we can get into heated debates is simple: some of us love our language and wish to speak it properly. Perhaps we are writers who dread the thought of propagating bad grammar. Perhaps we are just learning the language and dearly want to learn it RIGHT. It's a good thing to debate and learn. By researching this, I am that much smarter than I was five minutes ago. Cheers! Besides the point is analytically correct. Sadly, misuse of the English language spreads like a virus. News reporters, who can serve as language examples to all who have radios, televisions, computers, etc., sometimes use the English language incorrectly. Some of the people who hear those incorrect pronunciations "learn" them... Case in point - "orientated." The first time I heard "orientated" was from a news reporter. I laughed at the absurdity. That was several years ago, and now "orientated" seems to be almost commonplace. Being nearly commonplace does not make it correct. Likewise, I have always heard "That's beside the point" as an expression. Again, being commonplace does not make it correct. Sharon, you need a reason for something to be 'analytically correct'. Just stating it doesn't make it true. Hearing "besides the point" has always made me cringe when I heard it. I was curious about the correct use, which is how I ended up here. I would vote for "beside the point" just because I think it sounds better. After doing some research, it seems like this is the logical choice as well. ...depending on which "point" you mean, I guess... Those poll results inspire horror on my part. What are they teaching people in our schools?!

<urn:uuid:e5df3362-5e5f-4fa4-90cf-ad05b8e80f0c>

CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.usingenglish.com/poll/412.html

2013-05-22T08:12:51Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701508530/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105148-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

When Carnival first began it was celebrated from December 26 and reached its climax the day before Ash Wednesday, also known as "Mardi Gras". During the period of Carnival it seems that every excess was permitted and the fact that everyone wore masks seemed to abolish all social division. All the campi were thronged with people intent on partying and carousing, singing, dancing and playing games. The most common costume (the baùtta) was composed of a black silk hood, a lace cape, a voluminous cloak (the tabarro), and a three-cornered hat and a white mask that completely covered the wearer's face. This allowed revelers to go around the city incognito. It was useful to go to casini, places where you could play games of chance. Since 1980 the celebration of Carnival in Venice has gained popularity. People come from the world over to attend private and public masked balls and masked revelers of all ages invade the campi where music and dancing continues nearly day and night. Theatrical performances and an array of ancient games are organized for the amusement of Venetians and visitors alike.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.venetia.it/s_carn_eng.htm

2013-05-22T08:33:24Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701508530/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105148-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

Accessible Graphics and Multimedia on the Web Marja-Riitta Koivunen, Charles McCathieNevile Web Consortium (W3C)/MIT Graphics and multimedia available on the Web have important roles in explaining, clarifying, illustrating, drawing attention to, grouping, and structuring information. With some effort and awareness of issues it is possible to make this information available for all users, including users with disabilities. The World Wide Web Consortium's (W3C) Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI) supports this goal by providing guidelines for accessible Web content, authoring tools and user agents. In addition, people designing the markup languages need to be aware of the accessibility issues in context of user experience. This paper presents a few easily remembered heuristics for designers of markup languages based on accessibility themes and principles of the WAI guidelines, and W3C Notes on accessibility features of graphics and multimedia languages. Accessibility, design heuristics, multimedia, graphics, design process, Web. Multimedia and graphics help users focus on important information, help them understand complicated concepts, provide concrete examples, visualize large models that are hard to understand otherwise, and provide engaging hands-on experience. Images, sound, animation, live video, different 3D models and interactive elements have become a normal part of the Web. They are often indispensable for users, particularly users with cognitive disabilities, who may not be able to easily understand complicated textual content. However, they can also create barriers for other users, such as blind users. When multimedia and graphics are made accessible, the number of potential users increases considerably. Not only can users with disabilities access the material, but also users with nontraditional devices or users in noisy or mobile environments. Furthermore, accessibility often increases usability as well. Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI) has developed several guidelines for accessibility: Web Content Accessibility Guidelines 1.0 (WCAG) , User Agents Accessibility Guidelines 1.0 (UAAG) , and Authoring Tools Accessibility Guidelines 1.0 (ATAG) . These guidelines have gone through extensive review while working groups including disabled users, disability organizations, software developers, researchers, and experts in accessibility, usability, Web design, and different Web technologies and application domains developed them. Each markup language has its own set of techniques for reaching accessibility. When new, specialized markup languages and user agents to display them are developed for multimedia and graphics, it is important that they provide necessary means to support accessibility. The language designers are not always deeply knowledgeable in accessibility and need help to keep in mind accessibility requirements. Similarly HTML Web page designers benefit from WAI Quicktips that provides them a short and easily digestible reminder until they thoroughly know the full guidelines. To help the designers of specialized multimedia and graphics languages, we developed a few simple heuristics that can help them remember and understand the core demands for accessibility. We selected the heuristics based on the themes and principles of accessible design and the experience gained from writing the Accessibility Notes for Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) , and Synchronized Multimedia Integration Language (SMIL) . In addition, we extrapolated our experiences for 3D type interfaces. As the heuristics look at the user experience as a whole, they may also help Web tool and page designers while they are getting familiar with the WAI guidelines. We first examine the design themes and principles that can be found in the WAI guidelines. Then we present the heuristics that are generated based on the experience of presenting accessibility features specific to SMIL and SVG and XML languages in general. In the end we also examine how accessibility heuristics and guidelines could be employed in a usability process. Our aim is that accessibility becomes an integral part of usability methods and of the design process. The user's experience of a Web page comes both from the design of the page as well as from the user agent that is used to view the page. Therefore we base these accessibility heuristics on themes in Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) and design principles in User Agent Accessibility Guidelines (UAAG) . The themes and principles provide a good abstraction level for developing accessibility heuristics. They are explained briefly in the following paragraphs. The two general WCAG themes are 1) "Ensure graceful transformation", and 2) "Make content understandable and navigable". The first theme includes the following concepts: The theme is further developed into WCAG guidelines 1-11. Similarly, the other main WCAG theme "Make Content Understandable and Navigable" is developed into guidelines 13-15. It includes the following issues: The UAAG 1.0 design principles are written as guidelines: In summary, these principles ensure access to all content and its structure, provide user control of the presentation, provide navigation mechanisms and orientation to the users, and ensure that content and user agent information is available to assistive technologies. The presented themes and principles enhance accessibility but are not written in a form of a short list of accessibility heuristics that is easy to remember and keep in mind when designing new graphics or multimedia languages. We first started selecting general principles that would help to explain the accessibility features of specific Web languages in an easy to understand use context. The first language specific Accessibility Note for SMIL originated some changes to the next version of the language. The Accessibility Note for SVG was written while the WG was refining the language so in some places it has been incorporated into SVG as a specification and in other cases referred to as how to produce SVG. Based on the Accessibility Notes and the themes and principles described in the previous section we came up with six accessibility heuristics and their explanations. Our goal is that these heuristics are easy to remember and understand so that they can help designers of new markup languages to keep accessibility in their minds. The heuristics are presented in the following. Heuristic 1: Provide alternative equivalents to make information suitable for auditive, visual, and tactile channels. In that way it is possible to follow the presentation even if a user has limitations with some senses, some cognitive limitations or the device cannot handle some media very well. As text is easy to create and easy to transfer to almost any sense with the help of assistive technologies it can usually be used as an alternative to other media. For instance, assistive technology for a blind user can easily change an image with alternative text to voice or Braille format. With timed material, such as animations and video, the text often needs synchronization and therefore it might be easier to provide it also directly in audio. Section 3.1 explains more about alternative equivalents and their use. Heuristic 2: Provide means to select equivalent content. Users should be provided flexible means to access the equivalent content in any combination that is most suitable for them because of their disabilities or the limitations of the used devices. Normally these means are provided by user agents but also some languages provide switches for selecting content. If author provides the default selections, he should make sure that nothing in his design prevents flexible user control. Sometimes the defaults can also be automatically negotiated. Heuristic 3:Provide user control for presentation by separating it from the rest of the content. This benefits users with disabilities or devices with limited capability. For instance, a blind user may want to define that emphasized text is read in a louder voice, or a user with low vision can change the fonts to a larger size and use colors that have more contrast. This principle can be implemented by using style sheet technology. It is discussed more in Section 3.3. Heuristic 4: Provide device independent interaction so that users with different input and output devices can easily get to all the available functionality. This is often reached by using a user agent that can provide access to the functions by emulating mouse. However, it is good to provide shortcuts that get users to functions without any need to use mouse or spatial positioning. This is hardest when walking in a 3D world, but doing it might also help others not so familiar with 3D navigation with a mouse. Heuristic 5: Provide semantics for structure. This helps provide alternative ways for user navigation and orientation. This can also help the use of alternative presentations. Use authoring tools that support this. Semantics can be provided by using the elements of the language in a correct way and by describing the site and page navigation and the structured components with other available means. The languages usually include general grouping elements that can be used to add semantics. The other means include the use of class hierarchy and semantic languages, such as Resource Description Framework (RDF) . These are discussed in more detail in Section 3.5. Heuristic 6: Provide reusable components. This helps users who use a media that makes it more laborious to compare the components. Multimedia often contains application-defined components that are repeated several times. Especially graphics components might be repeated but also some video sequences or houses or other objects in a 3D model might contain the same elements. A user who is examining a structured image visually can do it much faster than a blind user navigating through the structure and the equivalent alternative explanations or even the graphical components. Reuse of components saves time as a model component can be examined only once. All the multimedia content needs to be inherently suitable for visual, auditive and tactile channels or have alternative equivalents that make it suitable. The markup languages need to offer means for including the equivalents into the language and associating them to primary content. Text equivalents are fundamental to accessibility since they may be rendered graphically, as speech, or by a Braille device. They are also easy as they are discrete in nature; they don't contain time references or have an intrinsic duration. They are typically specified by attributes such as the alt or longdesc attribute of the img element in XHTML and SMIL or title and desc elements in SVG or as part of an XHTML object element. The use of elements is preferred as they enable the attachment of class id's, styles, and other information to the equivalents. Figure 3.1 shows an SVG image of a Network with a) a graphical rendering and b) rendering of the text equivalents. Figure 3.1a: An image of a network with embedded structure. Network An example of a computer network based on a hub Hub A typical 10baseT/100BaseTX network hub Computer A A common desktop PC Computer B A common desktop PC Cable A 10BaseT twisted pair cable Cable B 10BaseT twisted pair cable Cable N 10BaseT twisted pair cable Figure 3.1b: Alternative equivalents describing the components of the network in Figure 3.1a. With additional semantics connections between components can be added. Multimedia presentations often include continuous equivalents, such as text captions, which describe the spoken dialog and sound effects as text, or auditory descriptions, which is a sound track, describing what is happening in the video visually. Continuous equivalents have intrinsic duration and may contain references to time. For instance, a continuous text equivalent consists of pieces of text associated with a time code. They need to be synchronized with other time-dependent media. Continuous equivalents may be constructed out of discrete equivalents, for instance by using the SMIL timing features. Figure 3.2. Image of a WBGH tutorial video with captions. Figure 3.2 presents an example of an educational video explaining Einstein's theory of the relativity by using video and sound. The video was created by WBGH National Center for Accessible Media . Text captions that are located under the video window describe the content of the original soundtrack as text. In addition, the video has also an audio description. The user can control the playing of the captions and the audio description from the player user interface. Other forms of continuous equivalents not explicitly required in WCAG 1.0 may also promote accessibility of multimedia and graphics. Representations of sign language benefit people with auditory limitations and simplified sound tracks may help people with some cognitive difficulties. The 3D worlds need alternative equivalents too, but there are not many examples yet. In 3D the spatial location of the equivalent alternatives becomes important. A blind user turning his head around in a 3D world, such as near the Helsinki Senate Square in Figure 3.3, may not see around but may want to hear what is around him e.g. Helsinki Senate Square, Helsinki Lutheran Cathedral, Unioninkatu street and the Main Building of Helsinki University. We could provide discrete equivalents for the houses and geological constructs, such as hills or rivers. They could also be tied to a certain place or range of places, such as paths through the world. In 3D we may also need to let user define the level of detail and the information categories e.g. what kind of buildings and what stores exist, and how far located equivalents are read when the user turns. For instance, sometimes the user may want to know generally what exists in the city in a certain direction and not just about the buildings that exists in the visual view. Figure 3.3: Image of Senaatintori taken from a 3D model of Helsinki. Every user is different and therefore may have different needs to see the content with different media at different times. There might be users who can only use the media that is suitable for audio or users with devices only capable of showing small amounts of text at a time. Users' should be able to select equivalent content suitable for their needs. This can be achieved by including appropriate features to markup languages as well as to user agents. Figure 3.4: Selecting text captions or audio description for a video with Real Player. Technologies such as SMIL offer a lot of control for the authors to decide which media to show at what time and where in a visual layout. In addition, the design should be able to accommodate the user preferences as otherwise it may be impossible for many users to get to the content. For instance, if the user wants to see captions the design should allow that, whether the author has designed an alternative layout for embedding the captions in the user interface or not. The captions benefit not only users with hearing disabilities, but also users who have problems in understanding the spoken language or who are in a noisy environment. Both SMIL and SVG let authors design alternative user interfaces with the switch technology. This technology can check the values of attributes set by the user or provided by the user agent. Furthermore, the normal features of SMIL language can be used for adding equivalent content. Unfortunately, in that case the user does not have the choice of selecting between different contents. If the different media tracks could be identified and provided to the user agents the user could select combinations of tracks not predicted by the author. With SVG authors can provide information on graphical components in different levels with title and descelements. When the information is available the user agent or a player can let the user select the level in which it is provided. The selection could be done with a style sheet or by providing an interface to do that through the user agent. In 3D interfaces, the selection of alternative equivalents becomes even more complicated. It is difficult for the author to provide alternatives on all possible abstraction levels. However, some default alternatives can be provided. For instance, an author could provide an alternative equivalent for ready-made tours through a model. When alternative information is constructed and labeled automatically from information attached to components in the 3D world, the user should be able to select the level of detail preferred and from which areas the information should be provided. Users need to be able to control how the information is presented so that they can adapt the rendering to meet their specific needs. A user who cannot see small blinking text or read red text on a green background should be given the option of changing the colors or font size and stopping the blinking so that he can get to the information that otherwise would have been outside his reach. Part of the user control can be provided by separating the presentation from the structure and content in the language with style sheet technologies, such as CSS [13, 14] or XSL . The other part should be provided by the user agent. Some of the control can be quite automatic from the user point of view, as the user agent is interpreting the current user settings and applying them, and some settings are selected only when problems appear. Figure 3.5: Different style sheets provided by a site author Style sheets can be used to increase accessibility in most W3C languages, especially the ones that are based on XML . CSS provides cascading of the style sheets so that user style sheets can be built on top of author and system style sheets. Authors who separate presentation from structure and content also gain flexibility for authoring and can easily provide alternative presentations for users. It is a good practice to try to provide a set of style sheets for different disabilities and devices, as that will ensure that the semantics needed for different user styles exists. Figure 3.5 has an example of alternatives from the Trace Center site. Style definitions can be bound to the element names of a markup language but often the author also needs to define application specific classes for grouping the similar elements before style can be bound to the classes. This is especially true with graphic languages, such as SVG. When style sheets are separated into their own documents, or at least to a separate style definition element, it is easier to remember to group the similar elements into classes. Style sheets can also be used to hide or show elements according to the context. For instance, the text equivalents for the Network image in Figure 3.1b. could be selected by using a special style sheet that only shows title and desc elements and an XML renderer. User agents can select the most suitable style sheet according to the characteristics of the device also by using the @media definitions in the style sheet. Languages for new media or new types of representation may require new style elements. For instance, SVG has some filter, gradient, and mask styles that are not part of CSS, and 3D graphics probably also need some special style elements. However, it is not always possible to update the style sheet languages, such as CSS to include all these new elements. In SVG these are part of the SVG language but can be defined as symbols in separate files that are used as attribute values in the style sheet definitions. These can essentially function as style sheet definitions. When elements can be recognized the user agent can also provide control for the user. For instance, movement can be disturbing for many users and at certain frequencies cause seizures for some users. A user agent could let the user stop all movement to reduce the disturbance. Also the user agent could slow down a fast presentation for users who have difficulties with the pace. But this all depends on how many options the technology provides for the user agent, and how well the user agent utilizes them. Authors should be able to write pages so that it is possible to interact with them with different input and output devices. When functionalities can be provided in a device-independent way it suits for both spatial (mouse, joystick) and command-based devices (text or voice input). It should also be possible to use assistive technologies that emulate input devices, such as mouse or joystick, keyboard, switch, and voice input. Languages that use general event names suitable for all devices make these goals easier to reach. For instance, the Document Object Model defines such an interface, in addition to an interface to document elements and attributes. Similarly to the input, the alternative equivalents in Section 3.1 and 3.2 and the user control of presentation make it possible to create output suitable for various output devices. In 3D, or in other highly spatially oriented interfaces, it is challenging but possible to come up with commands that let users perform the same functions as when navigating with a mouse and visual output. For instance, the old versions of the game Dungeon or Adventureland, where users moved in caves in a 3D world, were using keyboard commands for moving and text for explaining the world (see Figure 3.6). I'm in a dismal swamp. Obvious exits: North, South, East, West, Up. I can also see: cypress tree - evil smelling mud - swamp gas - floating patch of oily slime - chiggers Figure 3.6: A sample description from Adventureland. Similarly, it should be possible to take a 3D model, such as the model of Helsinki , and add commands for moving along the street to the next corner or to a named place, turning the head right and left while moving and exploring nearby statues or other places marked interesting a bit longer. Alternatively, users could move freely in a 3D model by using the spatial commands for left, right, forward, backward, up, and down or use a mouse emulator to do that. Semantics are needed to control alternative equivalents and presentations, and to support alternative ways for navigation and orientation. For instance, the user agent needs to know the types of alternative equivalents so that it can provide control to select the right ones, and the style technology needs to allow appropriate presentations to be given for different types of content. Specialized languages for multimedia and graphics can provide means to add semantics to the elements. Additional semantics can be attached with general metadata technology, such as RDF. Providing the semantics involves many issues, such as using the markup language that best suits the task, and using it the way it is intended to be used and not because of its visual side effects, such as the bigger size of the letters in XHTML header elements. Semantics involves also trying to use good class definitions so that elements are grouped according to their different characteristics with classes. For instance, the author should be able to mark the navigation bar and other large structures within the page so that non-visual users don't need to read unnecessary information sequentially but can easily skip back and forth these structures. The markup language may contain special elements for structural semantics, such as the g element in SVG for hierarchical grouping. A time-dependent presentation, such as a SMIL presentation, can also include meaningful time-dependent structures that should be marked so that users can skip uninteresting parts easily. In 3D worlds there are similar semantical structures, for instance a city that consists of streets and different types of houses, statues, lakes or ponds, railway stations, etc. Furthermore, some coordinates in the world can form tours through a city or some other more abstract semantical structures. It may also be possible to create some semantics by interpreting spatial relations. For instance, it is possible to look at an SVG image and see that there are two epicentric circles in a right upper corner of a rectangle. However, with no other metadata a blind user only knows there are two circles and a rectangle and their sizes and positions. With some processing it is possible to form the former description based on the SVG element information. Reusable components are important for users and authors with disabilities. This is because the alternative access methods or formats are often sequential and therefore may be more time-consuming than the original spatial presentation. This can be helped somewhat with good navigational means. For instance, a well-designed visual image of a page can be skimmed fast, and only when the user sees something interesting does she start to read the content sequentially. A visual user can do a lot of skipping and barely notice it. A nonvisual user may be a fast reader, but often needs more time to read the information sequentially and to skip parts of the content. A user with low vision or a small screen needs to zoom to different parts of an image while a visual user can glance the same image at once. When components are reused, a user can explore them only once and save a lot of time by remembering the component. Similarly, when the creation of information takes much more time by alternative means it is helpful to be able to reuse that same component again once it is created. SVG provides some means for defining reusable graphic components and referring to them. Also in time-dependent presentations, it should be possible to reuse certain parts of the presentation. In SMIL it is possible to reuse individual media components, but not as part of a SMIL presentation. In 3D, the components in the world, as well as tours or other abstract structures, should be reusable. As with usability, it is extremely important to consider accessibility in the early phases of the design process of Web related technologies and content. Many things, such as alternative equivalents, are easy, and less expensive to plan and include in these early phases. The accessibility heuristics can help the designers of graphics and multimedia languages to provide means for making the language and the corresponding user agents accessible in several phases of the design. In addition, these heuristics could also keep the accessibility-related aspects in the designer's mind during the design process of Web content. In case of Web content, accessibility checks can often be included in the usability processes that are already in place. For instance, user scenarios should include scenarios of users with disabilities , and users with nontraditional devices or assistive technologies. In addition, usability tests should include users with disabilities; and conformance with accessibility guidelines should be a natural part of the usability requirements. The accessibility heuristics can also be included in various phases of the usability process when more generic usability heuristics or usability heuristics targeted to a special disability group are being checked. The heuristics should help the designers to select applicable WAI guidelines and use their checking lists when needed. We developed accessibility heuristics to help multimedia and graphics related language designers keep accessibility goals and requirements in their minds. The accessibility heuristics are based on the themes and principles in WCAG 1.0 and user UAAG 1.0 as well as the feedback we received when explaining the accessibility features of SVG and SMIL languages in Accessibility Notes. In addition, we have explored some potential features needed in 3D languages. The heuristics gather the experience and expertise from people in the WAI working groups. As they put this experience in a new form, we would like to test it in practice. However, formally evaluating the accessibility of the resulting languages and user agents is not practical because of the complexity and long times involved. So instead we plan to gather more feedback from the designers. These heuristics may be also used for capturing more abstract design principles for WCAG 2.0 guidelines and the XML Accessibility Guidelines. We thank Judy Brewer, Daniel Dardailler, Wendy Chisholm, and Susan Lesch who provided helpful comments on previous versions of this document. 1. Adler, S. et al. Extensible Stylesheet Language (XSL), Version 1.0, W3C Working Draft 27 March 2000. Available at http://www.w3.org/TR/2000/WD-xsl-20000327/ 2. Brewer, J. (ed.). How People with Disabilities Use the Web. W3C Working Draft, 4 January 2001. Available at http://www.w3.org/WAI/EO/Drafts/PWD-Use-Web/ . 3. Dardailler, D., Palmer, S. (eds.). XML Accessibility Guidelines W3C Working Draft, April, 22, 2001. Available at http://www.w3.org/WAI/PF/xmlgl. 4. Ferraiolo, J. (ed.). Scalable Vector Graphics 1.0 Specification (SVG), W3C Candidate Recommendation 2 August 2000. Available at http://www.w3.org/TR/2000/CR-SVG-20000802/. 5. Gunderson, J., and Jacobs, I. (eds.). User Agent Accessibility Guidelines, W3C Working Draft 28 July 2000. Available at http://www.w3.org/WAI/UA/WD-UAAG10-20000728. 6. Hoschka, P. (ed.). Synchronized Multimedia Integration Language (SMIL) 1.0 Specification, Recommendation 15 June 1998. Available at http://www.w3.org/TR/1998/REC-smil-19980615. 7. Jacobs, I., and Brewer, J. (eds.) Accessibility Features of CSS, W3C Note 4 August 1999. Available at. 8. Katz, I. Web Access by Persons with Visual Disabilities. In CHI’97 workshop of Usability Testing World Wide Web Sites (March 23-24, 1997, Atlanta). Available at http://www.acm.org/sigchi/web/chi97testing/katz.htm. 9. Koivunen, M., and Jacobs, I. Accessibility features of SMIL, W3C Note 21 September 1999. Available at http://www.w3.org/TR/1999/NOTE-SMIL-access-19990921/. 10. Koivunen, M., and McCathieNevile, C. Accessibility features of SVG, W3C Note 7 August 2000. Available at http://www.w3.org/TR/2000/NOTE-SVG-access-20000807/. 11. Lassila, O., and Swick, R. (eds.). Resource Description Framework (RDF) Model and Syntax, W3C Recommendation 22 February 1999. Available at http://www.w3.org/TR/1999/REC-rdf-syntax-19990222. 12. Le Hors, A. et al. (eds.). Document Object Model (DOM) Level 2 Core Specification Version 1.0, W3C Recommendation, 13 November 2000. Available at http://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Level-2-Core/. 13. Lie, H., and Bos, B. (eds.). Cascading Style Sheets, Level 1, W3C Recommendation 17 December 1996, revised 11 January 1999. Available at. 14. Lie, H., Bos, B., Lilley, C., and Jacobs, I. (eds,). Cascading Style Sheets, Level 2, W3C Recommendation 12 May 1998. Available at. 15. Linturi, R., Koivunen, M., and Sulkanen, J. Helsinki Arena 2000 - Augmenting a Real City to a Virtual One. In Ishida, T., and Isbister, K. (eds.). Digital Cities: Technologies, Experiences, and Future Perspectives, Lecture Notes in Computer Science 1765, Springer-Verlag, 2000. Pages 83-96. Available at http://link.springer.de/link/service/series/0558/bibs/1765/17650083.htm. 17. Nielsen, J. Enhancing the explanatory power of usability heuristics. In Proc. Of ACM CHI'94 (Boston, MA, April 24-28), pages 152-158. 18. Schmitz, P., and Cohen, A. (eds.). SMIL animation, W3C Working Draft 31 July 2000. Available at http://www.w3.org/TR/2000/WD-smil-animation-20000731. 19. Treviranus, J., McCathieNevile, C., Jacobs, I., and Richards, J. (eds.). Authoring Tool Accessibility Guidelines 1.0, W3C Recommendation 3 February 2000. Available at. 20. Chisholm, W., Vanderheiden, G., and Jacobs, I. (eds.). Web Content Accessibility Guidelines 1.0, W3C Recommendation 5 May 1999. Available at http://www.w3.org/TR/1999/WAI-WEBCONTENT-19990505.

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2013-05-22T08:34:55Z

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en

PRINT THIS DATA Tundra climates are characterized by sub-freezing mean annual temperatures, large annual temperature ranges, and moderately low precipitation. The tundra climate region occurs between 60° and 75° of latitude, mostly along the Arctic coast of North America and Eurasia and on the coastal margins of Greenland. In areas dominated by the tundra climate type, winters are long and cold, especially in the region north of the Arctic Circle where, for at least one day in the year, the Sun does not rise. Winter precipitation generally consists of dry snow, with seasonal totals less than in the summer when cyclonic storms that develop along the boundary between the open ocean and sea ice yield rainfall. Typical annual totals are less than 350 mm (13.78 in), but higher totals are possible in upland areas. In contrast, summers are generally mild, with maximums from 15 to 18 °C (59°F to 64°F), although the average temperature of the warmest month is less than 10°C (50 °F). Days are long, but they are often cloudy. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "ET". (Tundra Climate). The average temperature for the year in Thimphu is 56.5°F (13.6°C). The warmest month, on average, is August with an average temperature of 68.7°F (20.4°C). The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of 40.7°F (4.8°C). The average amount of precipitation for the year in Thimphu is 55.7" (1414.8 mm). The month with the most precipitation on average is July with 14.5" (368.3 mm) of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is December with an average of 0.1" (2.5 mm).

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en

PRINT THIS DATA This climate climate zone covers from about 44°N to 50°N latitude mostly east of the 100th meridian in North America. However, it can be found as far north as 54°N, and further west in the Canadian Prairie Provinces and below 40°N in the high Appalachians. In Europe this subtype reaches its most northerly latitude at nearly 61° N. Areas featuring this subtype of the continental climate have an average temperature in the warmest month below 22°C (22°F). Summer high temperatures in this zone typically average between 21-28°C (70-82°F) during the daytime and the average temperatures in the coldest month are generally far below the -3 °C (27°F) mark. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Dfb". (Warm Summer Continental Climate). The average temperature for the year in Judith Gap is 41.1°F (5.1°C). The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of 62.6°F (17°C). The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of 21.1°F (-6.1°C). The highest recorded temperature in Judith Gap is 98.0°F (36.7°C), which was recorded in July. The lowest recorded temperature in Judith Gap is -44.0°F (-42.2°C), which was recorded in February. The average amount of precipitation for the year in Judith Gap is 15.3" (388.6 mm). The month with the most precipitation on average is June with 3.0" (76.2 mm) of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is February with an average of 0.5" (12.7 mm). There are an average of 72.0 days of precipitation, with the most precipitation occurring in June with 10.0 days and the least precipitation occurring in February with 4.0 days. In Judith Gap, there's an average of 22.4" of snow (56.9 cm). The month with the most snow is December, with 5.1" of snow (13 cm).

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2013-05-22T08:11:58Z

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en

Avian influenza A(H5N1)- update 31: Situation (poultry) in Asia: need for a long-term response, comparison with previous outbreaks 2 March 2004 During last week’s emergency meeting in Bangkok, Thailand, officials from FAO, OIE, and WHO drew attention to several unique features of the current outbreaks of H5N1 in poultry in Asia, in particular its geographical distribution, rate of spread and severity of which are unprecedented. Prospects for rapid control are inconsistent with worldwide experience, over more than four decades, with previous outbreaks, which have all been much smaller in scope and inherently less challenging. Even in countries with good surveillance, adequate resources, and geographically limited outbreaks, control has often taken up to two years. For these reasons and others, WHO has cautioned against assumptions that the outbreaks can be controlled in the immediate future. WHO has described the serious public health implications of these outbreaks in a previous update. Up to the end of 2003, highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) was considered a rare disease. Since 1959, only 21 Outbreakshad been reported worldwide. The majority occurred in Europe and the Americas. Of the total, only five resulted in significant spread to numerous farms, and only one was associated with spread to other countries. Since mid-December 2003, eight Asian countries have confirmed outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza caused by the H5N1 strain. Most of these countries are experiencing outbreaks of this disease for the first time in their histories. In several, outbreaks have been detected in virtually every part of the country Over the past two months, more than 100 million birds have either died of the disease or been culled in Asia. This figure is greater than the total number of poultry affected, over years, in the world’s previous five largest outbreaks combined. Worldwide experience since 1959 supports official statements about the unprecedented nature of the present situation and the challenges for control. Unique features in the present situation include: - Concentration of poultry in backyard farms.In several countries experiencing outbreaks, up to 80% of poultry are produced on small farms and backyard holdings in rural areas, where poultry range freely. In China, 60% of the country’s esitmated 13.2 billion chickens are raised on small farms in close proximity to humans and domestic animals, including pigs. This situation makes implementation of strict control measures, essential to the control of previous outbreaks, extremely difficult. These control measures – including bird-proof, ecologically controlled housing, treatment of water supplies, disinfection of all incoming persons, equipment, and vehicles, prevention of contact with insects, rodents, and other mechanical vectors – cannot be applied on small rural farms and backyard holdings. – Economic significance of poultry production. Poultry production contributes greatly to the economies and food supplies of affected countries. The agricultural sector faces the challenge of minimizing losses to industry and subsistence farmers in ways that also reduce health risks for humans. Because many people in the region are so dependent on poultry, appropriate culling may be difficult to implement. – Lack of control experience. Since the disease is new to most countries in the region, very little experience exists at national and international levels to guide the best country-specific control measures. In some countries, announcements of successful culling in certain areas are being followed by subsequent eruptions of disease in the same areas, suggesting reintroduction of the virus, continuing presence in the environment, or inadequate verification of outbreak control. – Lack of resources. Several countries with very widespread outbreaks lack adequate infrastructure and resources, including resources to compensate farmers and thus encourage compliance with government recommendations. In some countries that have announced outbreaks, neither surveillance to detect the extent of spread nor culling of animals known to be infected is taking place. – The scale of international spread. With so many adjacent countries affected, a region-wide strategy will be needed to ensure that gains in one country are not compromised by inadequate control in another. These unique features will make rapid control and long-term prevention of recurrence extremely difficult to achieve. Culling remains the first line of action, as recommended by FAO, OIE, and WHO, for bringing the current outbreaks under control. Unlike other economically important domestic animals, poultry raising takes place in a very short production system. Provided sufficient resources are available to replace culled poultry stock, countries should not postpone aggressive culling because of fears of long-term consequences on poultry production. Wild birds can play a role in introducing a virus of low pathogenicity into domestic flocks where, if allowed to circulate for several months, it can mutate into a highly pathogenic form. No evidence to date indicates that wild birds are the source of the present outbreaks of highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza. Wild birds should not be culled. Previous outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza worldwide Year Country/area Domestic birds affected Strain 1959 Scotland chicken H5N1 1963 England turkey H7N3 1966 Ontario (Canada) turkey H5N9 1976 Victoria (Australia) chicken H7N7 1979 Germany chicken H7N7 1979 England turkey H7N7 19831985 Pennsylvania (USA)* chicken, turkey H5N2 1983 Ireland turkey H5N8 1985 Victoria (Australia) chicken H7N7 1991 England turkey H5N1 1992 Victoria (Australia) chicken H7N3 1994 Queensland (Australia) chicken H7N3 19941995 Mexico* chicken H5N2 1994 Pakistan* chicken H7N3 1997 New South Wales (Australia) chicken H7N4 1997 Hong Kong (China)* chicken H5N1 1997 Italy chicken H5N2 19992000 Italy* turkey H7N1 2002 Hong Kong (China) chicken H5N1 2002 Chile chicken H7N3 2003 Netherlands* chicken H7N7 *Outbreaks with significant spread to numerous farms, resulting in great economic losses. Most other outbreaks involved little or no spread from the initially infected farms. Outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza can be extremely difficult to control, even under favourable conditions (concentration of infected birds in well-maintained commercial production facilities, limited geographical occurrence). – The 1983 Pennsylvania (USA) outbreak took two years to control. Some 17 million birds were destroyed at a direct cost of US$62 million. Indirect costs have been estimated at more than US$250 million. – The 2003 outbreak in the Netherlands spread to Belgium and Germany. In the Netherlands, more than 30 million birds - a quarter of the country’s poultry stock – were destroyed. Some 2.7 million were destroyed in Belgium, and around 400,000 in Germany. In the Netherlands, 89 humans were infected, of whom one (a veterinarian) died. In that outbreak, measures needed to protect the health of poultry workers, farmers, and persons visiting farms included wearing of protective clothing, masks to cover the mouth and nose, eye protection, vaccination against normal seasonal human influenza, and administration of prophylactic antiviral drugs. Control is even more difficult in countries with dense poultry populations. – The Italian outbreak of 1999–2000 caused infection in 413 flocks, including 25 backyard flocks, and resulted in the destruction of around 14 million birds. Control was complicated by the occurrence of cases in areas with extremely dense poultry populations. Compensation to farmers amounted to US$63 million. Costs for the poultry and associated industry have been estimated at US$620 million. Four months after the last outbreak ended, the virus returned in a low-pathogenic form, rapidly causing a further 52 outbreaks. – Although the last outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza in Mexico occurred in 1995, the causative agent – the H5N2 strain – has never been entirely eliminated from the country, in its present low-pathogenicity form, despite years of intense efforts, including the administration of more than 2 billion doses of vaccines of varying efficacy. Similarly, the vaccination policy pursued in Pakistan does not appear to have resulted in eradication of the causative agent. Avoidance of contact between poultry and wild birds, especially ducks and other waterfowl, can help prevent the introduction of a low-pathogenicity virus into domestic flocks. Although no evidence to date has conclusively linked the current outbreaks with wild migratory birds in Asia: – Several of these outbreaks have been linked to contact between free-ranging flocks and wild birds, including the shared use of water sources. Faecal contamination of water supplies is considered a very efficient way for waterfowl to transmit the virus. Virus (low-pathogenicity) has been readily recovered from lakes and ponds where migratory birds congregate. – An especially risky practice is the raising of small numbers of domestic ducks on a pond in proximity to domestic chicken and turkey flocks. Domestic ducks attract wild ducks, and provide a significant link in the chain of transmission from wild birds to domestic flocks. Aggressive control measures, including culling of infected and exposed poultry, are recommended for avian influenza virus subtypes H5 and H7 even when the virus initially shows low pathogenicity. (H5 and H7 are the only subtypes implicated in outbreaks of highly pathogenic disease.) – Several of the largest outbreaks (Pennsylvania, Mexico, Italy) initially began with mild illness in poultry. When the virus was allowed to continue circulating in poultry, it eventually mutated (within 6 to 9 months) into a highly pathogenic form with a mortality ratio approaching 100%. Moreover, the initial presence of low-pathogenicity virus in these outbreaks complicated diagnosis of the highly pathogenic form.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

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2013-05-22T08:35:49Z

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en

Poverty and health Approximately 1.2 billion people in the world live in extreme poverty (less than one dollar per day). Poverty creates ill-health because it forces people to live in environments that make them sick, without decent shelter, clean water or adequate sanitation. WHO supports countries to design and implement 'pro-poor' health policies, that is, health policies which prioritize and respond to the needs of poor people. This work includes global advocacy, regional initiatives and direct support to ministries of health in developing countries. At global level, this experience is synthesized to form recommendations on best practice. Health and poverty issues differ markedly from country to country contexts, with countries emerging from and affected by conflicts presenting a particular challenge. WHO ensures that the health perspective is reflected in poverty reduction strategies, medium term expenditure frameworks, and helps to develop sector-wide approaches. All documents related to poverty and health are available under publications.

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en

An image of one of a dozen such tornadoes found by SOHO. The lighter right-hand side is material that is moving towards SOHO. The darker left-hand side is material that is moving away from SOHO (the doppler effect). Click on image for full size Courtesy of NASA Tornadoes on the Sun! News story originally written on May 1, 1998 There just seem to be so many exciting things happening in space these days (and for the last year in fact!). One new discovery is that there are storms on the Sun very similar to our own tornadoes ! This discovery was made by ESA/NASA spacecraft SOHO SOHO has spotted a dozen of these gyrating storms so far. It seems they occur most frequently at the poles of the Sun. These storms are as wide as the whole of planet Earth and have gusts ten times faster than anything measured on Earth! Doesn't seem as if we're in Kansas anymore! Also, happening on the Sun...There seems to have been a coronal mass ejection two days ago. X-ray fluxes at Earth have been extremely high. Activity like this on the Sun can often disrupt radio communications. It can cause pilots to lose contact with their control towers and even disorient migratory anmals that depend on the Earth's magnetic field for guidance. The space weather forecast for the next few days is unsettled to active. Shop Windows to the Universe Science Store! Our online store on science education, classroom activities in The Earth Scientist specimens, and educational games You might also be interested in: It was another exciting and frustrating year for the space science program. It seemed that every step forward led to one backwards. Either way, NASA led the way to a great century of discovery. Unfortunately,...more The Space Shuttle Discovery lifted off from Kennedy Space Center at 2:19 p.m. EST, October 29th. The sky was clear and the weather was great as Discovery took 8 1/2 minutes to reach orbit for the Unitied...more A moon was discovered orbiting the asteroid, Eugenia. This is only the second time in history that a satellite has been seen circling an asteroid. A special mirror allowed scientists to find the moon...more Will Russia ever put the service module for the International Space Station in space? NASA officials are demanding an answer from the Russian government. The necessary service module is currently waiting...more During a period of about two days in early May, 1998, the ACE spacecraft was immersed in plasma associated with a coronal mass ejection (CME). The SWICS instrument on ACE, which determines unambiguously...more J.S. Maini of the Canadian Forest Service has referred to forests as the "heart and lungs of the world." Forests reduce soil erosion, maintain water quality, contribute to atmospheric humidity and cloud...more In late April through mid-May 2002, all five naked-eye planets are visible simultaneously in the night sky! This is includes Mercury which is generally very hard to see because of its proximity to the...more

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http://www.windows2universe.org/headline_universe/solartor.html&edu=high

2013-05-22T08:00:54Z

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en

Learn something new every day More Info... by email A hypothalamic tumor is a tumor that develops on the hypothalamus, a part of the brain. A tumor can develop on the hypothalamus for two reasons: cancer spreading from somewhere else in the body or mutated brain cells. The latter cause is more prevalent in children. A hypothalamic tumor can have a number of symptoms ranging from feelings of euphoria to blindness. Treatment plans are always individualized depending on the tumor's size and root cause. The hypothalamus controls many unconscious metabolic processes such as hunger, thirst, blood pressure and body temperature. The hypothalamus also works with the pituitary gland in the release of certain hormones. Initial research published in the late 2000s suggests that the structure of the hypothalamus controls one's sexual orientation. With so many important life functions controlled by the hypothalamus, a hypothalamic tumor is life-threatening no matter the cause. A hypothalamic tumor can have one of two causes. The first is a mutation in the brain's glial cells, which are cells in the brain that are not neurons. As of 2011, the exact cause of glial cell mutation is still unknown, but most researchers agree that genetics and/or one's external environment play a role. The second cause is when another form of cancer metastasizes and travels to the hypothalamus. Symptoms of a hypothalamic tumor are the same no matter the root cause. If the tumor develops during childhood, the child stops growing. In adults, blindness, feelings of euphoria, headaches and hyperactivity are all possible. Seizures can occur in advanced cases. An extended period of any one of these symptoms should prompt one to see a physician. Diagnosing a hypothalamic tumor begins with vision and blood tests. In the latter, a hormone imbalance can be a sign of cancer. If these tests indicate the presence of cancer, an MRI or CT scan is the next step. A tumor will be visible to physicians and/or technicians interpreting the scan. Treating a hypothalamic tumor depends on a number of factors, including the tumor's cause, size and exact location. Surgery may be a possibility for some patients. Other patients will undergo a combination of radiation and chemotherapy. Advances in radiation therapy have made it possible for some patients to treat a tumor without damage to surrounding tissue. One's prognosis depends on all of these variables; prognosis is generally less optimistic in adults, as the cancer is more aggressive in older patients.

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en

Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia - n. The act of attesting; a declaration, verbal or written, in support of a fact; evidence; testimony. - n. The administration of an oath, as to a military recruit. See attest, 4. - n. A thing that serves to bear witness, confirm or authenticate. - n. A confirmation or authentication. - n. business, finance The process, performed by accountants or auditors, of providing independent opinion on published financial and other business information of a business, public agency, or other organization. - n. linguistics An appearance in print or otherwise recorded on a permanent medium. GNU Webster's 1913 - n. The act of attesting; testimony; witness; a solemn or official declaration, verbal or written, in support of a fact; evidence. The truth appears from the attestationof witnesses, or of the proper officer. The subscription of a name to a writing as a witness, is an attestation. - n. the action of bearing witness - n. the evidence by which something is attested - From Middle French attestation (Wiktionary) “While remote attestation is obviously useful, the current TCG approach to attestation is flawed.” “Because the attestation is "remote", others with whom you interact should be able to tell, too.” “Remote attestation is the most significant and the most revolutionary of the four major feature groups described by Microsoft.” “As, however, this testimony has been publicly called in question, though not until eight months after her death, we obtained through the kindness of the Baroness Paul de Ralli, a friend of Lady Burton at Trieste, the following written attestation from the priest who attended Sir Richard” “The Baroness Paul de Ralli, who procured the above attestation from the priest, sent it in the first instance to Cardinal Vaughan, together with the following letter:” “She had assured me that she had taken the sacrament in attestation of her innocence of all criminality; that assurance and other circumstances induced me to believe her innocent of the last offence; but of the impropriety of her conduct and total disregard of outward appearance, by which alone society can form its opinion, no one who moved in our circles could doubt.” “If we don’t accept that example because of the (subtle) difference in meaning, the next attestation is in 1867.” “Wouldn't it be useful to record centrally the notion of attestation?” “Do they think that federations also need the notion of attestation?” “Sometimes you just stumble across it like one of the princes of Serendip: an example is selling candidates like soap, which never had a demonstrable printed "attestation".” These user-created lists contain the word ‘attestation’. A list based on http://ec.europa.eu/translation/english/guidelines/document... words for a play Looking for tweets for attestation.

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http://www.wordnik.com/words/attestation

2013-05-22T08:34:24Z

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en

Noun: theory thee(-u)-ree - A well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world; an organized system of accepted knowledge that applies in a variety of circumstances to explain a specific set of phenomena "theories can incorporate facts and laws and tested hypotheses"; "true in fact and theory" - A tentative insight into the natural world; a concept that is not yet verified but that if true would explain certain facts or phenomena "a scientific hypothesis that survives experimental testing becomes a scientific theory"; "he proposed a fresh theory of alkalis that later was accepted in chemical practices"; "a scientific possibility that survives experimental testing becomes a scientific theory"; - hypothesis, possibility - A belief that can guide behaviour "the architect has a theory that more is less"; "they killed him on the theory that dead men tell no tales" Derived forms: theories Type of: belief, concept, conception, construct, explanation Encyclopedia: Theory Theory, Culture & Society

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http://www.wordwebonline.com/en/THEORY

2013-05-22T08:34:30Z

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en

(CNN) -- Two farms have been quarantined by the U.S. Department of Agriculture as the agency continues to investigate last month's discovery of mad cow disease at a California dairy farm. Authorities also have launched an investigation at a calf ranch where the initial infected cow was raised 10 years ago, according to a statement released late Wednesday by the USDA. Last week, the USDA documented the fourth confirmed U.S. case of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy -- a brain wasting disease affecting cattle -- known commonly as mad cow disease, at a rendering facility in central California. USDA officials said the cow was never presented for human consumption and was never a threat. The farm where the cow was initially discovered has been under quarantine since the discovery, agriculture officials said. Wednesday's announcement of a second quarantine involves a farm closely associated with the dairy where the sick cow was discovered last month, the USDA said. The agency is still trying to determine if any at-risk cattle are present at either of the two farms. Eating contaminated meat or some other animal products from cattle that have BSE is thought to be the cause of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. The fatal brain disease was blamed for the deaths of 150 people in Britain, where there was an outbreak in the 1980s and 1990s. In people, symptoms of the disease include psychiatric and behavioral changes, movement deficits, memory disturbances and cognitive impairments. BSE can cause infected animals to display nervousness or aggression, difficulty in coordination and standing up, decreased milk production or weight loss. It is usually transmitted between cows through the practice of recycling bovine carcasses for meat and bone meal protein, which is fed to other cattle. In this case, the Agricultural Department reported that the cow had a rare form of BSE not likely carried by contaminated feed. Since 2004, the USDA has removed the brain and the spinal column, the parts suspected of causing mad cow disease in humans, from the food system. The USDA says that since the discovery of the infected cow, they have identified 10 different feed suppliers that delivered animal feed to the farm. Determining if the cow became sick from feed is an area where investigators are focusing close attention. Authorities have determined the infected cow gave birth twice. One calf was stillborn and the other was located on a farm outside of California. That cow was subsequently euthanized and tested negative for mad cow disease. Unlike most other meat-borne illnesses, such as those caused by E.-coli bacteria, cooking does not kill the infectious agent that causes mad cow disease. Consumers who wish to exercise extra caution can follow the advice presented by the Web-based consumer advocacy group Consumeraffairs.com, which advises the avoidance of brains, neck bones and beef cheeks, bone marrow and cuts of beef that are sold on the bone. The group also says to choose boneless cuts of meat and ground beef only if it has been ground in the store. "Evidence shows that our systems and safeguards to prevent BSE are working, as are similar actions taken by countries around the world," said John Clifford, the Agriculture Department's chief veterinarian. Last year, 29 cases of BSE were reported worldwide, down 99% from the peak of 37,311 cases in 1992. "This is directly attributable to the impact and effectiveness of feed bans as a primary control measure for the disease," he said last month. The Agriculture Department confirmed the first case of mad cow disease in America on December 23, 2003, in a cow born in Alberta, Canada, in April 1997, only four months before the United States and Canada began banning the use of brain and spinal cord tissue in cattle feed. A second U.S. case was confirmed June 24, 2005, and a third on March 13, 2006. ™ & © 2012 Cable News Network, Inc., a Time Warner Company. All rights reserved. Copyright 2012 Scripps Media, Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed. Click here to see the latest mugshots in Palm Beach County Click here to see the latest mugshots in St. Lucie County. Get the latest updates, photos and video from the devastation in Moore, Okla. Also, see how to help. Latest News Stories Hundreds of consumers across the country accuse a major car rental company of tacking on excessive fees without warning. Wednesday at 11.

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http://www.wptv.com/dpp/news/national/bovine-spongiform-encephalopathy-mad-cow-disease-2-california-farms-quarantined-by-the-usda

2013-05-22T08:12:34Z

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en

Investigation into some of the statistical differences between The Times and The Telegraph on a specific day Design and Planning The aim of this project is to compare two daily published broadsheets. The two papers that will be used are THE TIMES and THE TELEGRAPH, both purchased on the same day. A lot of data can be easily collected from a newspaper, ranging from average word length to area devoted to adverts per page. The project will attempt to reach conclusions regarding three specific questions. In answering these questions a range of sampling methods, presentation of data, and statistical calculations will be used in order to interpret and evaluate the data and come to a valid conclusion, drawing together all the data. Each question will be presented and it will be explained what statistical methods will be involved in drawing conclusions for these questions. * How does the font size of the headline text affect the length of the article? This involves comparing two sets of data: * Font Size of Headline text: A sheet was printed from Microsoft Word that had various font sizes in the Times New Roman font, the standard font for the two papers, printed on it. This was used as a guideline when compiling all the data. * Length of column of each article : In The Times and The Telegraph there is a standard column width and simply measuring the vertical length of all the columns in the article gives a suitably accurate indication of the length of the article To make any calculations accurate enough to draw a valid conclusion at least twenty sets of data from each paper will need to be collected. As each page has approximately three articles on it and both newspapers have roughly thirty pages as systematic sample of every 4 pages will provide enough data to support any conclusion. The best ways...

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http://www.writework.com/essay/investigation-into-some-statistical-differences-between-ti

2013-05-22T08:25:51Z

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en

When Hitler gave the ok to slaughter an estimated 6 million Jews during the Holocaust, it was one of, if not the worst atrocity any man has ever committed against humankind. Which is why a new report coming out of the Jewish Voice newspaper in Germany is utterly shocking. A recently found note signed by the infamous SS leader Heinrich Himmler stated that one Ernst Hess should be saved and protected, “as per the Fuhrer’s wishes.” If you’re as shocked as me, I understand. Even with this amnesty supplied by Hitler, the fervor that had taken over Germany at the time won out, and eventually Hess was forced into years of hard labor at a concentration camp. Even a years worth or protection for a German Jew is surprising, especially granted by Hitler himself. So why did Hitler do it? Hitler and Hess were in the same infantry unit while serving in World War I, and Hess was even Hitler’s superior at one point. Just because they served together doesn’t mean they were friends. Many of the men who served with Hitler described him as “quiet, with no friends.” But Hess had stayed close to others he served with and Fritz Wiedemann, who eventually became on of Hitler’s most trusted aides helped Hess get in touch with Heinrich Lammers, the Head of the Reich Chancellery. If there is a consensus among historians about any seminal event in human affairs, it’s that the First World War had to happen. Not necessarily in 1914 because an Austrian archduke was assassinated, but around then and for some excuse. Too many people with the power to make war happen thought it was the answer to their nation’s problems, and far too few had any idea what it would unleash: the deaths of nine million soldiers and the utter ruin of the old order. That presents journalist Beatty’s counter-argument with an uphill battle from the start; that he succeeds in making an intriguing (if ultimately unsuccessful) case is an achievement in itself. Read the rest of the review at REVIEW: The Lost History of 1914: Reconsidering the Year the Great War Began – Books – Macleans.ca. Review by Brian Bethune Saul David , professor at the University of Buckingham explains how Britain’s production of acetone in World War I helped increase the supply of munitions and lead to the end of the war in this article found on the BBC News website. History tells us that a general can move and feed an army as efficiently as he likes but the real litmus test is the battlefield. All the energy he expends getting his men to the front line fit and healthy counts for nothing if they don’t have the right equipment. What they need, above all, is sufficient ammunition – yet there were moments during the war when a shortage of artillery shells meant the guns almost fell silent. Given the unprecedented scale of the conflict, it was bound to take time for each side’s peacetime armaments industry to adjust. Each of the major combatants, moreover, had its own limits to production. Read the rest of the article at BBC News – How Germany lost the WWI arms race. Father and son both called Athol Lamont both died in wartime tragedies at sea, reveals discovery of sub J6 near Blyth A pregnant Jean Lamont found out her husband Athol Lamont died in October 1918, but was never told how he died. 21 years later, Jean’s son Athol Lamont died when the HMS Daring was sunk by a German U-boat during World War II. Matthew McKenzie of the Sunday Sun reports on the family’s closure after 93 years. WHEN British submarine J6 disappeared beneath the waves for the final time in 1918, it began decades of painful questions for the families left behind. Now, for one of those families, questions have finally been answered more than 90 years later. The Sunday Sun told last week how a North East-based diving team had discovered the wreck of a British submarine 40 miles off the coast of Seahouses in Northumberland. Darkstar diving team were the first people to have seen it in 93 years after it was lost during the First World War. They identified it as British submarine J6, lost in October 1918. But, after looking into its history, elation at the find turned to sadness when they discovered 15 sailors died on board in a friendly fire incident. For many years, the details of the tragedy were classified to hush it up, and no one had discovered the wreck. Read the rest of the article at Father and son both called Athol Lamont both died in wartime tragedies at sea, reveals discovery of sub J6 near Blyth – Sunday Sun. An Incredible Look At The Terrifying Armored Trains That Kept Europe In Order During Both World Wars Armored trains are pretty cool. Imagine having this massive heavily armored and heavily gunned train coming at you. After World War II, most countries stopped using armored tanks as road vehicles became more widely used. However, Russia was still using armored trains in the Second Chechen War in the late 1990s. Travis Okulski of the Business Insider writes about how these armored trains were used. James Bond films have featured some truly incredible modes of transportation throughout the years. The 1995 film Goldeneye featured villain Alec Trevelyan on board an unbelievable Soviet armored train. Even though Bond movies are known to dive into fiction, these trains are real and just as incredible in real life as they are on film. The armored train was first seen in the American Civil War, according to The Jamestown Foundation. It came to prominence in World War I, when Russia used it as a means of defense during cross-country travel. The trains were used by a number of nations in World War II: Poland took advantage of them extensively, Nazi Germany reacted and began using them, the Russians kept their fleet up, and even Canada patrolled their west coast with one for a time in case of an invasion, according to Canada’s Virtual Museum.

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http://yesteeyear.com/tag/world-war-i/

2013-05-22T08:02:34Z

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en

For decades NASA has been "following the water" on Mars with hopes of finding signs of alien life there; or at least signs that future colonists won't die of thirst. Now a Texas geologist has dared to revive an old, almost heretical idea -- backed up with all the latest data -- that the Red Planet has been bone dry for billions of years. Mars' spectacular grand canyons were not carved by catastrophic floods, says Texas Tech's David Leverington, but by slippery, low-viscosity lavas. This lava hypothesis fits happily within a wider geological framework of Mars and compares well with similar channel-like features on the moon and Venus, he said. If Leverington is right, the odds of life on Mars plummet to near zero. But that's a big "if." Many veteran Mars researchers are far from buying the lava story and are still pretty certain that water played a significant part in sculpting the compelling 1,200-mile long, 60-mile wide outflow channels that stunned the world when they were first imaged by Viking spacecraft in the late 1970s. Holes In The Water Leverington's approach, as explained in his soon-to-be published paper in the Sept. 2011 issue of the journal Geomorphology, is to take apart some of the major assumptions of the "aqueous" models used to explain how water could have scoured out the outflow channels. First there is the matter of the sources of all the water. Some Mars water advocates have calculated that the volume of water would, in some cases, need to exceed those of the greatest rivers on Earth, perhaps being more on par with something like the Atlantic Ocean's Gulf Stream current. "The question is: How do you get that volume of water?" said Leverington. "How do you move it quickly enough to rush out at a rate to carve channels like these?" There are no huge empty lake beds at the heads of the outflow channels. So researchers have hypothesized vast permafrost-sealed aquifers in extremely porous, permeable ground that was suddenly breached by meteor impacts, faulting or upwards movements of hot magma in the Martian crust. In order for that scenario to work other researchers have calculated that the permeability of the Martian crust would need to be 1-10 million times greater than seems evident or likely, he said. Another puzzle is the location of the starting points of the outflow channels. They tend to start up on the flanks of volcanoes. That doesn't fit the water hypothesis, said Leverington, because outflows of such huge volumes of water would be more likely from breaches at lower elevations so that there is plenty of "head" uphill of the breach pushing the water out below. One more thorn in the side of the aqueous hypothesis, Leverington said, is the mineralogy of Mars. There are few sediments and minerals that are consistent with a wet planet. Except for some clays found in rocks from the very earliest period in Mars history, which are far older than the outflow channels, the minerals found on Mars are not the kind that would survive contact with water and would reform as different minerals if the planet cycled through wet and dry periods. In other words, these minerals would not exist if water was common anytime in the near geologic past. "I would argue that all of these diverse types of data point firmly at volcanic mechanisms," said Leverington.

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2013-05-24T16:40:09Z

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en

Djibouti Timeline -- Timeline of Djibouti from Prehistory to Independence A chronology of key events in Djibouti's history from Prehistory to Independence Djibouti Timeline -- Timeline of Djibouti from Independence to Present Day A chronology of key events in Djibouti's history from Independence to Present Day Hassan Gouled Aptidon Biography of Hassan Gouled Aptidon -- Part 1: Life in a French Colony The Adal Sultanate The Adal Sultanate was a 10th to 16th century mediaeval Islamic state in what is now Djibouti and Somalia. The capital of Adal was Harar, and there were several significant trading ports, such as Zeila, on the Gulf of Aden and Red Sea. Ahmad Grāñ, military leader for the Adal Sultante, was the leader of a Muslim faction which almost succeeded in subjugating Ethiopia in the 16th century. By the end of the Adal-Ethiopian War (1529-43), he had conquered three-quarters of the kingdom of Ethiopia. The Afar People of Djibouti The Afar, or Denakil, are the second largest ethnic group in Djibouti and are identified with sparsely populated areas to the north and west of the Gulf of Tadjoura. The Issa People of Djibouti The Issa are the foremost clan of Somali people (known collectively as the Dir), who live in the capital (Djibouti city) and the south-eastern region of the county. They are the county's largest ethnic group. Saylac / Zeila What is the significance of the port of Saylac? What is the significance of the port of Obock? A Brief History of Djibouti - Part 1 A brief introduction to the history of Djibouti from the time of early humans to the present day. Part 1 – Islamic State to French Overseas Territory A Brief History of Djibouti – Part 2 A brief introduction to the history of Djibouti from the time of early humans to the present day. Part 2 – Independence to Present Day Background Notes: Djibouti A useful potted history is included with these US Department of State Background Notes on Djibouti. Also included is a range of political, economic, and geographical data, as well as information on its people, defence, and relations with the US. Djibouti History from Lonely Planet A quirky, colloquial presentation of Djibouti’s history presented by LonelyPlanet.com. Makes awfully good reading and may galvanise your interest in Africa’s regional history. Not only suitable for travellers. Djibouti - a Country Profile from the BBC An extremely brief historical overview accompanies this BBC Country Profile of Djibouti. Of particular interest are the simplified regional map (see where the country is in Africa), a photograph of Djibouti’s current Chief of State, and details about the countries media. Timeline for Djibouti from the BBC A chronology of important events in the history of Djibouti given by year (and for more recent events by month also). CIA World Fact Book: Djibouti A useful map and a range of geographical, political, and economic facts which are mostly up-to-date. Unfortunately this country profile lacks historical information (except for independence date), but the population statistics are probably the best available. Djibouti's Chief of State and Cabinet Ministers Updated weekly, this list of Djibouti's Chief of State and Cabinet Ministers is provided by the Central Intelligence Agency of the United States of America. A short summary of the history of Djibouti, a tiny country on the east coast of Africa next to Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia.

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2013-05-24T16:44:44Z

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en

Big news today! A team of European astronomers announced the discovery of a planet orbiting Alpha Centauri. Located only 4.4 light years away, Alpha Centauri is a triple star and the closest star to the sun. It’s one of the few places where the sun holds its own as a first magnitude star in the constellation Cassiopeia. Not only is the new planet the closest extrasolar planet ever found, it’s also about the same size as the Earth, making it the lightest planet yet discovered orbiting a sun-like star. Exoplanet surveys typically turn up massive planets because the big (and close-in) ones tug on their parent stars hardest. Astronomers use sensitive instruments called spectrographs to measure the slight changes in a star’s velocity induced by the circling planet. These tiny wobbles of the star toward and away from Earth can be measured and the planet’s mass determined. In Alpha Centauri’s case, the team employed the super-sensitive HARPS spectrograph on the European Southern Observatory’s 142-inch (3.6 meter) telescope in La Silla, Chile for more than four years to reveal telltale velocity changes caused by an Earth-size planet orbiting Alpha Centauri B every 3.2 days. The wobble is minute. The planet causes the star to move back and forth by no more than 1.1 mile per hour, about the speed of a baby crawling. Earth’s effect on our sun would be similar. Sadly, the planet is nowhere near a clement zone around the star; it orbits just 3.7 million miles from Alpha Centauri B, almost 10 times closer than Mercury to the sun. You could broil a steak there in a minute, but I doubt life could set up house on this heat-heavy world. Alpha Centauri is a triple system with two bright components – Alpha Centauri A and B – and one more distant, fainter red dwarf called Proxima Centauri. A and B are separated by 13,000 times the distance between sun and Earth. From the new planet’s perspective, B would be far and away the dominate sun, while A would be brilliant pinprick of light off in the distance. I’ve always wanted a planet to be found around Alpha Centauri if only because it feels so close to Earth. While Alpha Centauri Bb’s still over 26 trillion miles away, the news is most exciting. Of the 842 confirmed extrasolar planets found to date, it’s already my favorite. More about the discovery can be found HERE.

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2013-05-24T16:30:07Z

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| Afforestation - photos see also: AvToday article Today it's difficult to pick up any publication without reading about the state of the environment. But the first Aurovilians, struggling in the late sixties, early seventies to gain a foothold on a scorched and almost barren plateau in south India, did not agonize over pH-levels, the destruction of the ozone layer or the greenhouse effect. They had no choice. They dug, they planted, they watered. And this basic, uncomplicated approach, taken up by many others and refined over the years, has made Auroville what it is today - a comparatively green and pleasant land which is the indispensable physical base for its dreams and its experiments. Land of forests India was a land of forests. Forests where heroes and bandits hid and lived in exile, forests that they journeyed through perilously, forests where sages lived and gathered their disciples around them. Today these forests, once the wealth of a mighty land, are all but gone. From the foothills of the Himalayas to Cape Comorin less than 12% of India's land mass bears any form of tree cover. And despite a growing awareness of an ecological catastrophe in the making (20% of India's forest cover has disappeared since 1960), the destruction continues. History of the area Around two hundred years ago, also the Auroville plateau and its surrounding area was covered in forest. A stone was discovered in Kilianur dating from 1750 that described the local king hunting for elephants and tigers in the nearby forest. In 1825, trees were felled in the Jipmer area between Auroville and Pondy, to drive away the tigers. Slowly the forests were cut down to build cities like Pondicherry and towns like Kalapet. Timber was used for export, and the British accelerated the process by allocating plots of land to anyone who would clear it and cultivate it for a year. Much of it was then left fallow and under the violent onslaught of the monsoon, erosion inevitably began. The last remaining plots of forest in the Auroville area - 2,000 mature neem trees - were cut down in the mid-fifties for timber to make boats. In less than 200 years, what once had been forest had turned into an expanse of baked red earth scarred with gullies and ravines which had been carved out by the monsoon floods. Each year tons of the remaining topsoil were swept into the nearby Bay of Bengal. Auroville's early trials and errors The first needs that confronted Auroville's earliest settlers were for shade and water. However, it soon became clear that if the young seedlings were to survive, other measures had to be taken. They needed to be protected, for example, against marauding goats and cows, and some way had to be found to catch and control the monsoon rains so that they would not sweep away precious topsoil but would percolate into the water table. So 'bunds' (raised earth-banks to stop water flowing off the land)were born. In these early years it was a process of trial and error, and many mistakes were made. For example, a massive dam erected near Forecomers broke in a heavy rain, because the water flow into the canyon was not controlled. Ten years later, in 1978, a freak rain of thirty cms in twelve hours broke bunds and washed away numerous young trees. The lesson learned that time was that bunding had to be systematic and comprehensive, beginning on the top of the watershed and following the topography of the land. Auroville's afforestation campaign began in the early 1970's. The first tree nurseries were started in Success and Kottakarai and, with the help of grants from the Point Foundation, the Tamil Fund and friends abroad, large-scale tree planting began. In the next ten years, as part of a massive soil and water conservation programme, over a million trees - timbers, ornamentals, fencing, fruit and fodder trees, nut trees etc.- were planted here. Some were exotic, like for instance the Australian 'Work Tree' (Mother's name for Acacia auriculiformis) which has adapted so well that it's now crowding out other species. As the trees grew, and micro-climates formed, many species of bird-life and animals returned, further accelerating the dissemination of seeds and enriching the environment. In 1982, impressed by the success of the afforestation project, the Department of Environment, Government of India, offered Auroville 11 lakhs of rupees (then around US $ 100,000) over five years to plant trees and scientifically monitor the results so that the most appropriate techniques and species for our situation - which is the situation of many other parts of India - could be identified. It was the beginning of a new orientation for greenworkers in Auroville, for now it became evident that Auroville had something precious to offer outside its own boundaries. Work outside Auroville's boundaries Aurovilian greenworkers have been increasingly going out into India to share their experience and help initiate new afforestation schemes. These have included projects with Tibetan refugees in Karnataka, with Irula tribesmen near Chinglepet in Tamil Nadu and a massive project, funded by the National Wastelands Commission, in the Palani Hills to reafforest large areas near Dindigul and Kodaikanal. The Green Belt A major part of the afforested area is situated in a green belt around the future city area, forming a buffer zone to protect Auroville from intrusion by the rapidly expanding suburbs of Pondicherry. This green belt is sparsely inhabited, mostly by caretakers of the now almost fully grown forest. The Forest Group meets every month to share information and to decide about allocation of funds (usually these are insufficient) for maintenance and afforestation and bunding of newly acquired plots of land. |Auroville Universal [email protected]|

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Fish FAQ - Can fishes change colour? What causes the colouration of a fish and can it change? Read on ... Some fishes cannot change colour. Examples include many of the uniformly dark-pigmented deepsea fishes and some unpigmented cave fishes. Many species of fishes however can change colour. The changes can be slow or fast. Slow changes of colour (eg breeding colouration) are generally under the control of hormones and are usually semi-permanent. Rapid colour changes (eg stress responses) are largely under control of the nervous system although hormones may also be involved. The colour of fishes can also vary with the seasons, between day and night and even with changes in habitat and food. There are two kinds of cells that give colour to fishes, chromatophores and iridiophores (also called iridocytes). The Chromatophores are located in the dermis of the skin, above or below the scales. They impart true colour (rather than structural colour) and contain black, red, yellow, blue, white (and rarely green) pigment granules called chromatosomes. Only one colour is found in each chromatophore. Colour changes result from chromatosomes concentrating in the centre of the chromatophore or dispersing throughout the cell. Iridiophores contain highly reflective guanine crystals. The crystals act as mirrors, which reflect the colours of the outside environment. Iridiophores are responsible for the silvery appearance of many pelagic fishes. Slow colour change Slow colouration changes often occur as a fish grows from a larva, through juvenile and adult phases. The top two images show the different colours of juvenile and adult Axilspot Hogfish. Colour changes in the breeding season are also common. Males of many species exhibit breeding colouration at certain times of the year (see third image from top). Females generally do not show the same degree of colour change. Some fishes show different colouration in different habitats. The Longfinned Eel has a transparent leptocephalus, a countershaded freshwater phase and a silvery oceanic phase. Rapid colour change When most people hear the term ‘colour change’ they think of rapid colour change. Many species of fishes can change colour rapidly. A fish caught on hook and line may change colour as a result of stress. Divers often observe fishes rapidly changing colour as they swim over different bottom types (see the three images of Southern Pygmy Leatherjackets). As a fish swims over a light substrate the chromatosomes are transported into the centre of the cell (aggregation) resulting in the fish appearing paler. Swimming over a dark substrate results in the chromatosomes spreading out throughout the cell (dispersal) which leads to a darkening of the fish’s colour. Some species of Flatfishes are remarkably good at quickly changing colour to match the background. - Helfman, G.S., Collette, B.B. & D.E. Facey. 1997. The Diversity of Fishes. Blackwell Science. Pp. 528. - Wallin, M. 2002. Nature’s palette. How animals, including humans, produce colours. Bioscience explained. 1(2): 1-12. (www.bioscience-explained.org/EN1.2/pdf/paletteEN.pdf) Mark McGrouther , Collection Manager, Ichthyology

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The world’s hungriest are the losers as an old colonialism returns to govern relations between wealthy and poor nations. As investigative journalist George Monbiot says, “The rich world’s governments will protect themselves from the political cost of shortages, even if it means that other people must starve.” In his book Late Victorian Holocausts, Mike Davis tells the story of the famines that sucked the guts out of India in the 1870s. The hunger began when a drought, caused by El Niño, killed the crops on the Deccan plateau. As starvation bit, the viceroy, Lord Lytton, oversaw the export to England of a record 6.4m hundredweight of wheat. While Lytton lived in imperial splendour and commissioned, among other extravagances, “the most colossal and expensive meal in world history”, between 12 million and 29 million people died. Only Stalin manufactured a comparable hunger. Click here for the full article.

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██ - Original Distribution ██ - Forget Table Distribution Above is a Gaussian distribution being decayed as it would in forget table. At every iteration of the decay algorithm, each bin decays a certain number of elements, as given by a Poisson process, and the distribution is renormalized. This is visualized side-by-side with the original distribution for comparison. As you can see, this first "forgets" the less probable bins, ie: the tails of the distribution, thus putting more weight on the more probable events. As the decay continues, the distribution slowly approaches uniformity. If we were to also have the distribution be non-stationary (ie: update the distribution with new observations as the decay process is happening), the decayed distribution would more closely show recent probabilities. As a result, the decaying distribution shows us what we believe the probabilities on our bins are considering recent data.

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History of March Madness Interestingly enough, the term March Madness has been around to describe basketball tournaments since 1939. However, it initially described the Illinois State High School tournament, not the NCAA tournament. Over the years, it has become associated with the NCAA tournament to the point where it overshadows its true roots. “March Madness” was born in Illinois. The annual tournament of high school boys basketball teams, sponsored by the Illinois High School Association, grew from a small invitational affair in 1908 to a statewide institution with over 900 schools competing by the late 1930’s. A field of teams known as the “Sweet Sixteen” routinely drew sellout crowds to the University of Illinois’ Huff Gymnasium. In a time before television, before the college game became popular with the average fan, before professional leagues had established a foothold in the nation’s large cities, basketball fever had already reached epidemic proportions in the "Land of Lincoln." The term March Madness is actually a registered trademark held jointly by the NCAA and the Illinois High School Association. Illinois, and the rest of the world, can thank a man named H.V. Porter for coining the term. “Porter was born in Manito, Illinois and grew up on a farm near Washington, (Illinois). Graduating from Illinois State Normal University, Porter taught at high schools in Mount Zion, Keithsburg, and Delavan. From 1919 to 1928 he served as principal of Athens High School. But it wasn’t until 1928, when Porter was hired as assistant manager of the Illinois High School Association, that his career blossomed.” “A gifted writer, Porter published an essay named March Madness in 1939 and in 1942 used the phrase in a poem, Basketball Ides of March. Through the years, the use of March Madness picked up steam, especially in Illinois. During this period the term was used almost exclusively to the state high school tournament. In 1977 the IHSA published a book about its tournament titled March Madness.” “Becoming a member of several influential committees including the National Basketball Committee, Porter helped develop the fan-shaped backboard that was used at the high school level from the 1930s through the 1990s and the molded basketball that, free of the laces that made dribbling difficult, revolutionized the game. Porter also spearheaded the effort to write basketball and football rule books specifically for high school competition.” Most importantly, though, Porter became editor of the IHSA’s magazine. Nearly every magazine contained an article or essay from the editor himself. The Illinois state high school basketball tournament grew to become a statewide icon in the 1930’s. It was in 1939 when Porter wrote an affectionate essay in the IHSA’s magazine titled "March Madness." The term itself is thought to have come from the old English saying, "Mad as a March Hare." The essay’s punctual line was, “When the March madness is on him, midnight jaunts of a hundred miles on successive nights make him even more alert the next day.” After that Illinois position, Porter left the IHSA to become the executive secretary of the National Federation of State High School Associations. In 1942 he wrote one last literary contribution to the IHSA’s magazine, a poem titled “Basketball Ides of March“. The poem, below, is truly inspirational: Basketball Ides of March The gym lights gleam like a beacon beam And a million motors hum In a good will flight on a Friday night; For basketball beckons, “Come!” A sharp-shooting mite is king tonight. The Madness of March is running. The winged feet fly, the ball sails high And field goal hunters are gunning. The colors clash as silk suits flash And race on a shimmering floor. Repressions die, and partisans vie In a goal acclaiming roar. On a Championship Trail toward a holy grail, All fans are birds of a feather. It’s fiesta night and cares lie light When the air is full of leather. Since time began, the instincts of man Prove cave and current men kin. On tournament night the sage and the wight Are relatives under the skin. It’s festival time, sans reason or rhyme But with nation-wide appeal. In a cyclone of hate, our ship of state Rides high on an even keel. With war nerves tense, the final defense Is the courage, strength and will In a million lives where freedom thrives And liberty lingers still. Now eagles fly and heroes die Beneath some foreign arch Let their sons tread where hate is dead In a happy Madness of March. During the tournament’s “Golden Era” of the 1940’s and 1950’s, “March Madness” became the popular name of the event. It was an era of some of Illinois’ most legendary teams, including the undefeated 1944 Taylorville squad and Mt. Vernon’s unstoppable back-to-back champions of 1949 and 1950. But the one champion remembered more than any other is tiny Hebron, a school of only 98 students, which won the tournament in 1952. It wasn’t until the early 1980’s that fans of NCAA basketball began to use the term to describe the playoff series that takes place at the college/university level. Most historians would agree that March Madness was popularized in the college arena by Brent Musburger, a CBS sportscaster who had worked in Chicago for many years prior to joining CBS. March Madness Essay Homo of the Hardwood Court is a hardy specie. There are millions of him. He exists through summer and fall, shows signs of animation through the winter and lives to the utmost during March when a hundred thousand pairs of rubber soled shoes slap the hardwood in a whirlwind of stops and pivots and dashes on the trail to the state basketball championships. He is a glutton for punishment. When the March madness is on him, midnight jaunts of a hundred miles on successive nights make him even more alert the next day. He will polish his pants on sixteen inches of bleacher seat through two games or three and take offense if asked to leave during the intermission between sessions. He is happy only when the floor shimmers with reflections of fast moving streaks of color, when the players swarm at each end and the air is full of leather. For the duration of the endemic he is a statistical expert who knows the record of each contender, a game strategist who spots the weak points in a given system of offense or defense, a rules technician who instructs the officials without cost or request. Every canine has his day and this is Homo’s month. He is a doodler who, while conversing, scribbles free throw lanes with a hundred radiating alleys. In May the three symbols of the New York Fair will take on their intended meaning but in March the helicline is a ramp to the balcony, the trylon is the pyramid of hundreds of teams being narrowed down to the one at the state championship pinnacle and the perisphere has the traditional four panel basketball markings. In everyday life he is a sane and serious individual trying to earn enough to pay his taxes. But he does a Jekyll-Hyde act when the spell is on him. He likes his coffee black and his basketball highly spiced. He despises the stall - unless his team is ahead. It is a major crime for the official to call a foul on the dribbler - unless the opponent was dribbling. His moods are as changeable as the March wind. He flies into a frenzy at some trivial happening on the court and before his vocal expression of disapproval is half completed he howls in delight at the humorous twist of a comment from a bleacher wit. He is part of the mass mind and is subject to its whims. He berates the center for attempting a long shot and lauds him when it goes in the basket. He is consistent only in his inconsistencies. The thud of the ball on the floor, the slap of hands on leather, the swish of the net are music in his ears. He is a connoisseur in matters pertaining to team coordination and artistry in action. The shifting zone, the screen and the spot pass are an open book to him. He speaks the language. He is biased, noisy, fidgety, boastful and unreasonable - but we love him for his imperfections. His lack of inhibitions adds a spontaneity that colors the tournaments. Without darkness there would be no light. A little March madness may complement and contribute to sanity and help keep society on an even keel. The writer’s temperature is rising. The thing is catching. It’s got me! Gimme that playing schedule! *source: Wikipedia, MarchMadness.org, 1-800-sports.com What is the duplicate article? Why is this article offensive? Where is this article plagiarized from? Why is this article poorly edited?

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Abu Dhabi is going far beyond its borders to build a zero carbon footprint city in Masdar. Clean technology leaders from across the global are helping to build Masdar City, which is being designed to use only renewable power and convert its waste to energy. The innovative city of 40,000 will have no cars and recycle all of its waste, and is scheduled for completion in 2016. An Australian firm, LAVA architects, recently won the bid to design the city center of Masdar with a European-style plaza. America’s General Electric has a prominent role in Masdar, partnering with the Mubadala Development Company on financing programs and clean energy research. GE is also establishing an “ecoimagination” research center in Masdar. |Tags: Abu Dhabi, building consultants, buildings, energy need, Green energy, Masdar City, Masdar Institute, renewable power, sustainable projects, zero carbon footprint||[ Permalink ]|

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The American Dental Association (ADA) celebrates National Children’s Dental Health Month every February. The awareness campaign is especially important in 2013 because recent reports have shown that many American kids don’t have access to regular medical care. According to a 2012 study conducted by the United States Senate, 17 million children from low-income households received no dental care in 2009, the latest year with available data. Additionally, the Kaiser Family Foundation found that one in four youths have untreated tooth decay. Dentists and other medical professionals should participate in National Children’s Dental Health Month to ensure that children have excellent oral health. Doctors and oral surgeons should speak with families about the importance of regular dental check-ups and teach parents how they can help children. Promotional marketing products can be used to raise awareness for National Children’s Dental Health Month. Spreading the word Pediatric dentists should encourage patients to schedule appointments during February. Doctors can mail reminders, but standard postcards might not be the best materials to use. According to Deliver Magazine, flat mail earns fewer responses than small packages and oversized letters. Medical offices can capitalize on the news source’s findings by mailing promotional wall calendars to their regular clients. Medical professionals can print dental health tips on every page so that families know how to take care of their teeth. Alternatively, promotional magnets shaped like teeth can be used as small gifts for patients. The branded items can remind parents to schedule appointments for themselves and their children. Longevity is primary advantage of using unique promotional products to raise awareness for National Children’s Dental Health Month. No other marketing materials can match the shelf life of branded gifts. The advertisements can increase the visibility of oral health for children for a much longer period of time than a commercial or email campaign could. Acting as educators The American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry (AAPD) recommends that children see a dentist at least every 6 months. In some cases, the medical professionals may encourage more frequent appointments to prevent long-term issues like cavities. In between check-ups, parents are encouraged to help their sons and daughters practice excellent health habits. Dentists provide advice at every appointment, but kids might not listen, and parents can’t remember every tip. Dentists should distribute promotional pens and notepads so mothers and fathers write down every helpful lesson. Parents can use their notes to ensure that their children have stellar hygiene.

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December 15, 2011 | 34 Late on a Saturday night in September, a 14-year old boy named Jamey Rodemeyer, who had been the target of bullying from fellow students at Williamsville North High School in Buffalo New York, took his life. Just hours before he killed himself, Jamey left the last of his numerous messages online talking about the pain he had been dealing with for a long time. Jamey’s suicide was a terrible, extreme reaction to being bullied, and tragically, his was not an unusual case. According to some reports there were as many as 10 teen suicides in the month of September this year, in the United States, that were linked to bullying. Violent reactions by teens to being bullied are not new. It was boys that were bullied and ostracized that committed the high school shootings that plagued the US in the 1990’s. From those mass slaughters to the present day rash of suicides, bullying is taking a violent toll on the youth of America. The response to this crisis in the United States has been efforts at the local, regional and Federal (stopbullying.gov) levels to combat bullying and its impacts. Working groups, task forces and new policies have all been established, with the hopes of halting the spread of the social scourge that is bullying. While it is clear that bullying has become a critical issue both within US schools and the social systems navigated by America’s youth, what is less clear is where its origins lie. It’s easy to get consumed with the impacts and immediate causes of bullying in the US, and to ignore where bullying stems from. However, understanding the origins of bullying is critical. Without the deep understanding the origins of a behavior provide, efforts to prevent bullying will continue to fail. To understand where bullying comes from, we have to look at the phenomenon on multiple levels. The first step is to define bullying. Bullying is a behavior that is often difficult to measure, but is something that we all think we know when we see it. Many of us have experienced bullying first-hand, and most of us have witnessed it at some point. However, to study any trait or characteristic, we must first define what it is, and bullying is no exception. According to psychological sources, bullying is a specific type of aggression in which (1) the behavior is intended to harm or disturb, (2) the behavior occurs repeatedly over time, and (3) there is an imbalance of power, with a more powerful person or group attacking a less powerful one. This asymmetry of power may be physical or psychological, and the aggressive behavior may be verbal (eg, name-calling, threats), physical (eg, hitting), or psychological (eg, rumors, shunning/exclusion). The key elements of this definition are that multiple means can be employed by the bully or bullies, intimidation is the goal, and bullying can happen on a one-on-one or group basis (Nansel et al, 2001). Now that we’ve established a definition for bullying, there are two distinct levels of analysis that will shed light on the behavior and its origins. The first level of analysis is to determine if bullying is a cultural phenomenon. In other words, is bullying unique to US society, or is it widespread across different cultures, from different parts of the world? If bullying is widespread and found throughout different societies, we have to consider that it has a deeper origin than present cultural conditions. In short, we can deepen our analysis of the behavior. Bullying is, in fact, widespread and not restricted to American society, but instead is found across the globe (Smith et al, 2002). From hunter/gatherer groups (Boehm, 2000) to post-industrial Japan, bullying is ubiquitous across human cultures. A 2005 multinational study that spanned 28 countries across North America and Europe revealed how commonplace bullying is and how consistent its effects are (Due et al, 2005). Due et al (2005) used 12 physical and psychological symptoms associated with being bullied to measure the effects of this behavior on the youth in the study. They found that the amount of bullying experienced by kids in those 28 countries varied greatly, with the least severe happening among girls in Sweden and the most severe among boys in Lithuania. However, despite the variation in the amount of bullying, there were no countries where bullying was completely absent. Further, Due et al reported that, “There was a consistent, strong and graded association between bullying and each of 12 physical and psychological symptoms among adolescents in all 28 countries.” (Due et al, 2005). No matter where you go in the world, from the Mbuti of Central Africa (Turnbull, 1961) to Suburban children in the United States (Wang et al, 2009) there are individuals and groups that target others with tactics designed to intimidate, coerce or harm them. In some cases bullying is used to maintain social order and ensure that no one acquires too much dominance, status or personal power. In other cases, bullying is harmful and used to injure others physically, emotionally or socially. These scenarios are two sides of the same coin, and one can easily metamorphose into the other if the power dynamics become skewed in one direction or the other. Despite the variation in the amount and intention of bullying across human cultures one thing is clear, bullying is everywhere. The universality of bullying across human societies indicates that this is a species-typical human behavior that has little to do with the cultures people live in. Bullying, it seems is part of our normal behavioral repertoire, it is part of the human condition. Human universals are important to our understanding of the evolution of behavior in our species (Cosmides & Tooby, 1990). Despite our extensive knowledge of the human fossil record, we can’t directly observe the behaviors of our ancestors. While fossils and ecological reconstructions provide some insights into behavior, modern human and other primates provide important clues as well. When we see modern human behaviors that are universal in nature, it tells us that these behaviors have their origins deep in our evolutionary history. At the very least universal behaviors evolved early on in our species prehistory and they were almost certainly present before humans began migrating around the world and separating into different, sometimes isolated ethnic groups. Bullying is one such behavior. It was there in the hot, seasonal grasslands of southern Africa when the first members of our species took their seminal steps and spoke the original human language, and it has been with us ever since. However, universal behaviors can pre-date a species origin, having been inherited from a previous ancestor. That’s what the next level of analysis can tell us about bullying and its origins. The second level of analysis is to determine if bullying is unique to our species. To do this, we need to look at whether or not bullying is present in other species. Using the definition provided by above, this is a tall order, because that definition requires knowledge of intentionality. Intentions are difficult to identify in other animals because no matter how many times you ask them why they did something, they don’t answer (at least I’ve never gotten an answer from them). However, if we employ the “key elements” of bullying as Nansel defines them, we don’t need to know the intentions of individuals, we just have to determine if the purpose of a particular behavior was to intimidate. By using intimidation as our litmus for bullying, we can, at the very least, test for bullying-like behaviors in other animals, including other primates. If other primates engage in bullying-like behaviors, we have to consider the distinct possibility that bullying itself is deeply rooted in our evolutionary history and predates our own species. When bullying is considered across animals, there is ample evidence that many other animals, including other primates, engage in bullying-like behaviors. Rats and mice are commonly used as models for social stress during different life phases, including adolescence. Studies on these common laboratory rodents indicate that social stress, experienced when one individual repeatedly attacks another or takes resources from them, has immediate and lasting impacts (Kinsey et al, 2007; Vidal et al, 2011). Rats who suffered from bullying-like behaviors were less likely to drink water or consume other resources (Vidal et al, 2011). Mice that suffered repeated social defeats were more anxious and experienced changes in brain chemistry (Kinsey et al, 2007). Bullying-like behaviors extend beyond rodents, and labs, appearing in many species, including other primates. Bullying-like behaviors are found in every major group of primates, and can sometimes be severe. Among baboons, one of the best-known, non-human primates in the world, bullying-like behaviors are common. Baboons are common throughout sub-Saharan Africa and many species live in female-centered societies that are held together by matrilineal bonds that span multiple generations. Groups of related females work together to compete over resources and in doing so regularly gang up on females from other matrilines (Altmann, 1980). Female baboons have large canines (though nowhere near as large as their male counterparts) and their fights can be intense and, occasionally, dangerous. Females who regularly lose fights and are low ranking are more stressed and have lower reproductive success than their higher-ranking group-mates (Sapolsky, 1987). While female baboons are not always bully-like toward one another, they frequently use intimidation and aggression to modify the behaviors of others and to get resources from them (Seyfarth, 1976). Bullying-like behaviors are not restricted to female primates. Chimpanzees live in communities with many males and females and males live in the groups their born into their entire lives. Males also form dominance relationships with each other based on physical power and friendships, which they use in competition over mates. Male chimpanzees regularly intimidate each other with bluffs, displays, charges and aggression, which can range from making another male move from a resting spot to physical violence. One of the areas I focus on in my research is the development of behavior in male chimpanzees, paying particular attention to adolescence. Adolescence is a time of great change and uncertainty for male chimpanzees, when they leave their mothers and enter into the adult male social world. When they do that they enter a world of constant posturing and networking that threatens to erupt into violence at any moment. Much like their human cousins, adolescent male chimpanzees begin at the bottom of the male dominance hierarchy (Goodall, 1986) and have to demonstrate their value as a friend and ally, while growing and putting on muscle mass in order to move up the hierarchy. Because adolescent males are smaller, weaker, less experienced and have to challenge other males in order to become competitive, they make attractive targets for older males, and older adolescents and adults regularly attack them (Sherrow, 2008). In short, adolescent males are almost continually bullied as they attempt to join the male social world. In most cases the bullying-like behaviors experienced by male chimpanzees are temporary and relatively harmless. The most common form of intimidation involves a dominant male puffing himself up, with all of his hair standing on end, and walking toward or by another male. This is usually enough to compel the subordinate, or lower ranking, male to pant grunt (a short “uhh, uhh, uhh” vocalization which is repeated several times and serves to recognize the dominance of another chimpanzee), don a fear grimace and put their hand out in a palm up begging gesture. However, if two males are close in rank or a male fails to adhere to social norms within the community, bullying-like behaviors can become more intense and, on occasion, dangerous. One of the reasons bullying-like behaviors can become so dangerous among male chimpanzees is that they regularly gang up on each other during aggressive interactions in what are called coalitions. On three different occasions, researchers at three different field sites, observed coalitions of adult male chimpanzees attack and kill a male from their group, apparently because they did not adhere to the social norms of the community (Fawcett & Muhumza, 2000; Nishida, 1996; Watts, 2004). One case involved the gang attack and killing of an older male, Ntologi, who had been a particularly despotic alpha male of the Mahale M community for years (Nishida, 1996). In two of the cases young adult males who had not formed good friendships within the community, and were highly aggressive toward older males were beaten, bitten, kicked and drug, until their wounds were so severe that they didn’t survive (Fawcett & Muhumza, 2000; Watts, 2004). On October 29, 2002 David Watts was observing males from the Ngogo chimpanzee community in Kibale National Park in western Uganda, when he observed a gang of adult males attack and kill a young adult male named Grapelli, from their own community. I had spent a lot of time with Grapelli over the previous two years, and had gotten to know him fairly well during that time. He was a striking example of a young male chimpanzee, with distinctive diagonal black markings on a rare, light tan face. He was also one of the biggest, most aggressive chimpanzees at Ngogo and didn’t spend much time with the older, higher ranking males of the community. Instead, Grapelli would go off by himself, for weeks on end, and when he returned he would fight with the other males. Between when Professor Watts left the party of chimpanzees on the night of the 28th and when he caught back up with them on the morning of the 29th, something had snapped in the other males. When he arrived on the scene, the attack was already underway, and a large group of adult males was repeatedly attacking Grapelli, pulling, punching, kicking, dragging and biting him, until he was bloodied and struggling for breath. Grapelli was beaten so badly during the attack that he could barely manage to pull himself into a rudely constructed nest in a low treetop before collapsing. The next day he was missing and it took another eight months before his decomposed body was discovered by two of the Ngogo field assistants. In all three instances the males that were killed appeared to have broken social rules or norms, and bullying-like behaviors that erupted into violence were used to attempt to get them to conform. Among chimpanzee, and many other primate societies, proper socialization and conformity are critical for maintaining social order and consistency, just as they are in humans. Individuals whose behavior challenges, disrupts or are considered unusual are often the targets of aggression, and that aggression continues until those individuals change their behavior. Bullying-like behaviors are not only present in many primate species, they are often utilized to accomplish the same goals. Bullying-like behaviors are used to enhance an individual or coalition’s competitive ability, or to coerce others into changing their behavior to conform to the rest of the community. Bullying-like behaviors provide the individuals who engage in them with advantages over their targets, through enhanced status or access to resources, or both. If this sounds familiar, it’s because humans use bullying behaviors to achieve the same ends. The major differences between the bullying-like behaviors so common in other primates and animals and the bullying that is plaguing the young children of the US and other countries are some of the very traits that are hallmarks of humanity. Humans have taken an ancient behavior that used to provide an advantage in survival and reproduction and altered its intensity and impact through language and culture. While physical bullying is a serious issue and targets of bullying are beaten all too often, humans have intensified and expanded the impact of bullying by incorporating language. Language allows us to communicate abstract ideas, coordinate behaviors and express thoughts and feelings to others. Language also allows us to gossip, and gossiping is a key psychological element in bullying and can have serious, lasting effects (Sharp, 1995). Language, combined with a phenomenal social memory that allows us to remember scores of individuals and their attributes, which we inherited from our primate ancestors, allows bullies to spread rumors about their targets, and inflict harm on them, without putting themselves at risk, physically. Text and online bullying are extensions of this behavior and further remove the bullies themselves from immediate risk. It is not anonymity that texting and online interactions provide, but rather the opportunity for individuals to distance themselves from potential conflict and risk that provides them with a platform to be cruel. Humans have further altered the impact of bullying-like behaviors through cultural practices and norms that celebrate violence and demand conformity to a narrow view of what is acceptable and normal. In the multi-national study mentioned earlier, the most intensive bullying was found in countries where violence and social intolerance are the most commonplace (Due et al, 2005). In the US, views on violence, sexuality and what is normal impact the actions of our youth, and play on our inherent tendencies to coerce others into conformity. We know that humans are incredibly susceptible to suggestion from authority figures and are willing to commit what would otherwise be considered heinous crimes when directed or encouraged to by authority figures (Milgram, 1974). Still, cultures do not “create” bullies and bullies are not found only in those cultures that practice social intolerance and glorify violence. The tendency to bully, or coerce, others is natural and deeply rooted in our evolutionary history, and emerges in any group of toddlers playing freely. However, when cultures condone and in some cases celebrate violence and aggression, while suppressing or demonizing aspects of humanity that are equally natural such as homosexuality, they unwittingly give license to and encourage bullies. Bullying was there during the birth of our species having been inherited from the earliest of our social ancestors. Species ranging from rats to chimpanzees regularly engage in bullying-like behaviors, and those behaviors provide advantages to the individuals who engage in them. However, the combinatory effects of language and culture on bullying in humans have distorted its effects, pushing it beyond individually advantageous to socially venomous. The result has been the crisis we see played out in our schools, shopping malls and social media websites, children and young adults bullying each other with devastating results. While nearly all anti-bullying programs are well-meaning and can show progress in the short term, they fail to get at the root of the problem. Addressing bullying through culturally based social programs is like taking the flowerhead off a milk thistle. You will slow the growth and spread of the plant, but not for long. It is only through incorporating a deeper understanding of the antiquity of a behavior like bullying in our policies that we can hope to alter its impact on society. Like milk thistle, bullying must be pulled up by the root if we hope to remove it from the fields where our children grow and develop. Altmann, J. 1980. Baboon Mothers and Infants. University of Chicago Press. Boehm, C. 1999. Hierarchy in the Forest: The Evolution of Egalitarian Behavior, Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Cosmides, L & Tooby, J. 1990 Evolutionary Psychology: A Primer. Due, P, Holstein, B, Lynch, J, Diderichsen, F, Gabhain, S, Scheidt, P, Currie, C, and The Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children Bullying Working Group* .2005. Bullying and symptoms among school-aged children: international comparative cross sectional study in 28 countries. European Journal of Public Health, Vol. 15, No. 2, 128–132. Fawcett, K. & Muhumza, G. 2000. Death of a Wild Chimpanzee Community Member: Possible Outcome of Intense Sexual Competition. American Journal of Primatology 51:243–247. Goodall, J. 1986. The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior. Harvard University Press. Kinsey, S, Bailey, M, Sheridan, J, Padgett, D, Avitsur, R. 2007. Repeated Social Defeat Causes Increased Anxiety-Like Behavior and Alters Splenocyte Function in C57BL/6 and CD-1 Mice. Brain Behav Immun. May; 21(4): 458–466. Milgram, S. 1974. Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View. Harper. Nansel, T, Overpeck, M, Pilla, R, Ruan, WJ, Simons-Morton, B, Scheidt, P. 2001. Bullying Behaviors Among US Youth: Prevalence and Association With Psychosocial Adjustment. JAMA. 2001;285(16):2094-2100. Nishida, T. 1996. The Death of Ntologi, The Unparalleled Leader of M Group. Pan African News. Vol.3, No.1 Sapolsky, R. M. 1987. Stress, social status, and reproductive physiology in free-living baboons. Psychobiology of reproductive behavior: An evolutionary perspective. In: Psychobiology of reproductive behavior: An evolutionary perspective. Crews, David (Ed), pp. 291-322. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, US: Prentice-Hall, Inc, xii, 350 pp. Seyfarth, R. 1976. Social relationships among adult female baboons. Animal Behaviour 24, 917-938. Sharp, S. 1995. How much does bullying hurt? The effects of bullying on the personal wellbeing and educational progress of secondary aged students. Educational and Child Psychology, Vol 12(2), 81-88. Sherrow, H. M. 2008. Variation in and ontogeny of social behavior in young male chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) at Ngogo, Kibale National Park, Uganda. Ph.D. Thesis. Yale University. Smith, P, Cowie, H, Olafsson, R, & Liefooghe, A. 2002. Definitions of bullying: A comparison of terms used, and age and sex differences, in a 14-country international comparison. Child Development, 73, 1119–1133. Turnbull, C. 1961. The Forest People. Simon & Schuster. Vidal, J, Buwalda, B, Koolhaas, J. 2011. Differential long-term effects of social stress during adolescence on anxiety in Wistar and wild-type rats. Behavioural Processes, Volume 87, Issue 2, June 2011, Pages 176-182. Wang, J, Iannotti, R, Nansel, T. 2009. School Bullying Among Adolescents in the United States: Physical, Verbal, Relational, and Cyber. Journal of Adolescent Health, Volume 45, Issue 4, 368-375. Watts, D. 2004. Intracommunity coalitionary killing of an adult male chimpanzee at Ngogo, Kibale National Park, Uganda. Int J Primatol 25: 507–521.

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2013-05-24T16:18:51Z

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Little Wabash Project Diane Burns, Ph.D. and Dave Viertel, Ph.D. Geologically-speaking, rivers are extremely dynamic, cutting back and forth and re-inscribing their channel paths into the underlying and laterally adjacent sediments numerous times over the years. Rivers are continuous eroders of bedrock as well as bank material, constantly reshaping the landscapes through which they course. Through time, a river’s channel can move a fair distance laterally – a change of 750 meters’ distance is not uncommon. While these lateral changes in a protected wilderness area may be interesting, course changes in an area with distinct ownership rights become a critical issue to landholders. The Little Wabash River in east-central to southern Illinois is a meandering river that has its headwaters in southwestern Coles County and which flows southward approximately 200 miles to its confluence with the Wabash River. The river cuts through unconsolidated glacial deposits of the Illinoian Glasford and Wisconsinan Wedron Formations, which are draped over underlying bedrock. The river changes in elevation a little over 350 feet between its highest and lowest points, which are approximately 110 miles apart (Limno-Tech, Inc. 2006), a gradient of 3.2 ft/mi. The watershed in which the Little Wabash River flows is primarily devoted to agricultural uses, yielding crops such as soybean, corn, winter wheat and hay (IL Department of Agriculture, 2000). The river wends its way across distinct land holdings, many of which are not owned by the same entity on both sides of the river. Any change in the stream’s pathway means a loss or gain of acreage directly impacting landowners adjacent to the channel. The historical channel of the Little Wabash River will be delineated using archival aerial photography dating back to the 1930’s. Sources include the Illinois Geospatial Data Clearinghouse, USDA aerial surveys, and hardcopy imagery archived at the county level. The historical path of the river will be compared to the current channel as determined by high resolution multispectral satellite imagery and field surveys. Results will be presented as an animated geospatial dataset, demonstrating the dynamic nature of the river system.

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http://castle.eiu.edu/~geoscience/geol-project-20100819.php

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To continue the overview of basic HTML this entry will look at formatting and style tags for text and copy. The following HTML tags allow you to emulate the formatting and style of a word processor for text and copy displayed on the web. Three common text style are Bold, Italic and Underline. Using your text editor open the index.html file you created for the previous post. First, make any instance of the acronym “HTML” bold by adding the bold tag as follows. Next, make the term “Hyper Text Markup Language” italic by adding the italic tag. Finally, you can draw attention to a word, phrase or paragraph by utilizing the underline tag. Save your work and then open the file in your web browser to see the results. Some additional formatting tags are: Copy the following and paste into your text editor. <h3>Some additional tags:</h3> <em>Emphasis</em> - <em> <strong>Strong</strong> - <strong> <strike>Strike through</strike> - <strike> <big>Big Text</big> - <big> <small>Small text</small> - <small> <q>Short Quotation</q> - <q> _Subscript - <sub> ^Superscript - <sup> Save your work and refresh the document in you web browser. Note the formatting for each of the tags, but also note that the list is displayed “inline” like paragraph text. The copy should be displayed as a list and that’s where ordered and unordered list tags can come in handy. An ordered list will display items vertically and assign numbers to them. An unordered list will display items vertically as a bulleted list. Lists are generated using two tags together. First are the ordered or unordered list tags, <ol> for ordered lists and <ul> for unordered list. Then, each item in the list is assigned a “List Item” tag or <li> The <li> tags are “nested with in the <ol> or <ul> tags. In HTML a list without content will appear like this: <ol> <li></li> <li></li> <li></li> </ol> Or <ul> <li></li> <li></li> <li></li> </ul> Repeat the <li> tag as needed for more list items. Lets use the format sample tags to create a list. This list has no particular hierarchy so an unordered list is appropriate. First create the opening and closing <ul> tags. Then add the list item tags. A quick way to do this would be to copy/paste the opening <li> tag then copy/paste the closing </li> tag. <ul> <li><em>Emphasis</em> - <em></li> <li><strong>Strong</strong> - <strong></li> <li><strike>Strike through</strike> - <strike></li> <li><big>Big Text</big> - <big></li> <li><small>Small text</small> - <small></li> <li><q>Short Quotation</q> - <q></li> <li>_Subscript - <sub></li> <li>^Superscript - <sup></li> </ul> Please note the opening and closing <li> tags go around the entire list item including it’s formatting tags. Save your work and refresh your web browser to see the results. As a quick side note the “less than <” and “greater than >” symbols define the opening and closing of a given tag in HTML. So, some special treatment is needed to make them render as text on the screen so the following combination of keyboard characters will be interpreted as text. < = “less than <” and > = “greater than >”. The above side note provides a good opportunity to explore the <blockquote> tag for paragraph text. Blockquote will indent text to indicate that the text is different from normal paragraph copy. Copy/paste the text into your text editor and add the <blockquote> tags. Save your work and view it in your browser. For part three of the Basic HTML series we will look at the proper use of tables for the web. The last part of the series, Basic HTML Part 4, will explore images and hyperlinks. So stay tuned and, always close your tags!

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http://cfcc.edu/blogs/webresources/2009/07/17/basic-html-part-2/

2013-05-24T16:10:43Z

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|Castillo de San Marcos (Fort Marion)| St. Augustine, Florida The Confederacy already had decided to evacuate positions all along its southeastern coast in favor of strengthening key points and developing an interior system of defense. The concept was developed by General Robert E. Lee of Virginia. He had not yet ascended to the command of the Army of Northern Virginia and was then commanding in East Florida, Georgia and the Carolinas. |Castillo de San Marcos National Monument| The departure of the Confederate troops from St. Augustine took place 150 years ago today (March 10, 1862). Behind they left a city filled with civilians, many of whom were highly displeased that their community was being abandoned to the Union Navy. This sentiment was particularly prominent among the women of St. Augustine: |St. Francis Barracks in St. Augustine, Florida| So angry were the women of St. Augustine that their city and the ancient ramparts of the Castillo de San Marcos (then called Fort Marion) were being left undefended that they gathered in front of the city's St. Francis Barracks on the night of March 10th: ...On the night before our arrival a party of women assembled in front of the barracks and cut down the flagstaff in order that it might not be used to support the old flag. The men seemed anxious to conciliate in every way. - C.R.P. Rogers, U.S. Navy, March 13, 1862. The Union Navy would arrive in St. Augustine the next day. I will post on the 150th anniversary of that event tomorrow, so be sure to check back then. You can read more about the historic city of St. Augustine anytime at www.exploresouthernhistory.com/staugustine1.

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ClimateTechWiki has been created to offer up-to-date and updatable information about technologies for mitigation and adaptation. It is a supporting tool for the Handbook for Conducting Technology Needs Assessment for Climate Change , developed by UNDP and the UNFCCC Secretariat. It also addresses a broader audience of practitioners, project developers, and policy makers interested in technologies for climate change mitigation and adaptation. ClimateTechWiki aims at offering technology descriptions in a structured way with fixed headings so that technologies can be compared and assessed easily. Technology descriptions provide information on how a technology works, on its feasibility in different contexts, on market status and market potential, contribution to socio-economic development and environmental protection and on costs.

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Defeat at Dogali, 1887April 8, 2012 0 Comments The battle of Dogali by Michele Cammarano. The Negus Negasti Menelik II and his high command, in an engraving made at about the time of the battle of Adowa. While these men wear lion’s-mane headdresses and elaborately embroidered silk robes, and carry decorated shields, note that they are armed with rifles. Before March 1896 the Italians often mistook Ethiopian adherence to tradition for an inability to embrace useful technologies. The Emperor Yohannes IV of Ethiopia resented being cut off from the sea by this new Italian incursion. Tensions arose, especially in 1887, when the Italians decided to strengthen their position by pushing inland and taking over the villages of Ua-à and Zula. The local lord, Ras Alula, demanded that the Italians leave, and when they failed to do so he gathered 25,000 warriors. On 25 January 1887 he attacked the fort at Saati, held by 167 Italians and 1,000 native troops, but found it too strong to take. He had better luck the next day, when he attacked a relief column heading for the fort. Led by LtCol De Cristoforis, this force consisted of 500 Italians, 50 native irregulars, and two machine guns. Ras Alula ambushed them at Dogali with about 10,000 warriors; the Italian machine guns soon jammed, and the relief force was surrounded and cut 4 down. The Italians lost 23 officers and 407 men killed, one officer and 81 men wounded. The Italians estimated that Ras Alula lost 1,000 warriors at the battle of Dogali, although this is debatable. The Italians quickly vacated the contested villages, as well as the fort at Saati. This defeat led to a massive Italian reinforcement of what would become their colony of Eritrea. By the end of 1887 troops in the colony numbered 18,000, of whom only 2,000 were natives, and an arms embargo on Ethiopia was in place. The military governor, Gen Di San Marzano, fortified Massawa, retook the inland villages and fort, and began building more forts on the border and at key internal sites. He also started building a railway from Massawa to Saati, to exploit the region’s mineral wealth. By the end of March 1888, the Emperor Yohannes and Ras Alula were negotiating peace with the Italians. The colony continued to strengthen and expand, and in October 1888 the first units of ascari were formed. These native battalions were mostly drawn from the Eritrean population, along with Sudanese gunners, and they replaced the irregular Turkish and local mercenaries that the Italians had previously employed. The Italians’ next challenge came from the loosely structured Mahdiyya army in the Sudan. The Mahdi claimed to be the new prophet of Islam, and his devout followers drawn from disparate peoples made great gains against the British-sponsored Egyptians and neighbouring tribes. There had been a longstanding rivalry between these Muslim warriors and the mostly Christian Ethiopians. Emperor Yohannes campaigned against the Dervishes, but, while at first successful, he was defeated and fatally wounded at the battle of Metemma on 9 March 1889. The Italians took advantage of Yohannes’ absence on campaign to push further inland, taking the Tigréan provinces of Hamacen, Okule-Kasai, and Serae; these would become the principal territories of the future colony, and modern nation, of Eritrea. On his deathbed, Yohannes declared his nephew Ras Mangasha as his ‘natural son’ and successor, but Mangasha faced powerful rivals for the throne. The most prominent was Menelik of Shewa – the region surrounding the capital, Addis Ababa – who had stayed neutral in the struggle between Yohannes and the Italians in return for Italian guns. Ruling over the populous and fertile central part of the country, Menelik had tens of thousands of warriors at his command, and was already in secret negotiations with the Italians to consolidate his political position. When Yohannes named Ras Mangasha as his heir, Menelik proclaimed himself Negus Negasti on 26 March 1889. The Italians supported Menelik, and on 2 May 1889 the two parties signed the Treaty of Wuchale. This recognized Menelik II as emperor, while in return Menelik conceded most of the land that Italy had already occupied. The treaty also declared a permanent friendship between the two parties, and set up trade connections. However, one contentious clause guaranteed that this treaty would eventually fail. Article 17 stated, in the Italian version, that Italy would control Ethiopia’s external affairs; the Amharic version said that Menelik could choose whether or not to ask the Italians to act on his behalf, but was not required to do so. It is unclear why the wording was different; the Ethiopians said it was a trick, while the Italians blamed the Ethiopian translator. Whoever was to blame, Article 17 soon caused trouble. When Menelik sent letters to England and Germany announcing his accession to the throne, he was told that since the Italians controlled Ethiopia’s foreign affairs these messages should have gone through them. He wrote in protest to King Umberto of Italy, and when he failed to get satisfaction he openly renounced the treaty in February 1893.

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Though many later cities have Roman substrata, in few cases is there evidence of continuous habitation, let alone functional continuity. The 6th and 7th centuries were the nadir of urban life in the region. Exceptions included Huy and Maastricht, moneying and administrative centres associated with the extension of Frankish power north towards Friesland; other urban nuclei were provided by bishop's seats, Merovingian manors, and abbeys. The 8th and 9th centuries saw more activity in the Scheldt valley, linked to trading emporia on the coast, and Viking raids "did not cause a long interruption in the evolution of the settlements to cities". Urban developments were typically around abbeys or manors, with their attached artisans and associated markets; there is some evidence of international trade and wool and textile production. The different terms used for settlements are revealing: civitas (a Roman administrative centre), castrum (a fortified area), portus (a commercial settlement on a river), vicus, burg, and so forth. In the 10th and 11th centuries, the Scheldt valley and Flanders led the way, with increasing numbers of towns as well as expansion of existing ones, seen in the succession of town walls and the creation of new urban parishes. Towns often show evidence for dual centres, one outside a castle or abbey, the other an associated trade settlement. This period also saw the beginnings of urban development in Brabant. With better documentation, in the 11th and 12th centuries we can follow something of the processes of emancipation and industrialisation and the evolution of merchants' guilds, sworn communes, the Flemish metal and cloth industries, and foreign trade. Comparisons with Italian communes are revealing (here Verhulst critiques Pirenne) and links with Italy in trade and finance were important. Among the key factors in urbanisation were the social changes associated with the end of the manorial system. Verhulst writes: "the foundations of the medieval town as we known them in north-west Europe in the late Middle Ages ... were laid during the three crucial centuries which in other respects too determined the face of late medieval and early modern Europe, namely the tenth, eleventh and twelfth centuries. Here we can go along with Pirenne ... the concentration of wealth in the hands of certain social groups or classes was indeed fundamental."The geography of the region, with good communications and agricultural potential, and its political history, with fragmented power centres, were also important factors in its precocious urban development.

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Frequently Asked Questions What is FASD? FASD stands for Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders. It refers to the effects on children’s development that can occur when alcohol is consumed during pregnancy. Conditions that fall into the category of FASD may include learning or behavior disabilities, and sometimes physical effects such as smaller growth or characteristics facial features. Is that like Fetal Alcohol Syndrome? Yes, Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) is a birth defect under the heading of FASD. FASD also includes other classifications. How do I know if a child has FASD? A clinical diagnosis is the best way. If that is not possible right away, this checklist can also help. Remember, a child with developmental difficulties similar to those caused by FASD may benefit from strategies useful for children with FASD even if prenatal alcohol exposure cannot be confirmed. What is Families Moving Forward? The Families Moving Forward (FMF) Program is a positive parenting intervention designed to help families raising children between 4 and 12 years old who have behavior problems… and FASD (or were heavily alcohol-exposed). Tell me more about Families Moving Forward. The FMF Program model is a behavioral consultation intervention that combines a positive behavior support (PBS) approach with motivational interviewing and other scientifically-validated treatment techniques. Who delivers the FMF Program? The FMF intervention is delivered individually to families by FMF Specialists who have received training and have access to consultation. FMF Specialists are usually mental health professionals, but could also be child development experts, experienced family advocates, or some other kind of specialist. How does FMF work? The caregiver meets with the specialist for a series of coaching sessions addressing issues involved with raising children with FASD or affected by prenatal alcohol exposure. Each session lasts about 90 minutes and the overall program lasts 9-11 months. The session topics are designed to be addressed in a particular order, but the sessions can also be customized to suit the needs of individual families. What are the principles used in the FMF Program? FMF is based on the idea that children with FASD have brain-based difficulties -- neurological impairments -- that are the underlying cause of many learning and behavioral problems. Caregivers learn concepts such as "reframing" and "accommodations" which help them change their own attitudes and how they manage the child, which leads to improvements in the child's behavior. Information presented on this website is for educational purposes only. Website content is not meant as a substitute for clinical advice or professional guidance. Images are used with permission. Images may not represent particular individuals or situations discussed in articles. Where do I begin to tell this story? I honestly feel that I’ve been inspired and touched by each of the families affected with FASD with whom I’ve worked, and that each family has their own compelling story.

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http://depts.washington.edu/fmffasd/FAQ

2013-05-24T16:17:01Z

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en

take down a notch Also, take down a peg. Deflate or humble someone, as in He's so arrogant that I wish someone would take him down a notch, or That defeat took them down a peg. Both notch and peg in this idiom allude to a series, the former of indentations, the latter of knobs, used to raise or lower something. Specifically, peg alludes to the pegs used to lower a ship's colors. Their figurative use dates from the second half of the 1600s. Also see cut down, def. 4. |a children's mummer's parade, as on the Fourth of July, with prizes for the best costumes.| |an arrangement of five objects, as trees, in a square or rectangle, one at each corner and one in the middle.|

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http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/take+down+a+notch

2013-05-24T16:46:59Z

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en

Copper occurs in three minerals: chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), chalcosite (Cu2S), and malachite or verdigris (Cu(OH)2.2CuCO3). The latter is oxidized from the first two and is bluish-green. Chalcopyrite, colored brassy gold, resembles fool's gold and is found in veins in Desmoinesian and older rocks in the Ozark, Ouachita, Arbuckle, and Wichita mountains. It has not been mined commercially. Chalcosite is dark brown and occurs in sheets and lenses in red beds of Pennsylvanian, Permian, and Triassic ages in western Oklahoma. One chalcosite deposit, of Permian age, was mined near Creta, in southwestern Jackson County. From 1965 to 1976 Eagle-Picher Industries strip-mined a six- to twelve-inch-thick copper shale in the Flowerpot Formation. The bed averaged 1.8 to 2.2 percent copper, with some silver. About 1.5 million tons of ore was processed before the operation ceased due to copper's low price. Another chalcosite deposit occurs in Triassic red beds of northwestern Cimarron County, near Black Mesa, and adjacent parts of Union County, New Mexico, and Baca County, Colorado. From 1884 to 1925 approximately two hundred mines were dug in this area, with about fourteen mines in Cimarron County. Chalcosite is disseminated in the Sheep Pen Sandstone along an unconformity at the top of the Triassic. The ore averaged less than 1 percent copper, with high-grade samples as high as 41 percent copper, with some silver and gold. The sandstone averaged about ten feet thick, with deep fillings in cracks two hundred feet deep. A mill was erected in Baca County, from which the ore was shipped to Pueblo, Colorado for smelting. About ten thousand tons of ore was mined in Oklahoma. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Robert O. Fay, Bibliography of Copper Occurrences in Pennsylvanian and Permian Red Beds and Associated Rocks in Oklahoma, Texas, and Kansas, 1805-1996 (Norman: Oklahoma Geological Survey, 2000). Robert O. Fay, "Copper Deposits in Sheep Pen Sandstone (Triassic) in Cimarron County, Oklahoma, and Adjacent Parts of Colorado and New Mexico," Oklahoma Geological Survey Circular 86 (Norman: Oklahoma Geological Survey, 1983). Robert O. Fay and Douglas C. Brockie, Metallic-mineral Resources of Oklahoma (Norman: Oklahoma Geological Survey, 2002). Robert O. Fay © Oklahoma Historical Society

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http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/C/CO058.html

2013-05-24T16:44:39Z

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Postprint version. Published in Environmental Pollution, Volume 84, Issue 3, January 1, 1994, pages 227-235. Copyright © 1994 Elsevier. NOTE: At the time of publication, the author G.S.P. Ritchie was not yet affiliated with Cal Poly. The definitive version is available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0269-7491(94)90133-3. Phosphorus (P) in wastes from piggeries may contribute to the eutrophication of waterways if not disposed of appropriately. Phosphorus leaching, from three soils with different P sorption characteristics (two with low P retention and one with moderate P retention) when treated with piggery effluent (with or without struvite), was investigated using batch and leaching experiments. The leaching of P retained in soil from the application of struvite effluent was determined. In addition, P leaching from lime residues (resulting from the treatment of piggery effluent with lime to remove P) was determined in comparison to superphosphate when applied to the same three soils. Most P was leached from sandy soils with low P retention when effluent with or without struvite was applied. More than 100% of the filterable P applied in struvite effluent was leached in sandy soils with low P retention. Solid, inorganic forms of P (struvite) became soluble and potentially leachable at pH < 7 or were sorbed after dissolution if there were sufficient sorption sites. In sandy soils with low P retention, more than 39% of the total filterable P applied in recycled effluent (without struvite) was leached. Soil P increased mainly in surface layers after treatment with effluent. Sandy soils pre-treated with struvite effluent leached 40% of the P retained in the previous application. Phosphorus decreased in surface layers and increased at depth in the soil with moderate P retention after leaching the struvite effluent pre-treated soil with water. The soils capacity to adsorb P and the soil pH were the major soil properties that affected the rate and amount of P leaching, whereas the important characteristics of the effluent were pH, P concentration and the forms of P in the effluent. Phosphorus losses from soils amended with hydrated lime and lime kiln dust residues were much lower than losses from soils amended with superphosphate. Up to 92% of the P applied as superphosphate was leached from sandy soils with low P retention, whereas only up to 60% of the P applied in lime residues was leached. The P source contributing least to P leaching was the lime kiln dust residue. The amount of P leached depended on the water-soluble P content, netralising value and application rate of the P source, and the pH and P sorption capacity of the soil. Food Science | Nutrition

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http://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/fsn_fac/44/

2013-05-24T16:09:41Z

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For decades, scientists have been listening to whales and dolphins, trying to understand what they’re saying. Now, the public — people like you and I — are being invited to work with them in a unique new research project called Whale FM. Over 16,000 recorded vocalizations by Killer whales and Pilot whales await analysis. Volunteers are needed to listen to whale call audio segments, to identify similar-sounding calls from different individuals. This work will help scientists characterize different types of calls, taking us a few steps closer to understanding whale conversations. Whale FM is the latest citizen science project at Zooniverse, created in collaboration with Scientific American, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution in Massachusetts, and the Sea Mammal Research Unit (SMRU) at the University of St. Andrews in Scotland. In a press release announcing the Whale FM project, its principal scientist, Peter Tyack of the University of St. Andrews, said, Only a few researchers have categorized whale calls. By asking hundreds of people to make similar judgments, we will learn how reliable the categories are, and they get the fun of hearing these amazing sounds. Past research in categorizing calls have revealed that Killer whales have a diverse repertoire that’s used for communication, navigation, and feeding. Scientists were surprised to find that different Killer whale pods have their own “dialects.” Much less is known about Pilot whales; the researchers who created Whale FM hope to harness the collective efforts of citizen scientists to better understand what Pilot whales are saying to each other. Many of the whale call recordings were obtained using ”D-Tags,” temporary tags that are suction-cupped to the base of a whale’s dorsal fin. Each tag is equipped with a hydrophone (underwater microphone) that records vocalizations of its host whale and other nearby whales, as well as motion sensors that record underwater activities such as dive depths. Whales are not harmed by these non-invasive tags that are designed to detach after about 30 minutes. Scientists also use hydrophone arrays, that’s several hydrophones strung together, to eavesdrop on whales. The arrays, deployed from ships or connected to buoys, pick up all sounds in the ocean. Specialized software processes these sounds to isolate whale calls, even determining the direction of the calls. In some instances, information about the location of a calling whale and it movements can be extracted from the hydrophone array data. For volunteers, the hub of this project is the Whale FM website. There, they’re presented with a recorded call and a map showing the whale’s location at the time of the recording. Volunteers are asked to listen to other recordings, displayed below the main whale call audio clip, to determine if any of them sound similar to the main call. Similar-sounding calls are flagged by the volunteer and stored for further analysis by scientists. (If you decide to give it a try, I highly recommend reviewing their tutorial to familiarize yourself with the nuances of whale calls.) Whales and dolphins have a diverse repertoire of calls for communicating with others of their kind. But what are they saying? With the help of volunteers combing through the voluminous data of Killer whale and Pilot whale vocalizations, call patterns will begin to emerge, allowing scientists to determine the extent of the “vocabulary” for each species, including population-related dialects.

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http://earthsky.org/earth/what-are-whales-talking-about-help-find-out

2013-05-24T16:24:01Z

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Edward L. Glaeser is an economics professor at Harvard. For much of its early existence, our species spread out. Many millennia ago, we left our primordial homes in search of places where fewer people were competing over nature’s abundance. In the 19th century, settlers extended across North America to get access to Iowa’s rich soil and Montana’s mines. But now humanity is marked more by concentration than by spread. In 2007, one-half of the world’s population became officially urban. One-third of Americans inhabit just 16 large metropolitan areas, which collectively use only a tiny fraction of the country’s land mass. Given the vastness of the globe, why do human beings choose to live so close to one another? Understanding the appeal of proximity — the economic advantages of agglomeration — helps make sense of the past and future of cities. If people still clustered together primarily to reduce the costs of moving manufactured goods, then cities would become increasingly irrelevant as transportation costs continue to decline. If cities serve, as I believe, primarily, to connect people and enable them to learn from one another, than an increasingly information-intensive economy will only make urban density more valuable. About 30 months ago, the National Bureau of Economic Research convened a conference on the economics of agglomeration and the fruits of that conference were just published. As I edited the volume and strongly believe in the quality of its contents, I’m going to draw from it in a couple of blog posts. Perhaps the clearest reason why people cluster together in cities is that wages and productivity rise with density. The figure shows the 25 percent correlation between the logarithms of population density and 2008 gross metropolitan product per capita (using 2000 Census population numbers). Per capita productivity increases by 4 percent as population density rises by 50 percent. But why does productivity rise with density? The first essay in the book, by Pierre-Philippe Combes, Gilles Duranton, Laurent Gobillon and Sébastian Roux, attacks this productivity puzzle using data on more than eight million French male workers. They are concerned with two potential sources of bias. First, it may be that productivity is causing density, instead of density causing productivity. Here’s how the four co-authors try to deal with this potential problem. They argue that longstanding geological features of an area — like the quality of a city’s soil — should have little direct impact on productivity in a developed economy today. If they are right, then natural geographic attributes would affect current productivity only indirectly, by increasing population density over time. Researchers can therefore use historical data to try to correct for this reverse causality. They find that the productivity-density link drops little after making this correction. A second problem is that more skilled people might choose to live in more dense areas. Across American metropolitan areas, there is a modest (25 percent) correlation between area density and the share of the population with college degrees. To address this issue, the co-authors first control for other types of characteristics of workers and industries. Their more high-powered approach looks at people who migrate from one place to another, and then asks whether wages rise or fall when people move into different metropolitan areas. By looking only at the wage changes that come with mobility, they are able to correct for aspects of workers’ skill sets and abilities that aren’t captured by years of education. In their data, they find that about one-third of the connection between density and productivity disappears with this movers-based estimation, which suggests that workers’ ability (beyond what degree they’ve earned) is important. I found an even larger change when I started using this approach more than 15 years ago, but interpreting these results is tricky. If cities enable the accumulation of skills, then the movers’ data will understate the true effects of density. If cities are machines for learning, as suggested by the fact that wages rise more quickly in cities, then a young person who moves from rural India to Bangalore won’t become instantly more productive. The result on the wage gains of movers suggest that some of the productivity differences across space may reflect the selection of more skilled people into cities. But in my opinion, they somewhat overcorrect, and eliminate the impact that cities have on learning. As such, they may be something of a lower bound on the true connection between productivity and density. Other essays in the volume focus on the changing nature of agglomeration economies. Jed Kolko writes about services, which now dominate most United States urban areas. Mr. Kolko highlights a fundamental difference between manufacturing and services. For manufacturing firms it doesn’t much matter if suppliers or customers are in the same ZIP code or the same state. Goods are cheap to move. But services seem tied to suppliers and customers that are in the same ZIP code. Since face-to-face contact is so much a part of service provision, they are drawn to the extreme densities of cities. In the penultimate essay in the book, Giacomo Ponzetto and I ask, “Did the Death of Distance Hurt Detroit and Help New York?” Improvements in transportation and communication costs made it cost-effective to manufacture in low-cost areas, which led to the decline of older industrial cities like Detroit. But those same changes also increased the returns to innovation, and the free flow of ideas in cities make them natural hubs of innovation. Since the death of distance increased the scope for new innovation, idea-intensive innovating cities were helped by the same forces that hurt goods-producing cities. Humanity is a social species and our greatest gift is our ability to learn from one another. Cities thrive by enabling that learning, and they have become only more important as knowledge has become more valuable. Understanding what makes cities work is more important than ever.

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http://economix.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/04/13/why-humanity-loves-and-needs-cities/

2013-05-24T16:09:41Z

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Disparate Impact Discrimination Federal and state employment laws such as Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibit intentional discrimination against people on a number grounds, such as their race or gender. But employment practices that have no discriminatory intent, yet have a disproportionately negative impact on protected classes of individuals are said to have a disparate impact and are still prohibited by law, with some important exceptions. Still, this means that a given practice may discriminate against a given group even if the employer had no intention of doing so. Disparate impact discrimination is a legal theory first recognized by the courts. In addressing a Title VII discrimination case, the U.S. Supreme Court said that the burden of proof shifted to the employer once the employee (past or present) or job applicant was able to prove that a particular employment practice caused a disparate impact on their protected class. The Civil Rights Act of 1991 later amended Title VII, clarifying that once an employee establishes the existence of a disparate impact from an employment practice, the employer must then prove that such practice is "job-related for the position in question and consistent with business necessity." Lawsuits based on the disparate impact theory often stem from layoffs, pre-employment skills testing, or other employment-related actions that impact a wide sample of individuals. The first U.S. Supreme Court case addressing the issue involved a company's high school diploma requirement for screening labor applicants. Although the employer was not acting intentionally, this requirement excluded a substantially higher number of African-American applicants than it did Caucasians. Proving discrimination on the basis of disparate impact is generally difficult, especially since there is no single specific threshold or test. Therefore, each claim is decided on a case-by-case basis and may require considerable statistical analysis. Age-related disparate impact discrimination cases are often even more difficult because different laws apply to protect individuals from discrimination on the basis of age. Under these laws, employees can still establish age discrimination on the basis of a disparate impact, but the law provides more leniency to employers defending their practices.

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http://employment.findlaw.com/employment-discrimination/disparate-impact-discrimination.html

2013-05-24T16:17:58Z

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Monday, June 04, 2012 | 9:10 PM Today, June 5th, is World Environment Day. Its celebration began in 1972 at a UN (United Nations) conference. The aim of this conference was to raise worldwide awareness concerning the environment. Do you know what environment means? According to Wikipedia, it is: "The biotic and abiotic surrounding of an organisms, or population, and includes particularly the factors that have an influence in their survival, development and evolution." Regardless of the definition you choose, you must understand that preserving the environment today is essential for a healthy, natural resource rich planet tomorrow. So then, shall we begin? Posted by Koji Pereira, Google Designer

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http://en.blog.orkut.com/2012/06/world-environment-day.html

2013-05-24T16:31:06Z

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Quebec sovereignty movement The Quebec sovereignty movement (French: Mouvement souverainiste du Québec) refers to both the political movement and the ideology of values, concepts and ideas that promote the secession of the province of Quebec from the rest of Canada. While some historic affiliations to the movement suggested a violent, militarist revolution for the creation of a separate country, most groups seek to use negotiation-based diplomatic interventions, which would eventually lead to Quebec becoming a country. In 2012 the secessionist Parti Québécois was elected again to a minority government, with Pauline Marois becoming the first woman to be Premier of Quebec. In practice, "separatist" and "sovereignist" are terms used to describe individuals wanting the province of Quebec to separate from Canada to become a country of its own. Justifications for Quebec's sovereignty include its unique culture and French-speaking majority (80%). Eight of the other Canadian provinces are overwhelmingly (greater than 90%) English-speaking, while New Brunswick is officially bilingual and about one-third Francophone. Another rationale is based on resentment of anti-Quebec sentiment. With regard to the creation of the sovereignist movement, language issues were but a sub-stratum of larger cultural, social and political differences. Many scholars point to historical events as framing the cause for ongoing support for sovereignty in Quebec, while more contemporary politicians may point to the aftermath of more recent developments like the Canada Act of 1982, the Meech Lake Accord or the Charlottetown Accord. Tension between the francophone, Catholic population of Quebec and the largely anglophone, Protestant population of the rest of Canada has been a central theme of Canadian history, shaping the early territorial and cultural divisions of the country that persist to this day. Supporters of sovereignty for Quebec believe that the current relationship between Quebec and the rest of Canada does not reflect Quebec's best social, political and economic development interests. Moreover, many subscribe to the notion that without appropriately recognizing that the people of Quebec are culturally distinct, Quebec will remain chronically disadvantaged in favour of the English-Canadian majority. There is also the question of whether the French language can survive within the geographic boundaries of Quebec and where French-Canadian society and culture fits into what is an increasingly multicultural country. Further, given Canada's founding as a French colony and the constant and consistent influence of French-Canadian culture and society on Canada's historical development, it becomes increasingly difficult to determine whether Canada could exist at all without Quebec. Separatists and Independentists are generally opposed to some aspects of the federal system in Canada and do not believe it can be reformed in a way that could satisfy the needs of Quebec's French-speaking majority. A key component in the argument in favour of overt political independence is that new legislation and a new system of governance could best secure the future development of modern Québécois culture. Additionally, there is wide-ranging debate about defence, monetary policy, currency, international-trade and relations after independence and whether a renewed federalism would give political recognition to the Quebec nation (along with the other 'founding' peoples, including Canadian First Nations, the Inuit, and the British) could satisfy the historic disparities between these cultural "nations" and create a more cohesive and egalitarian Canada. Several attempts at reforming the federal system in Canada have thus far failed because of, particularly, the conflicting interests between Quebec's representatives and the other provincial governments' representatives. There is also a degree of resistance throughout Quebec and the rest of Canada to re-opening a constitutional debate, in part because of the nature of these failures—not all of which were the result simply of sovereignists and federalists not getting along. To cite one case, in a recent round of constitutional reform, Elijah Harper, an aboriginal leader from Manitoba, was able to prevent ratification of the agreement in the provincial legislature, arguing that the accord did not address the interests of Canada's aboriginal population. This was a move to recognize that other provinces represent distinct cultural entities, such as the aboriginal population in Canada's Prairies or the people of Newfoundland (which contains significant and culturally distinct French-Canadian, English-Canadian, Irish-Canadian and Aboriginal cultures- and many more). Contemporary politics Perhaps the most significant basis of support for Quebec's sovereignty movement lies in more recent political events. For practical purposes, many political pundits use the political career and efforts of René Lévesque as a marker for the beginnings of what is now considered the contemporary movement, although more broadly accepted consensus appears on the contemporary movement finding its origins in a period called the Quiet Revolution. René Lévesque, architect of the first referendum on sovereignty, claimed a willingness to work for change in the Canadian framework after the federalist victory in the referendum of 1980. This approach was dubbed le beau risque ("the beautiful risk"), and it led to many ministers of the Lévesque's government to resign in protest. The 1982 patriation of the Canadian Constitution did not solve the issue in the point of view of the majority of sovereignists. The constitutional amendment of 1982 was agreed to by representatives from 9 of the 10 provinces (with René Lévesque abstaining). Although it has not been ratified by the Province of Quebec, the constitution applies to all citizens of Canada and is integral to the political and legal systems used in Quebec. See patriation for further details. There are numerous possible reasons the 'Yes' campaign went down to defeat. The economy of Quebec suffered measurably following the election of the sovereignist Parti Québécois and continued to during the course of the campaign. The Canadian dollar lost much of its value and, during coverage of the dollar's recovery against U.S. currency, there were repeated citations of the referendum and political instability caused by it cited as cause for the fall. Some suggest there were promises of constitutional reform to address outstanding political issues between the province and the federal government both before and since without any sign of particularly greater expectation those promises would be filled to any greater or lesser degree. There remains no conclusive evidence that the sovereignty movement derives significant support today because of anything that was promised back in the 1970s. Proponents of the sovereignty movement sometimes suggest that many people in Quebec feel "bad" for believing the constitutional promises that the federal government and Pierre Trudeau made just before the 1980 Quebec referendum. The constitutional reform promises made by Trudeau and the federal government were not delivered on paper or agreed upon in principle by the federal government or the other provincial governments. But one conclusion that appears to be universal is that one event in particular – dubbed "the night of the long knives" – energized the sovereignist movement during the 1980s. This event involved a "back-room" deal, struck between Trudeau, representing the federal government, and all of the other provinces, save Quebec. It was here that Trudeau was able to gain agreement on the content of the constitutional amendment, while the separatist premier René Lévesque was simply left out. And it may well be that a certain number of Quebecers did and may even now feel "bad" both about the nature of that deal and how Trudeau (a Quebecer himself) went about reaching it. Regardless of Quebec government's refusal to approve the 1982 constitutional amendment because the promised reforms were not implemented, the amendment went into effect. To many in Quebec, the 1982 constitutional amendment without Quebec's approval is still viewed as a historic political wound. The debate still occasionally rages within the province about the best way to heal the rift – and the sovereignty movement certainly derives some degree of support from a belief that healing should take the form of separation from Canada. - "I also criticized the unilateral repatriation of 1982, concluding that 'even in their moments of greatest mistrust, the Québécois never imagined that the pact of 1867 could ever be changed without their consent. Hence the impression they had in 1982 of a breach of trust, of a violation of the national bond's integrity. The descendants of George-Étienne Cartier did not expect this from the descendants of John A. Macdonald. Perceived as trickery in Quebec, the repatriation of 1982 has placed a time bomb in the political dynamics of this country". (p. 224, On the Record, Lucien Bouchard, former leader of the sovereignist federal political party, the Bloc Québécois.) The failure of the Meech Lake Accord — an abortive attempt to redress the constitutional problems brought on by the adoption of the 1982 amendment without the Quebec government's approval — strengthened the conviction of most sovereignist politicians and led many federalist ones to place little hope in the prospect of a federal constitutional reform that would satisfy Quebec's purported historical demands (according to proponents of the sovereignty movement). These include a constitutional recognition that Quebecers constitute a distinct society, as well as a larger degree of independence of the province towards federal policy. - "In Montreal, June 25, I walked along rue Sherbrooke to Olympic Stadium, submerged in the immense river of white and blue that seemed unstoppable on its march to sovereignty. Three days earlier, Bourassa, former minister of federalism, had hurriedly changed his tune: 'English Canada must understand that... Quebec is, today and forever, a distinct society, free and able to assume its destiny and its development.'" (p. 251, 'On the Record', Lucien Bouchard) The contemporary sovereignty movement is thought to have originated from the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, although the desire for an independent or autonomous French-Canadian state has periodically arisen throughout Quebec's history, notably during the 1837 Lower Canada Rebellion. Part of Quebec's continued historical desire for sovereignty is caused by Quebecers' perception of a singular English-speaking voice and identity that is dominant within the parameters of Canadian identity, with no incorporation of the Francophone identity. (This is a point contested in other parts of Canada – particularly in places like Manitoba which has a significant French-speaking population, and where in the 1990s that population tried to assert francophone language rights in schools. The separatist Parti Québécois-led government of Quebec offered up comment actually taking the side of the Manitoba government, which was opposing granting those rights. Speculation persists that the Quebec government opposed this assertion of francophone identity outside of the province because of the impact it would have on the assertion of anglophone language rights within its own borders.) For a majority of Quebec politicians, whether sovereignist or not, the problem of Quebec's political status is considered unresolved to this day. Although Quebec independence is a political question, cultural concerns are also at the root of the desire for independence. The central cultural argument of the sovereignists is that only sovereignty can adequately ensure the survival of the French language in North America, allowing Quebecers to establish their nationality, preserve their cultural identity, and keep their collective memory alive (see Language demographics of Quebec). - "At the same time, a brutal gesture by the Saskatchewan legislature brought the first language crises to my doorstep. The legislature precipitously abrogated the only law guaranteeing linguistic rights to the French population. It was revenge for a recent Supreme Court decision that had confirmed the constraining power of the law requiring all provincial laws to be available in French. To avoid having to translate all their laws, Grant Devine's government moved to repeal the act. The French community reacted with indignation and asked for federal intervention". (p. 186, On the Record, Lucien Bouchard) It has been argued by Jeremy Webber and Robert Andrew Young that, as the office is the core of authority in the province, the secession of Quebec from Confederation would first require the abolition or transformation of the post of Lieutenant Governor of Quebec; such an amendment to the constitution of Canada could not be done without, according to Section 41 of the Constitution Act, 1982, the approval of the federal parliament and all other provincial legislatures in Canada. Others, such as J. Woehrling, however, have claimed that the legislative process towards Quebec's independence would not require any prior change to the viceregal post. Young also felt that the lieutenant governor could refuse Royal Assent to a bill that proposed to put an unclear question on sovereignty to referendum or was based on the results of a referendum that asked such a question. Arguments against sovereignty In a series of letters throughout the 1990s, Stéphane Dion (the federal Intergovernmental Affairs Minister at the time) laid out an argument against sovereignty. It has also been argued by prominent Quebecers (sovereignists and ex-sovereignists, including former Quebec premier Lucien Bouchard) that sovereignty politics has distracted Quebecers from the real economic problems of Quebec, and that sovereignty by itself cannot solve those problems. In 2005 they published their position statement, "Pour un Québec lucide", ("For a clear vision of Quebec") which details the problems facing Quebec. Many federalists oppose the Quebec sovereignty movement for economic and political reasons but many also oppose sovereignty on other grounds. For example, since the 1995 referendum, in regards to the declaration of Jacques Parizeau who blamed the loss on "money and the ethnic vote", many federalists considered the sovereignty movement as an expression of ethnic nationalism. There has also been a host of arguments against sovereignty which claim that the movement ignores the fact that Quebec is, in its very essence, a state largely made up of multi-generational immigrants - and as such, a claim to state sovereignty ignores that First Nations existed with their own social orders and economies prior to the creation of Quebec, and claim that since the colonial era Francophone governments, as a part of assimilation and colonization, have at times chosen to strategically ignore, suppress, include, or appropriate the desires, cultures, and struggles of First Nations, Inuit, and Métis people in order to advance a eurocentric version of sovereignty. The sentiment is summed up by a quotation from a Mohawk from Akwsasne: "How can Quebec, with no economic base and no land base, ask to become sovereign? How can Quebec be a nation when they have no constitution? We have had a constitution since before the American revolution." Here the argument expresses the claim that the Mohawk nation has a more legitimate claim to distinct nationhood on the basis of traditional lands and a constitution predating confederation (and the creation of Quebec and a Québécois identity) and thus should be afforded the right of self-determination. Similarly, the Cree have also asserted for many years that they are a separate people with the right to self-determination recognized under international law. They argue that no annexation of them or their territory to an independent Quebec should take place without their consent, and that if Quebec has the right to leave Canada then the Cree people have the right to choose to keep their territory in Canada. Cree arguments generally do not claim the right to secede from Canada; rather, the Cree see themselves as a people bound to Canada by treaty (see the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement), and as citizens of Canada. The Cree have stated that a unilateral declaration of independence by Quebec would be a violation of fundamental principles of human rights, democracy and consent. If secession were to proceed, the Crees argue they would seek protection through the Canadian courts as well as asserting Cree jurisdiction over its people and lands. Professor Peter Russell has said, "(Aboriginal peoples) are not nations that can be yanked out of Canada against their will by a provincial majority.... With few exceptions (they) wish to enjoy their right to self-government within Canada, not within a sovereign Quebec." International human rights expert Erica-Irene Daes says the change "will leave the most marginalized and excluded of all the world's peoples without a legal, peaceful weapon to press for genuine democracy...." This concern is connected to the claim that if Quebec were to be considered its own autonomous nation-state then it need not honour the treaties and agreements that were formed between Aboriginal peoples and the British and French monarchies and is now maintained by the federal Canadian government. Concern for this may stem from perception of neo-colonial or eurocentric attitudes in the leadership of contemporary separatist leaders, such as Robert Bourassa, former Premier and self-proclaimed "Conqueror of the North". The history of the relations between French and British descendants in Canada is one filled with a lot of rocky moments. After discovering Canada and establishing some outposts and cities, France lost it to Great Britain. After the Seven Years' War ended in 1763, France abandoned claims on Canada (except for the two small islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon) and Great Britain gave the West Indies islands of Guadeloupe, Martinique and some others back to France in the Treaty of Paris, at which time France limited its activities to parts of North America south of present-day Canada. From that point on, at different moments in Canada's history, some leaders and groups have risen to claim authority. The use of the word "sovereignty" and many of the ideas of this movement originated in the 1967 Mouvement Souveraineté-Association of René Lévesque. This movement ultimately gave birth to the Parti Québécois in 1968. Sovereignty-association (French: Souveraineté-Association) is the combination of two concepts: - The achievement of sovereignty for the Quebec state. - The creation of a political and economic association between this new independent state and Canada. It was first presented in Lévesque's political manifesto, Option Québec. The Parti Québécois defines sovereignty as the power for a state to levy all its taxes, vote on all its laws, and sign all its treaties (as mentioned in the 1980 referendum question). The type of association between an independent Quebec and the rest of Canada was described as a monetary and customs union as well as joint political institutions to administer the relations between the two countries. The main inspiration for this project was the then-emerging European Community. The hyphen between the words "sovereignty" and "association" was often stressed by Lévesque and other PQ members, to make it clear that both were inseparable. The reason stated was that if Canada decided to boycott Quebec exports after voting for independence, the new country would have to go through difficult economic times, as the barriers to trade between Canada and the United States were then very high. Quebec would have been a nation of 7 million people stuck between two impenetrable protectionist countries. In the event of having to compete against Quebec, rather than support it, Canada could easily maintain its well-established links with the United States to prosper in foreign trade. Sovereignty-association as originally proposed would have meant that Quebec would become a politically independent state, but would maintain a formal association with Canada — especially regarding economic affairs. It was part of the 1976 sovereignist platform which swept the Parti Québécois into power in that year's provincial elections – and included a promise to hold a referendum on sovereignty-association. René Lévesque developed the idea of sovereignty-association to reduce the fear that an independent Quebec would face tough economic times. In fact, this proposal did result in an increase in support for a sovereign Quebec: polls at the time showed that people were more likely to support independence if Quebec maintained an economic partnership with Canada. This line of politics led the out-spoken Yvon Deschamps to proclaim that what Quebecers want is an independent Quebec inside a strong Canada, thereby comparing the sovereignist movement to a spoiled child that has everything it could desire and still wants more. In 1979 the PQ began an aggressive effort to promote sovereignty-association by providing details of how the economic relations with the rest of Canada would include free trade between Canada and Quebec, common tariffs against imports, and a common currency. In addition, joint political institutions would be established to administer these economic arrangements. But the sovereignist cause was hurt as many politicians (most notably the premiers of several of the other provinces) publicly refused to negotiate an economic association with an independent Quebec, contributing to the Yes side losing by a vote of 60 percent to 40 percent. This loss laid the groundwork for the 1995 referendum, which stated that Quebec should offer a new economic and political partnership to Canada before declaring independence. An English translation of part of the Sovereignty Bill reads, "We, the people of Quebec, declare it our own will to be in full possession of all the powers of a state; to levy all our taxes, to vote on all our laws, to sign all our treaties and to exercise the highest power of all, conceiving, and controlling, by ourselves, our fundamental law." This time, the sovereignists lost in a very close vote: 50.6 percent to 49.4 percent, or only 53,498 votes out of more than 4,700,000 votes cast. However, after the vote many within the sovereignist camp were very upset that the vote broke down heavily along language lines. Approximately 90 percent of English speakers and allophones (mostly immigrants and first-generations Quebeckers whose native language is neither French or English) Quebeckers voted against the referendum, while almost 60 percent of Francophones voted Yes, and 82 percent of Quebeckers are French-speaking. Quebec premier Jacques Parizeau, whose government supported sovereignty, attributed the defeat of the resolution to money and the ethnic vote. His opinion caused an outcry among English speaking Quebeckers, since it exposed the ethnocentric perspective of the leader, who focused blame for the defeat on minority communities as if to discount the influence of 40% of Francophones who voted no. An inquiry by Le directeur général des élections concluded in 2007 that at least $500,000 was spent by the federalist camp in violation of Quebec's election laws. This law imposes a limit on campaign spending by both option camps. Parizeau's statement was also an admission of failure by the Yes camp in getting the newly arrived Quebecers to adhere to their political option. Accusations of an orchestrated effort of 'election engineering' in several polling stations located in areas with large numbers of non-francophone voters, which resulted in unusually large proportions of rejected ballots, were raised following the 1995 referendum. Afterward, testimony by PQ-appointed polling clerks indicated that they were ordered by PQ-appointed overseers to reject ballots in these polling stations for frivolous reasons that were not covered in the election laws. While opponents of sovereignty were pleased with the defeat of the referendum, most recognized[examples needed] that there were still deep divides within Quebec and problems with the relationship between Quebec and the rest of the country. Precursor ideas and events Sovereigntism and sovereignty are terms that refer to the modern movement in favour of the political independence of Quebec. However, the roots of Quebec's desire for self-determination can be traced back as far as the Patriotes Rebellion, the Alliance Laurentienne of 1957, the writings of Lionel Groulx in the 1920s, the Francoeur Motion of 1917, and Honoré Mercier's flirtation with this idea (especially in his historic speech of 1893.) The Quiet Revolution in Quebec brought widespread change in the 1960s. Among other changes, support for Quebec independence began to form and grow in some circles. The first organization dedicated to the independence of Quebec was the Alliance Laurentienne, founded by Raymond Barbeau on January 25, 1957. On September 10, 1960, the Rassemblement pour l'indépendance nationale (RIN) was founded, with Pierre Bourgault quickly becoming its leader. On August 9 of the same year, the Action socialiste pour l'indépendance du Québec (ASIQ) was formed by Raoul Roy. The "independence + socialism" project of the ASIQ was a source of political ideas for the Front de libération du Québec (FLQ). On October 31, 1962, the Comité de libération nationale and, in November of the same year, the Réseau de résistance were set up. These two groups were formed by RIN members to organize non-violent but illegal actions, such as vandalism and civil disobedience. The most extremist individuals of these groups left to form the FLQ, which, unlike all the other groups, had made the decision to resort to violence in order to reach its goal of independence for Quebec. Shortly after the November 14, 1962, Quebec general election, RIN member Marcel Chaput founded the short-lived Parti républicain du Québec. In February 1963, the Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) was founded by three Rassemblement pour l'indépendance nationale members who had met each other as part of the Réseau de résistance. They were Georges Schoeters, Raymond Villeneuve, and Gabriel Hudon. In 1964, the RIN became a provincial political party. In 1965, the more conservative Ralliement national (RN) also became a party. The historical context of the time was a period when many former European colonies, such as Cameroon, Congo, Senegal, Algeria, and Jamaica, were becoming independent. Some advocates of Quebec independence saw Quebec's situation in a similar light; numerous activists were influenced by the writings of Frantz Fanon, Albert Memmi, and Karl Marx. In June 1967, French president Charles de Gaulle, who had granted independence to Algeria, shouted Vive le Québec libre! during a speech from the balcony of Montreal's city hall during a state visit to Canada. In doing so, he deeply offended the federal government, and English Canadians felt he had demonstrated contempt for the sacrifice of Canadian soldiers who died on the battlefields of France in two world wars. The visit was cut short and de Gaulle left the country. Finally, in October 1967, former Liberal cabinet minister René Lévesque left that party when it refused to discuss sovereignty at a party convention. Lévesque formed the Mouvement souveraineté-association and set about uniting pro-sovereignty forces. He achieved that goal in October 1968 when the MSA held its only national congress in Quebec City. The RN and MSA agreed to merge to form the Parti Québécois (PQ), and later that month Pierre Bourgault, leader of the RIN, dissolved his party and invited its members to join the PQ. Meanwhile, in 1969 the FLQ stepped up its campaign of violence, which would culminate in what would become known as the October Crisis. The group claimed responsibility for the bombing of the Montreal Stock Exchange, and in 1970 the FLQ kidnapped British Trade Commissioner James Cross and Quebec Labour Minister Pierre Laporte; Laporte was later found murdered. The early years of the Parti Québécois The referendum of 1980 In the 1976 election, the PQ won 71 seats — a majority in the National Assembly. With voting turnouts high, 41.4 percent of the electorate voted for the PQ. On August 26, 1977, the PQ passed two main laws: first, the law on the financing of political parties, which prohibits contributions by corporations and unions and set a limit on individual donations, and second, the Charter of the French Language. At its seventh national convention from June 1 to 3, 1979, the sovereignist adopted their strategy for the coming referendum. The PQ then began an aggressive effort to promote sovereignty-association by providing details of how the economic relations with the rest of Canada would include free trade between Canada and Quebec, common tariffs against imports, and a common currency. In addition, joint political institutions would be established to administer these economic arrangements. Sovereignty-association was proposed to the population of Quebec in the 1980 Quebec referendum. The proposal was rejected by 60 percent of the Quebec electorate. In September, the PQ created a national committee of Anglophones and a liaison committee with ethnic minorities. The PQ was returned to power in the 1981 election with a stronger majority than in 1976, obtaining 49.2 per cent of the vote and winning 80 seats. However, they did not hold a referendum in their second term, and put sovereignty on hold, concentrating on their stated goal of "good government". Repatriation, Meech Lake, Charlottetown The economic "association" part of the Sovereignty-Association concept was in some ways a forerunner of the later Canada-U.S. Free Trade Agreement of 1987 and the North American Free Trade Agreement. The referendum of 1995 The PQ returned to power in the 1994 election under Jacques Parizeau, this time with 44.75% of the popular vote. In the intervening years, the failures of the Meech Lake Accord and Charlottetown Accord had revived support for sovereignty, which had been written off as a dead issue for much of the 1980s. Another consequence of the failure of the Meech Lake Accord was the formation of the Bloc Québécois (BQ), a sovereignist federal political party, under the leadership of the charismatic former Progressive Conservative federal cabinet minister Lucien Bouchard. Several PC and Liberal members of the federal parliament left their parties to form the BQ. For the first time, the PQ supported pro-sovereigntist forces running in federal elections; during his lifetime Lévesque had always opposed such a move. The Union Populaire had nominated candidates in the 1979 and 1980 federal elections, and the Parti nationaliste du Québec had nominated candidates in the 1984 election, but neither of these parties enjoyed the official support of the PQ; nor did they enjoy significant public support among Quebecers. In the 1993 federal election, which featured the collapse of Progressive Conservative Party support, the BQ won enough seats in Parliament to become Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition in the House of Commons. At the Royal Commission on the Future of Quebec (also known as the Outaouais Commission) in 1995, the Marxist-Leninist Party of Canada made a presentation in which the party leader, Hardial Bains, recommended to the committee that Quebec declare itself as an independent republic. Parizeau promptly advised the Lieutenant Governor to call a new referendum. The 1995 referendum question differed from the 1980 question in that the negotiation of an association with Canada was now optional. The open-ended wording of the question resulted in significant confusion, particularly amongst the 'Yes' side, as to what exactly they were voting for. This was a primary motivator for the creation of the 'Clarity Act' (see below). The "No" camp again won, but only by a very small margin — 50.6% to 49.4%. As in the previous referendum, the English-speaking (anglophone) minority in Quebec overwhelmingly (about 90%) rejected sovereignty, support for sovereignty was also weak among allophones (native speakers of neither English nor French) in immigrant communities and first-generation descendants. The lowest support for Yes side came from Mohawk, Cree and Inuit voters in Quebec, some first Nations chiefs asserted their right to self-determination with the Cree being particularly vocal in their right to stay territories within Canada. More than 96% of the Inuit and Cree voted No in the referendum. However, The Innu, Attikamek, Algonquin and Abenaki nations did partially support Quebec sovereignty. In 1985, 59 per cent of Quebec's Inuit population, 56 per cent of the Attikamek population and 49 per cent of the Montagnais population voted in favour of the Sovereignist Parti Québécois party. That year, three out of every four native reservations gave a majority to the Parti Québécois party. By contrast almost 60 percent of francophones of all origins voted "Yes". (82 per cent of Quebecers are Francophone.) Later inquiries into irregularities determined that abuses had occurred on both sides: some argue that some "No" ballots had been rejected without valid reasons, and the 27 October "No" rally had evaded spending limitations because of out-of-province participation. An inquiry by "Le Directeur général des élections" concluded in 2007 that the "No" camp had exceeded the campaign spending limits by $500,000. At the end of the 20th century Quebec general election, 1998 The Parti Québécois won re-election in the 1998 election despite losing the popular vote to Jean Charest and the Quebec Liberals. In the number of seats won by both sides, the election was almost a clone of the previous 1994 election. However, public support for sovereignty remained too low for the PQ to consider holding a second referendum during their second term. Meanwhile, the federal government passed the Clarity Act to govern the wording of any future referendum questions and the conditions under which a vote for sovereignty would be recognized as legitimate. Federal liberal politicians stated that the ambiguous wording of the 1995 referendum question was the primary impetus in the bill's drafting. While opponents of sovereignty were pleased with their referendum victories, most recognized that there are still deep divides within Quebec and problems with the relationship between Quebec and the rest of Canada. The Clarity Act, 1999 In 1999, the Parliament of Canada, at the urging of Prime Minister Jean Chrétien, passed the Clarity Act, a law that, amongst other things, set out the conditions under which the Crown-in-Council would recognize a vote by any province to leave Canada. It required a majority of eligible voters for a vote to trigger secession talks, not merely a plurality of votes. In addition the act requires a clear question of secession to initiate secession talks. Controversially, the act gave the House of Commons the power to decide whether a proposed referendum question was considered clear, and allowed it to decide whether a clear majority has expressed itself in any referendum. It is widely considered by sovereignists as an illegitimate piece of legislation, who asserted that Quebec alone had the right to determine its terms of secession. However the Supreme Court of Canada disagreed when the matter was referred to that body, ruling that the Act is constitutional and, just as Canada is divisible, so is Quebec, a ruling that has significant implications for linguistic and ethnic minorities within Quebec, the bulk of whom have traditionally opposed secession. Chrétien considered the legislation among his most significant accomplishments. "Sovereignty-Association" is nowadays more often referred to simply as "sovereignty". However, in the 1995 Quebec referendum, in which the sovereignty option was narrowly rejected, the notion of some form of economic association with the rest of Canada was still envisaged (continuing use of the Canadian dollar and military, for example) and was referred to as "Sovereignty-Partnership" (in French Souveraineté-Partenariat). It remains a part of the PQ program and is tied to national independence in the minds of most Quebecers. This part of the PQ program has always been controversial, especially since Canadian federal politicians usually refuse the concept. In 2003, the PQ launched the Saison des idées ("Season of ideas") which is a public consultation aiming to gather the opinions of Quebecers on its sovereignty project. The new program and the revised sovereignty project was adopted at the 2005 Congress. In the 2003 election, the PQ lost power to the Liberal Party. However, in early 2004, the Liberal government of Paul Martin had proved to be unpopular, and that, combined with the federal Liberal Party sponsorship scandal, contributed to a resurgence of the BQ. In the 2004 federal elections, the Bloc Québécois won 54 of Quebec's 75 seats in the House of Commons, compared to 33 previously. However, in the 2006 federal elections the BQ lost three seats and in the 2008 federal elections lost an additional seat, bringing their total down to 49, but was still the most popular federal party in Quebec up until the 2011 Canadian federal election, when the BQ was devastated by the federalist NDP, with a total of 4 seats and loss of official party status in the Commons, compared to the NDP's 58, Conservatives 6 and the Liberals 7. Polling data by Angus Reid in June 2009 showed the support for Quebec separation was very weak at the time and separatism unlikely to occur in the near future. Polling data showed that 32% of Quebecers believe that Quebec had enough sovereignty and should remain part of Canada, 28% thought they should separate, and 30% say they believe that Quebec does need greater sovereignty but should remain part of Canada. However the poll did reveal that a majority (79%) of Quebecers still desired to achieve more autonomy. The number one area of autonomy that those polled had hoped for was with regard to culture at 34%, the next highest areas of autonomy cherished were the economy at 32%, taxation at 26%, and immigration and the environment at 15% each. The 2009 Angus Reid poll also revealed some effects of the Clarity Act in which they asked two questions, one a straightforward question for a separate nation, and the other a more muddled version on separation similar to the one posed in the 1995 referendum. The data on the questions revealed as follows to the first hard line question of "Do you believe that Quebec should become a country separate from Canada?" 34% replied yes, 54% said no, and 13% were unsure. To the less clear question of "Do you agree that Quebec should become sovereign after having made a formal offer to Canada for a new economic and political partnership within a scope of the bill respecting the future of Quebec?" support for separation increased to 40% yes, the no vote still led with 41%, and the unsure increased to 19%. The most startling revelation of the poll was in the fact that only 20% or 1 in 5 polled believed that Quebec would ever separate from Canada. 2011 was considered a watershed year for the sovereignist movement. In the aftermath of the 2011 federal election, Léger Marketing and pro-sovereignist newspaper Le Devoir conducted a poll on the question. When asked whether they would vote Yes or No in the event of a referendum, 41% of the respondents said they would vote Yes. In 2011, the sovereignist movement splintered, with several new parties being formed by disaffected politicians, with some politicians dissatisfied with slow progress towards independence, and others hoping to put the sovereignty question on the backburner. Leadership by PQ leader Pauline Marois was divisive. Allies and opponents The separatist movement draws above the left and right spectrum, a sizeable minority of more conservative Quebecers supporting the PQ's political agenda because of the sovereignty issue, despite reservations about its social democratic political agenda. Right and Left must be interpreted within the provincial context; Liberal Party politics generally coincide with those of other liberal parties, while PQ politics are more social democratic in orientation. There is no mass conservative movement in Quebec's political culture on the provincial level, due notably to strong government interventionism and Keynesianism shared by all parties since the 1960s (the so-called "Quebec Consensus" since the Quiet Revolution), and the province's Catholic heritage. There are, of course, quite a few exceptions. Notable examples include: - the conservative but nationalist Action Démocratique du Québec supporting the Yes side in the 1995 Quebec referendum. They now support Quebec Autonomism: a decentralized view of the Canadian Confederation, and accept the 1995 "No" verdict; - the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada building links with the sovereignist in the 1980s; Sovereignty has little support among Quebec Anglophones, immigrant communities, and aboriginal First Nations. About 60% of Francophones voted "Yes" in 1995, and with the exception of weak "Yes" support from Haitian, Arab and Latin American communities, most non-Francophones massively voted "No" (see Demolinguistics of Quebec). The opponents of the sovereignty movement view the project as ethnically exclusive based on its rejection by non-Francophones. This is a position sometimes disputed by the PQ, which attempts to present its project as all-embracing and essentially civic in nature. There is an undercurrent of feeling amongst "ethnic" and "anglo" voters that sometimes surfaces as a desire to separate from Quebec. This would create a new province of Canada, from the southwestern and southern portions of the province (comprising half of Montreal, parts of the Outaouais, the Eastern Townships). This feeling is exemplified by the statement — "If Canada is divisible, then so is Quebec" made by federalists in 1995 or "If Quebec can separate from Canada, then we can separate from Quebec". In contemporary times most mainstream political parties in Quebec deny or refuse to comment on the idea that Quebec can be divided up. During the 2007 Quebec election, federalist and Liberal Party of Quebec leader Jean Charest said that "All of these things are hypothetical questions...I do not think that Quebec is divisible. And if ever we were to go there, and end up in that situation, I know the question would be asked.". However the Supreme Court of Canada has ruled in favour of the legality in partitioning Quebec, determining that Quebec is in fact divisible according to the same logic, legalities, and democratic tests that render Canada divisible. A panel of Quebec civil servants, at the request of the ruling Parti Québécois at the time, wrote a report arguing that International law guarantees the territorial integrity of Quebec should Quebec become an independent state. Cree separation There was a feeling amongst the Cree of Northern Quebec, that should the province separate, they would remain part of Canada, and would force the province to return to its pre-1912 boundaries, and re-establish the Ungava district of the Northwest Territories, or a new territory or province created in its place. Rest of Canada The other nine provinces of Canada have generally been opposed to Quebec sovereignty. Alberta has seen parties promoting secession, mainly during the controversy of the National Energy Program, such as the Separation Party of Alberta, but these have been marginal. In 1982, Gordon Kesler was elected to the Alberta legislature under the banner of the Western Canada Concept Party, while in British Columbia no separatist party has ever had representatives elected to the provincial legislature. The Charter of the French Language and other legislative acts approved by the National Assembly have reinforced the position of French as the primary language in Quebec. Since the enactment of the charter in 1977, French has been the only official language of Quebec. A broad range of services in English are maintained for the English-speaking community, including education and health care. Reaction in the other nine provinces to the assertion of French-language rights and the strengthening nationalism amongst Francophones in Quebec has been mixed. Quebec language laws violate the Canadian Constitution so the province regularly using the "notwithstanding clause" to suspend the constitution to maintain the legality of their laws. Under the leadership of Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, the federal parliament enacted the Official Languages Act, making both French and English official languages throughout Canada, resulting in real efforts to improve accessibility to French services from the federal government. New Brunswick, with a large French-speaking minority, has become officially bilingual. Governments of other provinces, such as Ontario, which has a sizeable Francophone population, have increased the level of government services available to Francophone residents. French language education is now being made available to Francophones in many communities in Canada, and many English-Canadians are taking advantage of French immersion programs to encourage their children to acquire a basic working ability to communicate in French. Bilingualism in Canada increased towards the end of the 20th century, primarily from Quebeckers becoming more bilingual. In general, francophones outside Quebec oppose sovereignty, while non-francophones, particularly the anglophone minority in Montreal, also have remained opposed. After polling heavily on the subject, Leger president Mark Leger concluded: “These numbers surprise me, they’re so clear across the country.... You look at Francophones outside Quebec, it’s the same result.... Overall, outside the French in Quebec, all the other groups across the country are against this notion.” The exact question of the November 2006 poll was, "Currently, there is a political debate on recognizing Quebec as a nation. Do you personally consider that Quebecers form a nation or not?" Canadians from every region outside Quebec, non-Francophone Quebecers (62 per cent), Francophone Canadians outside Quebec (77 per cent) all resoundingly rejected the idea. In France, although openness and support is found on both sides of the political spectrum, the French political right has traditionally been warmer to sovereignists (like President Charles de Gaulle, who shouted his support of independence in Montreal in 1967) than the French left (like President François Mitterrand). This used to be a paradoxical phenomenon because of the Parti Québécois and most sovereignists being to the political left. Michel Rocard (who became Prime Minister of the French Republic) has been one of the French Socialists that broke that so-called rule the most, maintaining a close and warm relationship with Quebec sovereignists. More recently, Ségolène Royal, a leader of the French Socialist Party, indicated support for "Quebec sovereignty" but it was seemingly a reflexive answer to an "out of the blue" question from a Quebec journalist in Paris. On a later visit to Quebec City she gave a more nuanced position, mentioning a Parliamentary motion recognizing the Québécois as a "nation", but also describing 400 years of "oppression" and resistance of francophones in Canada. The French Foreign Office motto concerning Quebec "national question" is "non-ingérence et non-indifférence" ("no interference and no indifference"), which epitomizes the official position of the French State. In other words, while the Quebec people vote to stay within Canada, France will officially support the Canadian Confederation the way it is. That is why bilateral relations between both governments (Canada and France) have been so strong for many years. Sovereignist organizations Political parties - Parti Québécois - Bloc Québécois - Québec solidaire - Option nationale - Parti indépendantiste - Parti marxiste-léniniste du Québec Non-partisan organizations - Mouvement pour une Élection sur la Souveraineté - Mouvement de libération nationale du Québec - Conseil de la Souveraineté du Québec - Réseau de Résistance du Québécois Defunct organizations - Rassemblement pour l'indépendance nationale (RIN) - Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) - Parti nationaliste du Québec - Parti indépendantiste (1985) - Union Populaire - Nouvelle Alliance Québec-Canada Sympathetic organizations - Confédération des syndicats nationaux (Confederation of national labour unions) - Centrale des syndicats du Québec (Quebec labour unions congress) - Fédération des travailleurs et travailleuses du Québec (Federation of Quebec workers) - Union des artistes (Artists Labour Union) - Mouvement national des Québécois et des Québécoises - Saint-Jean-Baptiste Society Sovereignist media - L'Action nationale - Le Couac - Souverainete la solution - La Gauche - Le Jour (defunct) - Le Mouton noir - Le Québécois Quebec sovereignty movement in fiction - Richard Rohmer's novel Separation (1976) was turned into a TV-movie for CTV Television in 1977. In the movie, the Parti Québécois has formed the government of Quebec but Premier Gaston Belisle has repeatedly put off its promise to hold a referendum. International politics forces Belisle's hand. - In the mid-1980s, a second movie, Quebec-Canada 1995, depicts a meeting between the president of Quebec and the prime minister of Canada to discuss a crisis involving Quebec military occupations of parts of Ontario and New Brunswick. Canada's armed forces are stretched thin with peacekeepers in such varied places as the Falkland Islands (with "Lady Goosegreen" being Margaret Thatcher). - William Weintraub's satirical 1979 novel The Underdogs provoked controversy by imagining a future Quebec in which English-speakers were an oppressed minority, complete with a violent resistance movement. One planned stage version was cancelled before its premiere. - Clive Cussler's 1984 novel Night Probe! is set against a fictional attempt at secession in the late 1980s. Rights to newly discovered oil resources in Ungava Bay, discovered as Quebec moves to secede, clash with the ramifications of a rediscovered secret treaty negotiated between the U.K. and U.S. governments during World War I. - David Foster Wallace's novel Infinite Jest includes both real and fictional Québécois separatist movements as integral to the plot. In the story, the United States has merged with Canada and Mexico to form the Organization of North American Nations (ONAN). Wheelchair-bound Quebec separatists use a video so entertaining it leads to death to accomplish their goals of both Quebec independence and the end of the ONAN. - In the Southern Victory Series of alternate history novels by Harry Turtledove, Quebec becomes a separate nation during the Great War (an alternative World War I), in which the United States defeats Canada, the UK and her allies (including the Confederate States of America). Since the United States organized this separation to weaken the rest of Anglophone Canada (and the UK by extension), the Republic of Quebec operated as a client state of the United States, rather than being truly independent. This is later demonstrated in the series when Dr. Leonard O'Doull is pressured by the United States and Quebec governments to serve as a surgeon in the U.S. Army, despite being a Quebec citizen. O'Doull joins both under this duress, but also as a result of his loyalty to his birth country. - In DC Comics, the villain (and sometimes hero) Plastique is initially a Québécois freedom fighter, who resorts to acts of terrorism. - In Marvel Comics, the superhero Northstar was part of the Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) in his youth. - Margaret Atwood's 1979 novel Life Before Man is set in Toronto in the late 1970s and several characters watch and sometimes comment upon the elections and sovereignist movement in Quebec. The sovereignist movement and its struggles are metaphorically linked to the difficulties the characters in the novel have with separating their own personal relationships. - In the roleplaying game Trinity there are references made to a separatist Quebec nation who in return for independence helped the then formed 'Confederated States of America' take control of Canada. - In the roleplaying game Shadowrun, Quebec exists as a sovereign nation alongside the United Canadian American States and the Confederated American States. - In the film Die Hard, the terrorist leader demands, as a ruse, the release of imprisoned members of the fictional group Liberté du Québec. (Presumably meant to be a fictional version of the FLQ.) - In Peter Watts' science fiction series starting with Starfish, Quebec has attained sovereignty and is an energetic/economic superpower within North America. See also - Alberta separatism - Cascadia (independence movement) - Lists of active separatist movements - List of subjects related to the Quebec independence movement - October Crisis - Politics of Canada - Politics of Quebec - Quebec federalist ideology - Secessionist movements of Canada - Alexander Panetta (5 September 2012). "Parti Québécois wins Quebec election 2012". Nationa Post. Retrieved 5 September 2012. - Rita Devlin Marier, New Quebec government could have problems over tax hike plans, Reuters, September 25, 2012. - "Statistics on Official Languages in Quebec". Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages. - "Pourquoi faire la souveraineté?". Retrieved 22 September 2010. (French) - Carens, Joseph H., ed. (1995), Is Quebec Nationalism Just?: Perspectives from Anglophone Canada, Montreal, McGill-Queen's University Press. (ISBN 0773513426) - "Canada". Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. Retrieved 2011-12-13. - "Trudeau promises a renewed Confederation". CBC Digital Archives. - Young, Andrew (1998). The secession of Quebec and the future of Canada. Montreal: McGill-Queen's Press. p. 215. ISBN 978-0-7735-1530-7. - Webber, Jeremy (1997). "The Legality of a Unilateral Declaration of Independence under Canadian Law". The McGill Law Journal (Montreal: McGill University) 42 (2): 288. Retrieved 3 March 2011. - Young 1998, p. 457 - "?".[dead link] - A Clash of Quiet Revolutions: Quebecers meet Native Nationalism. - http://http-server.carleton.ca/~gfrajkor/zine97/group3/quebec.html; Quebec’s “territorial integrity” against First Nations, The Red Flag, http://theredflag.ca/node/62; Taiaiake, Alfred (2010). "Then and Now, For the Land". Socialist Studies: the Journal of the Society for Socialist Studies 6 (1): 93–95. - Mark van der Maas, "Claims to Identity in Determining Resources for Indigenous Social Movements in Canada", http://www.utoronto.ca/ethnicstudies/vanderMaas.pdf (pg. 12) - Parliamentary Research Branch (PRB) of the Library of Parliament, "ABORIGINAL PEOPLES AND THE 1995 QUEBEC REFERENDUM: A SURVEY OF THE ISSUES" http://www2.parl.gc.ca/content/lop/researchpublications/bp412-e.htm#A. Aboriginal Perspectives(txt) - The Grand Council of the Crees, "50 Percent Plus One Vote Insufficient" http://www.gcc.ca/archive/article.php?id=116 - Jenson, Jane; Papillon, Martin (2000). "Challenging the Citizenship Regime: The James Bay Cree and transnational action". Politics & Society 28 (2): 245–264. doi:10.1177/0032329200028002005. - The Grand Council of Crees, Cree Legal Struggle Against the Great Whale Project , http://www.gcc.ca/archive/article.php?id=37 - Bains, Hardial (10 February 1995). "Brief to the Outaouais Commission on the Future of Quebec". Marxist-Leninist Party of Canada. Retrieved 8 February 2009. "I propose that the preamble of such a Constitution should read as follows: We, the people of Quebec... hereby declare the formation of the Republic of Quebec...." - "I'm voting". Le Directeur Général des Elections du Québec. September 13, 2010. Retrieved 22 September 2010. (French) - Drouilly Pierre, L'année politique au Québec 1997-1998 _Les tendances du vote 1985-1995 Université du Québec à Montréal, 1999 - "I'm voting". Le Directeur Général des Elections du Québec. September 13, 2010. Retrieved 22 September 2010. - "Separation from Canada Unlikely for a Majority of Quebecers". Angus Reid. June 9, 2009. Retrieved November 7, 2010. - Dutrisac, Robert (March 14, 2011). "Sondage Léger Marketing-Le Devoir - L'appui à la souveraineté ne fléchit pas". Le Devoir. Retrieved March 24, 2011. - "Partition splits Quebec leaders". CBC News. 7 March 2007. Retrieved 7 November 2010. - Thomas Franck et al., The Territorial Integrity of Quebec in the Event of the Attainment of Sovereignty, Report prepared for the Quebec Department of International Relations (1992) - Les Perreaux (November 28, 2006). "Canadians and Liberals reject Quebec nationhood: poll". Canada.com. Retrieved 2007-01-23. - "Sarkozy répudie le "ni-ni" sans ambiguïté" (in French). Le Devoir. 3 February 2009. Retrieved 2 July 2010. - "Sarkozy’s sovereignty comments spark anger in Quebec". National Post. 2 February 2009. Retrieved 8 November 2010. - UNESCO article on the evolution of Quebec nationalism (2002) (English) - Parti Québécois website (French) (partly in English) - Quebec Solidaire (French) - Parti Communiste du Québec (French) - Bloc Québécois website (French) (partly in English) - Saint-Jean-Baptiste Society website (French) (partly in English) - The Question of Separatism: Quebec and the Struggle over Sovereignty by Jane Jacobs .

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Σελινοῦς (Ancient Greek) The Temple of Hera at Selinunte (Temple E) |Location||Marinella di Selinunte, Italy| |Area||1 km2 (0.39 sq mi)| |Abandoned||Approximately 250 BCE| |Periods||Archaic Greek to Roman Republican| |Management||Soprintendenza BB.CC.AA. di Trapani| |Website||Area Archeologica Selinunte (Italian)| Selinunte (Ancient Greek: Σελινοῦς; Latin: Selinus) was an ancient Greek city on the southern coast of Sicily in Italy. It was situated between the valleys of the Belice and Modione rivers. It now lies in the comune Castelvetrano, between the frazioni of Triscina di Selinunte in the west and Marinella di Selinunte in the east. The archaeological site contains five temples centered on an acropolis. Of the five temples, only the Temple of Hera, also known as "Temple E", has been re-erected. Selinunte was one of the most important of the Greek colonies in Sicily, situated on the southwest coast of that island, at the mouth of the small river of the same name, and 6.5 km west of that of the Hypsas (the modern Belice River). It was founded, according to historian Thucydides, by a colony from the Sicilian city of Megara, or Megara Hyblaea, under the conduct of a leader named Pammilus, about 100 years after the settlement of that city, with the addition of a fresh body of colonists from the parent city of Megara in Greece. The date of its foundation cannot be precisely fixed, as Thucydides indicates it only by reference to that of the Sicilian Megara, which is itself not accurately known, but it may be placed about 628 BCE. Diodorus places it 22 years earlier, or 650 BCE, and Hieronymus still further back, 654 BCE. The date from Thucydides, which is probably the most likely, is incompatible with this earlier epoch. The name is supposed to have been derived from quantities of wild parsley (Ancient Greek: σέλινον (selinon)) that grew on the spot. For the same reason, they adopted the parsley leaf as the symbol on their coins. Selinunte was the most westerly of the Greek colonies in Sicily, and for this reason was early brought into contact and collision with the Carthaginians and the native Sicilians in the west and northwest of the island. The former people, however, do not at first seem to have offered any obstacle to their progress; but as early as 580 BCE we find the Selinuntines engaged in hostilities with the people of Segesta (a non-Hellenic city), whose territory bordered on their own. The arrival of a body of emigrants from Rhodes and Cnidus who subsequently founded Lipara, and who lent their assistance to the Segestans, for a time secured the victory to that people; but disputes and hostilities seem to have been of frequent occurrence between the two cities, and it is probable that in 454 BCE, when Diodorus speaks of the Segestans as being at war with the Lilybaeans (modern Marsala), that the Selinuntines are the people really meant. The river Mazarus, which at that time appears to have formed the boundary between the two states, was only about 25 km west of Selinunte; and it is certain that at a somewhat later period the territory of Selinunte extended to its banks, and that that city had a fort and emporium at its mouth On the other side its territory certainly extended as far as the Halycus (modern Platani), at the mouth of which it founded the colony of Minoa, or Heracleia, as it was afterward termed It is evident, therefore, that Selinunte had early attained to great power and prosperity; but we have very little information as to its history. We learn, however, that, like most of the Sicilian cities, it had passed from an oligarchy to a despotism, and about 510 BCE was subject to a despot named Peithagoras, from whom the citizens were freed by the assistance of the Spartan Euryleon, one of the companions of Dorieus: and thereupon Euryleon himself, for a short time, seized on the vacant sovereignty, but was speedily overthrown and put to death by the Selinuntines. The causes leading the Selinuntines to abandon the cause of the other Greeks, and take part with the Carthaginians during the great expedition of Hamilcar (480 BCE) are unknown; they had even promised to send a contingent to the Carthaginian army, which, however did not arrive till after its defeat The Selinuntines are next mentioned in 466 BCE, as co-operating with the other free cities of Sicily in assisting the Syracusans to expel Thrasybulus; and there is every reason to suppose that they fully shared in the prosperity of the half century that followed, a period of tranquility and opulence for most of the Greek cities in Sicily. Thucydides speaks of Selinunte just before the Athenian expedition as a powerful and wealthy city, possessing great resources for war both by land and sea, and having large stores of wealth accumulated in its temples. Diodorus also represents it at the time of the Carthaginian invasion, as having enjoyed a long period of tranquility, and possessing a numerous population. The Sicilian Expedition In 416 BCE, a renewal of the old disputes between Selinunte and Segesta became the occasion of the great Athenian expedition to Sicily. The Selinuntines were the first to call in the powerful aid of Syracuse, and thus for a time obtained the complete advantage over their enemies, whom they were able to blockade both by sea and land; but in this extremity the Segestans had recourse to the assistance of Athens. Though the Athenians do not appear to have taken any measures for the immediate relief of Segesta, it is probable that the Selinuntines and Syracusans withdrew their forces at once, as we hear no more of their operations against Segesta. Nor does Selinunte bear any important part in the war of which it was the immediate occasion. Nicias indeed proposed, when the expedition first arrived in Sicily (415 BCE); that they should proceed at once to Selinunte and compel that city to submit on moderate terms; but this advice being overruled, the efforts of the armament were directed against Syracuse, and the Selinuntines in consequence bore but a secondary part in the subsequent operations. They are, however, mentioned on several occasions as furnishing auxiliaries to the Syracusans; and it was at Selinunte that the large Peloponnesian force sent to the support of Gylippus landed in the spring of 413 BCE, having been driven over to the coast of Africa by a tempest. Captured by Carthage The defeat of the Athenian armament apparently left the Segestans at the mercy of their rivals. They tried in vain to ease Selinuntine hostility by ceding without further contest the frontier district that was the original subject of dispute. The Selinuntines, however, were not satisfied with this concession, and continued to press them with fresh aggressions, leading the Segestans to seek assistance from Carthage. After some hesitation, Carthage sent a small force, with the assistance of which the Segestans defeated the Selinuntines in a battle. The Carthaginians in the following spring (409 BCE) sent over a vast army amounting, according to the lowest estimate, to 100,000 men, with which Hannibal Mago (the grandson of Hamilcar that was killed at Himera) landed at Lilybaeum, and from thence marched direct to Selinunte. The city's inhabitants had not expected such a force and were wholly unprepared to resist it. The city fortifications were, in many places, in disrepair, and the auxiliary force promised by Syracuse and Agrigentum (modern Agrigento) and Gela, was not ready and did not arrive in time. The Selinuntines defended themselves with the courage of despair, and even after the walls were breached, continued the contest from house to house. However, the enemy's overwhelming numbers rendered resistance hopeless, and after a ten-day siege the city was taken and most of the defenders put to the sword. According to sources, of the citizens of Selinunte 16,000 were slain, 5,000 made prisoners, and 2,600 under the command of Empedion escaped to Agrigentum. Shortly after, Hannibal destroyed the city walls, but gave permission to the surviving inhabitants to return and occupy it as tributaries of Carthage, an arrangement confirmed by the treaty subsequently concluded between Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse, and the Carthaginians, in 405 BCE. In the interval a considerable number of the survivors and fugitives had been brought together by Hermocrates, and established within its walls. A considerable part of the citizens of Selinunte availed themselves of this permission, and that the city continued to subsist under the Carthaginian dominion; but a fatal blow had been given to its prosperity, which it undoubtedly never recovered. The Selinuntines are again mentioned in 397 BCE as declaring in favor of Dionysius during his war with Carthage; but both the city and territory were again given up to the Carthaginians by the peace of 383 BCE (Id. xv. 17); and though Dionysius recovered possession of it by arms shortly before his death, it is probable that it soon again lapsed under the dominion of Carthage. The Halycus, which was established as the eastern boundary of the Carthaginian dominion in Sicily by the treaty of 383 BCE, seems to have generally continued to be so recognized, notwithstanding temporary interruptions; and was again fixed as their limit by the treaty with Agathocles in 314 BCE. This last treaty expressly stipulated that Selinunte, as well as Heracleia and Himera, should continue subject to Carthage, as before. In 276 BCE, however, during the expedition of Pyrrhus to Sicily, the Selinuntines voluntarily submitted to that monarch, after the capture of Heracleia. During the First Punic War we again find Selinunte subject to Carthage, and its territory was repeatedly the theater of military operations between the contending powers. But before the close of the war (about 250 BCE), when the Carthaginians were beginning to contract their operations, and confine themselves to the defense of as few points as possible, they removed all the inhabitants of Selinunte to Lilybaeum and destroyed the city It seems certain that it was never rebuilt. Pliny the Elder indeed, mentions its name (Selinus oppidum), as if it still existed as a town in his time, but Strabo distinctly classes it with extinct cities. Ptolemy, though he mentions the river Selinus, has no notice of a town of the name. The Thermae Selinuntiae (at modern Sciacca), which derived their name from the ancient city, and seem to have been much frequented in the time of the Romans, were situated at a considerable distance, 30 km, from Selinunte: they are sulfurous springs, still much valued for their medical properties, and dedicated, like most thermal waters in Sicily, to San Calogero. At a later period they were called the Aquae Labodes or Larodes, under which name they appear in the Itineraries. Modern situation and ruins By the 19th century, the site of the ancient city was wholly desolate, with the exception of a solitary guardhouse, and the ground for the most part thickly overgrown with shrubs and low brushwood; but the remains of the walls could be distinctly traced throughout a great part of their circuit. They occupied the summit of a low hill, directly abutting on the sea, and bounded on the west by the marshy valley through which flows the river Madiuni, the ancient Selinus; on the east by a smaller valley or depression, also traversed by a small marshy stream, which separates it from a hill of similar character, where the remains of the principal temples are still visible. The space enclosed by the existing walls is of small extent, so that it is probable the city in the days of its greatness must have covered a considerable area without them: and it has been supposed by some writers that the present line of walls is that erected by Hermocrates when he restored the city after its destruction by the Carthaginians. No trace is, however, found of a more extensive circuit, though the remains of two lines of wall, evidently connected with the port, are found in the small valley east of the city. Within the area surrounded by the walls are the remains of three temples, all of the Doric order, and of an ancient style; none of them were standing until the temple designated "Temple E" was re-erected in the 20th century, but the foundations of them all remain, together with numerous portions of columns and other architectural fragments, sufficient to enable one to restore the plan and design of all three without difficulty. The largest of them is 70 m long by 25 m broad, and has 6 columns in front and 18 in length, a very unusual proportion. All these are hexastyle and peripteral. Besides these three temples there is a small temple or Aedicula, of a different plan, but also of the Doric order. No other remains of buildings, beyond mere fragments and foundations, can be traced within the walls; but the outlines of two large edifices, built of squared stones and in a massive style, are distinctly traceable outside the walls, near the northeast and northwest angles of the city, though their nature or purpose is unclear. But much the most remarkable of the ruins at Selinus are those of three temples on the hill to the east, which do not appear to have been included in the city, but, as was often the case, were built on this neighboring eminence, so as to front the city itself. All these temples are considerably larger than any of the three above described; and the most northerly of them is one of the largest of which we have any remains. It had 8 columns in front and 17 in the sides, and was of the kind called pseudo-dipteral. Its length was 110 m, and its breadth 55 m, so that it was actually longer than the great Temple of Olympian Zeus at Agrigentum, though not equal to it in breadth. From the columns being only partially fluted, as well as from other signs, it is clear that it never was completed; but all the more important parts of the structure were finished, and it must have certainly been one of the most imposing fabrics in antiquity. Only three of the columns are now standing, and these imperfect; but the whole area is filled up with a heap of fallen masses, portions of columns, capitals, and other huge architectural fragments, all of the most massive character, and forming, as observed by Henry Swinburne, one of the most gigantic and sublime ruins imaginable. The two other temples are also prostrate, but the ruins have fallen with such regularity that the portions of almost every column lie on the ground as they have fallen; and it is not only easy to restore the plan and design of the two edifices, but it appears as if they could be rebuilt with little difficulty. The southernmost of the three temples, the Temple of Hera, also known as "Temple E". was reconstructed in the 20th century, as may be seen in the photographs below. A 1st century BC Greek inscription on the building records its dedication to Hera. These temples, though greatly inferior to their gigantic neighbor, were still larger than that at Segesta, and even exceed the great temple of Neptune at Paestum; so that the three, when standing, must have presented a spectacle unrivaled in antiquity. All these buildings may be safely referred to a period anterior to the Carthaginian conquest (409 BCE), though the three temples last described appear to have been all of them of later date than those within the walls of the city. This is proved, among other circumstances, by the sculptured metopes, several of which have been discovered and extricated from among the fallen fragments. Those of these sculptures that belonged to the temples within the walls, present a peculiar and archaic style of art, and are universally recognized as among the earliest extant specimens of Greek sculpture Those, on the contrary, which have been found among the ruins of the temple on the opposite hill, are of a later and more advanced style, though still retaining considerable remains of the stiffness of the earliest art. Besides the interest attached to these Selinuntine metopes from their important bearing on the history of Greek sculpture, the remains of these temples are of value as affording the most unequivocal testimony to the use of painting, both for the architectural decoration of the temples, and as applied to the sculptures with which they were adorned. The coins of Selinus are numerous and various. The earliest, as already mentioned, bear merely the figure of a parsley-leaf on the obverse. Those of somewhat later date represent a figure sacrificing on an altar, which is consecrated to Aesculapius, as indicated by a cock that stands below it. The subject of this type evidently refers to a story related by Diogenes Laertius that the Selinuntines were afflicted with a pestilence from the marshy character of the lands adjoining the neighboring river, but that this was cured by works of drainage, suggested by Empedocles. A figure standing on some coins is the river-god Selinus, who was thus made conducive to the salubrity of the city. Didrachm bearing selinon leaf, stem of leaf resembling a panther's scalp; two pellets above. Incuse square divided into eight sections. Circa 540/530-510 BC. How to get to Selinunte Highway A29 (Free) Palermo-Mazara del Vallo, exit Castelvetrano continuation Selinunte. Trapani-Birgi Airport, a military-civilian airport (with flights to the third traffic island). Recently the airport has seen an increase in flights due to low-cost flights from all parts of Europe (e.g. London-Stansted and London Luton Airport, Paris Beauvais, Dublin, Brussels, Munich, Frankfurt, Eindhoven, Stockholm). See also - Thucydides vi. 4, vii. 57; Scymnus 292; Strabo vi. p. 272. - Thucydides vi. 4; Diodorus Siculus xiii. 59; Hieronymus Chron. ad ann. 1362; Clinton, Fast. Hell. vol. i. p. 208. - σέλινον, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus - Diodorus Siculus v. 9. - xi. 86 - Diodorus Siculus xiii. 54. - Herodotus v. 46. - Herodotus v. 46. - Diodorus Siculus xi. 21, xiii. 55. - Id. xi. 68 - Thucydides vi. 20. - Diodorus Siculus xiii. 55. - Thucydides vi. 6; Diodorus Siculus xii. 82. - Thucydides vi. 47 - Thucydides vii. 50, 58; Diodorus Siculus xiii. 12. - Diodorus Siculus xiii. 43, 44. - Diodorus Siculus xiii. 54-59. - Id. xiii. 59, 114. - Id. 63. - Diodorus Siculus xiv. 47 - Id. xv. 73 - Id. xix. 71. - Id. xxii. 10. Exc. H. p. 498. - Id. xxiii. 1, 21; Polybius i. 39. - Diod. xxiv. 1. Exc. H. p. 506. - iii. 8. s. 14 - Strabo vi. p. 272; Ptolemy iii. 4. § 5. - Antonine Itinerary p. 89; Tabula Peutingeriana - Danner, Peter (1997). "Megara, Megara Hyblaea and Selinus: the Relationship between the Town Planning of a Mother City, a Colony and a Sub-Colony in the Archaic Period". Urbanization in the Mediterranean in the Ninth to Sixth Centuries B.C. Acata Hyperborea 7. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 151. ISBN 9788772894126. - Zuchtriegel, Gabriel (2011). "Zur Bevolkerungszahl Selinunts Im 5. Jh. v. Chr.". Historia (in German) 60 (1): 121. - Beckmann 2002, p. 354; Ruggeri 2006, p. 77 - Diodorus Siculus xiii. 63. - Tony Spawforth, The Complete Greek Temples 2006, p. 131. - They are figured by Müller, Denkmäler, pl. 4, 5, as well as in many other works, and casts of them are in the British Museum. - viii. 2. § 11 - Beckmann, Martin (2002), "The 'Columnae Coc(h)lides' of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius", Phoenix 56 (3/4): 348–357, doi:10.2307/1192605 - Ruggeri, Stefania (2006), Selinunt, Messina: Edizioni Affinità Elettive, ISBN 88-8405-079-0 - This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1854–57). "article name needed". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography. London: John Murray. |Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Selinunte|

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Plegadis falcinellus chihi This species breeds colonially in marshes, usually nesting in bushes or low trees. Its breeding range extends from the western USA south through Mexico, as well as from southeastern Brazil and southeastern Bolivia south to central Argentina, and along the coast of central Chile. Its winter range extends from southern California and Louisiana south to include the rest of its breeding range. It is very similar to the Glossy Ibis in its non-breeding plumages, but the plumage color is somewhat warmer and breeding adults have a pink face bordered with white, a grey bill, and redder legs. Adults have red eyes year-round, whereas Glossy Ibises have dark eyes. Juveniles of the two species are nearly identical. - The Sibley Guide to Birds, David Sibley, 2000, ISBN 0-679-45122-6 - Askwiki.com, For more information! |Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Plegadis chihi| - White-faced Ibis Species Account - Cornell Lab of Ornithology - White-faced Ibis - Plegadis chihi - USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter

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Appendix A: A list of the names of the community types used in the selection of occurrences of highly ranked communities in Michigan, USA. Ecological Archives A016-011-A1. Appendix B: A table of land and vegetation cover types used in creating geographic information system data layers of Michigan's land cover ca. 1800 and a coverage of unchanged vegetation. Ecological Archives A016-011-A2. Appendix C: A map of Michigan's land cover ca. 1800. Ecological Archives A016-011-A3. Appendix D: A map of Michigan's unchanged land cover ca. 1800. Ecological Archives A016-011-A4. Appendix E: A table showing the results of two correlation analyses of conservation value across 1900 Michigan townships, determined using the species richness and species occurrences in five groups of potential indicators. Ecological Archives A016-011-A5. Appendix F: A table of results from a principal-components analysis of the number of occurrences of potential indicator species in 924 townships in Michigan. Ecological Archives A016-011-A6. Supplement 1: Two geographic information system data layers showing Michigan's land cover ca. 1800 and unchanged land cover ca. 1980. Ecological Archives A016-011-S1. Supplement 2: Five geographic information system layers specifying the size and location of areas of high conservation value that were used in this study. Ecological Archives A016-011-S2. ESA Publications | Ecological Archives | Permissions | Citation | Contacts

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Wednesday, June 8, 2011 Not Quite Gone, Almost Forgotten In 1980, the World Health Organization declared that smallpox had been eradicated. Stores of this DNA virus remain in Russia and the United States, for research purposes, and in the case of a rogue sample being released. Just recently, the World Health Assembly delayed the decision to eliminate the stores. The last smallpox infection was seen in 1977, and many doctors today would only recognize it as constructed in medical text and history books. I recently found these two illustrations by Megan Pearce, an incredibly talented artist. They are from her blog, but she has started a new website, so go here if you would like more information about her work. A lot of older people would be able to describe the skin lesions of smallpox, and that the people who survived often had scars that remained. Many famous people survived it including George Washington, Andrew Jackson, Abraham Lincoln, and many of Henry VIII's relatives. They were the lucky ones--30% of the infected died, mainly due the more severe forms of the infection. In a few of the ones who survived, blindness and limb deformities resulted. Initially there was a prodrome of fever, headache, muscle ache, nausea, and back pain that lasted for up to 4 days. Then lesions would erupt in the mouth, throat, and other parts of the gastrointestinal tract. A few days later, a skin rash would appear, and lesions would develop on the face and spread all over the body. Smallpox could take four forms: ordinary, modified, malignant, or hemorrhagic. The malignant and hemorrhagic forms were the most lethal. Like the second man above, people who survived often felt as it they disappeared as their scars remained. Stalin had smallpox as a child, and as a leader, had his photographs retouched to remove the scars--they were, like smallpox, not quite gone, but almost forgotten.

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It’s already common knowledge that food doesn’t have an “absolute” value, and often varies according to the conditions in which we taste them. However, nobody has ever examined how our our sense of taste vary according to musical tempo – whether the “soundtrack” that accompanies our meals helps to shape our perception of flavour. Let’s imagine that we’re indulging in a sweetly delicious English toffee (the beloved British dessert) during a leisurely moment. Researchers have found that the human brain will perceive the dish’s bitter notes in a heightened way if the music we’re listening to is hard rock, or one in which the bass is dominant over the melody. It’s bittersweet notes, instead, are sharpened with “sweeter” music, with dreamy-sounding feminine vocals, ones lacking in high-pitched or sharp tones. So bitter is rock and sweet is pop? It’s actually not that simple, but it is clear that the ways we taste foods are influenced by the music we listen to. This has been demonstrated with a study on the modulations of sound compared to food consumed, carried out in London by British researches who specialize in studying the senses. Using cinder toffee and 20 blindfolded tasters, their goal was to find the affinity between high tones and perceived sweetness, and low tones and heightened bitterness. The subjects were given different “soundtracks” to listen to as they tasted the same dessert, and then were asked to identify which part of their tongues perceived taste, rating it on a scale from completely sweet to completely bitter. Apart from these results, the researchers also worked on getting certain flavours to surface when they were mixed with others, even in the same dish. Even in these cases, however, it’s possible to “manipulate” perceptions. One of the leading researchers, Charles Spence, explained it to the Smithsonian Magazine: “We’ve shown that if you take something with competing flavors, something like bacon-and-egg ice cream, we were able to change people’s perception of the dominant flavor—is it bacon, or egg?—simply by playing sizzling bacon sounds or farmyard chicken noises”. And so is it fair to say seem that music, can help to manipulate our sense of taste? For another group of researchers, this time from Oxford, the answer is yes. To back up this thesis on manipulating taste through music, several colleagues from the Crossmodal Research Laboratory, which is part of the experimental psychology department, worked on pairing drinks and flavours with musical notes. And again, their studies showed that stronger, spicier and more complete tastes (like those based on the umami flavour) were easier to pair with low sounds. On the other hand, the sweetness and delicacy of milk and dessert, or the sweet but sour notes of lemon, “sounded” like a high note. These are only the first initial experiments, but they represent an important step for those who enjoy tasting either as a hobby or profession. For now, until we wait for the next “taste” of evidence, we’d like to make a suggestion for a tune to put on just as soon as you finish reading this article: the Bittersweet Symphony, sung by The Verve.

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In 2011, the need to understand radioactivity glared at us with more urgency than ever, in the face of the Fukushima disaster and continued debates about nuclear energy. In May, we took a more playful and artistic look at the issue with Lisa Redniss’s Radioactive, the beautiful cyanotype-illustrated story of Marie Curie’s life and legacy, and today we turn to another cross-disciplinary illuminator: The Radioactive Orchestra — a project aiming to explain radioactivity through music by inviting you to compose tunes with 3,175 of the most interesting radioactive isotopes in an effort to glean new understanding of what radiation really is. It works like this: Melodies are created by simulating the decay of an atomic nucleus from an excited nuclear state down to its ground state. A single gamma photon is released for every step of the energy loss and, by representing the energy of the photon as the pitch of a note, the photon plays a note each time this happens. For an added touch of synesthesia, this is also visualized by a colorful ray coming out of the atomic nucleus. Because every isotope has a unique set of possible excited states and decay patterns, it also has a unique sonic fingerprint. “It’s really exciting to do a project where we can listen to radiation. There has never really been a way to sense the radiation around us. You can neither see it nor hear it.”

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Franks , an ancient Germanic people. They are believed to have originated in Pomerania on the southern Baltic coast. In the third century A.D., they migrated westward, forming two branches—those settling along the Rhine came to be called the Ripuarian Franks (from ripa, Latin for “river-bank”) and those settling near the coast of the North Sea, along the IJssel River, came to be known as the Salic (or Salian) Franks (either from sal , “sea,” or from Sala, as the IJssel was then known). In the early sixth century, the Franks were united under the Salic chieftain Clovis. He established a Frankish kingdom in Gaul, the area that is now France. It is from the Franks that the name France is derived. The Frankish kingdom expanded rapidly until it dominated western Europe. In the ninth century, it was divided into three parts, two of which eventually developed into France and Germany. For details of Frankish history,

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Vocabulary Teaching: Effective MethodologiesNaveen Kumar Mehta The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India (New Delhi, India) IntroductionVocabulary is the first and foremost important step in language acquisition. In a classroom where students are not finding themselves comfortable with L2, language learning can be made interactive and interesting with the introduction of appropriate vocabulary exercises. This paper is an attempt to study and explore the various methodologies that can be incorporated in the teaching of vocabulary items in a language classroom. Patterns of Difficulty in Vocabulary Robert Lado (1955) talked about patterns of difficulty in vocabulary teaching. He highlighted key issues related to words, the native language factor and about patterns. He even analyzed Spanish, French and Mexican patterns of difficulty in their respective vocabulary items. He stated that while dealing with vocabulary one should take into account three important aspects of words - their form, their meaning and their distribution - and one should consider various kinds of classes of words in the function of the language. He said that the forms, meaning distribution and classification of words are different in different languages. He revealed that these differences might lead to vocabulary problems. Vocabulary and AnatomyVisnja Pavicic (2003) dealt with a way to improve students' abilities to explore, store and usage of vocabulary items. He determined the role of vocabulary teaching and how a teacher could help their learners. He laid emphasis on self initiated independent learning with strategies, in which formal practices, functional practices and memorizing could be included. He said that the teacher should create activities and tasks to help students to build their vocabulary and develop strategies to learn the vocabulary on their own. Teaching Vocabulary in English Language: Effective MethodologiesIt is noteworthy to mention here that vocabulary items are imparted mostly by translation: either a list of words with their translation at the beginning of the lesson or the translation of the content having new words or glossaries at the very end. This is an erroneous practice as it leads to a state of confusion for the learners. On the teaching skills of vocabulary items, Frisby (1957) commented that "While the teacher is not, himself, concerned with the actual selection of vocabulary for text book purposes since practically all the books we use are based on limited vocabularies, it is important that he/she (the teacher) should know the principles, which underlie vocabulary selection". Thus it signifies that a language teacher should be innovative and proficient in the application of methodologies pertaining to teaching vocabulary items in a classroom situation. Following are the main methodologies for teaching vocabulary items in an English language classroom. Caeful listening to the words may be a good option in teaching vocabulary items in a heterogenic classroom. "Let the students hear the word in isolation and in a sentence. If the sounds of the word have been mastered, the students will hear it correctly with two or three repetitions." (Robert Lado: 121) Slow pronunciation without distortion will help. Breaking the word into parts and building up to the whole word will also be helpful. Pronouncing the WordPronouncing the word enables the students to remember it longer and identify it more readily when they hear or see it. Methods of Grasping the MeaningThe teacher should try to get the meaning to the class without using translation. This is not preferable on the ground that translation may or may not provide the meaning of the word accurately and precisely. It is advocated as it enables the class to go without grasping the meaning of a word that they have learned to pronounce rather than to depend upon the translation. Key Strategies in Teaching VocabularySome of the key strategies to unfold the information and meaning of a new word to a class are as follows: DefinitionsDefinitions in the target language may be very handy if they are expressed in terms that are better known or more easily guessed than the word that is defined. In this direction teachers and students can refer to authentic and reliable dictionaries. Self-defining ContextThe context makes the situation clear, and this in turn illuminates the meaning of the new word. This practice saves time and develops an intensive reading habit and better understanding. AntonymsWhen one member of a pair of opposites is understood, the meaning of the other can be easily comprehended. This helps the student to understand the different shades of meanings of a word. SynonymsA synonym may be used to help the student to understand the different shades of meaning if the synonym is better known than the word being taught. Synonyms help to enrich a student's vocabulary bank and provide alternative words instantly. DramatizationThis method can be practiced at ease. It can win the favour of the students as learners like dramatizations and can easily learn through them. Many situations can be dramatized or demonstrated. - Sing [Sing a song] - Open [Open a book] - Close [Close the book] Pictures and DrawingsPictures of many types and colours can be used successfully to show the meaning of words and sentence. Handmade pictures can also be used as there is no need to be very artistic. - into [Raj goes into the circle.] - in [Rahman is in the circle.] RealiaReal objects or models of real objects are very effective and meaningful in showing meanings but in handling of real objects, a teacher must be practical and should not be superfluous. Series, Scales, SystemsThe meaning of words such as the months of the year, the days of the week, the parts of the day, seasons of the year, ordinal numbers, cardinal numbers, etc. that form part of well-known series can be made clear by placing them in their natural order in the series. Parts of WordsThe parts of complex and compound words may be more common than the words themselves. Separating such words into their component parts generally elaborates the meaning. Illustrative SentencesMost words have a variety of restrictions on their use. Systematic descriptions of these restrictions and idiomatic uses would be laborious and not very effective in teaching. It is better to give appropriate examples that elucidate the range and variation of usage. Practice from Meaning to ExpressionThis is controlled practice in which the class does not create new uses or new contexts but simply recalls the ones presented. There are many types of practices for this purpose. Pictures, realia, context, and dramatization can be used. Series and systems can also be used. Reading the WordReading words aloud is also very beneficial. It makes a learner familiar with the word and also improves pronunciations of the learners. Writing the WordIt will enable the class to write the new word while the auditory memory is fresh, even if the objective is only to read. Writing or copying the word from the blackboard will give the student a chance to understand the grammatical aspect of the word such as noun, verb, adverb, adjective etc. Shift of AttentionUnder this practice, the teacher provides a context by description or through reading which elicits the use of the word. The learners should be asked to pay attention to and develop an attitude or a point of view which he defends or attacks. Strategy for Special Types of WordsSpecific techniques or special combinations of the above techniques may be applicable for particular groups of words. Words That Are Easy to LearnIt has been seen that the words that are similar in form and meaning to the first language are easy to understand and comprehend. They should be taught for listening and reading rather than for speaking and writing. Words of Normal DifficultyWords of normal difficulty are best taught in contextual realms, such as food, clothing, sports, work, and so on. There are advantages to using a connected context illustrating the words that are to be taught. Additional words can be taught as alternatives to those chosen in the connected context. Practice can be controlled in varying situations by changing a key word or phrase. Difficult WordsSome words and sets of words are especially difficult to understand. They have to be taught as special problems with the strategy determined by the particular problem in each case. ConclusionAn efficient language teacher can use selected vocabulary activities or can use integrated activities. All this depends upon ability and level of understanding and interest of the learners. There is no sure fire remedy or method to enhance vocabulary in a day or two. A student's vocabulary bank can be enriched on a gradual basis and one should always show keen interest and enthusiasm in finding, learning and understanding new words. - A.W. Frisby (1957), "Teaching English", The English Language Book Society and Longmans Green and Co., p.98. - Robert Lado (1964), "Language Teaching: A Scientific Approach", McGraw Hill: New York, p.121. - Robert Lado (1955), "Patterns of difficulty in vocabulary" International Journal Language Learning, 6, p.23-41. - Visnja Pavicic (2003), "Vocabulary and Autonomy" The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. XV, No. 3, March 2009

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Introduction and Objectives section from: Ecology and conservation of the snow leopard and the Himalayan tahr in Sagarmatha National Park (Nepal) Som B. Ale, UIC, Chicago, USA In the early 1970s in east Nepal, the endangered snow leopard was locally extirpated in what is now Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) National Park (E 86° 30' 53" to E 86° 99' 08" and N 27° 46' 19" to N 27° 6' 45"; area 1,148 km2). In 1987, Ahlborn and Jackson reported some signs probably made by transient cats from Tibet in the Gokyo area of the park. After almost three decades of effective protection measures, the virtual cessation of hunting and the recovery of the endangered Himalayan tahr Hemitragus jemlahicus (and musk deer Moschus chrysogaster) in the park since its establishment in 1976, snow leopards seem to have made a comeback to the world’s highest national park. The Sagarmatha National Park (or Khumbu) lies in the Solu-Khumbu district of the northeastern region of Nepal and encompasses the upper catchment of the Dudh Kosi River system. One of the objectives of this research project is to assess whether snow leopards have established resident populations in the park. How far have they expanded their range? What is the status of their main prey? Answering these questions will be the main purpose of the project (part I). Achieving this will form the basis to explore some ecological questions associated with the larger project on the snow leopard and the Himalayan tahr in Sagarmatha (part II). For management purposes, information on local megafauna such as the snow leopard is crucial not only for the overall management of the park, but also to expedite the trans-boundary landscape conservation, an effort that is currently being undertaken in Nepal and its neighboring countries. Because no protected areas in Nepal are large enough to contain viable populations of snow leopards and other large predators, the establishment of trans-frontier conservation areas at landscape level with neighboring countries may facilitate genetic exchanges between individuals ensuring their long-term survival (Soule 1987, Jackson and Ahlborn 1990, Green 1994). Qomolongma Nature Preserve (Tibet, China), and Langtang, Makalu-Barun and Everest National Parks in Nepal form the largest trans-frontier conservation area covering approx. 40,000 km2 in the Himalayan region. Here we have summarized some findings of part I, with a note on issues akin to local land use practices that may have relevance to wildlife conservation. A detailed (technical) report will be submitted later. We have also estimated the relative abundance of snow leopards although this assessment is preliminary, and is subject to changes as more information will be collected in coming years. Snow leopards leave marks in the form of scrapes, scent sprays, feces and pugmarks (Rieger 1978, Ahlborn and Jackson 1988) which can be indexed to derive information on abundance using standardized methodology called the Snow Leopard Information Management System (SLIMS) (Jackson and Hunter 1996, see also Connor et al. 1983, Van Dyke et al. 1986, for other species). For Himalayan tahr, fixed-point counts from ridgeline vantage points were outlined. Survey blocks were delineated on maps and observation sites identified. Opportunistic observations on tahr and other prey species of snow leopards were also made along snow leopard sign transects which provided supplemental data to fixed-point counts of tahr. A sample of 20 adult males was darted, weighted, aged, eartagged, and their blood samples were collected, as part of the Ev-K2-CNR project. A study on Himalayan tahr was carried out with the following expected results: minimum population distribution, size and density of tahr in selected areas of the park, assessment of sex ratio and assessment of reproductive rate. Observations on the foraging behavior of tahr were also made, and findings will be reported later in the final report. Local herders and key residents were interviewed about wildlife numbers and abundance. They were also questioned on land use practices such as grazing.

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Tools for Finding Information In the library, there are two main tools we use to find information. Library Catalogs are what we use to find books, videos, CDs, and any other physical item that sits on our shelves. They don't provide the actual information itself, but just point to something that the library physically owns. Library Databases make up the library's online resources. On a web page, they give you the full-text of articles from published magazines, journals, newspapers, and reference books. Once you find a source... evaluate it If you want to judge whether a source is reliable, take the CRAAP Test. This is a series of questions about the source's Currency, Relevance, Authority, Accuracy, and Purpose. The timeliness of your source - How old is this source? - Is a date listed? - Is the information current or outdated for your topic? - Does your topic deal with recent issues (technology, medicine, etc) that need the latest information? How the source meets your information need - Is this source useful for my topic? - Does the information help to answer or shed light on my research question? - Is the language/information appropriate for my level of understanding? Who is the intended audience? - Is this an appropriate source for a college paper? Who or what the information comes from - Who is the author/publisher/sponsor of the source? Is this hard to find? - Is the author or publishing organization an expert on the topic? What are their credentials? - Are they qualified to write about this topic? - Is the source published, sponsored, or endorsed by a special interest group? - If it's a website, is it hosted by a for-profit company (.com) by a non-profit organization (.org), by an educational institution (.edu) or by the government (.gov)? The reliability and accuracy of the information - Do you notice any factual errors? Math or calculation mistakes? Statements that contradict each other? - Is the information presented supported by evidence? - Does this source say things that can't be verified? - Has the source been reviewed or refereed? - Are there lots of typos, spelling and grammatical errors? The reason this source exists - What is the purpose of the source? To inform? Teach? Entertain? Sell something? Persuade? - Does the source present facts, opinions, or propaganda? - Are different perspectives on the issue presented? Does the point of view appear objective and impartial? - Are there political, ideological, cultural, religious, institutional, or personal biases? Not living up to all of these criteria doesn't automatically make a source "bad." But a source should meet most of these criteria, and it's important to recognize when a source doesn't pass the CRAAP Test. Ask a Librarian Information Services Librarian Lake Land College Library

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A treatment that has helped mice see in the dark could one day restore sight to the blind. British doctors used injections of healthy cells to repair the damaged eyes of rodents. The results were dramatic, with small numbers of cells restoring vision up to half of normal levels. The work is at an early stage but if successful hundreds of thousands of Britons could benefit, such as those with age-related macular degeneration – one of the most common forms of blindness. University College London researchers took healthy rods – tiny structures in the back of the eye essential for seeing in dim light – from young mice and injected them into the eyes of adult mice whose rods didn’t work. After four to six weeks, the new rods appeared to be working almost normally and had formed the connections needed to transmit information to the brain. When the treated mice were put in a dimly-lit pool, they headed straight for the exit. Untreated mice swam in circles, proving the treated ones could see the way out, the journal Nature reports. Lead researcher Professor Robin Ali said: ‘Patients who have lost all vision tell me that what they’d really appreciate is a treatment that gives them the ability to see light, to be able to navigate to see the door.’ The British and American scientists say much more work is needed before the technique can be attempted on human patients. The first clinical trials might be five or 10 years away. But the researchers wrote in the journal Nature: ‘The results presented here demonstrate for the first time that transplanted rod-photoreceptor precursors can integrate into a dysfunctional adult retina, and, by directly connecting with the host retinal circuitry, truly improve vision.’ The undeveloped precursor cells used in the study were taken from week-old mice. Up to 32,000 of the cells were integrated into the retinas of recipient animals. Tests showed that visual responses in the brains of the mice were enhanced after the procedure. To see how the transplants affected behaviour, mice were placed in a dimly lit Y-shaped water maze in which one of two routes led to escape. This required swimming towards a visual cue, a grating pattern. After treatment, four of nine night-blind mice completed the task in 70 per cent of trials. Untreated mice, and those given “sham” treatments, performed no better than by chance. Cell integration in animals that performed best tended to be clustered, rather than spread widely across the retina. This suggested that besides the number of cells, the closeness of the cells to one another might be important. Professor Phil Luthert, director of the UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, said: ‘This is a landmark paper and the techniques used here are part of a pretty big push in regenerative medicine. ‘It was only a few years ago that we wouldn’t have thought repairing adult systems in this way would be possible – it was assumed to be a bridge too far, but with retinas at least, it seems entirely feasible. ‘It is still going to be another five or ten years at least before we think about doing anything with patients, though we are now making significant progress along the way. ‘What is truly remarkable about this field is how well transplanted cells seem to be accepted by the retina where they move into the right place and effectively wire themselves up. ‘The next challenges faced by scientists in this area concern how many cells can be got into the retina, how well they can be made to connect and then to see just how effectively they will work. ‘We also do not know how long-term any effects will be, whilst we have good reason to believe that any procedures would be long-lasting, at this stage we are only speculating.’ The research offers new hope for patients with diseases such as the genetic disorder retinitis pigmentosa (RP). The disease destroys retinal cells, especially the rods, leading to progressive loss of vision. Around 25,000 people in the UK are affected by the disorder. David Head, chief executive at the retinitis pigmentosa charity RP Fighting Blindness, which part-funded the research, said: ‘This is fantastic progress and exciting for patients faced with sight loss as a result of retinitis pigmentosa. ‘To read that cells appeared to be functioning almost as well as normal rod-photoreceptor cells and had formed the connections needed to transmit visual information to the brain is truly amazing. This is a great step forward.’

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June 28th, 2011 As in the United States, Canada and other countries, Indigenous people are dramatically overrepresented in the rates of incarceration. This no doubt has a lot to do with issues of poverty, disenfranchisement, and social issues arising from centuries of active and official repression. Australia is suffering these same issue and a recent federal parliamentary committee report described the incarceration rates for young Indigenous people in that country as “shameful” and as a “national crisis.” Aboriginal youth are 28 times more likely to be detained than non-Indigenous youth. This is not really news in Australia. Twenty years ago the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths In Custody studied similar issues. The committee made 40 wide-ranging recommendations including: better police training, incentives for school attendance and the introduction of mentoring programs. The report says all pre-schoolers and incarcerated youth should have hearing tests, as it found 40 per cent of Indigenous people in urban areas and 70 per cent in rural Australia had a hearing loss, a disability that put them at high risk of contact with police. The committee says the Government should include justice targets in its annual Closing The Gap statement alongside goals to improve life expectancy, health, education and employment. The report also says the Government should set up a commission to examine how to increase Indigenous representation in Parliament, through quotas or specially dedicated seats, to give youth a voice. The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Affairs Social Justice Commissioner, Mick Gooda, says Australia must act now, before it loses another generation to the criminal justice system.

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Intellectual / Academic HonestyWhat's In This Module: "Human history becomes more and more a race between education and catastrophe." Interesting thought, don't you think? But, who said it and when? Whenever we use the exact words -- or even the ideas -- of other writers in our own writing, it is imperative that we give credit to the original source. For the record, the above quote is by H. G. Wells, from his book The Outline of History (originally published in 1920). If you incorporate this statement into your writing, you need to give credit to Mr. Wells -- whether you quote his words exactly (using quotation marks around the text), or put his ideas into your own words (for example, by writing that only education can prevent global disaster). Most colleges and universities have explicit rules regarding intellectual or academic honesty. Students in the University of Maine System can check the Student Conduct Handbook for your campus to see what the rules are. The University of Maine System campuses with their handbooks online are as follows: - Augusta Campus Student Conduct Code - Farmington Campus Student Conduct Code - Presque Isle Campus Student Academic Integrity Policy - Orono Campus Academic Integrity - Portland/Gorham/Lewiston Auburn Campuses Academic Integrity Plagiarism is using other people's words or ideas, then representing them as your own without acknowledging your sources. The originator of a work owns it and the rights to its use by others. Therefore it is absolutely necessary to cite all quoted or paraphrased material correctly. What is Fabrication of Data? Fabrication is inventing or falsifying information to fit a desired outcome. Tactics can include improperly quoting material, making up citations to fit a required time period for data, putting authoritative names to non-identified material, inventing quotes or dates or statistics. All these methods of "getting the results" you want are dishonest. The penalty for such actions can be a failing grade in a course or even expulsion from the university. What is Cheating? Cheating involves all of the above, but most people think of cheating as copying answers from another student during an exam or copying or buying a term paper from another person or company. Instructors know that students can purchase essays or term papers. For papers obtained from the Web, instructors can use software that identifies papers that have been produced by an outside source. Save yourself time and misery by doing your own work. Why not Cheat? Making up data or copying from another student or taking someone else's ideas/material without properly acknowledging them is dishonest and corrupts the educational process. Students who use dishonest methods do an injustice to their fellow students and endanger their own futures. Do the work and the work will be yours forever. End of Tutorial: Home

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Antarctica continent, the fifth largest continent in the world, lies almost entirely south to the south of the Antarctic Circle. It is lying around the south pole. Antarctica is truly an iceland. 98% Of its 14.4 million square km land is covered with snow and ice. The ice cap has an average thickness of 1.6 kilometers. The continent is divided into West Antarctica (including Antarctic penninsula) and East Antarctica by the Transantarctic mountains. The mountain range runs from Coats Land to Victoria islands. Antarctica has a highest average elevation of about 2440meters. The highest peak Vison Massif has an altitude o 5139 meters and lowest average temperature among all continents. Due to the vast precipitations like snow, hail, there are no long-term human residents within this polar area and only cold-adapted organisms can survive. Some feature animals are seals, walruses, penguins which all possess heavy layers of fat as anti-cold mechanism. Though extreme climate has deterred large-scale settlement of the continent, habitation is now limited to scientific bases. Rich natural resources are available in Antarctica. Many ore minerals, like iron and glod can be found. There are also coal reserves in the Tranantarctic Mountains. This triggers tense competition and conflicts over sovereignty and legal access to resources in early days. As a result, in 1959 the Atlantic Treaty was signed among over 50 countries, aiming to ban military activities in the area and promote research work and peaceful exploitation of resources. By the passage of time, the environmental issues began to surface in Antarctica since the 1980s due to human activities. Till recently, ozone depletion and rising sea-level attributed to melting polar glaciers have been spotlighted. There is urgency for the world to cure this sick piece of land. Family Reference Atlas of the world - National Geographic Society 2002 Concise Atlas of the worl - Dorling Kindersley Merriam website's Geographical Dictionary The World Book A.1 - World Book, Inc Atlas of the Living world - Burke Publishing Company Ltd

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The sign for "duck" opens and closes a "bill" twice as if you were quacking twice. This version uses a handshape consisting of extending the index finger, middle finger, and thumb. DUCK (version 1) You might also see people do the sign for "duck" using the whole hand (all of the fingers extended and the thumb. DUCK (version 2) The sign for "bird" is similar to "duck" except that the sign for "BIRD" uses a "G"-handshape (just the index finger and the thumb). You can learn American Language (ASL) online at American Sign Language University ™ by Lifeprint.com © Dr. William Vicars

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Picture Index: Old Glory, 1776 playbill, map of original 13 colonies, the flag and Statue Of Liberty, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Frank Sinatra and Benjamin Franklin. IN CONGRESS, JULY 4, 1776---The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America When in the Course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. — That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, — That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security. — Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world. He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their Public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people. He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected, whereby the Legislative Powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within. He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands. He has obstructed the Administration of Justice by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary Powers. He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our people and eat out their substance. He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures. He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil Power. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation: For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us: For protecting them, by a mock Trial from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States: For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world: For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent: For depriving us in many cases, of the benefit of Trial by Jury: For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences: For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments: For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & Perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation. He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands. He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions. In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred. to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends. We, therefore, the Representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States, that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. — And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor. — John Hancock New Hampshire: Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple, Matthew Thornton Massachusetts:John Hancock, Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry Rhode Island:Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery Connecticut:Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William Williams, Oliver Wolcott New York:William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris New Jersey:Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark Pennsylvania:Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross Delaware:Caesar Rodney, George Read, Thomas McKean Maryland:Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, Charles Carroll of Carrollton Virginia:George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton North Carolina:William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn South Carolina:Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward, Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton Georgia:Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton FRANK SINATRA'S "The House I Live In". Track Title: The House I Live InAlbum Title: The Columbia Years, 1943-1952, Vol. 3 Prime Artist: Frank SinatraOriginally made famous by: Earl RobinsonWritten by: Lewis AllenWritten by: Earl Robinson From the Film: The House I Live In 1945 (M) Lyrics:INTRO: What is America to me? A name, a map, or a flag I see? A certain word, "democracy"? What is America to me? The house I live in, a plot of earth, a streetThe grocer and the butcher, and the people that I meetThe children in the playground, the faces that I seeAll races and religions, that's America to me The place I work in, the worker by my sideThe little town or city where my people lived and diedThe "howdy" and the handshake, the air of feeling freeAnd the right to speak my mind out, that's America to me The things I see about me, the big things and the small The little corner newsstand and the house a mile tall The wedding in the churchyard, the laughter and the tearsThe dream that's been a-growin' for a hundred and fifty years The town I live in, the street, the house, the roomThe pavement of the city, or a garden all in bloomThe church, the school, the clubhouse, the millions lights I see, But especially the people----That's America to me. THE PLAY 1776 Original stage productionThe original Broadway production of 1776 opened on March 16, 1969 at the 46th Street Theatre (now the Richard Rodgers Theatre) and closed on February 13, 1972 after 1217 performances. In its three year run, it would play in three different theatres: the 46th Street, the St. James Theatre (1970) and, finally, the Majestic Theatre (1971).The show was lauded at the 1969 Tony Awards, where it was nominated for five awards and won three: Best Musical; Best Featured Actor in a Musical (for Ronald Holgate as Richard Henry Lee), and Best Direction of a Musical. It was also nominated for the Tony Awards for Best Featured Actress in a Musical (for Virginia Vestoff as Abigail Adams) and for Best Scenic Design. 1776 also won the 1969 Theatre World Award and two Drama Desk Awards for Outstanding Book and Outstanding Costume Design.Many members of the original Broadway cast reprised their roles for the film. Both the stage version and the movie feature William Daniels as John Adams, Ken Howard as Thomas Jefferson, and Howard Da Silva as Benjamin Franklin. (Rex Everhart replaced Da Silva on the original Broadway cast album.) Betty Buckley played Martha Jefferson in the original stage production, while that role featured Blythe Danner in the film.This musical was nominated for 5 Tony Awards and won 3.Revival1776 was revived by the Roundabout Theatre Company in 1997, with Brent Spiner as Adams, Pat Hingle as Franklin, and Paul Michael Vallee as Jefferson. It played a limited engagement at the Roundabout's home theatre, the Criterion Center, before transferring to the Gershwin Theatre for a commercial run.The revival was nominated for the Tony Awards for Best Revival of a Musical, Best Direction of a Musical and Best Featured Actor in a Musical (for Gregg Edelman as Edward Rutledge). Edelman won a 1998 Drama Desk Award for his work as Rutledge; the show also received Drama Desk nominations for Outstanding Revival, Outstanding Direction (Ellis) and Outstanding Actor (Spiner).Spoiler warning: Plot and/or ending details follow.PlotAlthough it tells the story of what happened at the Continental Congress in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1776 leading up to the signing of the United States Declaration of Independence, and it accurately portrays the serious personal and political issues at stake -- frequently in the characters' own words, written by them at the time -- it remains a musical comedy. The play has often been criticized for straining too hard for historical accuracy instead of exercising literary license when that would help the plot or presentation along. Scene OneMay 8, 1776. Philadelphia. As the Second Continental Congress proceeds with its business, the weather becomes increasingly hot, humid and as unbearable as the irascible Delegate of Massachusetts, John Adams. Each of his proposals on independency have not even been given "the courtesy of open debate." The other delegates, sickened of his constant arguing, implore him, For God's Sake, John, Sit Down. Adams complains that Congress has done nothing in the year-and-a-half in which they've been convened but to Piddle, Twiddle and Resolve. Angered at the latest debate regarding the merits of compensation regarding a dead mule, Adams flees the chamber and reads the latest missive from his darling Abigail, whom he has conjured as a figment of his imagination. She asks that he simply "tell the Congress to declare Independency, then sign your name, get out of there, and hurry home to me." He asks if she's succeeded in his charge to make saltpeter, and she responds by telling him that not only has he neglected to tell them how saltpetre is made, that the women have no intention of doing so until they receive straight pins. Till Then, they pledge their love to each other and Abigail disappears. The delegates tell him, again, to sit down and shut up, and he goes of in search of Dr. Benjamin Franklin Scene Two Adams finds Franklin sitting for his portrait ("The man's no Botticelli." "And the subject's no Venus."). Adams bemoans the failure of his arguments for Independence, and Franklin reminds him that no colony has ever attempted to break away from its parent country before. He explains that Adams is obnoxious and disliked by the members of Congress, and, perhaps the resolution would have more success if proposed by someone else - someone neither obnoxious nor disliked. Richard Henry Lee, delegate from Virginia, enters. Lee explains that, by the simple heritage of his good name of The Lees of Old Virginia, he is the best man for the job. Scene Three June 7, 1776. A new delegate from Georgia, Dr. Lyman Hall, enters the Congressional Chamber and is greeted by McNair, the Congressional Custodian. He is introduced to the entering delegates, each of whom enquire of Georgia's stance on Independence. He evades an answer as Franklin and Adams return to the chamber. Adams, who has been uncharacteristically silent while waiting for Lee's return with his resolution from the House of Burgesses, is teased by the other delegates. John Hancock, President of the Congress, and Charles Thomson, Secretary of the Congress, take their respective places. Hancock gavels the 380th meeting of the Congress to order.Before introducing Hall to the rest of the delegates, Hancock's first order of business is to shut off the store of rum to the delegate from Rhode Island, Stephen Hopkins. Thomson notes that all members of Congress are accounted for save the New Jersey delegation. ("Where is New Jersey?" "Somewhere between New York and Pennsylvania.") Hancock asks Franklin if he knows the reason for their continued absence, as his son, William, is the Royal Governor. Franklin informs Congress that he and his son have stopped speaking due to their differences over the issue of Independence. Hancock asks Thomas Jefferson for the weather report. He announces that it is 87 "very humid degrees", and Jefferson announces that he is leaving for Virgina that night.Thomson receives a communiqué from George Washington, the Commander of the Army of the United Colonies. Washington fears that his exhausted and under-equipped troops will be ineffective at stopping a large force of British soldiers from attacking New York, a move that would separate New England from the other colonies. Colonel Thomas McKean, of Delaware, grumbles that Washington's letters are always gloomy and depressing. Hancock opens the floor to new resolutions, and as Josiah Bartlett of New Hampshire is reading a resolution discouraging extravagance, Richard Henry Lee lavishly canters into the chamber. Lee reads his resolution into the record and it is seconded by Adams.Hancock calls for debate on the resolution, and John Dickinson of Pennsylvania moves to indefinitely postpone the question of Independence. George Read, also of Delaware, seconds the motion and the Congress votes on Dickinson's motion. New York abstains, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Delaware, and Virginia vote to open debate, while Pennsylvania, North Carolina, South Carolina, Maryland, and Georgia vote for postponement, leaving the deciding vote to Stephen Hopkins of Rhode Island, who is "in the necessary". ("Rhode Island passes.") He returns in time to vote in favor of debate, stating that he'd "never seen, heard, nor smelled an issue that was so dangerous it couldn't be talked about."The most vocal of the delegates state their postions: Dickinson is against revolt and rebellion, but in favor of petitioning King George on their grievances. Adams and Franklin argue that the colonists have not been granted the full rights of Englishmen (Franklin: "Nor would I [object to being called an Englishman], were I given the full rights of an Englishman. But to call me one without those rights is like calling an ox a bull. He's thankful for the honor, but he'd much rather have restored what's rightfully his." Dickinson: "When did you first notice them missing, sir?") and that it is too late for reconciliation - a year has passed since the Battles of Lexington and Concord. The Carolina delegates are worried that the rights of the individual states would be subsumed by a strong federation.As the argument between the delegates grows more heated, Caesar Rodney of Delaware, who has cancer, collapses, and Col. McKean offers to take him back home. Edward Rutledge of South Carolina sees the majority swinging in his favor and moves to vote on Independence. Franklin seeks to stall the motion, and asks that the resolution be read allowed again. As Thomson is reading it, the New Jersey delegation arrives, led by Rev. John Witherspoon. He informs the Congress that he has been instructed to vote in favor of Independence. The vote is now six for Independence and six against (with New York's usual abstention), and Adams reminds Hancock of his duty as President to break all ties. Seeing that the resolution might pass, Dickinson moves that any vote for Independence must pass unanimously. His motion is seconded, and the vote produces the same tie, which Hancock breaks by voting for unanimity.The vote for Independence is called again, and Adams calls for a postponement. He expresses the need for time to compose some sort of declaration defining the reasons for Independence. The motion is seconded; during the debate, Jefferson breaks his silence in favor of a declaration "to place before mankind the common sense of the subject, in terms so plain and firm as to command their assent." The vote is called, producing yet another tie. Hancock breaks the tie by voting in favor of postponement, choosing Adams, Franklin, Lee, Roger Sherman of Connecticut, and Robert Livingston of New York to draft the Declaration. Hancock announces that it must be written, debated, and passed by the beginning of July - a mere three weeks away. Lee declines and Hancock, almost as an afterthought, appoints Jefferson in his place. Hancock adjourns the session as Jefferson complains that he must go home to his wife.The Committee of Five argues about on whom the task of writing the Declaration should devolve (But, Mr. Adams). Franklin suggests that Adams write it, but he declines, reminding Franklin that he is "obnxious and disliked" and that anything he writes is bound to be rejected by the other delegates. Adams suggests Franklin, as he is an acomplished writer and printer. Franklin argues "The things I write are only light extemporanea. I won't put politics on paper; it's a mania. I refuse to use the pen in Pennsylvania." Adams turns to Sherman who claims that he's not a writer at all, declaring "I do not know a participle from a predicate; I'm just a simple cobbler from Connecticut." Livingston, in turn, declines, as he must return to New York to celebrate the birth of his son. Adams finally turns to Jefferson, praises his writing, and quotes a passage of The Necessity for Taking Up Arms, saying "For a man of only thirty-three years, you possess a happy talent of composition and a remarkable felicity of expression." Jefferson still tries to decline, and Adams threatens him with physical force, thrusting the quill into his hand. The other four leave as Jefferson skulks back to his quarters with his pen. Scene Four A week later. Adams and Franklin visit Jefferson to check on his progress to find that there has, in fact, been none. Jefferson has spent the week moping and lovelorn, but is brightened when his beloved Martha enters. Adams has sent for her, and the two older gentlemen leave them alone.Adams, again, exchanges letters with his wife, Abigail; she wonders why he hasn't sent for her. He asks her to come to Philadelphia, and she declines, informing him that his children are riddled with disease. They pledge each other to be eternally Yours, Yours, Yours.Martha finally opens the shutters, and the two gentlemen ask her how a man as silent as Jefferson won a woman as lovely as she. She tells them that she loves him because He Plays the Violin. The three of them dance, and Jefferson enters to return Martha back to his loft. Franklin and Adams hail the stateliness of the fiddler. Scene Five June 22, 1776. Congress has reconvened. Delegates read, talk, eat, and sleep in the chamber as various committees are called to deal with Congressional correspondence, counterfeit money, military defeat in Canada, and intrigue. Another letter is received from General Washington. He reports that the troops are in a sad state, afflicted with venereal disease and alcoholism. He implores the Congress to send a War Committee to New Jersey to boost morale. As Adams, Franklin, and Samuel Chase leave for New Jersey ("Wake up, Franklin! You're going to New Brunswick!" "Like hell I am! What for?" "The whoring and the drinking!"), the delegates in favor of Independence also leave. Dickinson and the Conservatives dance a minuet and sing of their caution, their desire to hold onto their wealth ("Don't forget that most men without property would rather protect the possibility of becoming rich than face the reality of being poor.") and remain Cool, Cool Considerate Men.The delegates depart, leaving McNair, the courier and a workman in the Chamber. The workman asks the courier from Massachusetts if he's seen any fighting, and the courier replies that his two closest friends were killed on the same day. He sings the stirring Momma, Look Sharp. Scene Six Jefferson is outside the chamber as Hancock orders Thomson to read the Declaration. Adams and Franklin enter and congratulate Jefferson on the excellence of the document, and Franklin compares the creation of this new country to The Egg. This leads the trio to debate which bird is coming out of its shell and, thus, the symbol of America. Jefferson proposes the dove, a symbol of peace. Franklin suggests the turkey, a symbol of independence. The three settle on the eagle, as suggested by Adams. Scene Seven June 28, 1776. Hancock asks if there are any amendments, deletions, or alterations to be offered to the Declaration. McKean suggests removal of the word "Scottish" from a sentence referring to the foreign mercenaries used by the British. Rev. Witherspoon suggests the addition of the phrase "Divine Providence". Days pass. The debate becomes more heated. Bartlett wants to confine the complaints against the British to disagreements with King George, while Sherman wants to remove all mention of Parliament. Jefferson acquiesces to each recommendation, until Dickinson suggests the removal of a phrase calling the king a tyrant. Jefferson refuses, "The King is a tyrant whether we say so or not. We might as well say so."Hancock is about to call for a vote on the Declaration, when Rutledge objects to Jefferson's renunciation of slavery in his list of redresses. Rutledge defends slavery as a necessary evil in the way of life in South Carolina, and reminds Jefferson that he, too, is a slaveholder. Jefferson announces that he has decided to free his slaves, and Rutledge accuses the Northern Colonies of hyprocisy: the nothern shippers get rich off of the trade of slaves. He reminds them that the process of Molasses to Rum to slaves is ensuring prosperity for the north. The delegations of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia angrily leave the chamber. Without them, Independence cannot be declared.Chase rushes into the Chamber, excited that the Maryland Assembly has decided to accept the Lee Resolution, as Dickinson and four other delegates leave the Chamber. Adams is desperate: he sends McKean to Delaware to bring back Rodney. Franklin sagely insists that Adams and Jefferson agree to the removal of the slavery clause from the Declaration. What good is it to win the battle only to lose the war?During their exchange, McNair delivers two kegs to the Chamber. ("What's in them? Who sent them?") Abigail sings, "Compliments of the Concord Lady's Coffee Club, and the Sisterhood of the Truro Synagogue, and the Friday Evening Baptist Sewing Circle, and the Holy Christian Sisters of St. Claire: all for you, John. I am as I ever was, and ever shall be, Yours, Yours, Yours!" John asks, "Abigail, what is it?" to which Abby belts out, "Saltpetre, John!"Adams' faith in the cause renewed, he tells Franklin and Jefferson to talk to all of the wavering delegates: they need each and every vote. Thomson reads the latest dispatch from General Washington, who wonders if he's ever to receive a response to his last fifteen missives. They leave Adams alone in the chamber. Adams echoes Washington's words, Is Anybody There? Discouraged but determined, Adams sings of his vision of his new country: "Yet, through all the gloom, I see the rays of ravishing light and glory!"Hall returns and says to Adams, "In trying to resolve my dilemma I remembered something I'd once read, 'that a representative owes the People not only his industry, but his judgement, and he betrays them if he sacrifices it to their opinion.' It was written by Edmund Burke, a member of the British Parliament." He walks over to the tally board and changes Georgia's vote from "nay" to "yea".The other delegates slowly make their way back into the Chamber, including Caesar Rodney. Hancock calls for the vote on the Lee Resolution. Thomson calls on each delegation for their vote. Pennsylvania passes on the first call, but the rest of the nothern and middle colonies (save New York) vote "yea". When the vote devolves to South Carolina, Rutledge demands the removal of the slavery clause as the condition of the yea votes from the Carolinas. Franklin pleads with Adams to remove the clause, and Adams turns to Jefferson. Jefferson rises, crosses the Chamber, and scratches out the clause himself. The Carolinas vote "yea".When Pennsylvania's vote is called again, the three delegates, Dickinson, Franklin, and James Wilson, are unable to agree. Franklin asks Hancock to poll the delegation: Franklin votes "yea", Dickinson "nay", leaving the swing vote to Wilson, who normally votes the same way as Dickinson. He says, "I'm different from most of the men here. I don't want to be remembered. I don't want to be remembered as the man who prevented American Independence," and votes "yea".Hancock asks that only men who will be signing the Declaration be seated in Congress. Still hoping for a reconciliation with England, Dickinson announces that he cannot sign the Declaration, but, instead, will join the army to fight for and defend the new nation. Adams leads the Congress in a salute to the man as he leaves the Chamber.Hancock leads the delegates signing the Declaration, but is interrupted by the courier with another dispatch from Washington. He reports that preparations for the Battle of New York are underway, but expresses concern about America's badly outnumbered and under-trained troops.On the evening of July 4, 1776, McNair rings the Liberty Bell in the background as Thomson calls each of the delegates to sign their name to the Declaration of Independence.

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2013-05-24T16:31:14Z

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"The family Portunidae are distinguished from the rest of the round-fronted (cyclometope) crabs by the adaptation of some of their legs for swimming, to which end these limbs are transformed into flattened paddles. The result is often to confer upon the crabs a power of darting at high speed through the water, which would hardly be credited by those who have not watched them. Corresponding to this mobility they have a thin flattened form of body, enabling them to pass sideways through the water, and a lightness gained at the expense of the protective cuticle. These peculiarities give the swimming crabs a strikingly different bodily form from the heavily-built, slow-moving Xanthids, which is moreover accompanied by an equally marked difference of habitat. The Xanthids are usually to be found on the reef or shore exposed to the full force of the breakers. In this position the lightly-built swimming crabs would be dashed to pieces against the rocks. Their proper haunt is a space of quiet waters, such as the lagoon of a coral atoll, and as these places are, in the tropics, generally bottomed with white or greyish coral sand, on which the crabs lie, and in which they often hide their bodies, they frequently mimic it by their pale greyish color, often in a manner as striking as that in which flat-fish resemble the shingly bottom they live on (Borradaile, 1902; pg. 199)." "The family is highly variable and varietal and is probably undergoing rapid evolution in many directions (Borradaile, 1902; pg. 199)." "The bodies of most Portunidae are adorned or protected with sharp thorns or teeth, and it is on such characters as the number and size of these and the shape of the lobed front that the species are generally distinguished, though in most cases enough is not known of their habits to make it possible to say whether, and if so how, these be of use to the animals (Borradaile, 1902; pg. 199)." Ecology and Distribution "At the same time the swimming crabs are by no means entirely confined to a bottom of coral sand even in the tropics. In deep water, where rocks are not associated with danger, they are found on every kind of bottom in about equal numbers, and here, if they hide, it must be under stones. They even occur, though not so very often, on the reef. But the individuals found in this position, may possibly have strayed from the lagoon with the outgoing tide. Probably, when more is known about the lives of the species, it will be found that certain of them maintain their existence on the reef by sheltering under stones or in blocks of coral, where if anywhere they are always found, and that others- certainly the bulk of individuals- prefer the lagoon. In their habits these crabs are active and intelligent, escaping capture with cleverness. The lagoon forms usually keep close to the sand and do not rise more than a few feet into the water, but others swim as boldly and strongly as fish (Borradaile, 1902; pg. 199)."

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http://maldivesnlaccadives.lifedesks.org/pages/308/?lang=en

2013-05-24T16:10:27Z

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en

Provided by: manpages-dev_2.62-1_all crypt - password and data encryption char *crypt(const char *key, const char *salt); Link with -lcrypt. crypt() is the password encryption function. It is based on the Data Encryption Standard algorithm with variations intended (among other things) to discourage use of hardware implementations of a key search. key is a user’s typed password. salt is a two-character string chosen from the set [a–zA–Z0–9./]. This string is used to perturb the algorithm in one of 4096 different ways. By taking the lowest 7 bits of each of the first eight characters of the key, a 56-bit key is obtained. This 56-bit key is used to encrypt repeatedly a constant string (usually a string consisting of all zeros). The returned value points to the encrypted password, a series of 13 printable ASCII characters (the first two characters represent the salt itself). The return value points to static data whose content is overwritten by each call. Warning: The key space consists of 2**56 equal 7.2e16 possible values. Exhaustive searches of this key space are possible using massively par‐ allel computers. Software, such as crack(1), is available which will search the portion of this key space that is generally used by humans for passwords. Hence, password selection should, at minimum, avoid common words and names. The use of a passwd(1) program that checks for crackable passwords during the selection process is recommended. The DES algorithm itself has a few quirks which make the use of the crypt(3) interface a very poor choice for anything other than password authentication. If you are planning on using the crypt(3) interface for a cryptography project, don’t do it: get a good book on encryption and one of the widely available DES libraries. A pointer to the encrypted password is returned. On error, NULL is ENOSYS The crypt() function was not implemented, probably because of U.S.A. export restrictions. SVr4, 4.3BSD, POSIX.1-2001 The glibc2 version of this function has the following additional fea‐ tures. If salt is a character string starting with the three charac‐ ters "$1$" followed by at most eight characters, and optionally termi‐ nated by "$", then instead of using the DES machine, the glibc crypt function uses an MD5-based algorithm, and outputs up to 34 bytes, namely "$1$<salt>$<encoded>", where "<salt>" stands for the up to 8 characters following "$1$" in the salt, and "<encoded>" is a further 22 characters. The characters in "<salt>" and "<encoded>" are drawn from the set [a–zA–Z0–9./]. The entire key is significant here (instead of only the first 8 bytes). login(1), passwd(1), encrypt(3), getpass(3), passwd(5), fea

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Blaeu Atlas of Scotland, 1654 |Name:||Blaeu, Joan, 1596-1673| |Title:||Lavden sive Lothien| |Zoom Into Map:||Click on the image to view in greater detail| Scroll through pages: Translation of text: to east, but come together near Dalkeith, from where they flow into the Scottish Sea not far from Musselburgh. There are many other rivers of the same name as these in this island, especially two beyond the Tay among the Venectiones; the origin of the name is in the Hebrew mother tongue, in which iatsac is to pour, flow. Then comes the Medlan Burn, so called from Magdalene; to whom, in the time of the Roman religion, there was dedicated a chapel on its bank, near a stone bridge, where it is customary to cross (2) the burn. After this is found the Water of Leith, chief of the rivers of this region, flwoing from the south from higher ground towards the north, to the Forth; where it joins with that, there is the best known of all ports in our country. The land through which this river runs is most productive of grain, so that along its bank within a few miles you could count in excess of forty five corn-mills. The name of this river comes from the Hebrew leath, to pour, flow; as also the well-known River Lethe in Greece. The next noteworthy river is the Aimon, commonly called by poor linguists Almond; its name is a compound of Ai or Ay, which word means stream; so indeed a stream is called in our country in the Merse, and a small city on it Ayton, whence too the name of a noble family. The second part of the compound is Mon from the Saxon Mund, which means mouth or river-mouth: hence Aimun or Aimund is thus properly the mouth of the River Ai, which is called in another vernacular word Cramond, more correctly Cranmund; Cra is substituted here from Cran as in the well-known Craford for Cranford. Cranmund also means mouth of water, for Greek krana is fountain of water, whence Cran. The final river is the Avon, which flows down likewise from the south from higher ground and flows into the Forth. There are many other rivers of this name in this island; the origin of the name is also Hebrew ain, since it means source, as it is; so too are several other, smaller, rivers in this region; but all flow into these larger ones which have been mentioned, or are not of such great importance. One however must not be passed over, which I had almost forgotten: it flows past the village of Liberton, coming down from the Penlan mountains, and is taken into Duddingston Loch, whence it runs into the estuary of the Forth. This seems to have once been called Leber, under which name various rivers have been designated in our country, from Greek leibo, I disperse, pour through; on its bank is situated the village of Leberton. Today this stream is commonly called Fagot; this name is a diminutive from Greek phagos, by which name various rivers are designated, notably the famous Phagus in Elis; it is derived from pege or pagei spring, this from the Hebrew phacah, that is to flow, pour. Not far from this stream, near the church of the locality, is a spring from whose outflow oil bubbles up along with water, or a fatty, dense balsam, floating on the water. The local people collect this on fixed days and preserve it for several months, and then use it as an excellent remedy against distortions and pains in the limbs and against agria, a type of scabies. All the foresaid streams have, generally in more than place, stone bridges, by which they are crossed. This region is by far the leading one of all the Provinces of Scotland, whether you consider the supply of things necessary for human uses which are either created in it or are imported to it from elsewhere; or the beauty of the country, in which you may find valleys green with grass, fields producing grain, hills and raised places well stocked with herds of sheep. Now the inhabitants of this region, as they are much more numerous than of any other region in our country, even of much larger ones, so they are much more cultivated than others, and men here of every class are much richer than in any other Province; this partly results from the happy provision of things which are created here, partly too from the trade in commodities which is practised here more than elsewhere. For this region is not only the common market for the whole Kingdom, but also for foreigners. All the rivers abound in fish; and the sea near by provides its riches in abundance to the people, so that none of these fish of various kinds which the sea supplies at fixed times of the year are wanting. At the beginning of autumn near Dunbar there is such a great catch of herring for some weeks, that not only are the poor of the neighbourhood fed on them at that time, but also they are salted and preserved for the use of the rich in the following seasons of the year. Further at a certain time of year, by the special beneficence of providence, sea-birds resembling geese, whence they are commonly called geese, fly here to us from foreign parts, and take up position on a rock in the estuary of the Forth, called the Bass; there they lay their eggs and when laid incubate them for a fixed time on the rock and hatch them; nowhere else in the whole of Europe will you find geese of this kind, except on a second rock in the Firth of Clyde to the west. There is such an abundance of them here, that the owner of the place makes no small profit from them; for not only is the flesh of these birds edible, but their feathers also serve for stuffing cushions. Amazing stories are told by our historians about these birds. They come to us about the middle of April in flocks and leave us about the middle of September. But before the coming of the flock they send some in advance like scouts and house-agents, who look out and assign their dwellings in advance. The goose lays only one egg at a time, which with great dexterity it fixes at one end on the rock and when fixed incubates with its foot, and never or very rarely leaves it until the chick is hatched. But if the goose should lift its foot from the egg and desert it and it should be moved from its place by a man, it is impossible by any means to replace it on the rock so that it remains fixed; therefore the goose starts again and lays another egg in place of the lost one, and puts it in the position of the first one. It is a peculiarity of these geese, that they cannot fly at all unless they can see the sea. This became known to men when on one occasion they realised they were trapped, having been by chance driven by a storm from the rock to the mainland out of sight of the sea, and trying by flight to escape the hands of those who would catch them, they clearly disclosed that they could not fly. When the chicks reach the size of domestic geese, then they are pleasant and ready for eating, but scarcely before then. The flesh of older geese is tough, meagre, and black, though the feathers are white. When they come to the Bass, they bring with them a great quantity of fish on which they feed there, and which sometimes get caught by the local people and serve as food. They also bring with them pieces of wood, of which they build their nests, and these too the inhabitants of the rock take and use for fire. These geese, with a vernacular name distorted, I believe, from Latin, are called Solen, which they wrongly pronounce Soland, that is yearly: for they come to us once only at a fixed time in the year. By some they are called in the vernacular Scouts, that is ota istai (3) , from the exquisite sense of hearing, in which all kinds of geese excel according to writers on natural history. But I should rather believe that Scouts is the term for the geese sent ahead, mentioned above. These are the main towns of this region: Dunbar or Baradunum on the Scottish Sea, where there is a harbour and above the cliff a ruined castle, formerly belonging to the Earls of March, who take their surname from this place. The name is a compound of Dun, i.e. mountain, and Bar or Baris, which means tower. The second town is Haddina, in the vernacular Haddington; it has this name because it is situated on the River Tyne, where there was once a famous monastery on level ground. The third town is Dalkeith, at the confluence of the two Rivers Esk with a castle and neighbouring domain. This town was for some ages the patrimony of the Douglases, but now belongs to the Scotts. It has its name from Dal, i.e. hill, and Keth, i.e. cover, roof. More or less a mile to the west from Dalkeith (4)was the famous Abbey on the Esk, on a low spot, called Newbattle, which is interpreted to mean new building. It is today the seat of the earl of Lothian of the family of Kers. The fourth town is Musselburgh, not far from the mouth of the Esk, so called because it was originally the home of poor fishermen, who devoted themselves to the gatherings of all kinds of shell-fish, in particular mussels. Leith and Edinburgh are discussed separately. The last town about which we shall speak in this province is that which most appropriately our kinsman (6) generally calls Limnuch, with a Greek word limnoikon, i.e. village at the marsh: for oikos is village, and limne is stagnant water, as we shall show elsewhere. This town was in ancient times Lindum, from Lin, i.e. dwelling, and Dun, vernacular for hill; today it is called Linlithgow, by which name is fully given the rationale of the site; for Lin is dwelling, which occurs so often in place names, and Leth is water, as we have seen above, Gow is hill from the Hebrew gaah, to lift, raise, an elevated place: and in truth this city is situated at a medium-sized lake above a small hill. In this city is a royal palace and a church too of elegant construction. Formerly, apart from the aforementioned towns, there were many fortified places, forts and castles, about which we shall at this point say nothing, as the passing of time and change of fortune have altered them all. Yet it has seemed right to mention here briefly one or two castles. There is a castle, even today very well fortified, of the Douglases, situated above a cliff steep on all sides and surrounded by the sea, except on the west, where the entrance to the castle is; and this part too is fortified with birch plantations. The Douglases had once built this castle to crush the tyranny of the Earls of March, who at that time vexed with their power all their neighbours, at least the weaker ones. This Castle is in the vernacular called Tantallon, corruptly, whence Latin writers have named it Tantallo: the rationale of the name is this: the masters of the oikodomoi or builders, or the principal masons, when the finishing touches had been put on the construction, obtained from the Lord of the place, as a reward for their labour and industry, that their names should be inscribed in capital letters on the most conspicuous places of the castle walls. Now the names of the oikodomoi were Thomas and Allan, for which our common people say Tom and Allon, whence was invented the compound name Tomtallon. This castle was for a long time besieged by King James V and long battered with bronze missiles, but with virtually wasted effort. Therefore after causing only slight damage to the walls the King was compelled to lift the siege. In the sea approximately one mile from this castle rises the Bass Rock, steep on all sides, whose summit is covered with grass, and right at the top is sweet water; the circumference of the rock is approximately one mile; the waves with their force have cut through the lower part of the rock almost from one side to the other; many sea-birds gather here to make their nests, especially the geese, those which have been mentioned above. In a different part of this province on the Forth, above a high hill, is a ruined castle formerly belonging to the Douglases, now to the Hamiltons, named Abercorn, where there was in ancient times a famous monastery, which in those days they called Aberkernit. The rationale of the name is to be sought in the situation: since Aber or Keber, as in other places it is pronounced, denotes a building, whose diminutive is in French Cabaret. Corn or Kern or Kernig, as it was formerly pronounced, means an elevated place, and comes also from the Hebrew krn, which among other things denotes a raised place as does the Latin cornu.

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Information and communication technologies in deal with the use of Information and (ICTs) within educational technology The purpose of ICT in education is generally to familiarise students with the use and workings of computers , and related social and ethical issues ICT has also enabled learning through multiple intelligence as ICT has introduced learning through simulation games; this enables active learning through all senses ICT By country In all of Australia, ICT is not a subject until the final two years of schooling, despite similar subjects being available before VCE or equivalent. In Victoria, children start ICT in Prep but are not reported upon until they are in Year 1. They undertake a wide range of activities using technology to learn in all curriculum areas.ICT Curriculum and Standards Norway ICT is a course which students can select for their second year of upper secondary school. pre-school to Year 10 ICT is interwoven throughout the curriculum as part of the Essential Learning of Communication. countries, such as the Philippines, also have ICT as an educational subject in their Kingdom, Information and Communication Technology is a subject in education, and a part of the National All students must study Information and Communication Technology to GCSE The ICT programme in the United Kingdom is co-ordinated by Becta . A major initiative was the Curriculum Online scheme, which was closed in 2008 and which was produced to accelerate the uptake of technology amongst schools. Becta took over the running of this scheme from the Department for Education and in 2005. Becta worked closely with the Joint Information Systems to develop strategy. Students are taught to use software such as office suites , desktop publishers ; they are also taught about ICT theory, and how ICT can be used to solve problems. taught at GCSE Students also study the Data , the Computer , and other legal and ethical issues related to Many schools have specialist status in technology and, more recently, in maths and computing these schools champion the use of ICT to enhance teaching and Within Scotland and the North East of England a pilot enterprise in education initiative ( ICT Youth Challenge ) aims to use ICT as a vehicle to encourage creative thinking within the youth demographic. Tapping into the 'unconstrained' minds of the regions young people, the programme simulates the process of taking a new innovative ICT idea through the commercialisation process. The competition is sponsored by Microsoft and BT and hopes to expand its reach throughout the UK in 2009/10. ICT in education can be broadly categorized in the following ways: - ICT as a subject (i.e., computer studies) - ICT as a tool to support traditional subjects (i.e., computer-based learning, presentation, research) - ICT as an administrative tool (i.e., education management Buckleitner, W. (2008). So young, and so gadgeted. New York Times. Retrieved on May 31 at Children Now. (2007). The effects of interactive media on preschooler’s learning: A review of the research and recommendations for the future. Oakland, CA: Children Now. Retrieved May 15, 2009, from Harlen, W. & James, M. (1996). Creating a positive impact of assessment in learning. Paper presented American Educational Research Association, New York, April 1996, ED 397 137. Hawisher, G. & Selfe, C. (1999). Conclusion: Hybrid and transgressive literacy practices on the web. In Hawisher & Selfe (Eds.), Global literacies and the World Wide Web (pp. 279-291). New York: Routledge. Hsi, S. (2006). Digital learning and play: A synthesis and elaboration from a CILS Bay Area Institute Roundtable. San Francisco: The Center for Informal Learning and Schools. Retrieved on April 1, 2009, from International Society for Technology in Education. (2007). The ISTE national educational technology standards (NET-S) and performance indicators for students. Eugene, OR: ISTE. Jenkins, H. (2006). Confronting the challenges of participatory culture: Media education for the 21st century. The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation. Chicago: Author. Retrieved May 15, 2009 from: The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation. (2005). Digital media and learning fact sheet. Chicago: Author. Retrieved on May 20, 2009, from: Mizuko I., Horst, H., Bittanti, M., Boyd, D., Herr-Stephenson, B., Lange, et al. (2008). Living and learning with new media: Summary of findings from the Digital Youth Project. The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation Reports on Digital Media and Learning. Chicago: Author. Retrieved May 15, 2009, from: National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) and National Association of Early Childhood Specialists in State Departments of Education (NAECS/SDE). (2002). Early learning standards: Creating the conditions for success. Washington, D.C.: National Association for the Education of Young Children. (2008). Technology and young children – ages 3 through 8. Washington, D.C.: Author. Retrieved May 15, 2009, from: National Institute for Early Education Research. (2009). Are new media a boon to young children’s education? Rutgers: The State University of New Jersey. Retrieved April 15, 2009 from: Rideout, V., Vanderwater, E. & Wartella, E. (2003). Zero to six: Electronic media in the lives of infants, toddlers, and preschoolers. Menlo Park, CA: The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. Retrieved May 1,5 2009 from: Rogow, F. (adapted from). Choosing media for children checklist. San Francisco: Kids Watch Monthly. Retrieved May 15, 2009, from: Scarr, S., & K. McCartney. (1983). How people make their own environments: A theory of genotype—environment effects. Child Development, 54(2), p. 425–35. Seasame Workshop. (2007). Shore, R. (2007). The power of Pow! Wham!: Children, digital media & our nation’s future. New York: The Joan Ganz Cooney Center at Speer, N., Reynolds, J., Swallow K. & Zacks, J. (2009). Reading stories activates neural representations of visual and motor experiences. Retrieved on May 21, 2009, from: Swisher K. & Mossberg, W. (2009). All things digital. The Wall Street Journal. Dow Jones & Company, 6/2/09. Taffel, R. (2009). Childhood unbound: Saving our kids’ best selves – confident parenting in a world of change. New York: Free Press. US Census Bureau. (2008). US Census Bureau releases TV stats. Retrieved on April 26, 2009, from US Census Bureau News. (2007). Received on May 15, 2009, from Zacks, J. (2009). Reading creates simulations in minds. Science out of the Box [radio broadcast]. Washington DC: National Public

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Quiz on Chapter 2 This page contains questions on Chapter 2 of Introduction to Programming Using Java. You should be able to answer these questions after studying that chapter. Sample answers to these questions can be found here. Briefly explain what is meant by the syntax and the semantics of a programming language. Give an example to illustrate the difference between a syntax error and a semantics error. What does the computer do when it executes a variable declaration statement. Give an example. What is a type, as this term relates to programming? One of the primitive types in Java is boolean. What is the boolean type? Where are boolean values used? What are its possible values? Give the meaning of each of the following Java operators: a) ++ b) && c) != Explain what is meant by an assignment statement, and give an example. What are assignment statements used for? What is meant by precedence of operators? What is a literal? In Java, classes have two fundamentally different purposes. What are they? What is the difference between the statement "x = TextIO.getDouble();" and the statement "x = TextIO.getlnDouble();" Explain why the value of the expression 2 + 3 + "test" is the string "5test" while the value of the expression "test" + 2 + 3 is the string "test23". What is the value of "test" + 2 * 3 ? Integrated Development Environments such as Eclipse often use syntax coloring, which assigns various colors to the characters in a program to reflect the syntax of the language. A student notices that Eclipse colors the word String differently from int, double, and boolean. The student asks why String should be a different color, since all these words are names of types. What's the answer to the student's question?

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Oobleck: The Dilatant Fluid An interesting category of fluids are those dubbed Non-Newtonian Fluids. These substances, unlike their counterpart and namesake Newtonian Fluids, do not possess viscosities that are single-value constants. In this demonstration, we will show how to make a non-toxic and inexpensive non-Newtonian fluid, called oobleck, and also show some of its more interesting properties. A Newtonian fluid behaves in a manner described by: Where τ is the shear stress for the fluid, μ is a constant that represents the viscosity of the fluid, and du/dy is the shear rate (or velocity gradient perpendicular to the shear stress). In Newtonian fluids, the viscosity is a constant that usually only varies with factors like temperature and pressure. Fluids whose shear stress does not vary linearly with deformation rate are called non-Newtonian fluids. The graph below can give the reader an idea how various non-Newtonian fluids behave compared to Newtonian fluids. Two common types of non-Newtonian fluids should be mentioned. One type is called shear thinning fluids, or pseudoplastics. These fluids have a viscosity that decreases with increasing deformation rate. These fluids tend to settle into a solid/plastic-like state but will become more like a fluid the larger a shear stress is applied. Examples include ketchup, toothpaste and modern paints. The other common type of non-Newtonian fluid, and the type we will be investigating in this project, is called shear thickening fluids, or dilatant fluids. Dilatant fluids are the opposite of pseudoplastics; their viscosity increases with increasing rate of deformation. These fluids tend to get more "syrupy" or even possess solid-like properties the faster it is deformed. To create our cheap dilatant fluid, which is commonly known as oobleck, a reference to the Dr. Seuss book Bartholomew and the Oobleck, we simply mix approximately 2 parts corn starch to one part water. Red dye was added to distinguish the oobleck, which is otherwise a less noticeable pale colour. We then applied shear force in various ways to demonstrate its solid properties, while also indicating that it was indeed very much a fluid the whole time. The oobleck experiences the pull of gravity as it trickles down, becoming more viscous in the process As long as I keep rolling this ball of oobleck, it will remain solid Link to demonstration: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=STl3E5dS7U0 (Saving in full HTML destroys my images) Dilatant fluids, and non-Newtonian fluids in general, are part of a group of materials called "smart materials" that change their properties in reaction to external stimuli. As such, they have many useful engineering applications. As dilatant materials will thicken under shear, they have are presently used in industrial applications to deliver a torque smoothly. For example, the viscous coupling units used in some all-wheel drive systems allowing for an even transfer of power between the front and rear drives. Although this use is limited to lower torque applications as the dilatant fluid's viscosity will only increase so much. Research is underway to develop body armor that employs dilatant fluids to stop and sudden impact, from a quick knife stab to a bullet. This technology would allow the wearer to have maximum flexibility the majority of the time and would only activate upon sudden hard impact. A dilatant fluid armor would disperse the impact from an object much like old -fashion chain mail would, though over and even larger part of the body. The flexible nature of the fluid would also allow the wearer to be more completely protected (i.e., there would not be much unguarded areas as the fluid armor suit would easily wrap over any part of the body). Dilatant fluids have viscosities that vary with the rate of shear. This property is has applications in industrial settings for transferring torque. Research is also going underway for the use of dilatant fluids in body armor. You too can make your own dilatant fluid by mixing about two parts cornstarch with one part water.

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Researchers at Yale University have created a blueprint for artificial cells that are more powerful and efficient than the natural cells they mimic and could one day power tiny medical implants. Their findings were published online in Nature Nanotechnology on September 21. The scientists began by exploring whether an artificial version of the electrocyte—the energy-generating cells in electric eels—could be designed as a potential power source. “The electric eel is very efficient at generating electricity,” said Jian Xu, Ph.D., a postdoctoral associate in the Department of Chemical Engineering. “It can generate more electricity than a lot of electrical devices.” Xu came up with the first blueprint that shows how the electrocyte’s different ion channels work together to produce the fish’s electricity while he was a graduate student under David A. LaVan, Ph.D., a former assistant professor of mechanical engineering now at the National Institute of Standards and Technology. But the scientists didn’t stop there. “We’re still trying to understand how the mechanisms in these cells work,” said LaVan. “But we asked ourselves: ‘Do we know enough to sit down and start thinking about how to build these things?’ Nobody had really done that before.” Using the new blueprint—based on a mathematical model—as a guide, LaVan and Xu set about designing an artificial cell that could replicate the electrocyte’s energy production. “We wanted to see if nature had already optimized the power output and energy conversion efficiency of this cell,” said Xu. “And we found that an artificial cell could actually outperform a natural cell, which was a very surprising result.” The artificial cell LaVan and Xu modeled is capable of producing 28 percent more electricity than the eel’s own electrocyte, with 31 percent more efficiency in converting the cell’s chemical energy—derived from the eel’s food—into electricity. While eels use thousands of electrocytes to produce charges of up to 600 volts, LaVan and Xu have shown that it would be possible to create a smaller “bio-battery” using several dozen artificial cells. The tiny bio-batteries would need to be only about a quarter-inch thick to produce the small voltages used to power such tiny electrical devices as retinal implants or other prostheses. Although the engineers came up with a design, it will still be some time before the artificial cells can be built—they will still need a power source. LaVan speculates that the cells could be powered in a way similar to their natural counterparts. Bacteria, he suggested, could be employed to recycle ATP—the molecule that transfers energy within cells—using glucose, a common source of chemical energy derived from food. With an energy source in place, the artificial cells could one day power a medical implant and would provide a big advantage over battery-operated devices. “If it breaks, there are no toxins released into your system,” said Xu. “It would be just like any other cell in your body.”

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://medicine.yale.edu/publications/yalemedicine/winter2009/news/findings/51188

2013-05-24T16:18:55Z

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en

Parents often feel frightened when they hear that their child had epilepsy. However, anticonvulsant drugs can prevent the occurrence of seizures in 75 percent of epileptic children. In the past, those diagnosed with epilepsy were thought to need lifelong drug treatment to prevent their seizures. The treatments used often had adverse side effects that precluded them from participating in normal social activities. However, new treatments and therapy protocols are available today. Ask your child’s physician about any new options available for treatment. Not Necessarily a Life Sentence Today, pediatric physicians encourage children taking anticonvulsant medications, who have not experienced seizures for two years or beyond, to gradually reduce the dosage of medication to zero. Seventy-five percent of these experience indefinite freedom from seizures. Of these, a few have a chance of never having another seizure, while others have a 50 percent chance of having a future epileptic event. Only your child’s physician can determine whether it’s safe to taper off anti-epileptic medication, but if your child has been seizure free for over two years, ask your physician about this option. Effective Treatment for the Most Common Type of Epilepsy While childhood epilepsy occurs in many forms, the most common is absence epilepsy. With absence epilepsy, the child exhibits frequent episodes in which he will stop his current activity and stare blankly for 30 seconds or less. He then resumes the activity with no confusion and no recollection of the event. Until recently, physicians were uncertain as to which anti-epilepsy drug worked best to control this type of the disorder. The results of a clinical trial, managed by NIH Childhood Epilepsy Study Group, were released in March 2010. The study revealed that the drugs Zarontin and Depakote, ethosuximide and valproic acid respectively, are significantly more successful in controlling the seizures associated with absence epilepsy than others. When Anticonvulsant Therapies Fail Although anticonvulsant therapy can successfully control the seizures of 75 percent of epileptic children, this leaves a significant number of children for whom medication is not effective. These children continue to have several seizures on a daily basis despite medications, or suffer from debilitating side effects from the anticonvulsant drugs. While not new, treatment approaches do exist for these patients. One option involves surgery, which inactivates or removes the area of the brain that causes the seizures. The other requires that the child adhere to a high-fat diet that highly restricts carbohydrates for two years. After two years, the child can begin to gradually add carbohydrates back into his or her diet without the occurrence of seizures. While neither of these approaches is new, they represent valid options when others fail. Your child’s doctor can determine whether he or she is a good candidate for these therapies. Prognosis for Children With Epilepsy Children with idiopathic epilepsy, epilepsy of an unknown cause, have a better chance of controlling their seizures with medication and going into remission as they approach adulthood. Approximately 40 percent of those with absence and benign epilepsy types outgrow the disorder. Even those with more severe classifications of epilepsy, which they are unlikely to outgrow, can often live active, normal lives with consistent and appropriate treatments. Researchers and scientists regularly conduct clinical trials investigating new therapies and treatments for both children and adults with epilepsy. These include pharmacological treatments as well as investigations into possible environmental and genetic causes of the various classifications of epilepsy. A Parent’s Role in Seizure Management Parents play a significant role in helping their epileptic child attain success in controlling seizures. Certainly this involves making certain medications are taken on schedule and in prescribed amounts. But parents must also provide moral and emotional support for their epileptic child. They can achieve this by educating the child about the disorder and helping him participate in appropriate social and physical activities to promote a feeling of normalcy and belonging.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://medtopicwriter.com/2011/01/29/epilepsy-in-children/

2013-05-24T16:30:16Z

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en

Paths of Fear: Events that can trigger our fear or anxiety are common and frequent occurrences. How we respond to those provocations and the choices we make critically affect our peace of mind, wellbeing, and our lives. The following figure illustrates choices we have and paths we can take to either prolong or resolve our fears. Use this like you would any other map: 1) decide where you are now, 2) decide where you want to go, 3) choose the best path to get there, and 4) go down the chosen path. This diagram is an example of a type of chart known by systems analysts as a state transition diagram. Each colored elliptical bubble represents a state of being that represents the way you are now. The labels on the arrows represent actions or events and the arrows show paths into or out of each state. You are at one place on this chart for one particular relationship or interaction at any particular time. Other people are likely to be in other places on the chart. This is similar to an ordinary road map where you plot where you are now, while other people are at other places on the same map. Begin the analysis at the green “OK” bubble, or wherever else you believe you are now. OK: This is the beginning or neutral state. It corresponds to a person who is relaxed and not feeling fear or anxiety. The green color represents safety, tranquility, equanimity, and growth potential. Perceived Threat: Something scary happens in your world that you perceive as a threat. This may be seeing a physical threat such as a snake coiling to strike or a car speeding toward you. It may also be a threat to your wellbeing, peace of mind, or social standing. A conceived threat—resulting from contemplating harmful future events—results in anxiety rather than fear. Fear: Now you are frightened. Your heart is pounding, your breath is short, and your eyes are wide open. Your emotional brain has already begun to respond along two separate paths. The simple, fast, involuntary path causes you to immediately freeze, flee, fight, or focus. The slower but more thoughtful path causes you to feel afraid and allows you to begin to analyze your situation, create alternative responses, and make choices. Flight: One possible reaction is to escape from the threat. This may be by looking away, running away, or simply ignoring the threat. In any case you are now avoiding the danger, at least for now. Avoiding: Running away from some threats, such as a car hurling toward you as you walk across the street, is a very effective defense. But this strategy does not often work for more persistent threats, such as receiving a letter from the IRS, seeing a notice to foreclose and repossess your house, or suffering persistent abuse. Denying or avoiding a problem will not make it go away, and sooner or later you will have to confront the issue. Confront: You decide to face the threat. You can decide to fight, or you can become composed and consider your constructive options. Composed: You have calmed down, relaxed, gotten a grip on yourself, and now understand the situation in more depth. You have composed yourself and have decided to face the issue and resolve the threat in a rational, long lasting, and constructive way. Resolve the Threat: Calmly analyze the threat, identify alternative approaches to resolving it, and take courageous and constructive action. This may involve paying the rent, answering the letter from the IRS, or confronting the abuse you are facing. Relieved: You will feel relieved after the threat has been resolved. Now everything is OK again. Fight: It is common to respond to a threat by fighting back. This may be a violent physical fight involving yelling, hitting, kicking, and other attacks and defenses. The fight might be passive-aggressive resistance such as refusing to respond and becoming silent. Or it may be an administrative defense such as speaking up for your rights and point of view, filing a complaint, or taking legal action to protect your rights. Of course once you start a fight, you may win, you may lose, or you may spend lots of time fighting. Fighting: The fight can be short or long, violent and aggressive or passive and subtle, physical or administrative, and you can win or lose. In any case the loser generally feels resentment and humiliation and may retaliate or seek revenge in some new form. Lose: If you lose the fight, the threat remains and it may have even increased. You are again fearful and you may also be resentful. Win: If you win the fight, the threat may have been removed, or you may be fueling resentment or humiliation on the part of the loser. But for now you can become composed, relieved, and feel OK. Focus: Often our fear focuses our senses and attention, first on the threat, then perhaps on possible responses. In either case we become focused on solving the problem. Focused: When we are focused we are alert and can consider our alternatives. Soon we can comprehend the situation, and become composed so we can resolve the threat. Freeze: We may freeze when we encounter a threat. This may work well for a deer wishing to blend into the surrounding forest landscape and escape notice from predator. It does not work well when a deer freezes in the headlights of an oncoming car. It also rarely works for people in the modern world. Immobile: We are frozen and immobile We can’t move and we can’t even think what to do next. We face a critical choice here. We can summon our courage and focus our attention on responding constructively, or we can lose our nerve, become unglued, fall apart, and begin to panic. Panic: Our heart is beating rapidly, we are out of breath, and we become fixated on the threat. We can not longer think rationally about what to do next. If we don’t get a grip on ourselves and relax this can easily escalate our fears, or begin a long-lasing anxiety. Anxious: Our mind is racing ahead conceiving of all the bad things that can happen to us. These conceived threats make us anxious and stressed. If we don’t get a grip on ourselves we can become unhinged and suffer from panic attacks, phobias, post-traumatic stress disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder, and generalized anxiety.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://mikadouglas.tumblr.com/post/27830033257/fear-spiritual-path-spiritualawareness-studentinlife

2013-05-24T16:23:36Z

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en

E. coli contaminated drinking water in rural Uganda: Using results to make an impact - 2007_Klink.pdf (10.44Mb PDF) - Ntambi, James - Biology; Women’s Studies; Biochemistry - In January 2006, I worked with Community Based Integrated Nutrition (COBIN) to perform water quality testing and design & distribute health questionnaires to 40 households in the Lyantonde and Kiruhura districts of rural Uganda. Two types of water microbiology tests were used to test families' drinking water for E.coli contamination: the Colilert MPN Test made by IDEXX Laboratories (presence/absence test) and the E.coli Count Petrifilm made by the 3M Company (quantification of E.coli). 46 total water samples were taken directly from homes. Over 90% of unboiled water samples were contaminated with E.coli. All samples from rainwater collection tanks were negative for E.coli. There were boiled samples that were positive for E.coli, most likely because after boiling the water, it was poured back into the same container that the water was collected with. This showed the need for multiple interventions. In January 2007, additional water testing was performed (samples taken straight from the source), and we provided clean clay pots with covers for water storage to village health workers at workshops titled "Home-based water purification trainings." - 12 p. - Permanent link - Export to RefWorks

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://minds.wisconsin.edu/handle/1793/8130

2013-05-24T16:45:01Z

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en

America's Salvation 214 Years Ago: The Constitution of the United States Most Americans have forgotten the literal miracle that happened between 1787-1792 as the Constitution was signed, ratified, and implemented. September 17 represents the 214th anniversary of its signing. Congress has declared that the president should proclaim the 17-23 of September as Constitution Week. Perhaps this is a good time to remind ourselves of the miracle that happened so long ago. When understood, it really gives us something to celebrate. The United States was on the Verge of Collapse For the Founding Fathers assembling in Philadelphia May 25, 1787, it was a frightening experience. The entire American experiment was falling to pieces! - The unity that existed during the Revolutionary War had disappeared. - There was a deep depression with runaway inflation and rioting in some places. - The states were quarreling over boundaries in the west and fishing rights in the east. - The states actually treated one another as foreign countries, charging customs on imports and exports. - Spain was threatening to seize territory along the Mississippi River. - England would not remove her troops from the northern border of the United States. - Such hostility had developed between the states that New England was threatening to secede from the Union! - It was obvious the Articles of Confederation were a failure and the central government was completely incapable of dealing with all these crises. The whole civilized world was watching to see if the men assembled in Philadelphia could save the dis-United States. To build organization, peace, and unity from such chaos by sitting down and reasoning out a plan of government - such a thing had never occurred in the history of the world. Order had always been restored through military takeover and a dictator would then be in control. Washington Resigns Rather Than Be Thrust Into Kingship Only four years earlier, the military wanted to solve economic problems by making Washington King George I of America! Dr. Skousen explains Washington's dilemma: "Some of Washington's own military leaders had urged him to accept the title of king and restore some semblance of order among the people and the states. They received a tongue lashing for their suggestion. "Washington saw what was coming. He was being caught in the same vice that trapped Oliver Cromwell. He must resign before they tried to make him a king or military dictator. He must take formal action so the people would be willing to turn their political and economic problems over to their elected representatives. "Through bitter experience Washington knew the Articles of Confederation was an extremely weak instrument of government, and for many months he had been urging the Congress to call a convention to consider a new and stronger form of government. But they were delaying, postponing, deferring and neglecting their sworn course of duty. Whether consciously or unconsciously they were still leaning on Washington as they had done throughout the course of this terrible war. "He knew it was time to resign. He bade his men farewell and journeyed to Philadelphia where he addressed Congress. He completely broke down at one point in his prepared statement. Choked with emotion he said: 'I consider it an indispensable duty to close this last solemn act of my official life by commending the interest of our dearest country to the protection of Almighty God, and those who had the superintendence of them, to his holy keeping.'" He knew the people of the United States must turn to God and work a government themselves rather than always rely on one man. The Constitutional Convention Nearly Ends in Ruin After several frustrating attempts to get the states to send delegates, twelve states did send their delegates to Philadelphia in May of 1787. However, the convention quickly deteriorated into near chaos. Everyone seemed to have a plan and no one was willing to listen to others in a rational way. The bickering and arguing continued until July 16th when some finally went home. It looked like another lost effort. It was during this dark period that Washington wrote: "I almost despair of seeing a favorable issue to the proceedings of the Convention, and do therefore repent having had any agency in the business." Even the great General was discouraged. Observers said he looked as grim as when he was at Valley Forge. Benjamin Franklin had tried to get the delegates to have prayer every day in the convention, but there were just not enough spiritual giants to take his suggestion seriously enough and make it work. Something Miraculous Happened at the End of the Convention As the new system began to take form, many of the Founders realized they had performed this labor beyond their own natural strength. Something had happened near the end of the convention which turned chaos into unity. They saw elements of divine inspiration which led them to call it a "miracle". Madison wrote to Jefferson that it was "impossible to consider the degree of concord which ultimately prevailed as less than a miracle." Charles Pinckney declared: "When the great work was done and published, I was. struck with amazement. Nothing less than that superintending hand of Providence, that so miraculously carried us through the war.could have brought it about so complete, upon the whole." Alexander Hamilton said: "For my part, I sincerely esteem it a system which, without the finger of God, never could have been suggested and agreed upon by such a diversity of interests." George Washington, the man who more than once despaired whether the convention would survive, finally saw the delegates close ranks and reach an intelligent consensus. He wrote later: "I can never trace the .causes which led to these events without.admiring the goodness of Providence. To the superintending Power alone is our retraction from the brink of ruin to be attributed. A spirit of accommodation was happily infused into the leading characters of the continent, and the minds of men were gradually prepared.for the reception of a good government." Benjamin Franklin said of the Constitution: "I have so much faith in the general government of the world by Providence that I can hardly conceive a transaction of such momentous importance to the welfare of millions now existing, and to exist in the posterity of a great nation, should be suffered to pass without being in some degree influenced, guided, and governed by that omnipotent, omnipresent, and beneficent Ruler in whom all inferior spirits live and move and have their being." Divine Inspiration led to Rejection of Historical Indoctrination Dr. Skousen helps us understand just what some of those "inspired" provisions are in the Constitution that flew in the face of historical experience of loyal Englishmen. - In spite of Hamilton's eloquent plea they wanted nothing to do with a monarchy, not even a limited monarchy. They saw what happened to the Israelites when they demanded a king so they could be "like all the other nations." The Israelites never recovered from that fatal political blunder. - They rejected the idea of a prime minister selected from the members of Parliament. - They rejected the idea of the cabinet being selected from among the members of Parliament. - They rejected the idea of having the members of Parliament serve as the executive administrators in charge of various departments of government. - They rejected the British idea of an "unwritten constitution." - They rejected the idea that the acts of Parliament would automatically become the supreme law of the land even though they may violate some of the most fundamental provisions of their unwritten Constitution. - They rejected the idea of the upper chamber of the legislature being a House of Lords occupied by a body of lifetime aristocrats. - They rejected the British idea of a "unitary" republic where all power was concentrated in the central government. - They rejected the idea of the national government being allowed to nullify the laws of the local governments even when there was no constitutional issue involved. - They rejected the idea of the national executive being allowed to dissolve the legislature before it had finished its session. - They rejected the British coinage system and chose a system based on the dollar instead of the pound. - They rejected the doctrine of primogeniture -- an old feudal law -- which required a parent to bestow his entire estate on the eldest son whether he was competent or not. - They rejected the doctrine of entail estates -- another old feudal law -- which required large tracts of land (sometimes millions of acres) to be maintained intact by the same family because of important feudal obligations to the king or some high ranking lord or baron. This was designed to preserve the English feudal society and prevent a father from dividing his estate among his children and grandchildren. - They eventually got around to rejecting the authority of the legislature to select a certain religious denomination as the official church of the state or the realm, and then tax the people to support that church whether they were members or not. - The Founders also tried to get rid of serfs and slaves, but the circumstances in two states (Georgia and South Carolina) forced them to postpone this decision. As everyone knows, that was the biggest mistake the Founders ever made. The inspiration was right but they allowed themselves to be talked out of it. The Constitution Miraculously Saves the Nation After only two years with the constitution in operation, Washington was able to write: "The United States enjoy a scene of prosperity and tranquility under the new government that could hardly have been hoped for." "Tranquility reigns among the people with that disposition towards the general government which is likely to preserve it.... Our public credit stands on that [high] ground which three years ago it would have been considered as a species of madness to have foretold." The dramatic and miraculous success of our Constitution in solving problems and restoring order and peace should be an example of what could happen today in a very short time if we were to restore the Constitution to its original brilliance and purity. This is the goal of NCCS. Happy Constitution Week! W. Cleon Skousen

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://nccs.net/newsletter/sep01nl.html

2013-05-24T16:17:56Z

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en

"Top hats." "Top kills." Berms. Booms. As the attempts to plug the oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico become more complex, so do the terms. We break down the jargon that you might come across as you follow the story. 1. Berms: A wall or barrier of sand usually used to protect against flooding along coasts, but now it's being considered to stop oil from washing up on Gulf Coast beaches. Context: For nearly two weeks [Louisiana Gov. Bobby] Jindal has asked the [U.S. Army] Corps [of Engineers] to approve a plan to dredge sand berms off the coast in an attempt to keep oil from reaching inland marshes. 2. Blowout preventer: A large valve at the top of a well that can be closed to stop oil from gushing into the sea in the event of a problem or when the oil rig sank a month ago, triggering the leak. Context: BP, the well's majority owner, has been trying to stop the flow by using remote-controlled submarines to activate a valve atop the well. But the valve, known as a blowout preventer, is not working. 3. Booms: These are long pieces of plastic tarp sewn such that they consist of flotation devices on top and a weighted skirt that sinks into the water. They are deployed along beaches to stop surface oil slicks from washing inland. Context: “We need more boom, we need more resources, we need the materials we have requested to fight this oil and keep it out of our marsh and off of our coast,’’ Louisiana’s governor said. 4. Dispersants: Oil dispersants are chemicals that can break the oil down into small drops and prevent it from reaching the surface or the shore. Dispersants are generally less harmful than the oil itself, which is highly toxic, and they biodegrade more quickly. Context: EPA ordered BP to find another chemical dispersant to use on the oil spill after concerns arose about the long-term effects of the substance now being used. 5. Junk shot: Debris such as shredded rubber tires, golf balls and similar objects would be shot under extremely high pressure into the blowout preventer in an attempt to clog it and stop the leak. The goal of the junk shot is to force-feed the preventer, the device that failed when the disaster unfolded, until it becomes so plugged that the oil stops flowing or slows to a relative trickle. That would be followed by a “top kill.” Context: Using the same tubes and pipes, BP would then try a "junk shot," pumping material like golf balls, pieces of tire and pieces of rope into the blowout preventer. 6. Relief well: A well drilled into the existing well, intercepting the flow and allowing a specialized heavy liquid to be pumped into the flowing well to bring it under control. This liquid is denser than oil and so exerts pressure to stem the flow of oil. Context: Now BP has started drilling a relief well that eventually could allow them to close off the broken well. However, that would take at least two months to work, said Doug Suttles, the BP chief operating officer. 7. Skimmers: A device used to recover oil from the water’s surface. There are three main types of skimmers. The Weir skimmers, for example, use a dam or enclosure positioned at the oil-water interface. Oil floating on top of the water will spill over the dam and be trapped in a well inside, bringing with it as little water as possible. The trapped oil and water mixture is then pumped. Context: Mayors and parish presidents were critical of both the government and BP's handling of the cleanup, recounting stories of misdirected protective booms or skimmers that sat on trucks ashore. 8. "Top hat": A top hat is a smaller version of a containment dome that BP tried to install earlier. It is a sort of upside-down funnel designed to trap the oil and channel it to the surface, again to be offloaded onto ships. The earlier four-story containment dome failed when natural gas crystals collected inside the structure, plugging an outlet at the top. BP is abandoning plans to use the “top hat” containment dome to contain the spill for now. Context: The "top hat" oil-containment device has reached the sea floor in the Gulf of Mexico and should be in position over a leaking well head and operational by the end of the week, well owner BP said Wednesday. 9. "Top kill" Not to be confused with “top hat,” this maneuver is an attempt to stop and seal the well instead of just containing it. The top kill involves pumping heavy drilling fluid into the head of the leaking well at the seafloor. The manufactured fluid, known as drilling mud, is normally used as a lubricant and counterweight in drilling operations. The hope is that the drilling mud will stop the flow of oil. If it does, cement then would be pumped in to seal the well. Context: All previous attempts by the company to cap the spill have failed, and BP CEO Tony Hayward said the top kill maneuver will have a 60 percent to 70 percent chance of success when it is put in place as early as Wednesday morning. 10. Riser insertion tube: The riser insertion tube tool involves inserting a 4-inch diameter tube into the Horizon’s rise, a 21-inch diameter pipe, between the well and the broken end of the riser on the seafloor in 5,000 feet of water. The insertion tube would be connected to a new riser to allow hydrocarbons to flow up to the Transocean Discoverer Enterprise drillship located on the surface. The oil will be separated and then safely shipped ashore. Context: After some success with the riser insertion tube, BP is preparing to try its "top kill" approach to stemming the flow of oil from the Macondo well, probably on Wednesday. 11. Oil plumes: These are underwater globules of oil that do not float to the surface of the ocean. Scientists say microscopic oil droplets are forming these deep water oil bubbles. The heavy use of chemical dispersants, which breaks up surface oil, is said to have contributed to the formation of these plumes. Scientists are worried that these underwater globs will pose a threat to the marine ecosystem and that the oil could be absorbed by tiny animals and enter a food chain that builds to larger fish. Context: The University of South Florida recently discovered a second oil plume in the northeastern Gulf. The first plume was found by Mississippi universities in early May.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://news.blogs.cnn.com/2010/05/25/gulf-coast-oil-spill-demystified-a-glossary/comment-page-2/

2013-05-24T16:38:08Z

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